SUBJECT: ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

FUNDAMENTALS
www.themegallery.com
The structure is the resistant
part of a
construction, plays the
same role as the bone and
muscular systems of
vertebrates: it provides
resistance and rigidity so
that, together with other
systems, a common goal is
achieved; Therefore, the
structure is vital for a
construction to be useful .
 INTRODUCTION
This short article provides an overview
from the area of engineering related to the study of structures in the context of
construction; First, explain why it is important for a society. In order to know and
appreciate the interesting work of an engineer who works in this field.
ENGINEERING
“It is the art of planning the use of natural resources, as well as projecting, building and operating the systems and
machines necessary to bring the plan to its conclusion.”
STRUCTURE
“Physical entity of a unitary nature, conceived as an organization of bodies
arranged in space so that the concept of the whole dominates the relationship
between the parts.”

Examples of structures are: bridges, towers, buildings, stadiums, roofs, ships,

airplanes, machinery, dams and even the
body.
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
 “It is the art of idealizing materials
whose properties are not well
known, to construct forms that we do
not know how to analyze, in such a
way that they support loads that we
do not know and yet behave
satisfactorily.
STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING
❖ Structural engineering is the application
of the knowledge of Mechanics, a science
that studies forces and their effects, to the
art of designing structures
 GOALS
Identify, study alternatives, select, analyze and verify
results of the structural solution to an engineering
General objective problem, keeping in mind the criteria of functionality,
economy and safety.

Determine internal forces (axial, shear, moments) and

deformations of a structure, based on: a given shape of
Analysis Objective the structure, the size and properties of the material used
in the elements and the applied loads.

Selection of the shape, materials and detailing

(dimensions, connections and reinforcement) of the
Design Objective components that make up the structural system.
 Optimization: Dimensions and materials are reconsidered

Design: The resistances are verified and the detailing is done, (minimum cost for the final
design)
 The structural engineering space

❖ The development of a country is generally

accompanied by the construction, operation and
maintenance of its infrastructure; This includes:
housing, communication routes, health centers,
education centers, production centers, service
centers, etc. It is interesting to note that
structural engineering participates in the creation
and maintenance of this infrastructure.
 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
❖ a) Structuring . This stage defines the structural system or systems that, overall, will give the construction resistance and rigidity so
that it responds satisfactorily to actions (loads).
❖ b) Analysis . This stage requires less experience on the part of the engineer than that used in structuring, since activities similar to
almost all projects are carried out here; However, a lot of knowledge and skills are required.
❖ c) Sizing. Here the dimensions and characteristics of all the elements of the structure are selected so that it responds safely (and
functionally).
 Problems that the engineer foresees and
solves
❖ The engineer's activity is not always appreciated by
structuralist
everyone, only when there are problems in the
project or construction are people interested in
knowing what he did; This is due, in part, to the fact
that their work is not completely tangible as that of
another professional can be, since only the results
reflected in plans, in calculation reports or in
opinions become tangible, however they are not
enough to reflect all the work that is behind them
 Problems that the engineer foresees and
solves
❖ The tension force in the rods .
structuralist
The flexural capacity of an element, for example, is a function of the distance from the compression zone to the level of the tension
reinforcement; If the coating is increased, this distance is decreased along with the bending capacity.
❖ Resistance against fire .
Even though it is unusual for the coating to be proposed based on fire resistance, it is clear that it will also protect the reinforcement from fire:
just remember that the resistance of reinforcing steel decreases at high temperatures.
 Problems that the engineer foresees and
solves
❖ The cracking of concrete .
structuralist
To avoid excessive shrinkage cracking during concrete drying (which can be detrimental to both aesthetics and durability of the construction),
reinforcement should be placed well spaced and close enough to the exposed surface.
❖ Corrosion .
If reinforcing steel is not coated, it can corrode. Corrosion can lead to a complete loss of the coating which, in turn, is detrimental to the
durability of the construction. Therefore, the reinforcement coating must be sufficient and also of good quality .
It is an assembly of independent members or elements
to form a single body and whose objective is
provide a solution (loads and form) to a civil problem
certain.
 In a structure, three aspects are combined and played with:
SHAPE
MATERIALS
ELEMENT DIMENSIONS
LOADS

The manner of assembly and the type of assembled member define the final behavior of the structure and constitute different structural
systems.

