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ம யநத ய ல First Edition ஶ ர லக ஷ ம full chapter download PDF
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மாயநதியி …
ல மி
அ தியாய 1
"சி ன சி கிளிேய க ண மா!
ெச வ கள சியேம!
எ ைன க தீ ேத உலகி
ஏ ற ாிய வ தா !"
Development Division
The Development Division had its origin in the research
laboratories of the National Carbon Company and of the National
Lamp Works of the General Electric Company. Both of these
companies knew charcoal, and they were asked to produce a
satisfactory absorbent charcoal. The success of this undertaking will
be seen in the chapter on Absorbents. After a short time all the
laboratory work was taken over by the National Carbon Co., while
the developmental work was assigned to the National Lamp Works.
When the final organization of the Chemical Warfare Service took
place, the National Carbon Laboratory became part of the Research
Division, while the National Lamp Works became the Defense
Section of the Development Division.
The Development Division may be considered as having been
composed of the following sections:
1. Defense
2. Offense
3. Midland
4. Willoughby
5. Special Investigation.
Proving Division
The Proving Division had its origin in the decision to build an
Experimental Ground for gas warfare under the direction of the
Trench Warfare Section of the Ordnance Department. While this
decision was reached about September, 1917, actual work on the
final location (Lakehurst, N. J.) was not started until March 26, 1918,
and the construction work was not completed until August 1, 1918.
However, firing trials were started on April 25, 1918, and in all 82
were carried out.
The Proving Division was created to do two things: To experiment
with gas shell before they reached the point where they could be
manufactured safely in large numbers for shipment overseas; and to
prove gas shell, presumably perfect and ready for shipment, to guard
against any mechanical inaccuracies in manufacture or filling. It is
evident that the second proposition is dependent upon the first. Shell
can not be proved to ascertain the effect of gases under various
conditions and concentrations until the mechanical details of the
shell itself, purely an Ordnance matter, have been standardized.
Unfortunately many of the tests carried out had to do with this very
question of testing Ordnance.
For field concentration work two complete and separate lines of
trenches were used and also several impact grounds. The trenches
were built to simulate the trenches actually used in warfare. Each
line of trench contained several concrete shell-proof dugouts and
was also equipped with shelves into which boxes could be placed for
holding the sample bottles. At intervals of one yard throughout the
trenches there were electrical connections available for electrical
sampling purposes. The various impact grounds were used for cloud
gas attacks, and experiments with mustard gas or in many cases for
static trials. The samples were collected by means of an automatic
sampling apparatus.
The work of the Division consisted in the first instance of
determining the proper bursting charge. While a great deal of this
work had been carried out in Europe, American gas shell were
enough different to require that tests be carried out on them. The
importance of this work is obvious, since phosgene, a substance
with a low boiling point, would require a smaller bursting charge to
open the shell and allow the substance to vaporize than would
mustard gas, where the bursting charge must be not only sufficient
to fragment the shell but also to scatter the liquid so that it would be
atomized over the largest possible area. In the case of low boiling
liquids it was necessary that the charge be worked out very carefully
as a difference of one or two grams would seriously affect the
concentration. Too small a charge would allow a cup to be formed by
the base of the shell which would carry some of the liquid into the
ground, while too great an amount of explosive tended to throw the
gas too high into the air.
After the bursting charge had been determined a large number of
shell were repeatedly fired into the trenches, wooded areas, rolling
and level ground, and the concentration of gas produced and the
effect upon animals placed within the area ascertained. From the
results of these experiments the Proving Division was able to furnish
the artillery with data regarding how many shell of given caliber
should be used, with corrections for ranges, wind velocities,
temperatures, ground conditions, etc. Trials were also held to
determine how many high explosive (H.E.) shell could be fired with
gas shell on the same area without unduly affecting the
concentration. This was important, because H.E. shell were useful in
disguising gas bombardments. Gas shell can usually be
distinguished by the small detonation on bursting.
Experiments were performed to determine the decomposition of
various gases on detonation. The shell were fired at a large wooden
screen and burst on impact. Samples of gas were taken immediately
and analyzed.
Co-operative tests were carried out with the Gas Defense
Division to determine the value of given masks under field
conditions. Companies of infantry, fully equipped for the field, would
wear masks for hours at a time digging trenches, cutting timber,
drilling, etc., and imitating in every way, as far as possible, actual
field conditions. During these activities tons of gas in cylinders were
released in such a way that the men were enveloped in a far higher
concentration than would probably ever be the case in actual battle.
These tests gave valuable data for criticizing gas mask construction.
Another line of activity consisted of a study of the persistency and
relative effectiveness of various samples of mustard gas, in which
the liquid was distributed uniformly upon the surface of grassy zones
one to three feet in width, which formed the periphery of circular
areas 14 to 21 feet in diameter, the central part of each circle being
occupied by animals.
The work of the Proving Division was brought to an end (by the
Armistice) just at the time when it had reached its greatest
usefulness. Not only were the physical properties and personnel of
the Division developed to the maximum degree, but the production of
gas shell in this country for shipment to France had just reached the
stage where the Proving Ground could have been used to its fullest
extent in their proving.
Training Division
From the standpoint of the man at the front the Training Division
is one of the most important. To him gas warfare is an ever present
titanic struggle between poisonous vapors that kill on one side, and
the gas mask and a knowledge of how and when to wear it, on the
other. Because of this it is rather surprising that we did not hear more
about this branch of the Service. It did exist, however, and credit
must be given to those camp gas officers who remained in the
United States performing an inconspicuous and arduous duty in the
face of many local obstacles.
Fig. 8.
