Hydraulics Manual Questionnaire

HYDRAULIC MACHINES QUESTIONNAIRE
Instruction: You must read the content indicated below and answer 55 questions correctly, after
the accumulation of questions you will find the theory that you must read and answer the
questions that are asked, write a brief comment about your answer.
Example:
A fluid circulates through a 5.08 cm pipe at room temperature, with constant density. Friction
forces are neglected, and the velocity inside the pipe is 4 m/s, so the flow rate is:
a. 2 m³/hr
b. 0.58 cm³/s
d. 0.3191 m³/s
Q = V*A → A= 3.1416 r 2 /2 Then ==>r= 5.08 /2 cm = 2.54 cm/100 = 0.0254 m
A= 3.1416 * (0.0254 m) 2 = 0.07979 m²

Q= 4 m/s * 0.07979 m² = 0.3191 m³ /s.
The correct option is d, as demonstrated with the formulas and calculations
Questionnaire Answer and Reason your answer in each Item
1) If a 500-pound weight is moved 2 feet, 1,000 foot-pounds of work is obtained.

a) TRUE
b) Fake
2) Power is defined as the speed of work execution
a) TRUE
b) Fake
3) Wasted energy in a hydraulic system
a) makes the system more efficient.
b) is destroyed.
c) turns into heat
d) It is used to generate work.
4) Changing the flow rate of an actuator will have no effect on the speed of the actuator.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
5) A cylinder is replaced with another with a larger diameter, the speed at which the new
cylinder extends and retracts.
a) it does not change.
b) Increase.
c) decreases
6) If the load on an actuator is increased, a reduction in system pressure occurs.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
7) Pressure is a result of flow.

a) TRUE
b) Fake
8) Pressure is measured in inch-pounds.

a) TRUE
b) Fake
9) Viscosity is affected by the diameter of the fluid conductor.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
10) With a certain flow rate, increasing the diameter of the fluid conductor causes the fluid
velocity to increase.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
11) The pressure drop in a fluid conductor is due to a leak.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
12) gear pumps

a) They are of variable volume.
b) They are centrifugal.
c) They have a positive displacement.
d) They are pressure compensated.
13) Gear pump displacement increases as input RPM increases.

a) TRUE
b) Fake
14) gear pumps
a) They trap fluid between the teeth and the housing.
b) They have many moving parts.
c) They are used to control pressure control valves.
15) vane pumps

a) They can have a variable displacement.
b) They are not positive displacement.
c) They use a rotor to carry out the pumping.
16) A balanced vane pump uses an elliptical cam ring for opposing pressure quadrants.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
17) Which of these parts is not part of a vane pump?
a) Pallette
b) Rotor
c) cam ring
d) Barrel
18) piston pump
a) transforms the back and forth movement into rotating movement.
b) It uses only one piston.
c) requires a casing drain.
d) They are only fixed volume.
19) By increasing the tilt plate angle in a piston pump

▪ increases the displacement of the pump.
▪ increases the rotation speed of the pump.
▪ increases the outlet pressure.
20) Axial piston pumps use a rotating rocker plate.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
21) gear pumps
a) They can be variable.
b) They are not generally used in hydraulics.
c) They change displacement with changes in RPM.
d) They supply a constant output with constant RPM.
22) Variable displacement pumps change the output flow by changing either the RPM
(revolutions per minute) or the pump rocker plate.
a) change only the angle of the rocker plate.
b) change only the pump RPM.
23) Variable volume pumps can also be pressure compensated.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
24) piston pumps
a) They increase flow by increasing the tilt plate angle.
b) reduce flow with increasing tilt plate angle.
c) They achieve full displacement when the rotation group is rotating.
25) When the stroke is decreased or completely compensated for an axial piston pump.
a) The rocker plate is located at an angle of 19 degrees.
b) The rocker plate is located at a 0 degree angle.
c) there is no pressure.
d) there is a maximum flow.
26) A pressure-compensated axial pump slows its stroke if flow is blocked.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
27) When a pressure compensated pump is traveling, we have flow
at operating pressure.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
28) The purpose of an actuator is to convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
29) The cylinders can be used for:
a) push or drag a load.
b) tilt a load.
c) Press.
d) the three previous options.
30) Under the same pressure, a single-rod cylinder produces more force when extending than
when retracting.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
31) Hydraulic motors are classified according to displacement capacity and torsional force.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
32) Hydraulic motors are only manufactured in two designs: vane and piston.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
33) The secondary port of a direct-actuated relief valve connects to the reservoir.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
34) Direct-acting relief valves only come in large sizes because they must use a large spring
directly against a moving head.

a) TRUE
b) Fake
35) A direct-actuated relief valve can be used to control the maximum system pressure.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
36) The design of a pilot-actuated valve allows for a greater flow capacity than a direct-
actuated valve of the same frame size.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
37) A pilot operated relief valve uses a small orifice in the main body in order to create a
pressure differential across the spool when the pilot moving head is opened.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
38) The first stage of a pilot-actuated relief valve is actually a small-sized direct-actuated relief
valve.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
39) A sequence valve is a flow control valve.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
40) A sequence valve is normally open.

a) TRUE
b) Fake
41) The pressure downstream of a sequence valve is limited to the sequence valve settings.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
42) A pressure reducing valve is the only type of pressure control valve that is normally open.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
43) Pressure reducing valves are used to limit the maximum system pressure.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
44) Unlike other pressure control valves, the pressure reducing valve senses its pilot from the
secondary port of the valve.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
45) When a discharge valve opens, it directs flow directly back to the reservoir.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
46) Because the discharge valve is remotely piloted, it can allow flow to return to the reservoir
at a minimum pressure.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
47) Flow is what determines when a wastegate will open.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
48) A counterbalance valve is a normally open flow control valve.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
49) A counterbalance valve is used to control a cylinder with a negative or uncontrolled

charge, so that it moves at a controlled speed.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
50) The counterbalance valve should be set at a pressure slightly higher than the load-induced
pressure caused by the weight on the cylinder.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
51) The brake valve uses a remote pilot to maintain a constant back pressure on the engine.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
52) The brake valve has two pilots to allow the installer more options for plumbing installations.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
53) When the directional control valve is centered, the brake valve allows a controlled amount
of back pressure to build up in the line between the engine and the brake valve to achieve
dynamic braking.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
54) A closed center position system maintains a constant flow, but no pressure when the
directional control valve is centered.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
55) The type of pump (fixed versus pressure compensated) determines whether it is an open
or closed center system.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
56) In an open center system, flow passes through the center of the valve and back to the
reservoir at low pressure when the valve is centered.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
56) Flow controls are always adjustable.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
58) Flow controls are often used to control the speed of an actuator.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
59) The flow through a choke valve varies as the differential pressure across the valve varies.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
60) A pressure compensated flow control valve maintains a constant flow by maintaining a
constant pressure upstream of the valve.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
61) Meter-in should only be used with a positive charge.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
62) When applying meter-in a pressure compensated flow control should always be used.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
63) Meter-in refers to the flow control that goes to the actuator.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
64) The beta ratio of 75
a) It is less efficient than beta 100.
b) It is more efficient than beta 100.
c) indicates the size in microns.
d) None of the above.
65) When determining the beta ratio of a filter, calibration in microns is critical.
a) It has no application with respect to efficiency.
b) is smaller than the particles that are filtered.
c) is greater than the particles that are filtered.
66) Filter vents are essential to prevent the entry of suspended particles.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
67) The reservoirs help condition the hydraulic fluid, as well as store the fluid.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
68) Hydraulic fluid returning to the reservoir may contain trapped air and solid contaminants.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
69) All fluid conduction lines entering the reservoir terminate below the fluid level.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
70) Check valves are classified as
a) valves of control ofpressure.
b) valves of control offlow.
c) valves of control directional.
d) valves ofdetour.
71) Pilot operated check valves use an external pilot to allow reverse flow to pass through the
valve
a) TRUE
b) Fake
72) A pilot operated check valve with a pilot ratio of 10.1 will open with a pilot pressure of 200
psi even though there is 2000 psi of back pressure in the valve.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
73) Check valves are considered to present.
a) a copious leak.
b) no leak.
c) a slight leak.
d) moderate leak.
74) A flowmeter monitors the amount of flow in a circuit.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
75) A pressure gauge measures the pressure in a system and displays it on a calibrated dial.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
76) Pressure switches are used to open or close an electrical circuit when a predetermined
pressure is reached.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
77) Manifolds reduce the number of connections but increase the number of potential leak
points.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
78) Two common applications for accumulators are storing energy in a hydraulic circuit and
supplementing pump flow.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
79) As flow increases, the velocity of the fluid through a conductor increases.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
80) If standard nominal pipes are used with a flow rate of 27 1/2 gpm, what size pipe would
give us a velocity of 20 feet/second.
a) ½"
b) ¾"
c) 1"
d) it is necessary to know the DI
81) Tubes are measured and specified by wall thickness and outside diameter.
a) TRUE
b) Fake
THEORETICAL PART, READ THE THEORETICAL PART TO ANSWER THE

QUESTIONNAIRE.
One horsepower = 33,000 foot-pounds per minute or 33,000 pounds raised one foot in one
minute.
One horsepower = 746 watts
One horsepower = 42.4 BTUs per minute.
1 kW = 1.3 HP
1 HP = 550 foot-pounds per second
Hydraulic HP= GPM x PSI