•
•
•
 FUNCTIONS OF STRUCTURES.

❖ Support loads . It is the main function of every structure

❖ Keeping fit . It is essential that the structures do not deform, since if this were to happen, the bodies could break.
❖ Protect delicate parts . A structure must protect the delicate parts of the objects that contain them
❖ Lightweight : Structures should be as light as possible
❖ Stable : The structure cannot tip over or fall even if it receives different loads.
.if
ELEMENTS OF A STRUCTURE
❖ Structures can be massive like a cave or
a dam
ELEMENTS OF A STRUCTURE
 Structural structures that are normally
placed horizontally, resting on pillars

❖ Pillars : They are the elements

verticals of a structure
❖ Are items
Beams:
❖ Suspenders: With object of give
rigidity to the structures HE
It has some simple elements that are
placed between the beams and the
pillars
❖ Tensioners: Their mission is similar
to that of the stays but these are
normally cables
ELEMENTS OF A STRUCTURE
❖ Lintel : Solid beam that rests
horizontally on two vertical supports
❖ Arch : it is the structural element,
with a curved shape, that bridges
the space between two pillars
❖ Trusses that are a special case of
beams formed by a set of bars
forming a triangular structure
ELEMENTS OF A STRUCTURE
• Open, shaped like V, T, U, L, X, H.
•The profiles: they are
all those steel bars that
• Closed, shaped like an O, □, A.
have a special shape

Foundations: it is the
element responsible for
supporting and
distributing the entire
weight of the structure
through the ground.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS.
concrete
Steel rods \f
❖ Normally, to build pouring

buildings, 9 bridges,
tunnels,
yes
etc., are usually used
ffl

various elements:
p/
. D' bricks, blocks, Formwork
cement, water, of wood
. oe wood
of concrete
him . armed
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS.
• Concrete is the most used
material in construction.
Concrete is a mixture of
cement, sand, gravel and
water. If a steel framework
is added to the concrete to
make it more resistant, it is
called reinforced concrete.
 THE FORCES SUPPORTED BY A
STRUCTURE.
A structure has to support
its own weight, that of the
loads it supports and also
external forces such as
wind, waves, etc.

flexion

compression | In
the swing, the stresses supported
by each of its elements have been
indicated.
THE FORCES SUPPORTED BY A
STRUCTURE.
• Traction
• Compression
• Flexion
• Torsion
• Cut
TRIANGULATION. STRUCTURES
TRIANGULATED
❖ If any structure formed by
the union of simple profiles is
analyzed, such as those of
construction cranes, some
bridges, high voltage towers,
etc.
 The main function of a structural design
is to generate stability in a structure
through the good use of materials and
their properties.
CALCULA
Carrying out good structural engineering
TION
STRUCTURAL allows the optimization of the structure of
the work to be carried out.

This calculation also depends on reliable

and useful information from preliminary
studies to determine and guarantee the
solidity of the construction.
 What is structural calculation and
what is it for?
❖ The structural calculation is the
proposal and solution of the structure
that supports your building, that is, it
analyzes factors such as the loads and
efforts that the building will have to
support, such as wind movements or
the state of the terrain, aided by the
Mechanics Study of
Soils
 Benefits of structural calculation
❖ Guarantee the resistance and durability of your building.
❖ Avoid cracks or collapses.
❖ Savings on material such as beams, ptr, rod and concrete mainly when building.
❖ Reduces work costs.
❖ The installation runs easier and faster.
❖ You know the right amount of material needed to complete the structure .
Before performing the structural
calculation
I should have hired the services of

