GENERAL GEOLOGY
Coarse-Grained Soils - Depends on the size of the
Engineering Geology – applied sciences; deals with the
application of geology for a safe, stable land economical
design and construction of a civil engineering project.
Geology – science concerned with the earth and the rocks
of which it is composed, the process by which they were
formed during geological time.
Scope of Geology in Civil Engineering
1. It enables a civil engineer to understand the engineering
implications of certain condition should relate to the area of
construction which is essentially geological in nature.
2. It enables a geologist to understand the nature of the
geological information that is absolutely essentially for a
safe design and construction of a civil engineering projects.
Geology in Construction
1. Planning – topographic maps; gives details of relief
features, hydrologic maps; gives broad details about
distribution and geometry of the surface of water channel,
geological maps; petrological characters and structural
disposition of rock types.
2. Design – geological characters that have a direct or
indirect bearing upon the designed of proposed projects
are; The existence of hard rock beds; The mechanical
properties (porosity, permeability, compressive strength,
shear and traverse strength); Structural weakness (fault
joints, folds, cleavage and lineation); The position of
ground water table; Seismic characteristics of the area.
3. Structure construction – the geological knowledge is
important for an engineer; type of material for construction
is derived from natural bed rocks, soils, banks, coastal
belts and seismic zones.
Geology in Water Resources Development
Exploration and water development of resources have
become very important activity for scientist, technology and
engineers in all parts of world.
Geology in Town and Regional Planning
The regional town planner is responsible for adopting an
integrated approach in all such cases of allocation of land
for developmental project.
Branches of Geology
1. Physical Geology – variously described as dynamic
geology, geomorphology, etc. This deals with different
physical features of the earth; the different changes
occurring on the earth; natural phenomena.
2. Mineralogy – the study of minerals; minerals – basic
units with different rocks and ores of the earth are made up
of; details of mode of formation, composition, occurrence,
types, association, properties, uses of minerals.
3. Petrology – deals with the study of rocks; deals with the
mode of formation, structure, texture, composition,
occurrence, and types of rocks.
4. Structural Geology – the rocks which form the earth’s
crust undergo various deformations; The details of mode of
formation, causes, types, classification, importance of
these geological structures is the subject matter of
structural geology.
5. Stratigraphy – climate and economical changes
including tectonic events in the geological past. Strata – a
set of sedimentary rocks, graphy – description.
6. Economic Geology - Minerals can be grouped as
general rock forming minerals and economic minerals.
Some of the economic minerals like talc, graphite, mica,
asbestos, gypsum etc.…
Allied Branches of Geology
1. Engineering Geology – application of geological
knowledge in the field of civil engineering.
2. Mining Geology – interested in the mode and extent of
occurrence of ores, their association, properties, etc;
details of mineral exploration, estimation are dealt with in
mining geology.
3. Geohydrology/Hydrogeology – deals with the
occurrence, movement and nature of groundwater in an
area.
4. Geophysics – study of physical properties of the earth
or its parts. Aims at solving civil engineering problems by
interpreting subsurface geology of the area concerned.
5. Geochemistry – delas with the occurrence, distribution,
abundance, mobility etc., of different elements in the
earth’s crust. Not important from the civil engineering POV.
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH AND ITS COMPOSITION
Equatorial Radius is 6370 km
Polar Radius is shorter by about 22 km
Surface area of 510x106 square km
Internal Structure of the Earth
•The shell of the increasing density is found towards the
center of the earth is 8 g/cc.
•Has been broadly divided into; crust, mantle and core.
•The layers of the earth are separated by two sharp breaks
known as major discontinuities.
•The crust has an average thickness of about 15-20 km.
•The mantle extends from below the crust to a depth of
2900 km.
•The deepest whole in the earth is only about 12.262 km,
this is quite negligible in comparison with radius of the earth
(Kola Superdeep Borehole)
1. Crust – outermost solid layer of the earth where we can
find all our landforms and life.
Under the ocean: 5-10 km
Under the continent: 20-35 km
Under the mountains: 60-70 km
Upper Layer (Continental Crust)
•It consists of all types of rocks (Igneous, Sedimentary, and
Metamorphic)
•The rocks are granitic and granodiotic composition.
•Predominantly continents and land surface.
•This layer is rich in Silica and Aluminum
•This layer is commonly called the SIAL.
•The density of SIAL is 2.4 g/cc.
Lower Layer (Oceanic Crust)
•Composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor.
•The types of rock are basaliticin nature.
•Basically the ocean floor
•This layer is rich in Silica, Iron and Magnesium
•This layer is called the SIMA.
•The continental crust float above the oceanic crust
because it is less dense.
Mantle – the second part of the earth is the source region
of the earth internal energy and of forces responsible for
ocean floor spreading and continental drift and earthquake.
Thickness of about 2865 km.
Upper Mantle (Molten Magma) – also called
asthenosphere (weak) layer; where crust is drifting.
•The layer of both the crust and the upper part of the
mantle is called the LITOSPHERE (Greek: lithos= stone).
Lower Mantle – responsible for all the earth seismic and
volcanic activities due to its very spacious area for such
natural catastrophes.
Core – the central layer and extends up to the very center
of the earth.
S-Waves do not pass in this layer
Pressure and temperatures are very high.
S-Waves do not pass in this layer
Mostly made up of Nickel and Iron
also called NIFE layer or the Barysphere.
Outer Core – molten rocks; made up of nickel and iron
Inner Core – crystalline or solid; magnetic field; made up
of iron
•The boundary between the outer and inner core is called
the LEHMANN Discontinuity.
SEGMENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Environment – derived from the French word
“environner”, means to encircle, around or surround. The
physical and biotic habitat that surrounds us;
Four segments of the environment
1. Biosphere – the realm of living organisms and their
interactions with environment, atmosphere, hydrosphere,
and lithosphere; the sum of all the ecosystems established
on earth.
2. Lithosphere – the crust and the outer mantle of the solid
earth; consists of minerals occurring in the earth’s crusts
and the soil.
3. Hydrosphere – comprises all types of water resources
like oceans, lakes, seas, rivers, glaciers, etc. Ocean
represent 97% of the earth’s water and 2% of the water
resources is locked in polar icecaps and glaciers. Only 1%
is available as fresh water.
4. Atmosphere – forms a distinctive protective layer about
100 km thick around the earth which is the blanket of gases
that surrounds our planet and protect from the sun.
Weather exists because of atmosphere
It makes the earth suitable for living things
It protects the earth from radiation and meteoroids
Layers of Atmosphere
1. Troposphere – lowermost zone rising from the surface
to a height of 11 km; lowest layer of the atmosphere and
closest to the surface of the earth; where all weather
occurs; temp. goes from warm to cold as u increase in
altitude.
2. Stratosphere – second layer starting from tropopause
and extending up to a height of 50 km; gases are layered
and do not mix very much; air is very thin; planes often fly
here.
3. Mesosphere – Third thermal zone starting from
stratopause and continues up to a height of 80 km above;
coldest layer; temp. decrease as altitude increases;
protecting us from a meteor.
4. Thermosphere – temp is very high, more than 2000
Fahrenheit; where space begins; ISS orbits earth in this
layer; readily absorbs solar radiation; hottest but you won’t
feel warm here because there aren’t enough gas molecules
to transfer heat to you.
5. Ionosphere – all molecules are electrically charged into
ions due to sun’s heat energy; useful in reflecting radio
waves for communication; famous in producing
shimmering lights in polar regions known as Aurora
Borealis (Northern Lights) and Aurora Australis
(Southern Lights).
SEISMIC GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS
Types of Natural Earthquakes
1. Tectonic – earthquakes produced by sudden movement
along faults and plate boundaries.
2. Volcanic – earthquakes produced by movement of
magma beneath volcanoes.
Particle Motion upon passage of different types of seismic
waves.
P – primary wave: displacement of media along direction
of propagation (up-down)
S – secondary wave: displacement of media
perpendicular to direction of wave propagation (sideways)
Surface Waves: Love waves and Rayleigh waves
(rotational)
Two ways of describing the strength of an earthquake
1. Intensity – perceived strength of a earthquake; relative
effect to people and structures; higher near the epicenter
2. Magnitude – based on instrumentally derived
information and correlates strength with the amount of total
energy released at the earthquake’s point of origin.
Seismic Geotechnical Hazards – caused by either under
the action of gravity and inertia loads, or by loss of bearing