714 x Eff. of the bomb
Torsional force (in.-pounds) = PSI x Displacement (in. 3 /rev)

6,28
Torsional force (in.-pounds) = HP x 63.025

RPM
To determine the volume (cubic inches) required to move a piston a given distance, multiply the
cross-sectional area of the piston (square inches) by the stroke (inches).
Volume = W x L
The piston speed of a cylinder depends on its size (piston area) and the flow rate within it.
Velocity (inches/minute) = Flow (cubic inches/minute)

Area (square inches)

THEORY OF HYDRAULIC MACHINERY TO SOLVE QUIZ
Flow
Flow in a hydraulic system is produced from a positive displacement pump. This is different from the case of a
centrifugal pump, which is not positive displacement. There are three important principles to understand
related to flow in a hydraulic system.
First principle: Flow is what makes it work. For any element in a hydraulic system to move, flow must be
supplied to the actuator. This cylinder retracts. It can only be extended if there is flow inside port B. Moving the
directional control valve will cause flow to be sent to either extend or retract the cylinder.
Second principle: The flow rate is what determines the speed. Flow rate is usually measured in gallons per
minute or GPM. GPM is determined by the pump. Changes in pump output flow change the speed of
actuator.
Third principle: At a given flow rate, changes in the volume displacement of the actuator change the speed of
the actuator. If there is less volume to displace, the actuator cycles will be faster. For example, there is less
volume to move when retracted, because the cylinder rod takes up space, reducing the volume that must be
moved. Note the difference in speed between extension and retraction.
Flow Formulas
1 gallon = 231 cubic inches
Displaced (cylinder) volume = stroke x effective area
Cylinder speed (feet/minute) = G PM x 19.25

Area (piston)
GPM (theoretical) = Pump RPM x in . 3

231
Required volume (GPM) = displaced volume x 60

time (sec) x 231
Required volume (hydraulic motor) = RPM x Displacement (in. 3 )

231
Fluids are slightly compressible, however, to simplify the example we will consider them as non-
compressible.
Definition of Pressure
Pressure in a hydraulic system comes from resistance to flow. To better illustrate this principle, think about
the flow discharged from a hydraulic pump. The pump produces flow, not pressure. However, if we start to
restrict the flow from the pump, this creates pressure.
This resistance to flow is induced by loading from the actuator and is also generated as the fluid passes
through the various conductors and components. All points of resistance, such as long pipe runs, elbows,
and various components, are cumulative in series and contribute to the total system pressure.
Pascal's law is the basis for understanding the relationship between force, pressure and area.
Mathematically, this relationship is expressed as: Force equals pressure multiplied by area. Pressure is
equal to force divided by area, and area can be calculated by dividing force by pressure.
Pascal's law is expressed as follows: the pressure applied on a confined fluid at rest is transmitted without
decrease in all directions and acts with equal force on equal areas and at right angles to them. In the
example below, we have a container filled with a non-compressible liquid. If 10 pounds of force are applied
to a 1-square-inch plug, the result will be 10 pounds of force on each square inch of the wall of the
container. If the bottom of the container is 20 square inches overall, the resultant force will be 10 psi times
20 square inches or 200 pounds of total force, because force is equal to pressure times area.
The force (pounds) exerted by a piston can be determined by multiplying the piston area (square inches)
by the applied pressure (PSI).
Load Induced Pressure

Load-induced pressure is defined as the pressure generated by the load, or force on the actuator. The
effective area of the cylinder piston is the area available for force generation. In our example, a force of
10,000 pounds represents a load-induced pressure of 1000 psi, based on the formula.
When the cylinder extends, the pressure required to move the 10,000-pound load is 1000 psi, minus
friction.
During retraction, the effective area is only 5 square inches. This increases the pressure required to 2,000
psi, necessary to retract the load.
Pressure Drop
Pressure that is not used directly to provide work can be defined as pressure drop or resistive pressure. It
is the pressure required to push the fluid through the conductors towards the actuator. This energy takes
the form of heat. Excessive pressure drop can contribute to excessive heat buildup in the hydraulic
system. This resistive pressure is cumulative and must be added to the overall system pressure
requirements.
Hydraulic fluid types vary depending on applications; The four most common types are:
1) Petroleum-based: the most common and best applied when not required
a fire retardant.
2) Water Glycol: Used when a flame retardant fluid is required. When glycol is used
Most pumps must be reduced from normal capacity or special bearings are required.
3) Synthetics: used when applications require flame retardant insulating properties.
Synthetic fluids are typically not compatible with most sealing compounds.
4) Does not cause harm to the environment: Fluids whose impact on the environment will be
minimum in the event of a spill.
Fluids
General description
The study of hydraulic power involves understanding the mechanism of energy transmission through a
confined liquid. Hydraulic fluid can well be considered the most important component of a hydraulic
system. It serves as a lubricant, as an energy transfer medium and as a sealant.
Recommended maximum oil velocity in hydraulic lines:
• Pump suction line 2-4 feet per second

• Pressure pipes at 500 psi 10-15 feet per second
• Pressure pipes at 3000 psi 15-20 feet per second
• Pressure pipes over 3000 psi 25 feet per second
• The most important characteristic of a fluid is its viscosity.
In our lubrication example, hydraulic fluid as a lubricant allows this block to slide with less friction and wear
on parts. In the heat transfer medium example, the heated fluid enters and radiates its energy outward,
leaving the system cooler. In the energy transfer example, the hydraulic fluid transfers energy from the
inlet side to the outlet side because the fluid is basically non-compressible. In the sealant example, the
hydraulic fluid between the wall and the piston acts as a sealant due to its viscosity.
Hydraulic fluid is basically non-compressible and can take the shape of any container. Due to this, it has a
certain advantage in force transmission. These are examples where the fluid takes the shape of a
container.
If a positive displacement pump is used, energy is transmitted from the electric motor, or input source, to
the actuator, which is the output, through the medium represented by a non-compressible fluid. As the fluid
passes through the conductors and components, certain considerations must be met to ensure maximum
efficiency in energy transfer. These considerations include understanding and proper application of fluid
velocity and viscosity.
Speed
Velocity is the distance the fluid travels per unit of time. In the case of a fixed volume of fluid passing
through a conductor, the velocity of the fluid depends on the internal diameter of the conductor. If the
diameter of a conductor increases, the velocity of the fluid decreases. Conversely, if the diameter of the
conductor decreases, the velocity of the fluid increases.
To further illustrate this principle, we have two simple systems in which two pumps with an equal
displacement of 30 gallons per minute move fluid through conductors of different sizes.
EXAMPLE: The displacement is the same, while the velocity of the fluid varies depending on the size of
the conductor. The fluid that turns flywheel 2 moves 4 times faster than the fluid that turns flywheel 1,
because the internal diameter of the pipe for flywheel 1 is twice as large as the internal diameter for
flywheel 2. However, the flywheels rotate at the same speed because the volume displacement is the
same in both systems.
Goo
Viscosity is a measure of a liquid's resistance to flow. A denser fluid has more resistance to flow and a
higher viscosity. Temperature affects viscosity. As the temperature of a hydraulic fluid increases, its
viscosity or resistance to flow decreases.
The following applies to petroleum-based hydraulic fluids:
1) Hydraulic oil serves as a lubricant and is practically non-compressible.

It compresses approximately 0.5% at 1000 psi.
2) The pressure at the bottom of a one foot column of oil will be
about 0.4 psi. To find the pressure at the bottom of any oil column, multiply the height in feet by 0.4.
3) Atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 14.7 psia at sea level (psia: pounds
per square inch absolute).
4) Manometer readings do not include atmospheric pressure unless
indicate the psia.
A viscometer, the device used to measure the viscosity of a liquid, consists of a small reservoir surrounded
by a water bath that is used to heat and maintain the liquid at a constant temperature. There is a small
hole below the reservoir through which the liquid can pass once it is heated to a specified temperature. A
timer is used to determine how long it takes to fill a 60 milliliter container. The number of seconds it takes
to fill the container at a given temperature is the viscosity of the liquid at that temperature.
fluid formulas
Flow Rate (GPM) = Velocity (ft./sec.) x Area (in . 2 )
0,3208
Driver area (in. 2 ) = GPM x 0.3208

Speed (ft/sec.)
Fluid velocity (ft/sec) = G PM x 0.3208

Area
Fluid is pushed, not sucked, into a pump.
Pumps do not pump pressure; Its purpose is to create flow (pressure is the result of resistance to flow).
To determine the required pump capacity:
GPM = Speed (rpm) x Displacement (in. 3 /rev)

