Chapter 3:

Molecules, Compounds, and

Chemical Equations

Dr. Charlene Hayden

Oakland University
CHM 144 / CHM 143

Slide 1 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Compounds Are Not Their Elements!

• Chemical compounds have unique chemical and
physical properties, unrelated to the elements
from which they are made!

Example: water

Slide 2 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Kinds of
Compounds
• Molecular Compounds are composed of atoms
held together by covalent bonds.
! Pairs of electrons are “shared” between atoms.
! Nonmetals bonded to each other.
! Exist as discrete units called molecules.

• Ionic Compounds are composed of positively and

negatively charged ions, held together by
electrostatic attraction (ionic bonds).
! Usually a metal (cation) with a nonmetal (anion).
! Exist as repeating structure called a crystal lattice.
Slide 3 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 1
 Terms
• Molecular formulas = exact number & type of
atoms present in one molecule of a compound
! Used for molecular compounds only!
• Empirical formula = simplest whole-number
ratio of elements in a compound
• Formula unit = the smallest electrically neutral
unit within the crystal of an ionic compound
! Example: NaCl (one Na+ and one Cl–)

Slide 4 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Representing Chemical Formulas

• Chemical formulas
! Elemental symbols to represent atoms
! Subscript (at right) indicates how many (1’s omitted)

Example: methane

Slide 5 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Atomic-Level Classification

Slide 6 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 2
 Molecular Elements
• Diatomic
! Seven total (locations make this shape!)
Horses Need Oats For Clear Brown “I’s”
H2 N2 O2 F2 Cl2 Br2 I2
• Polyatomic
! P4, S8, Se8

Slide 7 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Naming Binary Ionic Compounds

The cation (+) is named first.
The anion (–) is second with “ide” ending.

• If the metal can form

cations with different
charges (usually for
transition metals), then
a Roman numeral is
added to indicate the
charge of the cation.
Example:
FeCl2 is iron (II) chloride
FeCl3 is iron (III) chloride

Slide 8 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Formulas of Binary Ionic Compounds

• To write the formula of a binary ionic compound,
first write the two ions with charges.
• The net charge on any stable compound is zero.
• Figure out the smallest number of ions which will
add to zero, and use those values as subscripts.
Example: titanium(IV) oxide
Ions: Ti4+ O2−
# Needed: 1 2
Formula: TiO2
Slide 9 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 3
 Practice
Write the name or chemical formula for
the following compounds.
1. CaF2
2. CrCl3
3. zinc nitride
4. copper(I) oxide
5. K3P

Slide 10 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Polyatomic Ions
• Polyatomic ion = a
• Ammonium NH4+ group of covalently
• Acetate C2H3O2− bonded atoms with a
net charge (+ or −).
• Carbonate CO32− • Use the ion’s name in
• Hydroxide OH− the compound name.
• Parentheses are used
• Nitrate NO3− around the ion if more
• Phosphate PO43− than 1 is present in
the chemical formula.
• Sulfate SO42−
Example: Ca(OH)2

You need to know all the ions in Table 3.5!

Slide 11 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Oxyanion Name Conventions

• Oxyanion = anion containing oxygen and
another element (i.e., most polyatomics!)
• If two ions in series: Example:
• More oxygen: −ate NO3− nitrate
• Less oxygen: −ite NO2− nitrite
• If > two ions in series:
Prefixes used: per− = more than & hypo− = less than
Example: Most oxygen: ClO4− perchlorate
More oxygen: ClO3− chlorate
Less oxygen: ClO2− chlorite
Least oxygen: ClO− hypochlorite
Slide 12 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 4
 Hydrated Ionic Compounds
• Hydrates = ionic compounds which contain a
specific number of “waters of hydration” in each
formula unit
• These waters can usually be removed by heating.
• Waters separated by a dot (·) in the chemical formula.
• Add “prefixhydrate” to name.
Prefixes:
hemi = ½ penta = 5
mono = 1 hexa = 6
di = 2 hepta = 7
tri = 3 octa = 8
tetra = 4
Example: cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate
Slide 13 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Practice
Write the names or chemical formulas for
the following compounds.
1. Cr(C2H3O2)3

2. NH4NO3

3. Lithium hydroxide

4. Calcium phosphate

5. MgSO4 · 7H2O
Slide 14 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Naming Binary Molecular Compounds

• Made from two nonmetals, the element names
are used with the 2nd one ending in “ide”
• Prefixes are added to indicate the # of atoms.
• The prefix “mono” is only used in front of the
second element.

mono 1 hexa 6
! Examples: CO2 & CO di 2 hepta 7
CO2 is carbon dioxide tri 3 octa 8
CO is carbon monoxide, tetra 4 nona 9
not monocarbon monoxide penta 5 deca 10
Slide 15 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 5
 Practice
Name the following compounds or give
the correct chemical formula.