capacity.
Soil Liquefaction – a soil’s strength and stiffness are
reduced by earthquake shaking or other rapid loading.
Largest Earthquake in the World: Valdivia, Chile (9.5
Magnitude)
Largest Earthquake in the Philippines: Moro Gulf (7.9
magnitude)
TECTONIC PLATE AND CONTINENTAL DRIFT
The crust of the Earth is broken into many pieces called
plates. The plates "float" on the soft, semi rigid
asthenosphere.
Convection Currents - are caused by the very hot
material at the deepest part of the mantle rising, then
cooling and sinking again.
Continental Drift Theory – early 1900s, a German
explorer and scientist (Alfred Wegener) proposed this
theory. Believed that the continent floated on the oceanic
crust.
Pangaea – a single super continent that Alfred Wegener
proposed.
Evidence of continental drift
• Continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle
• Fossils match across oceans
•Rock types and mountain ranges match across oceans
• Climate Evidence (Glacial Deposits)
• Sea floor spreading
Glacial Striations – scratches glaciers leave on rocks as
they travel.
Mid-Ocean Ridge – the most extensive chain of mountains
on earth. Wraps around the glove for more than 65, 000 km
like the seam of a baseball.
Plate Tectonic Theory
Along the mid-ocean ridge the seafloor is pulling apart and
the two parts are moving in opposite directions, carrying
along the continents and oceans that rest on top of them.
These pieces of Earth’s top layer are called tectonic
plates. They are moving very slowly, but constantly.
(Most plates are moving about as fast as your fingernails
are growing not very fast!) Currently Earth’s surface layers
are divided into nine very large plates and several smaller
ones.
• Pulling away from each other (Divergent)
• Crashing head-on (Convergent), or
• Sliding past, each other. (Transform)
Divergent Boundaries - Boundary between two plates
that are moving apart or rifting that causes seafloor
spreading.
Features of Divergent Boundaries
• Mid-ocean ridges, rift valleys, fissure volcanoes
Subduction Zone – more dense plate slides under the
less dense plate.
Subduction – the ocean floor sinks beneath a deep-ocean
trench and back into the mantle.
Deep ocean trench – occurs at subduction zones.
Trench – more dense plate slides under the less dense
plates creating a subduction called trench.
GROUNDWATER AND HYDROLOGIC CYCLE/WATER
CYCLE
Hydrologic/Water Cycle – the complete journey that
water makes in its life, from one place to the other, and one
state to the other.
Four Major Processes of Hydrologic Cycle
1. Evaporation, Transpiration, and Evapotranspiration
Evaporation – liquid phase to gas phase
Transpiration – release of moisture from the leaves of
plans to the atmosphere.
Evapotranspiration – simultaneous event of evaporation
from the soil and moisture release from the plants.
Sublimation – solid phase to gas phase.
2. Condensation
Aerosols – particulate matters such as dusts, soot, and
salts.
Coalescence – the process of cloud formation.
3. Precipitation – the various water forms present in the
atmosphere.
4. Run-off and Infiltration
Run-off – precipitation that did not get absorbed by the
soil.
Infiltration – process by which precipitation or water soaks
into subsurface soils and moves into rocks through cracks
and pore spaces.
Percolation – movement of water downward to replenish
water tables and aquifers.
Factors that affect the amount of run off: topography,
nature of soil, amount of capitation.
Groundwater hydrology – the science of the occurrence,
distribution and movement of water below the surface of
the earth.
Groundwater – underground water that occurs in the
saturated one of variable thickness and depth below the
earth’s surface.
Aquifers – made up of gravel, sand, sandstone, or
fractured rock, like limestone. Water can move through
these materials because they have large connected
spaces that make them permeable.
Sources of Groundwater:
Meteoric Water – from precipitation (rain, sleet or snow)
Juvenile Water (young water) – water that have
separated from magma from a volcanic activity and heavily
contaminated.
Connate Water – have isolated from the water cycle for
millions of years sealed in between pores of sedimentary
rocks other porous sediments and rocks.
Zones of the Groundwater
1. Zone of Aeration – near the surface of the earth ranging
from 0 thickness on swamplands and be several hundred
feet thick on mountainous regions
Pellicular Water – the first moisture to infiltrate below the
ground that wets the soil grains and adheres to them.
Gravity Water – moisture that infiltrates below at over the
first films of water but does not fill the void completely.
Vadose Water – comprises both moisture in the zone of
aeration.
2. Capillary Fringe – above the zone of saturation. The
height to which the capillary fringe rises above the water
table depends upon the size of the voids in the ground and
the dryness and temperature of the atmosphere.
3. Zone of Saturation – located below the zone of
aeration, the soil pores are filled with water, and this is what
we call as the groundwater; a stratum that contains a
substantial amount of groundwater called aquifer.
Water Table or Phreatic Surface – surface between the
two zones and has a hydrostatic pressure in the
groundwater equal to the atmospheric pressure.
Properties of Soils for Groundwater Contr1. Porosity –
determines how much water the rock or soil can hold in
empty spaces within it.
Void Ratio
2. Permeability – how easily and rapidly the water can flow
through and out of it. Described empirically by Darcy’s Law
(Discharge = k(hydraulic gradient)).
Methods of computing coefficient of permeability.
CONSTANT HEAD TEST for coarse
grained soils.
FALLING HEAD TEST for fine
grained soils.
Aquifer – a body of pervious (and permeable) rocks
capable of yielding groundwater. They for impervious layer
called Aquicludes.
1. Confined Aquifer – an aquifer confined between two
impermeable surfaces (aquicludes)
2. Unconfined Aquifer – where the table is free to change.
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Soil – originated from the Latin word “Solum”
The loose unconsolidated inorganic material on the earth’s
crust produced by the disintegration of rocks, overlying
hard rock with or without organic matter.
Soils are formed by weathering of rocks.
Weathering – breaks down and alters rocks and minerals
at or near the earth’s surface ans is divided into
physical/mechanical weathering and chemical weathering
Factors of Weathering: Atmospheric, Erosion and
Transportation by wind, water, and glaciers, and
Chemical Action such as oxidation, hydration,
carbonation, and etc.
Mechanical Weathering – process that break a rock or
mineral into smaller pieces without altering its composition.
Abrasion – when rocks collide one another or scrap
against each other.
Exfoliation - Outer layers of rocks peel off like an onion
Frost Action - when liquid water goes into cracks and then
freezes causing the cracks to get wider
Organic Activity - Root Pry (Plant Activities), Burrowing
(Animal Activities), Mining/Construction (Human Activities)
Hydraulic Action – water rushes rapidly into cracks in the
rock face, thus trapping a layer of air at the bottom of the
crack, compressing it and weakening the rock.
Haloclasty - growth of salt crystals cause physical
weathering when saline solution seep into cracks and joints
in the rocks and evaporate, leaving salt crystals behind.
Chemical Weathering – decomposition of materials by a
series of chemical reactions that result in the rust on cars
or the corrosion or staining of building facades.
Hydrolysis – decomposition process in which water is one
of the reacting agents.
Carbonation - decomposition of calcite (calcium
carbonate) to calcium bicarbonate.
Oxidation - When oxygen combines with iron in rocks, it
changes into iron oxide (rust). Occurs when oxygen in air
assisted by water combines with minerals to form oxides.
Factors in Soil Formation: Climate and time, biota factor,
parent material, and topography
Soil Deposition is a geological process in which
sediments, soils, and rocks are added or to form a landform
or land mass
Soils Produced by weathering and deposition
1. Residual Soils – soils that remain where they were
formed, simply overlying the rock from which they came
from
2. Transported Soils – soils formed when rock weathers
at one site and the particles are moved to one location
Residual Soil Deposits - Deposited at the place of
decomposition or weathering.
a.
particle.
b. Fine- Grained Soils - Greatly influenced by mineral
content, moisture content, etc.
Types of transported soils with regards to the agents
1. Gravity deposits – soil deposits transported by the
effect of gravity. (ex. Landslide)
2. Alluvial deposits – soils carried and deposited by
flowing water
3. Glacier deposits – result from the action of glaciers
4. Wind deposits (aeolian deposits) – deposits that have
wind as the transporting agent (ex. Dunes)
Common transporting agents for particles: Gravity,
Running water, Glaciers, and Wind
Soil profile is a natural succession of zones or strata
below the ground surface and represents the alterations in
the original soil material which have been brought about by
weathering processes.
SOIL STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Soil Structure refers to the arrangement of particles in
soils commonly called aggregates into porous compounds
which are separated by pores and cracks. Soil structure will
also influence water movement
The behavior of the individual soil particle and their
interaction with another particle is influenced by the
following forces:
1. Weight of the particle due to gravitational force, Fg
2. Particle surface forces, due to surface electrical forces,
Fs