231
BOMBS
Introduction
Although there are several types of hydraulic pumps, the sole purpose of the pumps is to provide flow to
the hydraulic system. In this section you will learn more about the three basic types of hydraulic pumps:
gear pumps, vane pumps, and piston pumps. It is important to understand the differences and similarities
between these types of pumps, their fluid displacement capabilities, and their correct application in a
hydraulic system.
Gear Pumps
Pumps are components of the hydraulic system that convert mechanical energy transmitted from an
electric motor to hydraulic energy.
Gear pumps are compact, relatively inexpensive, and have few moving parts. External gear pumps are
made up of two gears, usually the same size, that mesh together within a housing. The drive gear is an
extension of the drive shaft. When it rotates, it drives the second gear. When both gears rotate, fluid is
introduced through the inlet hole. This fluid is trapped between the housing and the rotating teeth of the
gears, travels around the housing, and is pushed through the outlet port. The pump generates flow and,
under pressure, transfers energy from the input source, which is mechanical, to a hydraulic power
actuator.
Vane Pumps
Unbalanced:
The rotating part of the pump, or rotor assembly, is located off-center of the cam ring or housing. The rotor
is connected to an electric motor via a shaft. When the rotor rotates, the vanes move outward due to
centrifugal force and contact the ring, or casing, forming a positive seal.
Fluid enters the pump and fills the large volume area formed by the off-center rotor. When the vanes push
the fluid around the cam, the volume decreases and the fluid is pushed out through the outlet port.
Balanced:
In the unbalanced vane pump described above, one half of the pumping mechanism is at a sub-
atmospheric pressure, while the other half is at the full system pressure. This results in side loading on the
shaft while under high pressure conditions. To compensate for this, the shape of the ring in a balanced
vane pump changes from circular to cam-shaped. With this design, the two pressure quadrants oppose
each other.
Two ports are responsible for the entry of the fluid and another two pump the fluid out. The two inlet ports
and two discharge ports are connected inside the case. Since they are located on opposite sides of the
housing, excessive force or pressure buildup on one side is neutralized by equivalent but opposite forces
on the other side. When the forces balance, the load on the sides of the axle is removed.
The flow is created in the same way as described in the unbalanced vane pump example; The only
difference is that the discharge and suction cavities are two instead of one. It should be noted that positive
displacement, constant volume vane pumps used in industrial systems are generally of balanced design.
Piston Pumps
Axial piston pumps convert the rotary motion of an input shaft into axial back-and-forth motion, which
occurs in the pistons. This is achieved by means of a tilting plate that is fixed or variable in its degree of
angle. When the piston barrel assembly rotates, the pistons rotate about the axis with the piston shoes
contacting and sliding on the surface of the rocker plate. To simplify the illustration, a single piston is
animated.
With the tilt plate in a vertical position, no displacement occurs as there is no back and forth movement. As
the angle of the rocker plate increases, the piston moves in and out of the barrel following the angle of the
rocker plate.
In the actual design, the cylinder barrel is equipped with several pistons. During one half circle of rotation,
the piston moves out of the cylinder barrel and generates an increase in volume. In the other half of the
rotation, the piston moves into the cylinder barrel and causes a decrease in volume. This back-and-forth
motion sucks fluid in and pumps it out.
Fixed versus Variable
There are two types of positive displacement hydraulic pumps. A fixed pump, which produces a fixed flow
in gallons per minute based on the rpm of the electric motor, and a variable pump, which can vary its
speed in gallons per minute while the input rpm remains constant. Although displacement is normally
measured in volume displaced per revolution, output is measured in gallons per minute or gpm.
In this example, a motor rotating at 1200 rpm drives a fixed displacement gear pump that produces a flow
of 5 gallons per minute. The gpm can change if the engine rpm changes.
When a variable displacement pump is used in the system, the gpm can be modified in two ways. As with
fixed displacement pumps, the gpm changes if the engine revolutions per minute changes. The second
way is to modify the displacement of the pump. For example, the displacement of an axial piston pump is
determined by the
distance that the pistons are pushed in and out in the cylinder barrel. Since the rocker plate angle controls
this distance in an axial piston pump, it is only necessary to change the rocker plate angle to change the
piston displacement and pump volume. Different means are applied to modify the angles of the rocker
plate. These include hand levers, mechanical stops, or, even more sophisticated, hydraulically positioned
devices. If the pump produces a flow of 5 gallons per minute at 1200 revolutions per minute and maximum
displacement, the gpm can be changed by placing the rocker plate in the vertical position or by decreasing
the pump flow rate. This will cause the flow to vary from 5 to 0 gallons per minute.
Pressure Compensated
Variable volume pumps can also be pressure compensated. A pressure-compensated piston pump
decreases stroke or goes to zero output at a predetermined pressure. This is achieved by hydraulically
positioning the pumping chambers at zero outlet while maintaining the compensator pressure at the pump
outlet. In this example a pressure compensated piston pump has been used. It is useful to understand the
functionality of a piston pump.
When the pistons rotate around the shaft and follow the angle of the rocker plate, they are pumping fluid
out the outlet, providing pressure to move a component, such as a cylinder. When the cylinder
reaches the end of its stroke, the pressure at the pump outlet increases since the fluid flow path is
blocked.
This pressure causes the trim spool to rise, allowing the pressurized fluid to energize the stroke-
decreasing piston and exert pressure against the rocker plate, forcing it into the vertical position. When the
rocker plate is in a vertical position, then the pump decreases its stroke and the pressure at the outlet port
remains at a constant level. A very small amount of flow is produced to maintain stroke decay pressure.
This flow is diverted into the casing and transported back to the reservoir through the pump casing drain
outlet.
Of the three types of hydraulic pumps described, i.e., gear pump, vane pump and axial piston pump, only
vane pump and piston pump can be pressure compensated.
"Cutter" type cylinders are more robust in design than tension rod cylinders. Applications for milling
cylinders include presses, cranes, steel mills and rolling mills.
ACTUATORS
The actuator is the interface component that converts hydraulic power into mechanical power. An actuator
can be a cylinder that produces linear motion or a hydraulic motor that produces rotary motion. Once you
have completed this section, you should have a good understanding of how actuators work in a hydraulic
system.
Cylinders
The cylinders are linear actuators. Its output force, or movement, occurs in a straight line. Its function is to
convert hydraulic power into mechanical linear power. Its work applications include pushing, dragging,
tilting and pressing. Cylinder type and design depend on specific applications.
Guys
The hydraulic ram is perhaps the simplest of the actuators. It has a single fluid chamber and exerts force
in only one direction. It is used in applications where stability under heavy loads is needed.
A single active cylinder is pressurized at one end only. The opposite end is vented to the tank or
atmosphere. They have been designed in such a way that the load or a device, such as an internal spring,
causes them to retract.
The double acting cylinder is the most common cylinder used in industrial hydraulics. Pressure can be
applied to either port, delivering power in both directions. These cylinders are also classified as differential
cylinders due to areas of uneven exposure during extension and retraction operations. The difference in
effective area is due to the rod area reducing the piston area during retraction. Extension is slower than
retraction because a greater amount of fluid is required to fill the piston side of the cylinder. However,
more force can be generated in extension because the effective area is greater. In retraction, the same
amount of pumping flow retracts the cylinder more quickly due to the reduced volume displaced by the rod.
However, less force is generated due to a smaller effective area.
A double rod cylinder is considered as a non-differential type cylinder. The areas on both sides of the
piston are equal, thus supplying the same force in both directions. This type of cylinder would be used, for
example, to couple a load to both ends or when the same speed is needed in both directions.
Design
The cylinder assembly consists of a cap end steel head, a steel barrel assembly, a rod end steel head, a
rod bearing, a piston and a piston rod. Tension rods and nuts are used to keep together
heads and barrel assembly. Static seals maintain pressure joint. HE
Provides a stem cleaner to prevent any foreign material from entering the bearing and seal area. Sealing
of the moving surfaces is provided by the rod seal, which prevents fluid from leaking past the rod, and the
piston seals, which prevent fluid from bypassing the piston. Fluid is directed to and from the cylinder
through the rod end port and cap end port.
Engines
Hydraulic motors are classified as rotary actuators. Motors are similar to pumps in terms of construction.
However, instead of pushing the fluid like the pump does, the fluid exerts pressure on the internal surface
area of the motor, developing torsional force. Resistance from the load occurs when the pump flow
generates a continuous rotational motion. Since the inlet and outlet ports can be pressurized, most
hydraulic motors are externally drained.
Typically, hydraulic motors are classified as high speed (500-10,000 RPM) or low speed (0-1,000 RPM)
motors.
Torsional force (inch-pounds) = 63025 x HP