1. tetraphosphorus decoxide

2. CCl4

3. P2N5

4. sulfur trioxide

5. N2O

Slide 16 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Naming Binary Acids

• Acids are compounds that generate
protons (H+) when dissolved in water (aq).
• Binary acids contain hydrogen and a
nonmetal atom (usually, a halogen).
• They are named using the nonmetal base
name with the prefix “hydro”, the suffix “ic”,
and the word acid.
Example: HCl(aq)
hydrochloric acid
Slide 17 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Naming Oxyacids
• Oxyacids = acids containing hydrogen and an
oxyanion
• The acid is named using the base oxyanion
name with a suffix + “acid”:
• If oxyanion ends in −ate, change to –ic
NO3− nitrate
HNO3(aq) nitric acid

• If oxyanion ends in −ite, change to –ous

SO32− sulfite
H2SO3 (aq) sulfurous acid
Slide 18 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 6
 Summary of Inorganic Nomenclature

Slide 19 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Review Practice
1. NaC2H3O2
2. PCl3
3. NO2
4. H2CO3 (aq)
5. Sodium sulfate
6. Iron(II) phosphide
Slide 20 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Terminology
• Molecular mass = the mass of one molecule of
a molecular compound (in amu)
• Also called “molecular weight”
• Formula mass = the mass of one formula unit
of a compound (in amu)
• Used for both molecular and ionic compounds.
• Molar mass (M) = the mass of one mole of the
particles that comprise a substance (in grams)
“Particle” scale masses are measured in amu,
and macroscopic quantities are in grams.
Slide 21 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 7
 Calculation of Molar Mass
• Count the # of each type of atom in a formula,
and multiply by its atomic mass.
• Example: CO2
1C + 2O
12.01 + 2(16.00) = 44.01g/mol

• Molar mass is a conversion factor relating

mass of a substance to moles of a substance.

Slide 22 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Percent Composition
• (Mass) Percent Composition = mass percent of
an element in a compound

Mass % = mass of element in compound x 100

molar mass of compound

• Example: Calculate the mass % O in CO2.

Mass % O = (2 x 16.00)g x 100 = 72.71% O
12.01 + (2 x 16.00)

Slide 23 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas

• The subscripts in chemical formulas can be

used as conversion factors relating moles of
elements or ions per mole of “molecules”.
! Applies to both molecular or ionic compounds.

Example:

Slide 24 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 8
 Examples
1. What is the mass of 1.06 x 1024 molecules
of carbon tetrachloride?

2. How many atoms of carbon are present in a

teaspoon of table sugar (C12H22O11) with a
mass of 4.16 g?

Slide 25 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Practice

1. How many moles of hydrogen atoms are

present in 50.0 g of methane, CH4 ?

2. How many oxygen atoms are present in

5.32 moles of chalk (CaCO3)?

Slide 26 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

% Composition and Empirical Formulas

1. Assume there is 100 g of the sample, so that the %
values will equal the # of grams of each element.
2. Convert grams into moles of each element using its
atomic mass.
3. Write a “tentative formula” using these mole values.
4. Divide each mole value by the smallest one found.
5. Convert any fractions to whole numbers by
multiplying all the mole values by the same number.
6. When you have all whole numbers with no common
factor, you have the “empirical formula”.
NOTE: Sig figs don’t matter here, but round off errors
will lead to wrong answer. KEEP extra digits!
Slide 27 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 9
 Empirical Formula from Mass %
Determining the Empirical Formula of a
Compound from Its Mass Percent Composition
Dibutyl succinate is an insect repellent used against
household ants and roaches. Its composition is
62.58% C, 9.63% H and 27.79% O. What is the
empirical formula of dibutyl succinate?

Step 1: Determine the mass of each element in a 100g sample.

C 62.58 g H 9.63 g O 27.79 g

Slide 28 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Empirical Formula from Mass %

Step 2: Convert masses to amounts in moles.
1 mol C
nC = 62.58 g C × = 5.210 mol C
12.011 g C
1 mol H
nH = 9.63 g H × = 9.554 mol H
1.008 g H
1 mol O
nO = 27.79 g O × = 1.737 mol O
16.00 g O
Step 3: Write a “tentative” formula. C5.210H9.554O1.737

Step 4: Divide by the smallest mole value. C5.210H9.554O1.737

1.737 1.737 1.737

C3.00H5.50O
Slide 29 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Empirical Formula from Mass %

Step 5: Convert to a small whole number ratio.

The value 5.50 suggests a fraction of 1/2.

[ C3.00H5.50O ] x 2

Multiply × 2 to get C6.00H11.00O2

Step 6: Check for whole numbers and no common factors.