Soil Types
The major engineering categories of soil are gravel, sand,
silt, and clay.
The Unified Soil Classification System is now almost
universally accepted and has been adopted by the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
Soil Structure can be described in terms of the following:
1. Grade – expresses the difference on cohesion within
aggregates and adhesion between aggregates.
Four major grades of structure:
• Structureless – no observable aggregation
• Weak – poorly formed
• Moderate – formed from aggregates that are moderately
durable
• Strong – formed from aggregates that are durable
2. Class – describes the average size of individual
aggregate.
Five classes of structure
• Very fine or very thin
• Fine or thin
• Medium
• Coarse or thick
• Very coarse or very thick
3. Type of structure – describes the form or shape of
individual aggregates
Types of soil structure
• Granular – found in A horizon
• Blocky – found in B horizon
• Prismatic – found in B horizon
• Platy – found in A horizon, greatly found on forest soils
• Columnar – found in B horizon, found in compacted soils
• Single-grained – found in sandy soil
Soil Composition
NATIVE ELEMENTS
Categories: Metal, Semi-metal, and Nonmetal
Native Metals: Iron - Most common elements on earth,
making up 5% of the earth’s crust. Widely used in
construction for creating alloys, producing rods, screws,
nails, and etc.
Copper - Major uses for electrical purposes, mostly as
wire. Extensively used in alloys such as brass, bronze, and
German silver. In civil engineering; pipes, cladding,
flashing, and electrical cables.
Silver - Excellent conductor of electricity, often used in
electrical contacts and connectors. Used in silver-based
coating that can improve energy efficiency.
Platinum - Ranks 4-4.5 in Moh’s scale. Highly malleable
and ductile.
Semi-metals: Arsenic – rare; found in veins in crystalline
rocks; plays a role in special glass production and wood
preservation.
Bismuth – rare mineral, occurring usually in connection
with ores of silver, cobalt, etc. applied in low-melting alloys,
thermal expansion control, and fire sprinkler systems.
Antimony – electrical conductivity. Employed in
applications like batteries.
Native Nonmetals: Graphite – resistant to corrosion and
high temperatures. Used as lubricant in construction
equipment.
Diamond – excellent in thermal conductivity. Cutting tools
for concrete and other hard materials.
Sulfur – found near volcanic vents, associated with
gypsum and limestone. Sulfuric acid used in concrete
etching and cleaning.
SULFOSALTS
Sulfosalts – complex sulfide minerals with the general
formula: AmBnSp (A: metal, B: semi-metal, S: sulfur)
Use: as ore materials for the extraction of metals
Types of sulfosalts:
Pyrargyrite: silver antimony sulfide mineral
Jamesonite: A lead iron antimony sulfide
Enargite: copper arsenic sulfide
Bournonite: lead copper antimony sulfide
Sulfides and sulfosalts have potential to generate acid
mine drainage, posing environmental risks.
Analytical Techniques to detect sulfosalt minerals
1. X-ray Diffraction – identify specific crystal structures
and phases of sulfosalt.
2. Scanning Electron Microscopy – visualize the
morphology and chemical composition of sulfosalts.
3. X-ray Fluorescence – provide rapid semi-quantitative
analysis of major and minor elements in sulfosalt minerals.
Industrial Use of Sulfosalts
Pyrite (FeS2) – primarily use in the steelmaking industry as
source of iron and sulfur.
Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) – major source of copper and is
used extensively in the production of copper metal and
alloys.
HALIDES
Halogen is derived from two Greek words, “hals” – salt,
and “gen” – to produce.
Family of Halides: Halite, Sylvite, Cerargyrite, Cryolite,
Fluorite, Atacamite, and Carnallite.
Impact structural integrity and stability.
Affects material properties like density, mechanical
cohesion, and corrosive effects.
TUNGSTATES, MOLYBDATES, AND URANATES
Tungstate – a compound that contains an oxyanion of
tungsten or is a mixed oxide containing tungsten.
Belong to a group of polyatomic ions called
Polyoxometalates (POMs), contains oxygen and possibly
hydrogen along with only one other metal.
Molybdates – containing an oxyanion with molybdenum in
its highest oxidation state.
Uranates – a ternary oxide containing uranium. Structure
is infinite lattice structures with uranium atoms linked by
bridging oxygen atoms.
SILICATES
Silicates – a diverse group of minerals that make up a
significant portion of the earth’s crust. Composed of silicon
and oxygen atoms, often combined with other elements
such as aluminum, magnesium, and iron.
Silica – present in many common building materials such
as drywall, asphalt, brick, cement, concrete, and etc.
Used in flooring, mortars, cement, asphalt, and etc. to
increase their structural integrity and longevity.
Plays crucial role in the formation of rocks and minerals,
influencing the physical and chemical properties of the
earth’s surface.
Silicates in the context of Civil Engineering Decreased
soils permeability Increases strength of the concrete
Improved durability of concrete structures Reduces heat of
hydration. Enhanced Workability.
CARBONATES, NITRATES, AND BORATES
Carbonates – the polyatomic ion CO3^2 which consists of
one carbon atom bonded to three oxygen atoms.
Primary Carbonates – form directly from chemical
precipitation in aqueous environments.
Secondary Carbonates – form through the alteration of
pre-existing minerals by chemical reactions.
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) – found in rocks such as
limestone and marble.
Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3) - Found in rocks like
dolomite and magnesite.
Iron Carbonate (FeCO3) - present in some sedimentary
rocks. Its presence can affect the engineering properties of
soils and rocks.
Carbonate rocks vary in strength and durability, affecting
their suitability for construction materials and structural
applications.
It exhibits varying degrees of porosity and permeability,
influencing their suitability for use in drainage systems,
reservoirs, and groundwater management.
Use in CE: cement production, aggregates, construction
materials, and road base materials.
Nitrates – the polyatomic ion NO3^-, which consists of one
nitrogen atom bonded to three oxygen atoms.
Highly soluble in water and exhibit oxidizing properties.
Natural nitrates – naturally occur in soil and groundwater
as a result of biological processes and geological
weathering.
Synthetic Nitrates – produced synthetically and used in
construction materials like concrete admixtures.
Use in CE: water quality management, and explosives.
Borates – the polyatomic ion BO3^- or BO^4-, which
consists of one boron atom bonded to three or four oxygen
atoms.
Use in CE: Wood preservation, fire retardants, concrete
additives, and coatings.
OXIDES
Formed through weathering, metamorphism, sedimentary
processes. Complex interplay of geological processes.
Hematite, Magnetite, Limonite, Corundum, Bauxite
Utilization in Engineering: critical roles in construction,
metallurgy, aerospace, stainless steel, and etc.
Need for geological engineering and
SULFATES AND CHROMATES
Sulfates are used as surfactants; they reduce the surface
tension of liquids.
Chromates are used as corrosion inhibitors to protect
metals from corrosion.
Anhydrous – substance that does not contain water
Glauberite: less suitable for structural applications
Barite: Drilling fluids, concrete shielding, heavy concrete,
underwater construction, and highway barrier
Anhydrite: construction materials, agricultural soil
amendment, and oil and gas industry
Hydrous – substance that contains water molecules.
Gypsum: construction materials and soil amendment
Polyhalite: Soil stabilization and deicing agent
Alunite: mined and treated to recover aluminum and
potassium.
Epsomite: limited use in civil engineering
SULFIDES -any various organic compounds characterized
by a sulfur atom attached to two carbon atoms.
-Used as an indicator of primary sulfate and the potential
presence or likely formation of sulfate due to oxidation.
Categories:
Inorganic Sulfides – ionic compounds containing the
negative charge sulfide ion.
Organic Sulfides – a sulfur atom is covalently bonded to
two organic groups.
Phosphine Sulfides – formed from the reaction of organic
phosphines with sulfur.
Processes in Mineral Origin:
Separation of an immiscible sulfide melt.
Deposition from aqueous brine solutions at temp. in the
300-600 degrees Celsius at relatively high temp.
Contributions to CE:
Pollution Control – use of iron sulfide to develop functional
environmental materials.
Nonferrous Metals – known for tensile strength,
malleability, and corrosion resistivity.
Modified Concrete – sulfur concrete is a material with
superior mechanical prope
PHOSPHATES, VANADATES, AND ARSENATES
grouped together as the same mineral class because they
share similar chemical compositions and structural
arrangements.
Phosphates:
Monazite: Renewable Energy Use
Mimetite: Minor ore of lead
Arsenates:
Scorodite: Ability to immobilize arsenic in contaminated
environments.
Vanadates:
Vanadinite: it can be used for automobile, jet engine parts,
and tools.
Hardness- the resistance of a mineral to scratching.
Tenacity - a mineral’s toughness or resistance to breaking
or being deformed.
Cleavage – allows it to break smoothly along specific
internal planes (called cleavage planes) when the mineral
is struck sharply with a hammer.
Fracture - the property of a mineral breaking in a more or
less random pattern with no smooth planar surfaces.
Parting - the splitting of a gemstone along twinning or
pressure planes.
Macroscopic Visual Properties
Luster - a physical property that describes how a mineral's