RPM
Horsepower = Torsional force (inch pounds) x RPM

63025
Guys
The four most common types of hydraulic motors are gear motor, piston vane motor, and crankshaft
motor.
Application
Hydraulic motors are mainly classified according to displacement and torsional force. The first thing to take
into account is the torsional force. Hydraulic motors are rated in foot-pounds or inch-pounds of torque
times a given value in psi, usually inch-pounds per 100 psi. Torsional force is equal to load multiplied by
radius. Large displacement motors typically have a larger radius on which the hydraulic fluid exerts
pressure; therefore, they generate greater torsional force at a given pressure.
A hydraulic motor that is rated at 1 inch-pounds of force per 1 psi rotates a winch with a 4-inch radius. The
load is 500 pounds. The required torsional force is 2000 inch-pounds. Based on the engine's torque rating,
the operating pressure is 2000 psi. The second point that must be taken into account is displacement. This
is necessary to determine the amount of flow required to rotate the hydraulic motor at the required
revolutions per minute.
IMPORTANT !
The primary function of a pressure relief valve is to protect the system from excessive pressure. The valve
should not be used to direct excessive pressure into the reservoir, as this can cause the system to overflow.
PRESSURE CONTROL
Introduction
This section provides you with an understanding of the basic concept of force manipulation through a hydraulic
system, using pressure control valves. The two basic types of design applied by these six valves are direct
drive and pilot operated. This section shows the operating principles of the six types of pressure valves, and in
the lab you will be able to simulate how different pressures and settings control the operation of these valves.
General description
An important question in hydraulic power circuits is whether to control the flow rate or the pressure level. A
misconception is that pressure must be controlled by an orifice or flow control device. This can never be done
accurately. For precise force control, six types of pressure controls have been developed. These are: the relief
valve, the unloading valve, the sequence valve, the pressure reducing valve, the counterbalance valve and the
braking valve. The symbols on these valves are similar; Often only their location in the hydraulic circuit
determines which type of pressure valve they belong to.
Direct Drive Relief Valve
The maximum system pressure can be controlled by a normally closed pressure valve. With the primary port
of the valve connected to a pressure system and the secondary port connected to the reservoir, the moving
head is activated by a predetermined pressure level; Upon reaching this point the primary and secondary
passages are connected, and the flow is diverted to the reservoir. This type of pressure control is called a
relief valve.
High flow valves require larger springs to facilitate mounting of larger valve assemblies. The larger springs
contribute to a manual control of higher pressure in the valve.
The manual pressure control is the difference between the opening pressure and the pressure necessary to
fully open the valve.
A direct-acting relief valve is a valve in which the moving head is held closed by system exerted against the
moving head to reach the desired opening pressure. When the system pressure reaches the full relief value,
all fluid passes through the moving head into the reservoir passage. High flow valves require larger springs to
facilitate mounting of larger valve assemblies. The larger springs contribute to a manual control of higher
pressure in the valve. The manual control of pressure is the
difference between opening pressure and full flow pressure.
Pilot Operated Relief Valve Pilot operated relief valves are designed to accommodate higher pressures with
higher flows, allowing a smaller frame size than the direct operated relief valve, with the same flow rate. The
valve is assembled in two stages. The second stage includes the main spool held in a normally closed position
by a lightweight, non-adjustable spring. The second stage is large enough to handle the maximum flow rate of
the valve. The first stage is a small-sized direct-actuated relief valve, usually mounted in parallel on the main
valve body, and includes a moving head, spring and adjustable knob. The second stage manages the total
flow rate to the reservoir. The first stage controls and limits the pilot pressure level in the main chamber of the
reel.
Although pilot-operated relief valves typically have a lower manual pressure setting than direct-actuated
relief valves, their response time is slower.
"Manual pressure override" occurs when the flow through the relief valve increases after it has reached the
pressure necessary to cause the valve to barely open. Due to spring compression, the pressure rises above,
or "ignores" the valve setting.
Note: All pressure valves are direct operated or pilot operated.

The relief action through the main spool works as follows: as long as the system pressure is less than the relief
pressure set by the control knob, the pressure on the main spring chamber is the same as the line pressure of
the pump, since there is no flow through the control orifice, and, as a consequence, there is no pressure drop
from one side of the orifice to the other.
When the pump line pressure rises above the setting set by the control knob, the pilot relief movable head
moves out of its seat. This initiates a flow of oil from the pump line, through the pilot relief movable head
orifice, and into the reservoir.
This flow restriction caused by the orifice creates a pressure difference between the pump pressure line and
the area near the pilot orifice. This pressure imbalance causes the main tailstock to move out of its seat. This
produces sufficient pump flow relief to prevent a subsequent rise in pump line pressure. When the pump line
pressure drops below the control knob setting, the pilot-operated relief valve closes, flow through the orifice
stops, and the main spring can position the main tailstock again. in his seat.
Anti-extrusion Relief Valve

The pilot-operated pressure relief valve includes the valve body, a main spool chamber, and a pilot-operated
valve with a pressure adjustment knob.
The pressure present in the primary port acts on the bottom of the main spool and at the same time, pressure
is fed onto the spring loaded side of the main spool through the control lines and containment holes.
Pressure is also present in the ball of the pilot operated valve.
If the pressure increases above the spring setting of the pilot-actuated valve, the ball opens against the spring.
The pilot oil on the spring side of the main spool chamber now flows into the pilot operated valve spring
chamber and is directed internally to the secondary port and back to the reservoir.
Due to holes in the control line between the primary port and the pilot operated valve, a pressure drop or
differential occurs between the bottom of the main spool and the spring side of the main spool. This pressure
differential lifts the primary spool off its seat and connects the primary pressure port of the valve to the
secondary, or reservoir, port. The fluid now flows into the reservoir, maintaining the operating pressure set for
the valve.
Pressure Sequence
A sequence valve is a normally closed pressure control valve that ensures that one operation occurs before
another, based on pressure. In our tong and drill system what we want is for the tong cylinder to fully extend
before the drill cylinder extends. To achieve this we place a sequence valve immediately before the drill
cylinder. We set the valve to 500 psi. This ensures that the drill does not extend before it has reached 500 psi
in the collet cylinder.
Pressure Reduction
A pressure reducing valve is a normally open pressure control valve used to limit pressure in one or more
branches of a hydraulic circuit. The reduction in pressure results in a reduction in the force generated. The
pressure reducing valve is the only type of pressure valve that is normally open. A normally open pressure
control valve has the primary and secondary passages connected. Pressure at the bottom of the spool is
sensed from the pilot line that connects to the secondary port. You must remember that a pressure reducing
valve is normally open.
Now, let's put the pressure reducing valve in a real circuit to see its application. The example gripper circuit
requires that gripper cylinder B apply a lower force than gripper cylinder A. A pressure reducing valve placed
just before the cylinder of clamp B allows flow to the cylinder until the pressure reaches the valve setting.
At this point, the valve begins to close, limiting subsequent pressure buildup. As fluid leaks into the reservoir
through the valve's discharge passage, pressure begins to drop and the valve reopens. The result is a
modulated reduced pressure equivalent to the valve setting.
A high-low system pump provides high volume flow at low pressure and low volume flow at high pressure.
These circuits are used to extend and retract workloads with a high volume, low pressure flow, followed by a
low volume, high pressure flow to work. Since the power required is the product of pressure and flow, a high-
low system allows components and input motors to be small in size, which increases operating efficiency since
the system size is reduced. adapts to load requirements.
(Hydraulic power in HP = Pressure x flow rate ÷ 1714)