❖ Topographical Study
❖ Study of Mechanics of
Floors 14000

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❖ Architectural Project
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structural calculation?
You would mainly put your safety and investment at risk. The consequences of building without a structural
calculation can range from cracks to collapses. In some cases the opposite happens, that the structure is
“excessive”, that is, which lends itself to material waste, since when purchasing it
disorderly can significantly impact your
budget and building design
LOADS
• Own weight: which will be the weight of the structure

• Dead load: formed by the weight of the elements of the

walkways without a structural function such as railings or
others.
• Use overload: 4 kN/m2

• Wind: which will be neglected as the walkway is located

very close to the ground (maximum about 3 meters) •
Earthquake: this load will also be negligible as the
walkway has almost no mass.
 structure platform:
These prefabricated elements are easy and economical to install, and are
assembled together using screws or by welding them to the beams.
In principle, the recommended size of the largest grid is 100 x 100, and the
smallest is 20 x 20, although there is the possibility of also producing up to 8 x 8
mm mesh opening. The most common are around 30x30
The alternative adopted has been a set of elevated walkways, with the deck made of TRAMEX, which is a prefabricated metal grid. The TRAMEX is placed
in pieces of certain dimensions and to build the walkway they are joined together using screw-type connection elements.
The first hypothesis proposed is to put three longitudinal beams, two
located at the ends and one in the center. If you comply with this, it will no
longer be necessary to add more.
According to the manufacturer, this grating, if the span is one meter, can
withstand a maximum of 1060 kg/m2, that is, 10.4 kN/m2. Then if the mesh
opening is 38 mm, 0.4 kN/m will therefore comply.
 Next, the distance between piles will be determined and also the
tubular section to be used.

overload use p 3
3.91
The pillars that will support the structure will have a variable height depending on
the elevation of the terrain at each point, although this will not vary more than
within a range of between 0.5 meters and 3.5 meters.
Local erosion calculation in case of flooding
Firstly, the possible erosion will be calculated according
to the data obtained from the flood study and provided
by the HEC-Ras program.
There are a large number of formulas and methods for
calculating local erosion, but the one described by Rich
ardson will be used, due to its simplicity and because it
gives us an absolute value of erosion.
 foundation calculation
The foundation of the footbridge piers will be footings located at a depth such that it is determined by the
local erosion study carried out in the previous section.

AUXILIARY ELEMENTS

Calculation of stairs
Despite having different measurements, some of the
stairs, the most unfavorable one will be calculated, which would be the
next, with a staircase width of 2 meters.
 SHOE SHAPE
❖ RECOMMENDS THE SQUARE PLAN FOR
CONSTRUCTION EASE

❖ WHEN THEY WILL BE PROJECTED

RECTANGULAR:

■ IN THE EXPANSION JOINTS

■ WHEN THERE ARE PREDOMINANT MOMENTS IN ONE OF THE
TWO DIRECTIONS
■ IF THERE ARE CLEARLY SECTION PILLARS
RECTANGULAR

STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR
4 From the structural point of view, the requirements of the EHE instruction will be taken into account (Figure 4.3), and the
footings whose flight V, in the main direction of greatest flight, is less than or equal to twice the depth, will be
considered structurally rigid. h (V < 2h). The shoes are They will be considered flexible otherwise (V2h). This definition
of structural rigidity does not presuppose some specific behavior on the distribution of pressures in the ground and is
included in this DB for the sole purpose of differentiating it from the concept of relative rigidity described in 4. 2. 1.2.

RIGID Vmax < 2h

FLEXIBLE Vmax>2h

Figure 4.3. Concept of structural rigidity

STABILIZATION OF SHOES
MEDIA

Basic Document SE-C Foundations

(a) Situation without contra-girder

(b) Incorporation of centering beam

4.1.3 Foundation pits
1 Foundation pits may be made when the terrain allows it and the execution is advantageous over other solutions.
2 The most common wells in buildings are of two types (see Figure 4.5). The first consists of filling the excavation from the
support level with lean concrete, placing the footing on top of it so that the loads are transmitted to the desired depth. The
second type, less common, consists of lowering the level of the footing until it reaches the level of competent ground for
support. me, then raising a highly rigid plinth in order to avoid buckling problems.
3 The verification of the ultimate and service limit states will be carried out on the support plane chosen in a manner analogous to
that of isolated footings, adding the weight of the lean concrete column to the loads transmitted by the structure.
4 When checking the ultimate limit state against subsidence, the depth must be taken into account. ity of the support plane and
the use of the concept of net pressure (section 4.3).