surface and structure interact with light
Color -
Streak - the color of the powder produced when it is
dragged across an un-weathered surface.
Luminescence - the creation of light by chemical or
physical processes that does not involve heat.
Diaphaneity/Transparency - the degree to which light is
transmitted through a mineral
Petrology
• Petrology is the study of the with particular emphasis on
the physical, chemical, and possibly biological processes
that are involved in the formation of rocks.
• Petrology is the study of rocks - igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary - and the processes that form and
transform them.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
• “Igneous” comes from the Latin word “ignis” which means
FIRE.
• Can also be called as “Magmatic Rocks”
• Igneous Rocks are rocks formed through the cooling and
solidification of
molten rock material called magma. Magma develops
underneath the
crust; however, Igneous rocks can still be formed from
volcanoes or from
the surface of the Earth.
HOW ARE IGNEOUS ROCKS FORMED?
The mantle and crust of the Earth are naturally solid.
However, a few spots of magma emerge near the surface
as a result of geologic processes that trigger melting. The
magma is essential for the formation of volcanoes and
igneous rocks. Magma arises when pressure and
temperature conditions force a solid rock to melt. This
occurs predominantly in three main geological settings:
midocean ridges, subduction zones, and hotspots.
Magma is less dense than thesurrounding rocks which
causes it to rise to the surfaces and
undergoes a change in temperature and pressure resulting
to a cooling, solidification, and crystallization. Although,
formation of igneous rocks happens underneath the Earth’s
surface, it
can also occur when lava reaches the surface through
volcanoes.
Igneous Rocks are divided into two groups:
• Extrusive Igneous Rocks and Intrusive Igneous Rocks
Igneous Rocks are divided into two groups:
EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS- Also called as “Volcanic
Rocks”
Rocks which are formed near the surface of the Earth
-Lava cools down quickly causing the mineral crystals to
have a lesser time to grow which makes the formation of
rocks fine-grained (aphanatic).The crystals that formed the
rocks are microscopic and invisible to the naked eye.
-Most common type of volcanic rocks is basalt.
Examples of Extrusive Igneous Rocks: Andesite, Basalt,
Dacite, Obsidian, Pumice, Rhyolite, Scoria, Tuff
INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS- Also called as “Plutonic
Rocks” Rocks which are formed within the Earth’s crust.
Slowly cooling of magma causes the crystals to grow
without reaching the surface resulting to a course grained
rocks (phaneritic).These rocks are visible with an unaided
eye.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous Rocks are classifies according to its texture and
composition.
TEXTURE COMPOSITION
➢ Phaneritic ➢ Felsic
➢ Aphanitic ➢ Mafic
➢ Porphyritic ➢ Ultramafic
➢ Vesicular ➢ Intermediate
➢ Glassy
➢ Pyroclastic
IGNEOUS ROCKS
COMPOSITION
The chemical and mineral make-up of a rock is referred to
as itscomposition. The composition of igneous rock is
classified into four groups:
Felsic, Intermediate, Mafic and Ultramafic. These
classifications are based
on the quantities and silica, iron, and magnesium contained
in the minerals
FELSIC
- Poor in iron and magnesium
- – 65-75% silica
INTERMEDIATE
- 55-60% silica
- Composition between felsic and mafic
MAFIC
- 45-50% silica
- Rich in iron amd magnesium
ULTRAMAFIC
- Less than 40% silica
- Have more magnesium and iron and less
silica
GRANITE
• Granite is an igneous rock, which
means it forms when the magma of
a volcano oxidizes and then slowly
solidifies underneath the earth.
Chemical Composition:
✓70-77% Silica
✓11-13% Alumina
✓3-5% Potassium Oxide and Soda
✓1% Lime
✓2-3% Iron
✓0.03 to 1% Magnesia and Titania
• Granites are easily identified as light-colored and coarse-
grained as a result of slow cooling under the surface,
enabling for bigger crystal formation. Color difference is
influenced by the percentage of each mineral present in the
sample
USES OF GRANITE
-Granite from Finland used for tiles
-Mount Rushmore
-Granite Building Stone
-Granite as Countertops
SYENITE
• Syenite originally came from the ancient name “Syrene”
which means Aswan.
• It is a coarse-grained rock consisting ferromagnesian
mineral and alkali feldspar.
• Syenetic rocks are generally found in association with
other plutonic rocks.
• They produce relatively modest intrusive bodies or are
components of bigger intrusions.
• This rock considered similar to granite; however the
difference is the amount of quartz present in
both rocks.
Compositions of Syenitic Rocks
• Alkali Feldspar
• Quartz
• Plagioclase feldspar
• Feldspathoids
Types of Syenitic Rocks
• Nepheline Syenite
• Quartz Syenite
• Hornblende Syanite
TYPES OF SYENITC ROCKS
Nepheline Syenite is a white to light grey medium-grained
igneous rock. It promotes more rapid melting at lower
temperatures, thus reducing energy consumption,
lengthening
the life of the furnace and improving the yield and quality of
Hornblende Syenite has a wide variety of
rocks containing calcium and monoclinic
Quartz Syenite is a syenite rock consisting
5-20% of quartz
Syenite Rocks are mostly found in:
❑Arkansas and Montana in regions in North America
❑ Some regions in Europe such as Germany, Switzerland,
Norway and Sweden.
❑ Australia and Africa Syenite Rocks can be used in:
❑Construction of Roads
❑Flooring
❑Landscaping
❑Monuments, Artefacts
❑Small Figurines
Uses of Syenite
❑Used as aggregate in buildings and Roads
❑Used as dimension stone for buildings
❑Used in making natural cement
❑Used in flooring and interior Decoration
❑Used in sculptures, monuments and small figurine.
DIORITE
• is phaneritic, or coarse grained, and forms at
depth when andesitic magma has lots of time
to crystallize. This allows for more ion
transport, leading to much larger crystals. It is
produced in volcanic arcs, and in mountain
building where it can occur in large volumes
as batholiths in the roots of mountains.
IMPORTANCE OF DIORITE
• One important use of Diorite is as stone that is used for
buildings and Statues.
• Diorite was used extensively by ancient civilizations for
vases and other decorative
artwork and is still used for art today
Statue of Gudea, Diorite Vase, Neolithic Ax, Countertop
GABBRO
• is an intrusive igneous rock that forms from the result of
slow cooling of
magma inside of a volcano. It is very similar to the fast
cooling, extrusive basalt, as they both are formed from
mafic magmas that contain dark colored minerals such as
pyroxene, plagioclase, amphibole and olivine.
• is an intrusive igneous rock that forms from the result of
slow cooling of magma inside of a volcano. It is very similar
to the fast cooling, extrusive basalt, as they both are
formed from mafic magmas that contain dark colored
minerals such as pyroxene, plagioclase, amphibole and
olivine.
PEGMATITE
• is an igneous rock that form end of the stage a magma’s
crystallization. Pegmatites contain exceptionally large
crystals, and they contain rarely minerals than other types
of rocks.
BASALT
• Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous rock
composed mainly of
plagioclase and pyroxene minerals.
TYPES OF BASALT
• Tholeiitic basalt is relatively rich in silica and poor in
sodium.
• High and Low Titanium Basalts - Basalt rocks are in some
cases classified after their titanium (Ti) content in High-Ti
and Low-Ti.
High Titanium Basalt Low Titanium Basalt
• Mid-Ocean ridge Basalt (MORB) - is a tholeiitic basalt
commonly erupted only at ocean ridges and is
characteristically low in incompatible elements.
• High-alumina basalt - may be silica-undersaturated or
oversaturated
• Alkali basalt- is relatively poor in silica and rich in sodium
• Boninite- is a high magnesium form of basalt that is
erupted generally in back-arc basins, distinguished by its
low titanium content and trace-element composition.
USES OF BASALT
• Crushed basalt as an aggregate in construction
projects
• Dimension Stone
DOLERITE
• Dolerite is a dark colored igneous rock. It is
compositionally equivalent to gabbro and basalt but
texturally between them.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
What are Sedimentary Rocks?
• formed from pre-existing rocks
• formed from deposits that accumulates on the surface of
the Earth or under the ocean.
Sediments- are composed of minerals or once living matter
called organic matter.
FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Weathering- the breaking down, disintegration and
changing of rocks as a result of their exposure to the
environment.
Transport- the products are transported away as the
weathering process progresses.
Deposition- sediments of a certain
size enter an environment with insufficient energy to
convey them, they are deposited.
Preservation- sediments are buried successively with other
sediments to create sedimentary rocks.
Lithification- process of cementing these rock pieces
together
Classifying Sedimentary Rocks
The environment affects the type of sediment thus,
different environment produces different sedimentary
rocks.
Type of Sedimentary Rock
1. Clastic Sedimentary Rock
2. Chemical Sedimentary Rock
3. Organic Sedimentary Rock
1. CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
-Also called detrital sedimentary rocks.
-Formed from cemented sediment grains which
come from broken fragments of pre-existing rocks.
Examples of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
CONGLOMERATE
❑Formed from large sediments
❑Composed of pebbles and
boulders, and smaller particles of
calcite or quartz cement that binds