A high-low system pump circuit incorporating an 18 GPM pump, releasing at 1000 PSI and a 10 GPM
pump relieving at 3000 PSI. What is the theoretical maximum input fluid hydraulic power required?
A. 8.5 HP
B. 17.5 HP
C. 12.5 HP
D. 20hp
Solution:
Immediately prior to unloading, the system will deliver 28 GPM (18 GPM + 10 GPM) at 1000 psi based on
our theoretical input hydraulic power formula, the required HP of HP=16.3. With the 18 gpm pump
discharging we diverted only 10 GPM at 3000 PSI. Again, using the formula we calculate a requirement of
17.5 HP.
Answer: 17.5 HP (theoretical)
Download
A relief valve is a remotely piloted, normally closed pressure control valve that directs flow to the reservoir
when the pressure at that location reaches a predetermined level. A good example of a relief valve
application would be a high-low system. A high-low system can be made up of two pumps: one high
volume pump, the other low volume. The system is designed to provide rapid approach or return on the
working cylinder. The total volume of both pumps is delivered to the working cylinder until the load is
contacted.
At this point the system pressure increases, causing the discharge valve to open. Flow from the high
volume pump is directed back to the reservoir at a minimum pressure. The low volume pump continues to
deliver flow to meet the highest pressure requirement of the duty cycle.
Both pumps join together again for rapid cylinder return. This application allows less input horsepower to
be applied for speed and force requirements.
Counterbalance valves can prevent a loaded cylinder from falling. Pilot-operated check valves also hold
loaded cylinders in place. Both types of circuit have unique applications. Counterbalance valves may not
be leak proof. For example, manufacturers typically report the volume of leakage through a
counterbalance spool in drops per minute. If a cylinder must be locked in place with a leak-proof seal, the
valve must be designed to do so.
Counterbalance valves can also incorporate external pilot actuation, for smoother, fluctuation-free
performance. When the manufacturer uses both an external and an internal pilot, then the advantages of
both systems can be taken advantage of. The internal pilot reduces the load with compensated pressure,
while the external pilot reduces all back pressure while working.
Counterbalance Valve
A counterbalance valve is a normally closed pressure valve used with cylinders to compensate for a
potentially uncontrolled weight or load. In this circuit, without a counterbalance valve the load can drop
uncontrollably or become uncontrolled, and the pump flow will not be able to keep up. To prevent
uncontrolled operation, we place a counterbalance valve immediately after the cylinder.
The pressure setting of the counterbalance valve is set slightly above the load induced pressure of 1100
psi. This offsets the load. As we extend the cylinder, the pressure must rise slightly to lower the load.
A brake circuit using a brake control valve is necessary in a rotary actuator where control of revolutions
per minute and stopping capacity are necessary.
This is also a remotely piloted counterbalance valve. Brake valves are normally used with a motor circuit.
Brake Valve
A brake valve is a normally closed pressure control valve with the direct and remote pilots connected
simultaneously for operation. This valve is often used with hydraulic motors for dynamic braking.
Since any downstream resistance increases the load on the hydraulic motor, it is remotely piloted by
working pressure to keep the valve open during operation. This eliminates back pressure on the engine.
When the directional valve is de-energized, remote pilot pressure is lost, allowing the valve to close. The
inertia of the load opens the valve through the internal pilot, providing dynamic braking.
General description
Brake Valve: The brake valve has two purposes: it prevents a load from over-accelerating the engine and,
when the directional control valve is centered, it stops the engine at a controlled speed.
Relief valve: When the system pressure reaches the value of the relief valve, the valve opens, diverting the
flow from the larger pump back to the tank at the minimum pressure.
Pressure relief valve : This valve limits the maximum system pressure.
Sequence Valve: When properly adjusted, the sequence valve ensures that the cylinder is fully extended
before the engine starts.
Counterbalance valve: Counterbalance valves are used to assist the cylinder in lowering the load at a
controlled rate.
Pressure reducing valve: The pressure reducing valve limits the pressure to the motor, in such a way that
the output torsional movement force of the motor is limited.
Directional control valves may also be designed as anti-extrusion valves. They have seating elements
such as balls, moving heads or plates. The advantage of the anti-extrusion valve design is that it is
completely leak-proof, and there is no sticking under high pressure.
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL
General description
Directional control valves are used to start, stop and change the direction of fluid flowing in a hydraulic
system. In fact, the directional control valve designates the type of hydraulic system design, which can be
open or closed. The exercises in this section give you the opportunity to see in practice how these valves
work and how important they are to the proper functioning of the system.
Directional control valves are used to start, stop and change the direction of flow in a hydraulic circuit.
Although they may be designed in the anti-extrusion or rotary type valve style, the spool type directional
control is the most common. The design comprises a main body with internal passages that are connected
or sealed by a spool valve that slides along the valve plunger. Directional spool valves seal along the
space between the moving spool plunger and the housing. The degree of sealing depends on the gap,
fluid viscosity and pressure. Because of this slight leakage, spool-type directional valves cannot
hydraulically lock the actuator on their own.
Directional control valves are initially designated by the number of possible positions, ways or port
connections, and the manner in which they are activated or energized. For example, the number of port
connections are designated as possible paths or steps of the flow. A four-way valve must have four ports:
P, T, A and B. A three-position valve is indicated by three connected boxes. There are several ways to
activate or move the valve. These are: push button, hand lever, pedal, mechanical, hydraulic pilot, air pilot,
solenoid and spring.
Directional control valves can also be designated as normally open or normally closed. These designations
refer to two-position valves, such as the following: normally closed, spring-compensating, solenoid-
actuated two-way valve; two-way normally open, spring compensated, solenoid actuated valve; three-way,
normally closed, spring-balanced, solenoid-actuated valve; Three-way, normally open, spring-loaded,
solenoid-actuated valve.
Spool-type directional control valves used in industrial applications are mounted on a base plate or
manifold. Port layout follows an industry standard and is designated by valve size. The size of the
directional control valve depends on the flow capacity, which is critical for proper valve operation. The flow
capacity of a valve is determined by the port sizes and the pressure drop across the valve. Mounting size
and model are designated in terms of a range of nominal flows: D02 5 GPM, D03 10 GPM, D05 20 GPM,
D05H 25 GPM, D07 30 GPM, D08 60 GPM and D10 100 GPM.
Single and dual solenoid control valves are available with DC solenoids or 120 volt 50/60 cycle AC
solenoids.
Most solenoid-operated valves are equipped with manual controls, allowing the spool to be moved
manually.
This is accomplished by pressing the shaft located at the end of the manual override tube located at each
end of the valve.
Pilot-operated directional control valves must have a system for draining oil from the pilot at the
opposite end of the spool, so that the valve spool will travel. Blocking the drain or "Y" port of a valve with
external drain prevents the spool from shifting.
Direct Drive
A direct-actuated directional control valve can be manual or solenoid-actuated. The term "direct drive"
implies that some type of force is applied directly to the reel, causing the reel to move. In our example,
energizing the solenoid or coil creates an electromagnetic field that tends to pull the armature into the
magnetic field. As this occurs, the connected drive shaft moves the spool in the same direction while
compressing the return spring. As the valve spool moves, port P opens to port A and port B opens to T, or
the reservoir. This allows the cylinder to extend. When the coil is de-energized, the return springs move
the spool back to its center position.
Pilot Operated
To control systems requiring high flow rates, typically greater than 35 gallons per minute, pilot-operated
directional control valves should be used because more force is required to move the spool. The upper
valve, called the pilot valve, is used to hydraulically move the lower valve, or main valve. To accomplish
this, oil is sent from an external or internal source to the pilot-actuated valve. When the pilot operated
valve is energized, oil is sent to one side of the main spool. This displaces the spool, opening the pressure
port to the working port and directing return flow back to the reservoir.
All 'spool' type directional control valves have a slight leak next to the spool. This leak can cause a
cylinder to extend under pressure or shift downward under load. The application may require the use of a
pilot operated check valve in conjunction with a floating center.
External pilot actuation or sending fluid to the pilot operated valve from an external source is often
required. The advantages of the external pilot are a constant pressure supply, independent of other
influences on the main system, and the fact that the source can be filtered separately to prevent sediment
clogging of the pilot-operated valve. In addition to the external pilot, the valve can be drained externally or
internally. If the pilot operated valve is drained internally, the oil flows directly into the main valve reservoir
chamber. Sudden pressure or flow surges that occur at the reservoir port when operating the main control
spool can affect the unloaded side of the main spool as well as the pilot operated valve. To avoid this, the
pilot operated valve can be drained externally by feeding the pilot oil flow back to the reservoir. Pilot
operated directional control valves can be modified from internal to external pilot and drain.
Open Center versus Closed Center
We can classify most hydraulic circuits into two basic types: open center or closed center position. In fact,
the directional control valve defines the type of circuit. Open center circuits are defined as circuits that
direct pump flow back to the reservoir through the directional control valve during the stop or neutral time.
Typically, this type of circuit uses a fixed volume pump, such as a gear pump. If flow is blocked in neutral
or when the directional control valve is centered, flow is forced over the relief valve. Is
This may generate an excessive amount of heat and would represent an incorrect design. A closed center
circuit blocks pump flow at the directional control valve, in neutral or when centered. We must use a
pressure compensated pump, such as a piston pump, that is capable of decreasing its flow (or a discharge
circuit used with a fixed volume pump).
The three-position directional control valve incorporates a center or neutral position that defines the circuit
as open or closed, depending on the interconnection of ports P and T, and designates the type of work
application based on the configuration of ports A and B . The four most common types of three-position
valves are: open type, closed type, floating type and tandem type.
This open type configuration connects P, T, A and B together, providing an open center and work force
that drains into the reservoir. This configuration is often used in engine circuits to allow uncoupled
operation in neutral.
This closed type configuration locks P, T, A and B in neutral, providing a closed center. This closed type is
common in parallel circuits, where it is desired to stop and hold a charge mid-cycle.
This floating type configuration blocks P while interconnecting ports A and B with T. Since P is blocked, the
circuit becomes closed center. This closed type is normally used in parallel circuits where a hydraulic
motor runs uncoupled in neutral (and should be used as a pilot operated valve on any large three position
valve).
This tandem type configuration connects P to T while blocking work ports A and B. With P and T
connected, we have an open center circuit. This type of center is used in connection with a fixed
displacement pump. Since A and B are blocked, the charge can be held in neutral.
When specifying a type of directional control valve, the type of circuit required and the working application
must be taken into account.
In metering, flow control valves add resistance to the circuit, which adds heat load to the system. Fixed
displacement pump circuits must force excess flow through the relief valve to the meter. This generates
much more heat than variable displacement pump circuits that partially decrease pump flow from valve
closure, rather than forcing excess flow through a relief valve.
FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Introduction
Flow control valves are used to regulate the volume of oil applied to different areas of hydraulic systems.
This section provides an overview of the two types of flow control valves, as well as their application and
location in a hydraulic system. Because proper placement of these devices is crucial to optimal system
performance, a section is added to teach you why flow control devices should be used, and where they
should be used. Remember that you can review this section as many times as necessary.
General description
The function of the flow control valve is to reduce the flow rate in its branch of the circuit. The reduction in
flow results in a reduction in speed in the actuator. A flow control valve creates additional resistance to the
circuit, increasing pressure, resulting in bypass
partial flow of fluid over the relief valve and decreased displacement of a pressure compensated pump.
This reduces the flow downstream of the flow control valve.
This circuit uses a fixed flow pump. To reduce flow to the actuator, we must divert a portion of the fluid
over the relief valve. As the needle valve closes, pressure increases upstream. As it approaches 1500 psi,
the relief valve begins to open, diverting some of the fluid into the reservoir.
With the flow control used in a pressure compensated pump, fluid is not pushed over the relief valve. As it
approaches the 1500 psi trim setting, the pump begins to slow stroke, reducing outward flow.
A pressure compensated flow control valve can also be temperature compensated. Temperature
compensation allows for changes in fluid viscosity due to changes in hydraulic oil temperature.
Flow control valves can be fixed or non-adjustable or adjustable. Additionally, they can also be classified
as choke only or pressure compensated.
The amount of flow passing through an orifice remains constant as long as the pressure differential across
the orifice does not change. When the pressure differential changes, the flow also changes. Changes in
upstream load or pressure change the pressure drop across the valve. Changes in upstream load or
pressure change the pressure drop across the valve.
Choke Valves vs. Pressure Compensated Valves
Needle Valves
Needle valves may be designated as non-compensated flow control or throttling valves. These are good
measuring devices as long as the pressure differential across the valve remains constant.
Pressure compensated flow control valves are designed to adapt to pressure changes that occur before or
after the orifice. The pressure compensated flow control valve symbol adds a pressure arrow to the orifice.
Note that with a pressure-compensated flow control valve, the cylinder speed does not change when the
load changes.
Meter-In Meter-Out
Meter-in is the method used to position a flow control valve in such a way as to restrict fluid flow to the
actuator. In this circuit, without a flow control valve the cylinder extends and retracts at an unrestricted
speed. When we place a flow control valve in the circuit, this valve restricts flow to the cylinder, reducing
the cylinder extension speed. The check valve allows return flow to bypass the flow control when flow
direction is reversed.
When we transfer flow control to the other line, the cylinder extends at an unrestricted speed. We can
restrict the flow to the cylinder in such a way that it retracts at a reduced speed.
The advantage of meter-in is that it offers great precision with a positive charge. However, when the
charge goes beyond the center, the charge becomes negative or uncontrolled. The cylinder no longer
controls the load. When the load becomes uncontrolled, cylinder cavitation occurs.
Although meter-in is usually the best placement for controlling a constant speed, because it also dampens
pressure and flow transients, meter-out may be necessary in certain applications. To apply the meter-out
you simply have to change the direction in which it is allowed to pass the flow to
through the reverse check valve. This causes the fluid to be metered as it exits the actuator, which is the
opposite of what happens with meter-in.
An advantage of the meter-out is that it prevents the cylinder from going out of control and therefore
cavitation from occurring. A disadvantage of the put-out is that there is an intensification of pressure. This
can occur when there is a significant area-differential ratio between the rod and piston. By applying the
meter-out on the rod side of the cylinder without a load, the pressure on the rod side is intensified. This
can cause damage to the stem seals. Putting-in and putting-out have different advantages and
disadvantages. The type of flow control valve placement will depend on the application.
Ingress is defined as the rate at which external contaminants enter the system, from cylinder rods, air
breathers, shaft seals, and other possible entry points.
FLUIDS CONDITIONING
Introduction
Fluid conditioning is extremely important to maintain the correct functioning of a hydraulic system. In this
section, you will learn about the different types of filters, their location, and how they keep hydraulic fluid
clean. You will also learn the importance of regulating hydraulic fluid temperature through the use of
devices such as heat exchangers. For example, a fluid that is too cold or too hot can have a negative
impact on system performance.
General Aspects of Filtration