Basic Document SE-C Foundations

Figure 4.5. Main types of foundation pits

4.2.2 Verifications
1 Checks to verify that a shallow foundation meets the necessary requirements will be based on the limit state method
as indicated in section 2.2.

4.2.2.1 Ultimate limit states

1 It must be verified that the safety coefficient available in relation to the loads that will be produced The exhaustion of
the soil resistance for any possible failure mechanism is adequate. The ultimate limit states that must always be
verified for foundations straight lines, are (see Figure 4.8):
a) sinking:
b) glide:
c) overturn;
d) global stability;
e) structural capacity of the foundation.
The verification of these limit states for each sizing situation will be done using expression (2.2), overturning (2.1),
and the partial safety coefficients for the resistance of the tee. reindeer and for the effects of the actions of the rest
of the structure on the foundation defined in table 2.1.
 a) Sinking
b) Displacement

Figure 4.8. Examples of ultimate limit states

 SAFETY COEFFICIENTS
PARTIAL

Table 2.1. Partial safety coefficients

Sizing situation Materials Actions
Guy
Y.R. Y.M. YES YF
Sinking 3,0") 1,0 1,0 1,0
Glide 1,502) 1,0 1,0 1,0
Overturn 12 '
Stabilizing actions 1,0 1,0 0,903) 1,0

Destabilizing actions 1,0 1.0 1,8 1,0

Overall stability 1,0 1,8 1,0 1,0
Structural capacity . (4) . (4) 1,605) 1,0
Support elements between the
transverse beam and the
columns
In order for the box-shaped transverse beams to
properly support the concrete piles and thus be able to
transmit the forces of the walkway loads to them, it is
necessary to place some neoprene elements. These
support devices, as has already been seen, do not have
to support large loads, so a embedded neoprene with a
base of 100*70 mm and a thickness of 20 mm will be
placed on each pile. This neoprene is placed between
leveling or support wedges measuring 150*85 mm.
TRAMEX PARTS
The pieces used for the walkway are prefabricated metal
pieces that can be joined together by welding or screws.
In this case, the union has been thought of using screws
between the pieces since this will not require qualified
personnel especially for welding.
and longitudinal beams
The support between the transverse beams and the longitudinal tubule requires special attention due to the geometry of the problem. For this
purpose, special pieces have been designed that will allow the tubular sections to be comfortably supported on the transverse beams.
•

• different geometries and different materials.

• Planning: The problem to be solved is identified and general
solution alternatives are presented Preliminary design: General
Evaluation of alternatives: Different structural systems,
•
Analysis : forces and deformations evaluation of loads or acting
forces modeling, real and abstract
resolution of the model: internal forces, connections or unions.
• Design: detailing and sizing of the elements so that they resist
the acting forces.
• Construction: Carry out the physical materialization of what
planned
Design Development Stage
a) Attend coordination meetings related to the
specialty;
b) Prepare foundation plans based on the
recommendations established in the
Study of soil mechanics;
c) Perform structural design calculations for the
structural system and typical elements;
d) Develop designs and plans of structural
systems and diagrams of typical areas and
dimensions of typical elements;
e) Prepare sheets with typical details, as
required;
f) Identify structural elements with prior
engineering;
g) Prepare or edit specifications for structural
items;
h) Review the results of special studies;
i) Coordinate the structural design with the
special structural criteria; and
j) Issue design development documentation for
approval
E E —=
 SECURITY: Safety is determined by controlling the
excessive deformations that force it to go out of service or the
breakage or separation of some of its parts or the entire assembly.
FUNCTIONALITY: The structure must be maintained
operation during its useful life for the request loads. A bridge that
presents excessive deformations would give the feeling of insecurity
and people would stop using it, at which point it is no longer
functional.