the rock together.
SANDSTONE
❑Most common type of sedimentary
rock on Earth
❑Medium-grained clastic sedimentary
rock
❑Made of compacted sand grains
SHALE
❑Fine-grained clastic sedimentary
rock.
❑Composed of mud which is a mix
of flakes clay minerals and silt
size particles of other minerals.
❑Has fissile property (split into
thin layers).
2. CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCK
-Formed by precipitation of minerals from water.
-Not made from pieces of pre-existing rocks
CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
1. Evaporitic Rock- Are formed within the depositional
basin from chemical substances
dissolved in the seawater or lake water.
-Common examples are rock gypsum and rock salt.
2. Carbonate Rock- Contain Carbonate (CO3) as
part of their composition.
3. ORGANIC SEDIMENTARY ROCK
-Formed from the accumulation of plant and animal debris.
Examples of Organic Sedimentary Rocks
Fossiliferous Limestone- Also called fossil-rich limestone
since it mostly contains remains of once living organisms.
-One of the most common organic
sedimentary rocks
-Made of mineral calcite and mostly contains remains of
once living ocean organisms
Chalk Limestone
-Made of microscopic shells Coal Limestone
-Are formed when pieces of dead plants are buried and
compacted under other sediments
-Deposited in water with low oxygen content
SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
• The features of sedimentary rocks are formed during or
shortly after sediment deposition. Provide information
about how and where sedimentswere deposited.
• BEDDING-Most common and important
sedimentary structures.Series of visible layers in a rock.
Beds are usually greater than 1 cm. Orientation of bedding
helps in knowing the paleo-current direction of the old
rivers.
• CROSS-BEDDING- Series of thin, inclined layers within
a horizontal bed of rock. Ripples, bars, dunes, and deltas
are all indicators of deposition
• GRADED BEDDING- The grain size changes gradually
from the bottom to the top
• RIPPLE MARKS- The moving wind or water created little
ridges on the surface of the sediment layer.
• MUD CRACKS- Polygon-like cracks formed in drying mud
• FOSSILS- Remains of plants or animals that have been
preserved in rocks. These traces are usually the hard parts
of organisms in the form of bones or shells which are easier
to fossilize.
Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Rocks
• Tectonic Setting has an impact on the distribution of
sedimentary rocks. Specific sedimentary rock types'
occurrence can be used to recreate historical plate tectonic
setting.
• Each type of tectonic plate boundary is identified by
erosion rates and depositional characteristics.
IMPORTANCE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks have characteristics that help us
understand old depositional habitats, such as the evolution
of animals and the settings they lived in, how climate has
changed through time, where and when faults were active,
and so on.
Economic Resources- Most oil and gas travels within
sedimentary rocks and where mostly reservoirs are
contained.
Petroleum reservoirs- have organic-rich, sedimentary
source rocks that create petroleum when heated.
Sedimentary rocks are the most common source of water
aquifers (although some are in fractured metamorphic and
igneous rocks). Due to water-rock interactions, the
composition of the rocks has a significant impact on water
quality
Environmental Geology- Sediments cover two-thirds of
the continents and almost the entire ocean floor,
accounting for 89 percent of the Earth's surface. They are
the hosts of the biosphere, as well as the majority of the
rocks with which we interact directly or indirectly.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• Derive from the Greek word “Meta” – after or change and
“Morph” – Shape or Form. It is used to denote the
transformation of rocks into new type by the
recrystallization of their constituents
METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCK
• A rock undergoing metamorphism remains a solid rock
during the process. Rocks do not melt during most
conditions of metamorphism.
Metamorphism occurs because some minerals are stable
only under certain conditions of pressure and temperature.
When pressure and temperature change, chemical
reactions occur to cause the minerals in the rock to change
to an assemblage that is stable at the new pressure and
temperature conditions.
FACTORS THAT CONTROL METAMORPHISM
• The mineral composition of the parent rock.
• The temperature at which metamorphic process occur.
• The type and amount of pressure during metamorphism.
• The type of fluids present during metamorphism.
• The time available for metamorphism.
• PROTOLITH – It is also known as the original rock or the
parent rock.
• PARENT ROCK- Sedimentary or Igneous Rock. The
initial unmetamorphosed rock
• STABILITY OF MINERALS - is what determines which
minerals form as metamorphism takes place. Subjected to
temperature and pressure, some minerals will undergo
chemical reactions, while some might just change their size
and shape.
FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• Foliated means the parallel arrangement of certain
mineral grains that gives the rock a striped appearance.
Foliation forms when pressure squeezes the flat or
elongate minerals within a rock so they become aligned.
These rocks develop a platy or sheet-like structure that
reflects the direction that pressure was applied.
NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS Non-foliated
metamorphic rocks do not have a platy or sheet-like
structure. Some rocks, are made of minerals that are not
flat or elongate. No matter how much pressure you apply,
the grains will not align
• Another type of metamorphism, contact metamorphism,
occurs when hot igneous rock intrudes into some
preexisting rock.
• The pre-existing rock is essentially baked by the heat,
changing the mineral structure of the rock without addition
of pressure.
QUARTZITE- Quartzite is a metamorphic rock formed
when quartz rich sandstone or chert has been exposed to
high temperatures and pressures. Such conditions fuse
the quartz grains together forming a dense, hard,
equigranular rock.
MARBLE Marble is a metamorphic rock formed when
limestone is exposed to high temperatures and pressures.
Marble forms under such conditions because the calcite
forming the limestone recrystallizes forming a denser rock
consisting of roughly equi-granular calcite
crystals. How marble processed to create as a useful
rocks?
Marble Mining- Marble is currently being obtained from
open cast quarries. Arrival and Unloading of Marble Blocks
The blocks are unloaded and classified in the blocks yard
prior to being sawed.
Marble Cutting Marble is cut using multiwire or block
cutters.
Strengthening and Polishing Slabs -are taken to the
production line for further processing.
Slab Storage - The slabs will be ready for display or will
go directly to packaging ready for shipment. Loading
Different shipment methods depending on the destination
USES OF MARBLES: Supreme Court Building, Taj Mahal
Washington Monument, Bust of Artemis,
SLATE- Slate is a metamorphic rock that originated as a
shale, a sedimentary rock. Slate is a fine-grained, foliated
metamorphic rock composed of clay or volcanic ash
formed through low-grade regional metamorphism altering
shale or mudstone. It is the foliated metamorphic rock
with the finest grain size. It is also a foliated rock that shows
"slaty cleavage."
COMPOSITION OF SLATE Slate is mostly made up of clay
minerals or micas, depending on the degree of
metamorphism it has undergone. With increasing heat and
pressure, the initial clay minerals in shale transform into
micas. Slate can also contain a lot of quartz, along with
feldspar, calcite, pyrite, hematite, and other minerals.
COLOR- Most slates are gray in color and come in a
variety of hues ranging from light to dark gray. Slate comes
in a variety of colors, including green, red, black, purple,
and brown. The amount and kind of iron and organic
material contained in the rock usually determine the color
of slate.GREEN SLATE, BLUE SLATE. DARK SLATE
,PURPLE SLATE.
FORMATION OF SLATE- Slate is formed through the
regional metamorphosis of mudstone or shale under low-
pressure conditions.
-When shale or mudstone is exposed to heavy pressure
and heat from a tectonic plate activity, its clay mineral
components metamorphose into mica minerals. Mica
minerals such as biotite, chlorite, and muscovite, are the
main components of slate.
-Formed through the process of foliation.
-Layers of rocks are then formed perpendicular to the
direction of the pressure of metamorphic compression.
This gives slate its ability to cleave along flat planes.
USES OF SLATE: SLATE SIDING, SLATE TILE
FLOORING, SCHOOL SLATE
GNEISS
• It is a medium- to coarse-grained, semi schistose
metamorphic rock. It is a high-grade metamorphic rock.
• It is characterized by alternating light and dark bands
differing in mineral composition.
• It is formed by the metamorphosis of granite
(orthogneiss), or sedimentary rock (paragneiss).
Formation of Gneiss- Gneiss usually forms by regional
metamorphism at convergent plate boundaries. It is a high-
grade metamorphic rock in which mineral grains
recrystallized under intense heat and pressure.
• This alteration increased the size of the mineral grains
and segregated them into bands, a transformation which
made the rock and its minerals more stable in their
metamorphic environment. The most common path begins
with shale, which is a sedimentary rock. Regional
metamorphism can transform shale into slate, then phyllite,
then schist, and finally into gneiss.
Composition of Gneiss- is not defined by its composition,
most specimens have bands of feldspar and quartz grains