The cleanliness of hydraulic fluids has become a fundamental factor for the design and operation of
hydraulic power system components.
With pumps and valves designed for tighter tolerances and finer finishes, hydraulic systems operate at
ever-increasing pressures and efficiencies. These components will perform as designed as long as the
fluid is kept clean. Cleaning the oil results in increased system reliability and simplified maintenance.
As particles are introduced or enter a hydraulic system, they often break down into thousands of small
particles. These small particles build up between the valve spools and their valve stems, causing the valve
to stick. This is known as sediment clogging.
To convert Beta Ratio to a percentage, take the reciprocal factor of Beta Ratio (1÷( 3 ) ) and subtract it
from 100%.
Formula: 100% - (1÷( 3 ) ) = percentage of efficiency.

To avoid sediment clogging, premature component wear, and eventual system collapse, the application of
engineering principles to the filtration system design is required. Technical filtration involves knowing the
required micron rating, applying the beta ratio, maintaining cleanliness levels specified by ISO codes, and
locating the filter specific to the system design and environment.
Micron Terminology ( u m)
Micron (
um) is the designation used to describe particle sizes or spaces in hydraulic components. One
micron is equal to 39 millionths of an inch. To give a more exact idea of what this means, let's say that the
smallest dot that the human eye can see with the naked eye measures 40 microns.
Consider the following example. If we look at a human hair magnified 100 times, the particles that appear
near the hair measure approximately 10 microns.
Industrial hydraulic systems generally filter within the 10 micron range. This means that the filters are
filtering out particles that the human eye cannot see with the naked eye.
Beta ratio
Filtration devices are used to remove particles from the system fluid. The efficiency of filters is measured
with the beta ratio. The beta ratio represents the number of particles upstream of the filter that are larger
than the micron rating of the filter, divided by the number of particles downstream that are larger than the
micron rating of the filter. filter.
In this example, there are 200 particles upstream that exceed the size of 3 microns.
These flow to and through the filters.
A filter that allows more particles to pass through, or in other words, is less efficient, has a low beta ratio. It
can be seen that the filter at the top allowed 100 particles to pass through. The lower filter allowed a single
particle to pass through.
If we apply these numbers to the beta ratio formula, we will see that the top filter has a less efficient or
lower beta ratio and that the lower filter has a more efficient or higher beta ratio.
ISO code
To specify the level of cleanliness of a certain volume of fluid we refer to what is known as ISO code or
ISO solid contamination code. This code, which applies to all types of fluids, provides a universal
expression of relative cleanliness among suppliers and users of hydraulic fluid.
Based on a volume of one milliliter of fluid, a particle count is analyzed using specific particle sizes, 4
microns, 6 microns, and 14 microns. These three sizes were selected because they allow accurate
assessment of the amount of sludge from 4 and 6 micron particles, while the number of particles larger
than 14 microns reflects the amount of wear particles found in the fluid. .
To interpret the meaning of these results, you should consult a table like the one we show here. In this
example, a rating of 22/18/13 indicates the following: The first number, 22, indicates that the number of
larger particles with a size equal to or greater than 4 microns per milliliter of fluid is greater than 20
thousand but less to 40 thousand. The second number, 18, indicates that the number of particles with a
size equal to or greater than 6 microns per milliliter is greater than 1,300 and equal to or less than 2,500.
The third number, 13, indicates that the number of particles with a size greater than 14 microns per
milliliter of fluid is greater than 40 and equal to or less than 80.
This ISO code is only meaningful if it can be related to the level of cleanliness required for the hydraulic
system. This is generally based on the cleanliness levels with which a component can operate, established
by the manufacturer. For example, most servo valves require an ISO code of 15/13/12 or higher, while
gear pumps can adequately operate with fluids with an ISO code of 18/16/15.
Placement
Filter placement is critical to maintaining acceptable fluid cleanliness levels, proper component protection,
and reducing machine downtime. Filter vents are essential to prevent the entry of airborne particles. While
the system is operating, the fluid level in the reservoir changes. This causes the outside air to enter and
with it the suspended particles. The vent filters the air that enters the tank.
Pressure filters are often required to protect the component immediately downstream of the filter (such as
a sensitive servo valve) from accelerated wear, sediment clogging, or sticking. Pressure filters must be
able to withstand the operating pressure of the system as well as the pulsations of the pump. The return
filters are the ones that best allow maintaining the total cleanliness of the system according to their caliber
in microns. They can trap very small particles before they return to the tank. They must be sized to handle
the total return flow of the system. A recirculation loop or off-line filtration is sometimes needed when fluid
circulation through a return filter is minimal. Off-line filters, being independent of the main hydraulic
system, can be placed in the most convenient location for maintenance or change. Offline filtration typically
operates continuously.
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Guys
Temperature control is essential in hydraulic systems. Even with the best circuit design, energy losses always
occur when converting mechanical energy into hydraulic power. Whenever fluid flows from a high pressure to
a low pressure without producing mechanical work, heat is generated. Heat exchangers may be necessary
when operating temperatures are critical or when the system fails to dissipate all of the heat generated.
There are two basic models of heat exchangers. Each is based on a different cooling system: water-cooled
heat exchangers and air-cooled heat exchangers. If water is available for cooling, a shell and tube heat
exchanger is most recommended. Cooling water circulates through a series of brass tubes from one end cap
to another. Hydraulic fluid circulates through the unit and around the tubes that contain the water. The water
removes heat from the hydraulic fluid. This type of cooling device has several advantages. They are the most
economical, they are very compact, do not make noise, allow constant removal of
heat throughout the year and are suitable for environments where there is a large amount of dirt.
The disadvantages are: water costs can be considerable, if breaks occur the water and oil can mix, and they
generally require constant maintenance due to mineral buildup.
Tanks can be classified as vented or pressurized. Ventilated tanks are open to the atmosphere. Pressurized
tanks offer several advantages over vented tanks: contamination and condensation are reduced, and
pressurized tanks help draw fluid into the pump.
Air-cooled heat exchangers comprise a zero radiator core through which oil flows while a strong blast of air
passes through the core. In industrial applications the air is pushed by a fan with an electric motor. The
advantages of this type of dissipation can be recovered. The disadvantages are: high installation cost, noise
levels ranging from 60 to 90 decibels, and larger than comparable water cooling equipment.
DEPOSITS
In addition to receiving the fluid supply from the system, the reservoir has other important functions. Cools the
hydraulic fluid. This is achieved by dissipating excess heat through the walls. Conditions the fluid. While the oil
waits to leave the reservoir, solid contaminants settle while air rises and escapes. It can serve as a mounting
bracket for the pump or other components.
A properly designed hydraulic system always includes a well designed reservoir. An industrial tank should
include the following components: a baffle plate to prevent returning fluid from entering the pump, a cleanout
cover for maintenance access, a filter breather assembly to allow air exchange, a filling well protected from the
entry of contaminants, a level indicator that allows monitoring the upper and lower fluid levels and adequate
connections and fittings for the suction pipes, return pipes and drain pipes.
It is often said that the hydraulic fluid is the heart of the system, or its most important component. The reservoir
plays a fundamental role in maintaining the efficiency of fluid transfer and conditioning.
Pilot operated check valves can be piloted open or closed. This depends on the application.
RETENTION VALVES
Introduction
Check valves are a simple but important part of a hydraulic system. Simply put, these valves are used to
maintain the direction that fluid flows within a system. Since check valves are completely leak-proof devices,
they can be used to block hydraulic fluid from cylinders. The goal of this section is to help you understand how
the various valves work and the strategy for locating them in the system.
Inline Mounted Check Valve
Inline mounted check valves are classified as directional control valves as they determine the direction in
which flow travels within a portion of the circuit. Due to their sealing ability, many designs are considered
completely leak-proof. The simplest check valve allows flow to move freely in one direction and prevents flow
from the opposite direction. This type of check valve is used when the flow must
bypass a pressure valve during return flow, such as a bypass around a filter when it becomes clogged or to
prevent flow from entering a particular part of the circuit when it is not desired.
Pilot Operated Check Valves
Due to the slight spool leakage of standard directional control valves, a check valve must be added to the
circuit in case a cylinder needs to be hydraulically locked. This type of check valve is known as a pilot-
operated check valve. Unlike a simple check valve, reverse flow through the valve is required to retract the
cylinder. This is accomplished by causing pilot pressure to act on a pilot piston, thereby allowing the check
valve to open and the cylinder to be removed.
To extend the cylinder, the check valve allows fluid to flow freely in one direction and blocks flow in the
opposite direction.
Safety is an important issue when working with batteries. Precautions must be taken to avoid overcharging the
accumulator.
Accumulator circuits must be equipped with a safety relief valve. This valve allows the accumulators to be
isolated and discharged to the tank before performing system maintenance service.
