BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION

http://online-psicologia.blogspot.com/2007/11/la-observacin-
conductual.html

INTRODUCTION

The systematic observation of facts has had unequal importance throughout the history
of Psychology: It did not have great development until psychology began to be
considered as a "science of behavior", and it reached a great boom in the 50s. , with the
flourishing of behavior modification.

It constitutes a direct method of collecting information, focused on external behaviors

and that allows this information to be collected in the client's natural environment. This
is important, both for carrying out the functional analysis prior to the intervention, and
for evaluating its effectiveness.

Kent and Foster compare behavioral observation with a photograph (both are faithful
reflections of reality, but only one option among the many possible ones to reflect it) Þ
The procedure used in the observation (parameters, moment) will determine the type of
reality behavior that is reflected.

HOW TO DEVELOP THE OBSERVATION METHOD

DEFINITION OF TARGET CONDUCT

The starting point of observation is the definition of the behavior to be observed.

The DEFINITION has to be:

1. Valid (convergent validity): The definition must match the behavior as defined
by the patient, or as provided by experts.
2. Objective: Refers only to the observable characteristics of interest.
3. Clara: It is easily understood and is unambiguous. To do this, it is essential that
it be descriptive and refer to concrete and observable responses (Not
"nervousness" but "biting nails", "getting up frequently", etc.).
4. Complete: Includes the limits within which the behavior is contained, so that it
can be differentiated from other related behaviors. Full definitions include:
o A descriptive name.
o A general definition.
o An elaboration that describes the fundamental parts of the behavior.
o Some characteristic examples.
o Some debatable examples.

The RESPONSE CATEGORIES used when defining the behavior can be:
 1. Molecular: They are used when the behavior to be observed constitutes a
specific or concrete response (insulting, crying, writing). These categories
present fewer problems when it comes to being observed.
2. Molars: They refer to broader units of behavior (assertive behavior, aggressive
behavior). They include multiple discrete or molecular responses.

Using one or the other depends on the type of objective response and the purpose of the
observation.

KINDS OF DEFINITIONS:

1. Topographic: They refer to the physical characteristics, to the movements

involved in the response, emphasizing the way in which it is executed. Example:
Smoking behavior: "Putting the cigarette to your lips and inhaling the smoke."
2. Functional: It is defined by its effects on the environment. Example: Smoking
behavior: "Inhale the smoke until 50% of it is consumed."

The choice of one type or another depends on the characteristics of the behavior to be
observed.

CHOICE OF MEASUREMENT METHOD

The most used parameter measurement methods are:

 Frequencies.
 Duration.
 Intervals.

The same behavior can be measured in multiple ways. A useful measurement level must
be chosen, considering precision and costs.

a) PERMANENT PRODUCTS: Certain behaviors leave physical evidence in the form

of a durable product (number of broken glass, number of hairs pulled out). Its
occurrence can be measured through the number of products it gives rise to.

Advantage: The presence of the observer at the time the behavior occurs is not
necessary.

However, most behaviors do not generate permanent products.

b) FREQUENCY METHOD: It consists of recording the number of times a behavior

appears in a time interval.

It is appropriate when it comes to discrete behaviors (you can easily determine when
they start and when they end).

c) DURATION METHOD: Observation focuses on the total time that the behavior
lasts. It is used in discrete behaviors when its duration is of interest or in behaviors
whose duration is variable (time a child dedicates to studying).
d) INTERVAL METHOD: The total observation time is divided into equal periods or
time intervals. At each interval, the observer only signals the presence or absence of the
behavior, regardless of how many times it appears, using a binary code (Yes/No).
It is useful in non-discrete behaviors (difficult to determine when it starts and when it
ends) or in behaviors with a very high rate of emission.

Variations:

 Full Interval Sampling: The response is required to be issued over the entire full
interval for your response to be recorded. It is used in behaviors that are
interesting to persist over a period of time (a child's attention in class). It is
advisable to use it when what the treatment seeks is an increase in behavior.
 Partial interval sampling: The behavior is required to appear at least once
throughout the interval. Appropriate for brief but frequent behaviors (swearing,
gestures).
 Momentary interval sampling: The behavior is required to occur at the moment
the interval ends. Appropriate for behaviors that persist over a long period of
time (thumb sucking). It is simpler because the observer only has to pay
attention to the end of the interval.

IDENTIFICATION OF ANTECEDENTS AND CONSEQUENT STIMULI

BACKGROUND STIMULI: Stimuli that are present when the behavior appears and
that have a functional relationship with it, that is,

1. They have the capacity to provoke said response (E. Conditioned).

2. Its presence increases or decreases the probability of the behavior being emitted
(E. Discriminative and E. Delta).

CONSEQUENTIAL STIMULI: Stimuli that follow the emission of the behavior and
that make the probability of it increase or decrease (reinforcements and punishments).

Information about the antecedents and consequences is essential for the functional
analysis of behavior, which is why the SEQUENCE RECORD has reached great
development (Bakeman and Brownlee: Study on children's play in which they defined 3
functional categories: solitary play, parallel play and group play).

Sequential recording systems require that the beginning and end of the behavior to be
observed be easily discriminable, in order to clearly establish the order of the behaviors
(interval records are not appropriate).

A record of frequencies or combined frequencies and duration is most suitable.

For this type of record, it is useful to define the different most probable antecedents and
consequences in separate categories, and it is convenient to observe the behavior in the
various environmental situations in which it manifests itself.

PREPARATION OF REGISTRATION SHEETS

To facilitate the collection of information, it is necessary to create recording sheets that

will vary depending on the target behavior and the parameters chosen to measure it.

In them, a definition of the different behaviors to be observed and a specification of the

codes that will be used for each behavior must appear (Table 4.3, pg 124-125).