The empirical formula is C6H11O2

Slide 30 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 10
 Practice
Asbestos is a mineral containing magnesium,
silicon, oxygen, and hydrogen. One form of
asbestos (chrysotile) has the composition
28.03% magnesium, 21.60% silicon, 1.16%
hydrogen.
Determine the empirical formula of chrysotile.

Slide 31 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Determining the Molecular Formula

• Given the molecular mass (e.g. from a mass
spectrometer), then the molecular formula can
be derived from an empirical formula.
• The molecular formula will always be a whole
number multiple of the empirical formula.
• Compare the “molar mass” of the empirical
formula to that experimental molecular mass.
Example: CH2O & molecular mass = 180.2
12.01 + (2x1.008) + 16.00 = 30.03
(180.2 / 30.03) = 6.00 " C6H12O6
Slide 32 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Combustion Analysis
CaHb + excess O2 " a CO2(g) + b/2 H2O(l)

The masses of carbon and hydrogen in CaHb can be

determined from the mass of H2O and CO2 produced.
Slide 33 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 11
 Empirical Formula from Combustion Data
1. Use mass of CO2 to calculate mass and moles of C.
2. Use mass of H2O to calculate mass and moles of H.
3. Subtract masses of C and H from mass of sample to
find mass of “other” element (often O).
4. Convert mass of 3rd element into moles.
5. Write a “tentative formula” using the mole values.
6. Divide each mole value by the smallest one found.
7. Convert any fractions to whole numbers by
multiplying all the mole values by the same number.
8. When you have all whole numbers with no common
factor, you have the “empirical formula”.
NOTE: Sig figs don’t matter here, but round off errors
will lead to wrong answer. KEEP extra digits!
Slide 34 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Example
Dimethylhydrazine is a carbon-hydrogen-nitrogen
compound used in rocket fuels. When burned
completely, a 0.312 g sample yields 0.458 g CO2
and 0.374 g H2O. What is the empirical formula of
diemthylhydrazine?

Slide 35 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Chemical Reactions
• Chemical bonds must be
broken and/or formed.
• At least one new
substance must be made.
• Chemical equations show
the identities and
quantities of substances
involved in a reaction.

Slide 36 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 12
 Chemical Equations
• Chemical equations describe the proportions of
substances participating in a chemical reaction.
! Reactants = initial substances (consumed)
! Products = final substances (formed)

Slide 37 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Other Symbols in Chemical Equations

• States of matter
! Gas (g)
! Liquid (l)
! Solid (s)
! Aqueous (aq) = dissolved in water
• Reaction conditions
! High temperature (∆)
! Pressure, catalysts, etc. (written with arrow)

Slide 38 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Interpretation of Chemical Equations

• Relationships in a balanced chemical reaction:

2 H2 + O2 " 2 H2 O
2 molecules H2 + 1 molecule O2 " 2 molecules H2O
2 mol H2 + 1 mol O2 " 2 mol H2O
(2 X 2.02) g H2 + 32.0 g O2 " (2 X 18.0) g H2O

! molecular interpretation
! molar interpretation
! mass interpretation

Slide 39 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 13
 Balanced Chemical Equations
• Chemical equations should be “balanced”
to follow the Law of Conservation of Mass.
! Total mass of each element on reactant side
must equal the total mass of each element on
the product side.
! Same total number of atoms of each element
on each side.
! Total charge of reactant side must equal the
total charge of product side.

Slide 40 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Rules for Balancing Equations

Given: NO + O2 → NO2
• An equation can be balanced only by adjusting the
coefficients of formulas (#’s in front of species).

• Never introduce extraneous chemical species to

balance.
NO + O2 → NO2 + O

• Never change a formula for the purpose of balancing an

equation (i.e., you can’t change the subscripts!).
NO + O2 → NO3
Slide 41 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Balancing Equation Strategy

• Balance elements that occur in only
one compound on each side first.
• Balance free elements last (e.g. O2)
• Balance unchanged polyatomic ions
(or other groups of atoms) as groups.
• Fractional coefficients are acceptable
and can be cleared at the end by
multiplication.
Slide 42 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 14
 Combustion Reactions
• A combustion reaction is one that
occurs between oxygen (O2) and
another substance.
• Hydrocarbons = molecular compounds
composed of only hydrogen & carbon.
! Generic chemical formula is: CXHY
• If the compound is a hydrocarbon, then
the products of complete combustion
are carbon dioxide and water.
Slide 43 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Examples

Balance the following chemical equations:

CH3OH + O2 " CO2 + H2O

K3PO4 + Pb(C2H3O2)2 " KC2H3O2 + Pb3(PO4)2

Slide 44 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Practice

Balance the following chemical equations:

C4H10 + O2 " CO2 + H2O

(NH4)2CO3 + AgNO3 " NH4NO3 + Ag2CO3

Slide 45 of 45 Tro: Chapter 3

Tro: Chapter 3 15