SECONDARY COMPONENTS
Introduction
This section provides an overview of various secondary components used in most hydraulic systems. You will
be provided with information about accumulators, pressure switches, pressure gauges, flowmeters and
manifolds. These components are critical to proper system operation and understanding how they are used in
a system is an important part of this basic hydraulics course.
Accumulators
Accumulators are devices that store energy in the form of a fluid under pressure. Because of their ability to
store excess energy and release it when needed, accumulators are useful tools for improving hydraulic
efficiency. Industrial hydraulic accumulators are generally classified as hydro pneumatic. This type of
accumulator applies force to a liquid using compressed gas. The two most common types of hydropneumatic
accumulators are the bladder type accumulator and the piston accumulator. The name of each type indicates
which device separates the gas from the liquid. A hydropneumatic accumulator has a fluid compartment and a
gas compartment with a gas element, such as a bladder, separating the two compartments. The bladder is
charged through a gas valve at the top of the accumulator, while an anti-extrusion valve at the bottom prevents
the bladder from protruding into the pressure line. The anti-extrusion valve is sized so that the maximum
volumetric flow cannot be exceeded.
To operate, the bladder is pre-charged with nitrogen to a pressure specified by the manufacturer according to
the operating conditions. When the system pressure exceeds the precharged gas pressure, the anti-extrusion
valve opens and hydraulic fluid enters the accumulator. The change in gas volume in the bladder determines
the usable volume or useful fluid capacity.
Bourdon tube manometers achieve their highest degree of accuracy in the center half of the scale.
Even if the pressure gauge is the correct size, shock loading or pressure spikes can damage the gear
mechanism. Damping devices help prevent this from happening.
Batteries store energy that can be used when a power outage occurs or when additional power is needed. An
accumulator can be used to supplement the flow rate of a pump.
Pressure Switches
There are two types of pressure switches, the bourdon tube switch and the piston switch, which we see here.
This pressure switch consists of a micro switch, a spring, a mechanical stop, a manual override stem and a
piston actuator. External lights are often used to indicate that the switch has been activated.
When pressure builds up in the system, it enters the device applying force to the piston actuator. This energy
is transferred to the mechanical stop, compressing the spring, pushing up the stem of the manual control until
it activates the micro switch. Pressure switches are used to open or close an electrical circuit when a
predetermined pressure is reached.
Pressure gauges
Bourdon tube pressure gauges measure the pressure of a system and display it on a calibrated dial.
Calibration units are indicated in psi, bar and psia. The bourdon tube is a coiled metal tube. It is connected to
the system pressure. Any increase in pressure within the system causes the tube to straighten. The end of the
tube is connected to a mechanical link that sets a gear in motion. This gear in turn meshes with another gear,
which moves the indicator needle. Note that once the tube is pressurized, the needle rotates and indicates the
new system pressure.
Multiple
The greater the number of connections in a hydraulic system, the more likely there are to be leaking fittings.
Hydraulic manifolds dramatically reduce the number of external connections required. Manifolds used for
modular valve coupling include a common and return pressure port. With individual A and B work ports for
each valve station, additional control valves can be added to each station by interleaving or coupling the
valves vertically. This is achieved without any external connection. Manifolds are specified based on system
pressure, total flow, number of workstations, valve size or pattern.
Hoses should not be installed with twists. A slight twist on a hose can significantly reduce the life of the hose.
Twisting a hose 10 degrees can shorten its life by up to 90%.
The bend radius of a hose is the curvature of a hose from a straight line that begins at the bend radius. The
bend radius of a hose is measured to the outer wall of the hose inside the inner bend.
The minimum bend radius of a hose is determined by the manufacturer and is usually illustrated by graphs.
The bending radius increases as the diameter of the hose increases. It should also increase with an increase
in pressure. Hose life is significantly reduced with increasing system temperature.
FLUID CONDUCTORS
Introduction
Fluid conductors are the parts of the system that are used to transport fluids to all the different components of
the hydraulic circuit. These conductors include: hydraulic hoses, steel tubes and pipes. This section will help
you understand the benefits of the different drivers and where they can be best utilized in a hydraulic system.
General description
Transmission of power from one location to another is a key element in system design and performance. This
is defined as fluid conduction. Fluid conductors are the different types of conduction lines that transport
hydraulic fluid between components. The three main types of piping used in hydraulic systems are: steel
pipes, steel tubes, and flexible hoses. It is recommended to use a safety factor of 4 to 1 in the pressure rating
of pipes. To determine the working pressure of the conductor, the burst pressure percentage must first be
determined and divided by a safety factor of 4.
Hoses
Hydraulic hoses are used in applications where drive lines must be flexed or kinked. When considering the use
of hoses, system pressure, pressure pulses, velocity, fluid compatibility, and environmental conditions must
first be verified. The manufacture of hoses has been standardized by the Society of Automotive Industry
Engineers under the SAE I 5-17 standard. This is known as R series. For example, 100R2 or 100R4. This
designation describes the casing, construction, pressure rating and application.
Hoses are typically pressure rated with a safety factor of 4 to 1. Different types and amounts of reinforcement
contribute to specific hose pressure ratings. The reinforcement can be a natural or synthetic fiber or a metal
wire. The reinforcement can be braided or a spiral connection. The hose sizes required depend on the volume
and flow rate of the fluid. Unlike tubes and pipes, hose sizes are designated by ID, or internal diameter.
Sizes are designated in sixteenths of an inch, using a hyphen and a numerical equivalent for the numerator of
the fraction.
For example: dash 8 (-8), or eight sixteenths or DI half an inch.

Remember:
As the inner diameter or ID increases to reduce speed, the maximum working pressure of the system
decreases. This is due to an increase in surface area. Thicker wall may be required (heavier schedule). In
standard pipes, the actual internal diameter is usually larger than the nominal diameter six mentioned. A
standard conversion table must be used.

The useful life of hoses is quite long, but rubber always deteriorates slowly when in contact with various
substances, such as solvents, water, sunlight, heat, etc. Hoses are not as durable as metal conduits and must
be replaced after a few years.
Correct hose installation is very important. Improper bending, kinking, or not properly secured can lead to hose
failure.
Pipelines
Steel pipes are generally the preferred conductors from a standard performance and cost standpoint.
However, they are often difficult to assemble as soldering needs to be applied to provide maximum protection
against leaks. They also require expensive flushing to ensure the system is free of contaminants upon startup.
Pipe is specified by its nominal outside diameter, but the actual flow capacity is determined by the internal
area. For example, program 40, 80, 160 and Extra Double pipes have the same outside diameter, OD, and
can be threaded into the same pipe matrix. The difference is in the internal diameter, ID, and the area.
Schedule 40 tubing is standard and has the thinnest wall of all, with greater flow area but lower pressure
rating.
Steel tubes
Tubes are used as conductors when rigid lines are required. They are often easier to assemble and shape and
no welding is necessary for leak-free connections. As with all types of drivers, certain requirements must be
met. The pipe must be large enough to carry the required flow and strong enough to withstand internal
pressures.
Tubes are measured and specified by wall thickness and OD, external diameter. Pressure ratings are based
on pipe grade and wall thickness. A tube is joined to another tube connector, or component, using a tube
connector and a lock nut. Often the tube is pre-flared at 37 degrees to accept a 37-degree flared connector.
Size Determination
Now, you will learn how to select the proper size for your desired flow rate or flow rate. To determine the size
of pipe needed, enter the flow rate in gallons per minute and the velocity in feet per second in the windows
labeled gpm and fps. You can also use the mouse to slide the red indicators on the scales.
UNDERSTANDING SCHEMATIC PLANS
Introduction
When designing a hydraulic system, whether on paper or on a PC, the system design is expressed through
what is called a schematic plan. A schematic plan is a drawing made up of a series of symbols and
connections that represent the actual components of a hydraulic system. Although there are dozens of
different symbols used in the design of complex schematic plans, it is important to be able to recognize several
basic symbols. In this section, you will learn how to identify these basic symbols, as well as where they are
located on the schematic plan of a basic hydraulic system. The labs in this section are fun and should be
reviewed until you can easily identify and use these symbols.
Symbols
Symbols are very important for technical communication. They are not in any specific language, but are
international in scope and nature. Hydraulic graphic symbols emphasize the function and methods of operation
of the components. These symbols can be very easy to draw, if we understand the logic and elementary
shapes used in symbol design. The elementary shapes of the symbols are: circles, squares, triangles, arcs,
arrows, dots and crosses.
Lines
Understanding linear graphic symbols is essential for the correct interpretation of schematic plans. Solid lines
indicate a pilot supply from a working line, or return or power lines. A dashed line indicates a pilot drain or
purge line. Flexible lines indicate a hose, usually connected to a moving part. Intersecting lines can use loops
at the intersections or be completely straight. Joining lines can use a point at the joining point or at a right
angle.
Using your hydraulic symbols template, correctly draw the following symbols:
Pressure compensated pump