ECONOMY: The use of resources determines a challenge for

structural design. In economics, the creativity of the engineer is
combined with his knowledge.
Two types of structures are recognized: reticular (frame) and plate or shell-type structures (Shell).
Reticular structures: They are made up of straight or curved bars joined at their ends by pins or welding.
Plate or shell: It is built from slabs 007/ -22220-521/35/2111
continuous curved or flat surfaces with supports, generally continuous on their edges. it
MOST COMMON STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

Tensioned
cable,
tensile
Components of forces exerted by
the cable and that determine the
equilibrium of point C
CABLE TYPE ELEMENT:
It does not have rigidity to withstand bending, compression or shear forces. When a cable is subjected
to loads, its geometry changes in such a way that the loads are supported by tensile stresses along the
element. We will always find that when we apply a force the cable will have another geometry.
It is an element with two small dimensions compared to the third dimension.
The main loads act parallel to the axis of the element and therefore it works
mainly in compression.

Beam type element:

It is an element that has two of its dimensions much smaller than the other
and receives loads in the direction perpendicular to the largest dimension.
These geometric and load characteristics mean that the element is mainly
subjected to internal bending and shear forces. It is an element that must
have sufficient I (transverse inertia) and A (transverse area) to withstand
these types of forces.
Y
o

Arc type elements:

It behaves or is similar to an inverted cable although it
has rigidity and resistance to bending. This
characteristic makes it retain its shape under distributed
and punctual loads. Due to its shape, compression
stresses are much more significant than bending and
shear stresses.
EeEEIVIEI• I •eM*e• I II *EI%*MI II ■

It is an element whose cross-sectional area is small

compared to its length and is subjected to clearly axial
loads applied at its ends. Due to its geometry and type of
acting loads, it supports only traction and compression
forces.
Its clearly axial behavior requires that its connections to
other elements or supports be ball jointed without friction.
However, in practice, rigid joints are built that require
maintaining the geometry of the
section and the position of the
knots.
 They can be flexible, in this case they are called membranes, or rigid and they
are called plates.
Membrane: does not support bending efforts, it is as if they were glued cables. It
works by traction clearly

Shell or plate: has bending rigidity, that is, it works mainly by compression, but is
associated with minimal shear and bending forces.
These elements are characterized by having two of their dimensions much larger than the third dimension and because
the acting loads are parallel to the large dimensions. Due to these geometry and load conditions, the element works
mainly in shear due to forces in its
Great rigidity to withstand longitudinal moments

own plane. Minimum moments in the

transverse
direction
TRUSSES: This system combines truss type elements where the
arrangement of elements determines stability. They can be flat and spatial.
ARMORS: In this system, truss-type elements are combined with beam or
column-type elements joined by joints.
FRAMES OR PORTICS: This system combines beam and column type
elements. Its stability is determined by the ability to withstand moments in its
joints. They can be flat and spatial

Rigid unions between its

elements, which determine stability
of the whole set

FLOOR SYSTEMS: Consists of a flat structure formed by joining several

elements (shell, beam, truss) in such a way that it supports loads perpendicular
to its plane. They are classified by the way they transmit the load to the supports
as bidirectional and unidirectional.
 WALL SYSTEMS: It is a system built by joining walls in perpendicular
directions and has great lateral rigidity. This system is one of the most used in
buildings in seismic zones.