in an interlocking texture. These bands are usually light in
color and alternate with bands of darker-colored minerals
with platy or elongate habits.
• The dark minerals sometimes exhibit an orientation
determined by the pressures of metamorphism.
VARITIES OF GNEISS
BANDED GNEISS, LENTICULAR GNEISS, BIOTITE
GNEISS , HORNBLENDE GNEISS, GRANITE GNEISS,
DIORITE GNEISS, SYENITE GNEISS
USES OF GNEISS- Gneiss usually does not split along
planes of weakness like most other metamorphic rocks.
This allows contractors to use gneiss as a crushed stone
in road construction, building site preparation, and
landscaping projects.
SCHIST
Schist is a foliated metamorphic rock made up of plate-
shaped mineral grains that are large enough to see with an
unaided eye. It usually forms on a continental side of a
convergent plate boundary where sedimentary rocks, such
as shales and mudstones, have been subjected to
compressive forces, heat, and chemical activity.
• To become schist, a shale must be metamorphosed in
steps through slate and then through phyllite. If the schist
is metamorphosed further, it might become a granular rock
known as gneiss.
VARIETY OF SCHIST
MICA SCHIST, GRAPHITE SCHIST, SATUROLITE
SCHIST CHLORITE SCHIST
USES AND APPLICATION: building houses or walls, used
to make decorative rock walls, used as a decorative stone
as well as for jewelry.
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY is the study of factors such as
origin,occurrence, classification, type and effects of various
secondary structures like folds, faults, joints, rock cleavage
and are different from those primary structures such as
bedding and vesicular structure, which develop in rock at
the time of their formation
(Tandon, 2003)
Rock Mechanics- is the theoretical and applied science of
the mechanical behavior of rock. It is a branch of
mechanics concerned with the response of rock to the
force fields of its physical environment. It is an important
field in civil engineering as it applies in the majority of
infrastructure projects like dams, roads, tunnels, bridges,
buildings, and protection of slopes.
The distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is the
use of elevation contour lines to show the shape of the
Earth's surface.
Elevation contours are imaginary lines connecting points
having the same elevation on the surface of the land above
or below a reference surface, which is usually mean sea
level. Contours make it possible to show the height and
shape of mountains, the depths of the ocean
bottom, and the steepness of slopes.
Geologic maps -represent the distribution of different
types of rock and surficial deposits, as well as locations of
geologic structures such as faults and folds. Geologic
maps are the primary source of information for various
aspects of land-use planning, including the siting of
buildings and transportation systems.
Map View - Also known as top view. It us the birds eye view
of the earth surface. Remember that a geologic map will be
seen in map view.
Cross-Sectional View A geologic cross-section shows
geologic featuresfrom the side view. It is a representation
of a geometry on a plane perpendicular to the earths
surface.
YOUNGEST --> OLDEST
QUATERNARY(Q), TERTIARY(T), CRETACEOUS(K),
JURASSIC(J), TRIASSIC(Tr), PERMIAN(P),
PENNSYLVANIAN(lP), MISSISSIPIAN(M),
DEVONIAN(D), SILURIAN(S), ORDOVICIAN(O),
CAMBRIAN(-C), PreCambrian (p-C)
There are some helpful hints to remember when
constructing a cross-section:
1. Anticlines – these folds have the oldest beds in the
middle, with beds dipping away from the axis. Plunging
anticlines plunge towards the closed end of the V.
2. Synclines – these folds have the youngest beds in the
middle, with beds dipping towards the axis. Plunging
synclines plunge towards the open end of the V.
3. As streams intersect dipping beds of rock, they will
cut V shapes in the direction of dip.
Attitude is a general term for the orientation of a line or
plane .Attitude refers to the three dimensional orientation
of a planar and linear features such as bed, a joint, a
hornblende needle or a fold.
Attitude of Planar Structure
The attitude of planar structure is defined by strike and dip
Strike and dip describe the orientation of a plane in a
space.
Strike is the azimuth direction line formed by the
intersection of horizontal plane and the plane of interest.
Dip is the inclination of the plane measured down. Dip is a
vector; it gives the direction and amount of dip of the plane.
Examples of Planar Structure Bedding, fault, fold axial
plane, layering of lava, cleavage & schistosity.
The attitude of linear structure is defined by trend and
plunge.
Trend is the bearing of the line and Plunge is the inclination
of the line
Linear Structures are also defined by their pitch / rake on
a given plane:
Pitch / Rake – The acute angle between the line and
strike of the plane on which the line lies.
Examples of Linear Structure Fold axis, hingeline,
intersection of two planes, stretched pebbles, and other
lineations.
Quadrant Bearings -In this method the compass dial is
divided into four quadrants, namely NE, SE, SW, and NW.
North and south are at 0 degrees, and depending on the
quadrant, angles (up to 90 degrees) are measured away
from north or south (whichever is nearer) towards East and
West directions.
Azimuth- A compass direction of a line measured in
degrees (0-360 degrees) clockwise from north with
north=0, east=90, south=180, and west=275.
Brunton Compass
• Properly known as Brunton Pocket Transit
• Essential tool for field geologists, environmental
engineers, and surveyors. Made by Brunton Inc. of
Riverton, Wyoming. Patented in 1987 by David Brunton.
Strike and Dip Method This system is used to describe
the orientation of inclined bedding which is named after two
important principle components in describing 3D spatial
orientation: strike and dip.
STRIKE- is the azimuth direction line formed by the
intersection of horizontal plane and the plane of interest.
- Measured in map view. Utilizes azimuth
convention (0-360°)
DIP- is the bedding or geological layers and planes that are
not horizontal.
- Measured in cross-sectional view. Utilizes
quadrant convention
Dip values are always in the range of 0-90 degrees. A
dip angle of 0 degree defines horizontal plane while 90
degrees describes a vertically oriented plane.
0-20° - Shallow
20-50° - Moderate
50-90° - Steep
TYPES OF DIP
True Dip is the inclination of a plane measured in a plane
trending perpendicular to the strike.
Apparent Dip is the inclination of a plane measured in a
plane that is not perpendicular to the strike.
EXAMPLE OF ATTITUDE OF BED USING THE STRIKE
AND DIP METHOD:
The Right Hand Rule This rule is followed by most
geologist in the world for consistency. The azimuth
direction of the strike is recorded such that true dip is
inclined to the right of the observer. In this case, the
strike azimuth could be to any quadrant.
WHEN YOU APPLY THIS RULE, THE THUMB
REPRESENTS THE DIRECTION OF THE STRIKE AND
THE FOUR REMAINING FINGERS REPRESENTS THE
DIRECTION OF THE DIP.
Dip-line Trend and Plunge As the name suggests, this
method is similar to the method trend and plunge of in
determining linear attitude. This method relies on the
implicit 90 degree angle between true dip azimuth and the
strike.
MODULE 5: GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL
INVESTIGATIONS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL INVISTIGATIONS- are performed by
geotechnical engineers or engineering geologists to obtain
information on the physical properties of soil and rock
around a site to design earthworks and foundation for
proposed structures and for repair of distress to earthworks
and structures caused by subsurface conditions
-Usually, geotechnical investigations are conducted
only on a fraction of a proposed site because it would
be prohibitively expensive to conduct an extensive
investigation of a whole site.
-A geotechnical investigation will include surface
exploration and subsurface exploration of a site.
-A site investigation is tasked with discovering the
current soil status and subsurface conditions
-Surface-level and subsurface field tests will be conducted
during a geotechnical investigation and soil samples will be
taken and studied to determine the feasibility of building on
a site. Thus, we will be treating soils as ideal or
hypothetical materials and use statistical
average properties. However, in many cases, statistical
average values could mislead because a weak or
discontinuous soil layer at a particular location may control
the stability of a geotechnical system (e.g., a foundation).
PURPOSE OF GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
A soils investigation program is necessary to provide
information for design and construction, environmental
assessment, and project due diligence
1. Suitability: To determine the suitability of the site and
the environment for the proposed work.
2. Design: To enable an adequate and economic design
including temporary works design which can be provided.
3. Construction Method: To plan the best construction
method depending on the sources of materials/waste.
4. Effect of Changes: To determine the changes that will
occur in the soil and surrounding circumstances, either
naturally or because of work.
5. Site Selection: When there is a site option, to provide
advice and guidance.
TECHNICAL OBJECTIVESOF THE INVESTIGATION
1. Determine the sequence, thickness and lateral extent of
the soil strata and, where appropriate the level of bedrock;
2. Obtain representative samples of the soils (and rock) for
identification and classification and, if necessary for use in
laboratory tests to determine relevant soil parameters;
3. Identify the groundwater conditions