REGISTRATION PERIODS

It is recommended to record for short periods of time (10-15 minutes) and several times
a day (3-4 times), to obtain a significant data sample of the subject's behavior.

Regarding the total time that observation should last in order to obtain the baseline prior
to treatment, it depends on the regularity and stability of the behavior: In very stable
behaviors, less time is required than in unstable ones.

Formula proposed by Gelfand and Hanman:

10 (TA-TB)

Number of days = 3 + TA

TA: High rate. Highest rate of behavior during the first 3 days of registration.

TB: Low rate. Lowest rate of behavior during the first 3 days of registration.

It is advisable not to interrupt the observation if the behavior has experienced a

significant increase or decrease in the last sessions.

CHOICE OF OBSERVERS

In view of the reliability of the records (degree to which independent measures of the
same behavior provide similar data), it is recommended that the observation be carried
out by more than one independent observer, who are trained and who are not in contact
with each other when carry out the observation, nor interact with the subject observed
during it.

Due to the problems that often arise when an outsider observes the behavior, it is most
appropriate for people close to the individual to do so.

Forehand and McMahon propose a training program with the following phases:

1. Familiarize observers with the behaviors to observe.

2. Train each of the categories of behavior to be observed separately.
3. Perform written exercises in order for observers to make decisions about how to
discriminate between categories of borderline behaviors.
4. Observe real behaviors recorded on video.

According to them, observers must be trained until they reach a reliability level of 0.80,
with respect to a 10-minute recording, previously coded by the trainer.

Frequent training sessions are recommended (2 -3 times a week).

RELIABILITY OF RECORDS

The presence of more than one independent observer allows us to know the degree of
interobserver reliability (level of agreement between 2 observers who record the same
behaviors, in the same situation and with the same measurement technique).

To evaluate the reliability of observation data, you must first make 3 BASIC
DECISIONS:

1. Specify the unit of measurement on which the reliability will be evaluated:

When it is a molar response (series of molecular behaviors), it is necessary to
decide whether to calculate the reliability for the overall behavior or for each
category. It depends on the objectives of the intervention (interest in the global
modification of behavior or in seeing how each component evolves).
2. Time period over which reliability will be calculated: When frequency or
duration recording methods are used, the total time is usually divided into
smaller intervals. Reliability can be calculated on each of the recording intervals
that make up a session or trial reliability (more used to provide more
information), or reliability can be calculated on the total scores of each session
or session reliability. If trial reliability is acceptable, session reliability will also
be acceptable.
3. Statistical procedure that we will use to calculate reliability: It depends on the
type of data we have.

Permanent product registration, frequency and duration:

- If we have not divided the total duration time into smaller intervals:

Smallest number of observations (observer x)

Greater number of observations (observer and)

- If the total period has been divided into smaller intervals (8 or 10), the Pearson
correlation coefficient (rO1O2) is used.

It oscillates between -1 (when one observer records a high score the other tends to have
a low one) and +1 (one observer's scores can be predicted from the other observer's
scores).

If r=0: the observers are very variable.

Interval Time Sampling Record: These records provide dichotomous data (behavior
appears or does not appear).

Number of agreements

Percent agreement = Total number of observations

Disadvantages:
 1. Provide a high reliability index but based on the non-occurrence of the behavior, so
it is advisable not to use it if the behavior occurs in less than 40% of the intervals.

Others eliminate this bias by calculating the degree of agreement, based only on the
agreement index of the occurrence of the behavior, divided between agreements and
disagreements (disregarding agreements that do not occur).

2. Overestimate the quality of the observers' observation, since it does not take into
account agreements that occur by chance. In this case, Cohen's kappa index can be used.

It oscillates between -1 (systematic disagreement between observers) and +1

(systematic agreement between them). Kappa = 0: the agreement between observers is
the same as we would obtain by chance.

It is difficult to determine the appropriate level of reliability. It is suggested:

 Between 0.70-0.90 when it comes to percentage of agreement.

 Between 0.60-0.75 with kappa index or other correlational statistics.

Practical considerations to maximize reliability:

1. Check that the 2 observers are familiar with the definition of the behavior, the
response sheet, and the use of any time measurement instrument used.
2. It is a good idea for each observer to check each other's data sheets immediately
after completing the observation period.

METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
PROCEDURE PROBLEMS

1. Loss of information when using registration forms: Risk that behaviors not
foreseen in advance are lost. It is advisable to include a column on the record
sheet to make notes in the margin.
2. Representativeness of the recorded data sample: To ensure this, it is
recommended that the recording periods be short and numerous throughout the
day, and that the behavior be observed in all possible situations in which it
appears.

OBSERVER PROBLEMS

1. Observer training: Training of observers increases the reliability of the

observation. 3 determining factors:
o Training time.
o The feedback that the observer receives during the training period.
o The knowledge that the observer has of being observed and that the data
obtained by him is being verified.
2. Tendency toward bias or halo effect: It is advisable that the observer remain
blind to the subjects being observed and the manipulations to which they are
 subjected. When the observer is a person close to the subject, it is recommended
to try not to contaminate it with the observer's expectations.
3. Observer drift: Gradual changes that observers make in the definitions of
behavior, when rating responses, as a consequence of the observer's
familiarization with the response ("unintelligible speech", it is possible that over
the course of observation, the observer begins to understand it better). It can be
avoided by periodically monitoring the observer's observations.

PROBLEMS OF THE OBSERVED SUBJECT

Observation itself can modify the phenomenon that is being observed, due to the
reactivity of the observed subject. However, when subjects are subjected to habituation,
the behavior under test is restored to its previous criterion. The length of the adaptation
period, despite its importance, has not yet been established.