Gear pump
Flow control with reverse check (adjustable)
Pressure compensated flow control (adjustable)
Four-Way, Three-Position, Open Center Solenoid Operated Directional Control Valve
Deposits
Vented tanks appear as a rectangle without the top line. The pressurized tanks appear as a capsule.
Reservoirs may have hydraulic oil lines that terminate above or below the fluid level. The upper oil level return
line terminates at, or slightly below, the vertical traces of the reservoir symbol. The lower level return pipe
touches the bottom of the tank symbol. A simplified symbol representing the reservoir minimizes the need to
draw a number of lines returning to the reservoir. A number of these in the same circuit represent a common
deposit. These symbols have the same function as the grounding symbol in electrical circuits.
Bombs
Rotating devices are symbolized by a circle. Pumps with an energy triangle pointing toward the outer
perimeter indicate that energy is leaving the component. A diagonal arrow through the circle indicates that the
pump has a variable volume or that the output flow can be regularized without changing the shaft speed. A
control symbol with an energy triangle connected to an adjustable spring indicates that the pump is pressure
compensated. Some pump types have an internal leak that is returned to the reservoir through a casing drain.
This is indicated by a drainage line drawn out of the circle. Bi-directional pumps are indicated by two energy
flow triangles.
Flow control
The symbol for a flow control valve begins with an upper and lower arc. This symbolizes a fixed hole. An arrow
drawn diagonally across the arcs indicates that the hole is adjustable. This would be the graphic symbol
corresponding to a needle valve. If an arrow is added to the flow line within a control box, this indicates that
the valve is pressure compensated or true flow control. A flow control valve with a check valve indicates
reverse flow around the valve.
Directional Control Valves
The symbol for directional control valves has several wrappers that indicate the number of positions a valve
can have. A three-position directional control valve is indicated by three wraps. Arrows on each wrap indicate
the possible direction and flow while the valve is in that position. The center position on a three-position
directional control valve is designed based on the type of circuit or application. This center position indicates
the fluid flow path while the valve is centered. Although there are many types of center configurations, the
most common are: tandem, closed, floating, open. A mechanical handle or lever, an electric solenoid, or
hydraulic pilot pressure can be used to move or activate the valve. The springs indicate that the valve is
centered when not activated. In position 1, or centered, fluid flows from the pump through the valve to the
reservoir. This is a tandem type center. When the valve is moved to position 2, then the fluid flows from P to A,
extending the cylinder, moving to position 3, which indicates that the flow now occurs from P to B and from A
to T, and the cylinder retracts
Pressure Valves
The symbol for a pressure valve begins with a single envelope.
The arrow on the casing describes the direction of flow through the valve.
Ports are indicated as 1 and 2, or primary and secondary. Flow through the valve is from the primary port to
the secondary port. Note that in the normal position, the arrow is not aligned with the port. This indicates that
the valve is normally closed. All pressure valves are normally closed except the pressure reducing valve,
which is normally open. The spring located perpendicular to the arrow indicates that the force of the spring
keeps the valve closed. An arrow diagonally across the spring indicates that the spring force can be adjusted.
The pressure of the pilot opposes the force of the spring. This is indicated by the dotted line directed from the
primary port perpendicular to the arrow opposite the spring. When the piloted hydraulic pressure from the
primary port exceeds the spring force, the valve moves to the open position, aligning the primary and
secondary ports.
Using your hydraulic symbols template, correctly draw the following symbols:
Hydraulic motor (bidirectional)
Pilot Operated Check Valve (piloted to open)
Double action cylinder
Filter with a bypass check valve

Heat exchanger
Retention valves
The symbols for check valves are a small circle within an open triangle. The free flow goes in the opposite
direction to that pointed by the triangle. As the circle moves toward the triangle, the flow is blocked or held
back. Check valves can be piloted open or closed. If they are piloted open, this is indicated by a pilot line
directed towards the triangle that appears pushing the circle out of the seal. If they are piloted closed, the pilot
line is directed towards the back of the circle or towards the inside of the seat.
Engines
The graphic symbols corresponding to hydraulic motors are in the opposite direction to those of hydraulic
pumps, the difference is that the energy triangle points towards the inside of the circle, indicating that the
energy of the fluid is entering. Two energy triangles pointing inward indicate a bidirectional or reversible motor.
As with pumps, several hydraulic motor designs have internal leaks. A dotted line coming out of the circle
indicates a drain line to the reservoir.
Cylinders
Shown are hydraulic power cylinders that have no unusual relationship between bore size and rod size: single-
acting, double-acting, and double-rod. An internal rectangle adjacent to the piston symbol indicates the
presence of a damping device at the end of the stroke. If the stem diameter is larger than usual for the bore
size, the symbol should reflect this.
Filters
The graphic symbol corresponding to a device conditioned for hydraulic fluid is indicated by a square standing
on its edge. A dotted line crossing opposite corners indicates that it is a filter or strainer. If a check valve is
added across and parallel to the ports, this indicates that the filter has a bypass.
Heat exchanger
Hydraulic heat exchangers can be coolers or heaters. The graphic symbols corresponding to both devices are
often confused. As in the case of filters, the base symbol is a square standing on its edge. The internal
triangles that
Pointing inward indicates the introduction of heat or a heater. Triangles pointing outward indicate heat
dissipation, i.e. a cooler. Triangles pointing in and out indicate a temperature controller or a temperature that is
maintained between two predetermined limits.
Using your hydraulic symbols template, correctly draw a simple "closed-center circuit." As a refresher, see the
"open center versus closed center" animation in the directional control section.

Hydraulics Manual Questionnaire

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Hydraulics Manual Questionnaire

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HYDRAULIC MACHINES QUESTIONNAIRE

Q = V*A → A= 3.1416 r 2 /2 Then ==>r= 5.08 /2 cm = 2.54 cm/100 = 0.0254 m

A= 3.1416 * (0.0254 m) 2 = 0.07979 m²

Questionnaire Answer and Reason your answer in each Item

1) If a 500-pound weight is moved 2 feet, 1,000 foot-pounds of work is obtained.

7) Pressure is a result of flow.

8) Pressure is measured in inch-pounds.

12) gear pumps

13) Gear pump displacement increases as input RPM increases.

15) vane pumps

19) By increasing the tilt plate angle in a piston pump

directly against a moving head.

40) A sequence valve is normally open.

49) A counterbalance valve is used to control a cylinder with a negative or uncontrolled

THEORETICAL PART, READ THE THEORETICAL PART TO ANSWER THE

One horsepower = 42.4 BTUs per minute.

1 HP = 550 foot-pounds per second

Hydraulic HP= GPM x PSI

Torsional force (in.-pounds) = PSI x Displacement (in. 3 /rev)

Torsional force (in.-pounds) = HP x 63.025

Velocity (inches/minute) = Flow (cubic inches/minute)

Area (square inches)

1 gallon = 231 cubic inches

Displaced (cylinder) volume = stroke x effective area

Cylinder speed (feet/minute) = G PM x 19.25

GPM (theoretical) = Pump RPM x in . 3

Required volume (GPM) = displaced volume x 60

Required volume (hydraulic motor) = RPM x Displacement (in. 3 )

Load Induced Pressure

• Pump suction line 2-4 feet per second

The following applies to petroleum-based hydraulic fluids:

1) Hydraulic oil serves as a lubricant and is practically non-compressible.

Driver area (in. 2 ) = GPM x 0.3208

Fluid velocity (ft/sec) = G PM x 0.3208

Fluid is pushed, not sucked, into a pump.

To determine the required pump capacity:

GPM = Speed (rpm) x Displacement (in. 3 /rev)

Fixed versus Variable

hydraulic motors are externally drained.

Torsional force (inch-pounds) = 63025 x HP

Horsepower = Torsional force (inch pounds) x RPM

Direct Drive Relief Valve

Note: All pressure valves are direct operated or pilot operated.

Anti-extrusion Relief Valve

(Hydraulic power in HP = Pressure x flow rate ÷ 1714)

Open Center versus Closed Center

General Aspects of Filtration

Formula: 100% - (1÷( 3 ) ) = percentage of efficiency.

Inline Mounted Check Valve

Pilot Operated Check Valves

a system is an important part of this basic hydraulics course.

For example: dash 8 (-8), or eight sixteenths or DI half an inch.

standard conversion table must be used.

UNDERSTANDING SCHEMATIC PLANS

arrows, dots and crosses.

Pressure compensated pump

Hydraulic motor (bidirectional)

Pilot Operated Check Valve (piloted to open)

Double action cylinder

Filter with a bypass check valve

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