PHASES OF GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
This phase is sometimes called “desk study.” It involves
collection of available information such as a site plan; type,
size, and importance of the structure; loading conditions;
previous geotechnical reports; maps, including
topographic maps, aerial photographs, still
photographs, satellite imagery, and geologic maps;
and newspaper clippings. An assortment of maps giving
geology, contours and elevations, climate, land
use, aerial photos, regional seismicity, and hydrology are
available on the Internet.
Geographical information system (GIS)—an integration
of software, hardware, and digital data to capture, manage,
analyze and display spatial information—can be used to
view, share, understand, question, interpret, and visualize
data in ways that reveal relationships, phase one patterns,
and trends.
PRELIMINARY RECONNAISSANCE OR A SITE VISIT to
provide a general picture of the topography and geology of
the site. It is necessary that you take with you on the site
visit all the information gathered in Phase I to compare with
the current conditions of the site. Your site visit notes
should include the following:
• Photographs of the site and its neighborhood.
• Access to the site for workers and equipment.
• Sketches of all fences, utility posts, driveways, walkways,
drainage systems, and so on.
• Utility services that are available, such as water and
electricity.
• Sketches of topography including all existing structures,
cuts, fills, ground depression, ponds, and so on.
• The state of any existing building at the site or nearby.
Your notes should include exterior and interior cracks, any
noticeable tilt, type of construction (e.g., brick or framed
stucco building), evidence of frost damage, molds, and any
exceptional features.
• Geological features from any exposed area such as a
road cut.
• Occasionally, a few boreholes may be dug to explore the
site
Geophysical methods may be used at reconnaissance
stage as it is simple and quick means for knowing
stratification. It helps in deciding the course of detailed
investigation.
The most commonly used methods for reconnaissance
survey are electrical resistivity phase two method and
seismic method.
SOIL EXPLORATION PROGRAM- A soils exploration
program usually involves test pits and/or soil borings
(boreholes). During the site visit (Phase II), you should
work out most of the soil exploration program. A detailed
soils exploration consists of:
1. Determining the need for and extent of geophysical
exploration.
2. Preliminary location of each borehole and/or test pit.
3. Numbering of the boreholes or test pits.
4. Planned depth of each borehole or test pit.
5. Methods and procedures for advancing the boreholes.
6. Sampling instructions for at least the first borehole. The
sampling instructions must include the number of samples
and possible locations. Changes in the sampling
instructions often occur after the first borehole.
7. Determining the need for and types of in situ tests.
8. Requirements for groundwater observations.
PHASES OF SOILS EXPLORATION
Detailed soils exploration. The objectives of a detailed
soils exploration are:
• To determine the geological structure, which should
include the thickness, sequence, and extent of the soil
strata. To determine the groundwater conditions. To obtain
disturbed and undisturbed samples for laboratory tests. To
conduct in situ tests
Laboratory testing. The objectives of laboratory tests are:
To classify the soils.To determine soil strength, failure
stresses and strains, stress–strain response, permeability,
compatibility, and settlement parameters. Not all of these
may be required for a project.
Write a report. The report must contain a clear description
of the soils at the site, methods of exploration, soil
stratigraphy, in situ and laboratory test methods and
results, and the location of the groundwater. You should
include information on and/or explanations of any unusual
soil, water-bearing stratum, and any soil and groundwater
conditions such as frost susceptibility or waterlogged areas
that may be troublesome during phase five
construction.
Field Testing-is a term used for all in-situ based methods
and techniques used to determine different properties of
soils qualitatively and quantitatively. Measure the
properties of the subsurface soil directly without removal
The properties determined are the physical, strength,
deformability and hydromechanical properties of
geomaterials in geotechnical site investigation
Geophysical explorations- are nondestructive
techniques used to provide spatial information on soils,
rocks, and hydrological and environmental conditions.
Popular methods are:
1. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
2. Seismic Surveys
3. Electrical Resistivity
4. Others geophysical methods such as Gamma
Density, Neutron Porosity, Sonic-VDL, Microgravity
Subsurface Sounding Explorations- The subsurface
methods of sounding includes penetrometer test with or
without geophysical methods. The cone penetration data is
correlated with density, bearing capacity etc. Sounding
method consists of measurement of variation of resistance
of the soil with depth. It can be carried our either by Static
Cone Penetration Test (CPT) in soft soils like cohesive
soils or by dynamic cone penetration test in cohesionless
soil.
Standard Penetration Test (ASTM D1586)- A standard
penetration test (SPT) is an in-situ dynamic penetration test
designed to provide information on the properties of soil,
while also collecting a disturbed soil sample for grain-size
analysis and soil classification.
-This test shall be performed in boreholes in order to
estimate consistency, relative density, and strength-
deformation parameters of soils.
-SPT testing can also be carried out in weak weathered
rock.
-SPT testing shall be performed at certain numbers and
respective intervals to the borehole depth termination for
all boreholes.
Split-Spoon Sampler (or Split-Barrel Sampler)
This sampler is typically an 18"-30" long, 2.0" outside
diameter hollow tube split in half lengthwise. A hardened
metal drive shoe with a 1.375" opening is attached to the
bottom end, and a one-way valve and drill rod adapter at
the sampler head. It is driven into the ground with a 140-
pound (63.5 kg) hammer falling 30". The blow counts
(hammer strikes) required to advance the sampler a total
of 18" are counted and reported. Generally used for non-
cohesive soils, samples taken this way are considered
disturbed.
Modified California Sampler- Similar in concept to the
SPT sampler, the sampler barrel has a larger diameter and
is usually lined with metal tubes to contain samples.
Samples from the Modified California Sampler are
considered disturbed due to the large area ratio of the
sampler (sampler wall area/sample cross sectional area).
Shelby Tube Sampler- This sampler consists of a thin-
walled tube with a cutting edge at the toe. Used in the
collection of intact and mostly undisturbed samples of
fine grain soils, like clay or silts (ASTM D1587M-15)
Collected samples can be teste for chemical and
geotechnical analyses (hydraulic conductivity and
permeability)
Piston Samplers- These samplers are thin-walled metal
tubes which contain a piston at the tip. The samplers are
pushed into the bottom of a borehole, with the piston
remaining at the surface of the soil while the tube slides
past it. These samplers will return undisturbed samples in
soft soils, but are difficult to advance in sands and stiff
clays, and can be damaged (compromising the sample) if
gravel is encountered.
Cone penetration test (CPT) this test is performed using
an instrumented probe with a conical tip, pushed into the
soil hydraulically at a constant rate. A basic CPT instrument
reports tip resistance and shear resistance along the
cylindrical barrel. CPT data has been correlated to soil
properties. Sometimes instruments other than the basic
CPT probe are used, including:
1. CPTu - Piezocone Penetrometer
2. SCPTu - Seismic Piezocone Penetrometer
3. Full Flow Penetrometers - T-bar, Ball, and
Plate
4. Flat Plate Dilatometer Test (DMT)
Open Trial Pits A pit is dug by hand using shovels or with
a machine such as a backhoe. This method can provide
excellent shallow-depth soil stratigraphy. In fine grained or
cohesive soils up to 3 m depth, vertical cuts without any
support can be made whereas in coarse-grained or
cohesionless soil braced excavation is required which is
costly.
Exploratory Boring- Excavating test pits for a large depth
requires more labor, cost and area which is either not
feasible or uneconomical. Boring is preferred if depth of
investigation is more than 2 or 3 m. The different types of
borings methods are auger boring, wash boring, rotary
drilling and percussion boring.
weight and optimal water content a soil can achieve for a
given compaction effort.
STRENGTH AND DEFORMATION TESTS
(ENGINEERING PROPERTIES TEST)
California Bearing Ratio (CBR Test)- California bearing
ratio is a test to determine the aptitude of a soil or
aggregate sample as a road subgrade. A plunger is pushed
into a compacted sample, and its resistance is measured.
This test was developed by Caltrans, but it is no longer
used in the Caltrans pavement design method. It is still
used as a cheap method to estimate the resilient modulus.
Direct Shear test The direct shear test determines the
consolidated, drained strength properties of a sample. A
constant strain rate is applied to a single shear plane under
a normal load, and the load response is measured. If this
test is performed with different normal loads, the common
shear strength parameters can be determined
Oedometer test This can be used to determine
consolidation and swelling parameters.