Medical Division
Dr. Yandell Henderson of Yale University was the logical man to
inaugurate the medical work of the Bureau of Mines, because of his
experience with oxygen rescue apparatus. A member of the first
committee of the Bureau, he secured, in July, 1917, an appropriation
for the study of toxic gases at Yale. This was in charge of Doctors
Underhill, therapy; Marshall, pharmacology; and Winternitz,
pathology. When the American University Station was opened
Marshall was given charge of the pharmacology. About the same
time a factory protection unit was organized under the direction of
Doctors Bradley, Eyster and Loevenhart. At first this committee
reported to the Ordnance Department, but later the work was
transferred to the Gas Defense Service.
In December, 1917, the Medical Advisory Board was organized.
This included all the men who were carrying on experimental work of
a medical nature. This board had as its object the correlation of all
medical work; new work was outlined and attempts were made to
secure the co-operation of scientific men throughout the country. The
following groups of workers assisted in this effort: At Yale, Underhill
studied therapy, turning his animals over to Winternitz for
pathological study. Henderson was specially interested in the
physiology of aviation. At the American University Marshall carried
on pharmacological research, specially as regards mustard gas, the
toxicology being covered by Loevenhart. A pathological laboratory
was also started, under Winternitz, where many valuable studies
were made.[14] At Cleveland Sollmann was busy with mustard gas
and protective agents. Pearce, working in co-operation with Dr. Geer
of the Goodrich Rubber Company, perfected the Goodrich Lakeside
Mask. His study was very valuable as concerning the physiology of
the gas mask. At Ann Arbor Warthin and Weller[15] were studying the
physiology and pathology of mustard gas. Wells, Amberg, Helmholz
and Austin of the Otho Sprague Memorial Institute were interested in
protective clothing, while at Madison, Eyster, Loevenhart and Meek
were engaged in a study of the chronic effect of long exposures to
low concentrations, and later expanded their work to protective
ointments and certain problems in pathology.
In the spring of 1918 many of these men were commissioned into
the Gas Defense Service of the Sanitary Corps, and were later
transferred to the Chemical Warfare Service as the Medical Division,
with Colonel W. J. Lyster, M.C., in charge.
One of the most important functions of this Division was the daily
testing of a large number of compounds for toxicity, lachrymatory or
vesicant properties. The accuracy of these tests might and probably
did save a large amount of unnecessary experimental work on the
part of the Research Division. These tests are described in a later
chapter.
Very interesting and likewise valuable was the study of mustard
gas by Marshall, Lynch and Smith. They were able to work out the
mechanism of its action and the varying degrees of susceptibility in
individuals (see page 171).
Another interesting point was the fact that in the case of certain
gases there is a cumulative effect. With superpalite and mustard gas
the lethal concentration (that concentration which is fatal after a
given exposure) is lower on longer exposures. On the other hand
there is no cumulative effect with hydrocyanic acid. Whether the
action is cumulative or not depends on the rate at which the system
destroys or eliminates the poison.
Liaison Officers
This chapter should not be closed without reference to the
Liaison Service that was established between the United States and
her Allies, especially England.
During the early days no one in the States was familiar with the
details of gas warfare. At the request of the Medical Corps, upon the
urgent representations of the Gas Service, A.E.F., Captain (now
Major) H. W. Dudley was sent to this country (Sept., 1917) to assist
in the development and manufacture of gas masks. For some time
he was the Court of Appeal on nearly all technical points regarding
matters of defense. Dudley’s continual insistence on the need for
maintaining the highest possible standard of factory inspection was
one of the factors resulting in the excellent construction of the
American Mask. In March, 1918, Lieut. Col. Dewey and Captain
Dudley made a trip to England and France, during which the idea of
a liaison between the defense organizations of the two countries
originated. Dudley was transferred to the Engineers, promoted and
placed in charge of the Liaison service. While the time until the
Armistice was too short to really test the idea, enough was
accomplished to show the extreme desirability of some such
arrangement.
Probably the best known liaison officer from the British was
Colonel S. J. M. Auld, also sent upon the urgent representations of
the Gas Service, A.E.F. He arrived in this country about the middle of
October, 1917, in charge of 28 officers and 28 non-commissioned
officers, who were to act as advisers in training and many other
military subjects besides gas warfare. Since Auld had had personal
experience with gas warfare as then practiced at the front, his advice
was welcomed most heartily by all the different branches of the Army
then handling gas warfare. On questions of general policy Auld was
practically the sole foreign adviser. The matter of gas training was
transferred from the Medical Corps to the Engineers, and was
greatly assisted by four pamphlets on Gas Warfare issued by the
War College, which were prepared by Major Auld with the assistance
of Captain Walton and Lieut. Bohnson. Later Auld gave the
American public a very clear idea of gas warfare in his series of
articles appearing in the Saturday Evening Post, and re-written as
“Gas and Flame.”
Major H. R. LeSueur, who was at Porton previous to his arrival in
this country in December, 1917, rendered valuable aid in
establishing the Experimental Proving Ground and in its later
operations.
Towards the close of the war the British War Office had drawn up
a scheme for a Gas Mission, which was to correlate all the gas
activities of England and America. This was never carried through
because of the signing of the Armistice.
The French representatives, M. Grignard, Capt. Hanker and Lt.
Engel furnished valuable information as to French methods, but they
were handicapped by the fact that French manufacturers did not
disclose their trade secrets even to their own Government.
About August, 1918, Lieut. Col. James F. Norris opened an office
in London. His duties were to establish cordial and intimate relations
not only with the various agencies of the British Government which
were connected with gas warfare, but also with the various
laboratories where experiments were being conducted, that
important changes might be transmitted to America with the least
possible delay. The English made Colonel Norris a member of the
British Chemical Warfare Committee. Here again the signing of the
Armistice prevented a full realization of the importance of this work.
CHAPTER IV
THE CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE
IN FRANCE