DOMES, CILOS AND TANKS

COMBINED SYSTEMS FOR BUILDINGS:
The structural qualities of the wall-type elements are used with the
architectural qualities of the portico systems. Lateral rigidity characteristics
can also be achieved by means of braces that work as truss-type elements.
 MATERIALS
The type of material used in the structure defines the strength, flexibility,
durability and many other characteristics of the structure. Among the most
common materials are concrete, steel, wood, stone, fired clay units, plastic, etc.
As mentioned at the beginning in the definition of structural engineering, the
advance in knowledge of the properties of materials allows us to bring our
analysis closer to reality.
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

The response of a structure due to a number of simultaneously applied loads

is the sum of the responses of the individual loads, applying each of them
separately to the structure; as long as for all the applied loads and for the total
sum of them, the displacements and efforts are proportional to them.
STRUCTURE MODELING

Modeling is the abstraction of reality to paper in such a way that it allows me to

analyze and design it.
In modeling, great care must be taken so that the representation of the system is
as close to reality as possible; The location and determination of the supports,
the selection of the type of element, the combination of these and their unions
play a primary role in this stage.

Line diagram representing the structure.

Part of the modeling goes into the representation of the supports or supports,
these provide us with stability by preventing movement.
Support types are classified by the number of degrees of freedom they restrict.
They range from the simplest ones that restrict a single degree of freedom to the
most complex ones that restrict six degrees of freedom in space.
The simplest are rollers, smooth surfaces, connections with cables, supports
tilters, etc.
ITEMS

ARTICULATED
CONNECTION:
 Engineering applications
structural
❖ The term structural engineering is applied to the specialty of civil
engineering that allows the planning and design of the parts that
form the resistant skeleton of the most traditional buildings such as
urban buildings, industrial constructions, bridges, hydraulic
development structures and others.
The structural skeleton forms an integrated system of parts, called
structural elements: beams, columns, slabs, foundation shoes and
others.
 Professional Practice
❖ The professional activity of the structural engineer begins with an architectural sketch of the future building, in which the general
dimensions both in plan and elevation begin to be defined. Compare the alternatives regarding the basic construction material: the
convenience of
use reinforced or prestressed concrete , steel , wood , confined or reinforced masonry, aluminum , or other newer possibilities

❖ The civil engineer handles various materials in

the structural specialty. Homogeneous materials
such as steel, wood, aluminum.
❖ Steel is named for its resistance to creep, with
 resistances of
2800 Kgf/Cm2 (grade 40) and 4200
(grade 60); Kgf/Cm2

❖ in lengths ranging from 20 to 60 feet. The

concrete used varies its resistance depending
on the element in which it is going to be used,
for example: 180 Kgf/Cm2 used in wall footings
and in single-level constructions; 210 Kgf/Cm2
used in tiles, beams and similar works; For
columns it can be used from 280 Kgf/Cm2 to
 400 Kgf/Cm2.

Bridges
❖ Bridge, structure that provides a passage
over water , a road or a valley. Bridges
typically support a road, highway, or
railway, but can also carry pipelines and
power distribution lines.

Northeast
elevation
 The first bridges
❖ It is likely that the first bridges were
made by placing one or more logs to
cross a stream or by tying ropes and
cables in narrow valleys. This type of
bridge is still used
 modern bridges
❖ Current bridges are identified by the
architectural foundation used, such as
cantilever or tie-rod, suspension, steel
arch, concrete arch,
stone, triangulated beams or pontoons
 modern bridges and
amazing in the world

A bridge to nowhere in Norway A bridge that comes out of the

clouds in France
 modern bridges and
amazing in the world

Located in the southern mountain Moses Bridge open

ranges of Singapore
modern bridges and
amazing in the world

-)

-
 Types of bridges
❖. Suspension bridges
This type of bridge is characterized
because the sections are not held at their
ends, but rather near the center of their
bea
ms
Steel arch bridges

American engineer James Buchanan Eads built

the first steel bridge over the Mississippi River in
Saint Louis, Missouri, in 1874. The Hell Gate
Railroad Bridge over the East River in New York
was the longest steel arch bridge in the world.
 arch bridges of concrete

During the beginning of the 20th century,

the development of reinforced concrete
provided great progress in the construction
of concrete arch bridges. Bridges
in arch of
 Beam bridges triangulated