Auger Boring is carried out in soil which can stay without
casing support or drilling mud. Thismethod is not suitable
for sandy or silty soil below water table. The procedure of
auger boring:
1. Auger is pushed in the soil and rotated so
that soil sample fills up in annular space.
2 . Withdraw the auger and clean it
3. Add extension rod if requires and repeat step
1 and 2.
Triaxial shear tests This is a type of test that is used to
determine the shear strength properties of a soil. It can
simulate the confining pressure a soil would see deep into
the ground. It can also simulate drained and undrained
conditions.
Hydraulic Conductivity Tests There are several tests
available to determine a soil's hydraulic conductivity. They
include the constant head, falling head, and constant flow
methods. The soil samples tested can be any type include
remolded, undisturbed, and compacted samples.

Wash Boring In wash boring, water is flushed under

pressure through an inner tube which may be rotated and
moved upward and downward inside a casing pipe. The
lower end of the pipe is fixed with sharp cutting edge which
cuts the soil and soil floats up through the casing pipe
around the tube. The samples collected with this method
may not be useful for laboratory testing.

Percussion Boring This method consists of breaking up

of the formation by repeated blows from a bit or chisel.
Water is added at the time of boring and debris baled out
at intervals. Where the boring is in soil or into soft rocks
and provided that a sampler can be driven into them, cores
may be obtained at suitable intervals. The soil sample
obtained is normally disturbed but representative. This is
the best method for rapid drilling of bore holes in gravelly
strata.

Rotary Boring In rotary drilling, boring is affected by

the cutting action of a rotating bit which should be kept in
firm contact with the bottom of the hole. The bit is carried
at the end of hollow jointed drill rods which are rotated by
a suitable chuck. A mud-laden fluid or grout is pumped
continuously down the hollow drill rods and the fluid returns
to the surface in the annular space between rods and the
side of the hole. Protective casing usually not required.

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

standards available for site investigation and sampling:
• ASTM D420—87: Standard guide for investigating and
sampling soil and rock,
• ASTM D1452—80: Soil investigation and sampling by
auger borings,
• ASTM D1587—83: Thin-walled tube sampling,
• ASTM D3550—84: Standard practice for ring-lined barrel
sampling of soils,
• ASTM D2113—83 (reapproved 1987) Standard practice
for diamond core drilling for
site investigation,
• ASTM D4220—83: Standard practices for preserving and
transporting soil samples. In the UK the provisions given in
BS 5930 (which in any case describes itself as acode of
practice, rather than a standard) for drilling and sampling
generally are not suitable for inclusion in a contract
specification (see, for example, Clayton (1986) for
criticisms).

Vane Shear Test ASTM D2573-72- This is an in-place

shear test in which a rod with thin radial vanes at the end
is forced into the soil and the resistance to rotation of the
rod is determined. VST addresses testing on land and for
testing in drill holes or by self drilling or continuous push
methods from the ground surface. VST provides an
indication of in-situ undrained shear strength of fine-
grained clays and silts or other fine geomaterials where
undrained strength determination isrequired.

Field Density Test- Another common field test is checking

relative density of the soil. This is done with a sand cone,
nuclear densitometer, or balloon method. A cone
penetrometer or dynamic cone penetrometer is frequently
used in fine grain soils.

Laboratory Tests- A wide variety of laboratory tests can

be performed on soils to measure a wide variety of soil
properties. Some soil properties are intrinsic to the
composition of the soil matrix and are not affected by
sample disturbance, while other properties depend on the
structure of the soil as well as its composition and can only
be effectively tested on relatively undisturbed samples.

Laboratory tests can be classified into: classification and

index property tests; strength and deformation tests; and
hydraulic conductivity tests.

CLASSIFICATION AND INDEX PROPERTY TESTS

Visual Classification Test- This is done to visually and
manually examine soil samples with respect to texture,
plasticity, andcolor

Water Content Determination- This test provides the

water content of the soil, normally expressed as a
percentage of the weight of water to the dry weight of the
soil. Unit weight determination. This test is used to
determine the total/moist and dry densities or unit weights
of soil specimen.

Atterberg Limits Tests- The Atterberg limits define the

boundaries of several states of consistency for plastic soils.
The boundaries are defined by the amount of water a soil
needs to be at one of those boundaries. The boundaries
are called the plastic limit and the liquid limit, and the
difference between them is called the plasticity index. The
shrinkage limit is also a part of the Atterberg limits.

Particle-size distribution- This is done to determine the

soil gradation. Coarser particles are separated in the sieve
analysis portion, and the finer particles are analyzed with a
hydrometer. The distinction between coarse and fine
particles is usually made at 75 μm..

Specific Gravity Test- This test determines the specific

gravity of soil solids passing the 4.75-mm sieve (No. 4) by
means of a water pycnometer.

Soil Compaction Tests- Soil compaction test includes

Standard Proctor, Modified Proctor, and California Test.
These tests are used to determine the maximum unit