The construction of bridges with triangulated or

reticulated steel beams has been widely used due
to its low cost. Recent developments have
increased the length of the sections, as well as
the use of continuous reticulated structures.
Stone arch bridges
The development of the
train caused the reuse of
semicircular arches in the
construction of bridges,
made with carved stone
in places where this was
economical.
 Movable bridges
In addition to the sections of some
pontoon bridges, movable spans
can be bascule (drawbridges),
rotating or vertical lifting, depending
on local needs.
 Buildings
The loads supported by a building are classified as dead and live. Dead loads include the weight of the building itself and the
major
Loadselements of fixed equipment.of They
a always exert a downward force in a constant and cumulative manner from the highest
part of the buildingbuilding
to its base.
The main elements of a building are
the following Mg.F *3 tE
HinMagM"T-"I
11' 18 hmm B

1) the foundations, which support and give stability to the

building
2) the structure, which resists the loads and transmits them to
the foundations
3) exterior walls that may or may not be part of the main
supporting structure;
4) the interior separations, which may or may not also belong
to the basic structure;
5) environmental http://www.monografias.com/trabajos11/teosis/teosis.shtmlcontrol
systems , such as lighting , acoustic reduction systems,
heating, ventilation and air conditioning
 The main elements of a building
are the following
• 6) vertical transportation systems, such as elevators or lifts, escalators, and conventional stairs
7) communication systems such as intercoms, public address systems and closed circuit television , or the most used cable
television systems,
• 8) electricity , water and waste disposal systems.
 Foundations
The design of the structure of a building depends largely on the nature of the soil and the geological conditions of the subsoil, as
well as the transformations carried out by man in these two factors.
 Soil conditions
❖ If you intend to build a building in an area
with seismic tradition, the type of soil must be
investigated at a considerable depth
 Types of foundations
❖ The most common types of foundation
systems are classified as deep and
shallow.
 Water table
*. Foundation construction can be
complicated by groundwater above the
intended foundation level.
 One or two-story buildings

❖ In the case of low buildings a greater

variety of shapes and styles is possible
than in large buildings. In addition to the
portico system also used in large
buildings, small buildings can have gabled
roofs, vaults and domes.
 Multi-story buildings
❖ The most common form of building construction
is the metal reticular framework. It is essentially
vertical elements combined with a horizontal
structure. In tall buildings, load-bearing walls
with horizontal elements of the structure are no
longer used, but rather curtain walls, that is,
non-load-bearing light facades, are generally
used.
 Environmental control
❖ In many countries, important advances
have been made in heating, cooling ,
ventilation, lighting and sound control
systems . In most large buildings, year-
round air conditioning has been
standardized.
 Vertical transport
* Cable elevators, with automatic control
and high speed , are the most used type
of vertical transportation in high-rise
buildings.
 Electrical and communication
systems
❖ The extent of the use of
electricity, telephone , fax transmission
equipment, closed circuit television,
intercommunications, alarms and security
systems, has led to an increase in the
amount of wiring that is installed in
buildings.
 Water supply and
removal of waste
• Buildings must have a system of water
supply pipes for drinking, washing,
cooking, sanitary facilities, internal fire
extinguishing systems.

JUSTIFICATION
❖ The document focuses on the
development of a manual that contains
the most relevant theoretical information,
examples of conceptual design where the
geometric properties of the structure and
calculation of the structural elements are
established.
 CONCLUSIONS
❖ a) Structural design is the creative process through which the
structural engineer determines the form and characteristics of the
structure of a construction
❖ b) The work of the structural engineer is very important for the
progress of a country since it contributes to the creation of the
infrastructure necessary for its development.
❖ c) In every civil works project, the intervention of the structural
engineer is required, who must work as a team with other
specialists from the first stages of the project.
 CONCLUSIONS
❖ d) The consequences of the failure of a structure can be very severe in terms of loss of human and economic life. Therefore, the
participation of engineers is required

❖ The development and use of sophisticated computational tools that allow better simulation of the different loading conditions and the
response of materials in the analysis will also positively impact the development of structural engineering.
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