LEARNING THEORIES

CHAPTER I

1.1 IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV

1.1.1 BIOGRAPHICAL DATA

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. 1849-1936 Russian
physiologist and psychologist.1 He studied
theology, which he abandoned to enter the
University of Saint Petersburg and study
medicine and chemistry. Once he received his
doctorate, he expanded his knowledge in
Germany, where he specialized in intestinal
physiology and the circulatory system. In 1890
he took up a position as professor of
physiology at the
Imperial Medical Academy.

1.2 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

It is a type of learning and behavior that consists of pairing a natural stimulus
with its natural response and connecting it with a second stimulus to generate a
response that does not occur naturally, otherwise classical conditioning is the
simplest mechanism by which organisms They can learn about relationships
between stimuli and change their behavior accordingly. It allows humans and
animals to take advantage of the ordered sequence of events in their
environment and learn which stimuli tend to go with which events.
It focuses on learning involuntary emotional or psychological responses, fear,
increased heart rate, salivation, sweating, etc.

Sometimes called responders because they are automatic responses or stimuli.

1 Gordon H. Bower, Ernest R. (1989) Chapter 3 "Learning Theories". Hilgard, Edit. Trillas,
Mexico City

1
Through the process of classical conditioning it is possible to train animals and
humans to react involuntarily to a stimulus that previously had no effect. The
stimulus produces or generates the response automatically.

1.3 INFLUENCE OF THEORY ON LEARNING.

1.3.1 BEHAVIORISM:
For a behavior to be modified, a stimulus and a response are needed, which
together develop an ability or skill to be put into practice. Motivation influences
behavior, it leads to a response and this behavior can be intrinsic or extrinsic.

1.3.2 ASSOCIATIONISM:
Ability to relate two elements. Simple languages and associations with stimulus
response that generate learning, this can be verbal, sensory-motor and skill-
based.

1.3.3 APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF THE THEORY.

The teacher conditions the students in the classroom, telling them that if they do
not come in after the bell rang (conditioned stimulus), they will lose a point on
their grade, therefore he conditions them to come in early (conditioned
response).

1.4 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS.

Conditioning: Type of learning in which a behavior continues because it is
reinforced.
Operant Conditioning: Every stimulus makes or produces a response.
Reinforcer: Repeated monitoring of the CS
Stimulus: Something that influences a behavior or action.
Punishment: Event that reduces the probability that the behavior will occur.

2
Aversive Stimulus: Causes a negative response towards an action.
Conditioned Response: It offers the organism a response, after learning or
undergoing conditioning and is only generated if a conditioned stimulus is
presented.
Unconditioned Response: It occurs in the body whenever an unconditioned
stimulus is presented.
Satiety Habituation: Recurrent presence of a conditioned stimulus, causing the
behavior to be lost or causing a null effect.

1.5 LINKAGE WITH OTHER THEORIES.

- Skinner-Operant Conditioning.
- Tolman- Learning of signs.
- Theories of behavioral information processing.
- Max Wertheiemer-Gestalt Theory.

2.1 EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE

2.1.1 BIOGRAPHICAL DATA

Williamsburg, 1874 - Montrose, 1949)
American psychologist and pedagogue,2
one of the pioneers of the psychology of
learning. He studied at Wesleyan
University, from which he graduated in
1895.

2.2 THEORY AND DESCRIPTION

OF THE SAME.

2.2.1 CONNECTIONISM.
Thorndike's Learning Theory represents the original E - R structure of
Behavioral Psychology: Learning is the result of associations formed between
stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits" are observed to be

2 Gordon H. Bower, Ernest R. (1989). Chapter 6. "Theories of Learning." Hilgard, Edit.

Thresholds, Mexico. D.F.

3
strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of E - R pairs. The
paradigm of E - R theory was learning from trial and error in which correct
answers come to prevail over others due to rewards.

The mark of quality of behaviorism (like all behavioral theory) lies in the fact that
learning can be explained without reference to unobservable internal states. The
theory suggests that the transfer of learning depends on the presence of
identical elements in the origin and in the new learning situations; that is, the
transfer is always specific, never general. Connections are more easily
established if the person perceives that stimuli and responses go together
(Gestalt Principle).

Another concept introduced was "polarity", which consists of the contrast of

directions that can follow from positive to negative, from pleasant to unpleasant,
from fair to unfair, from attraction to repulsion. Thorndike also introduced the
"spread of effect" of the idea, that is, gratifications affect not only the connection
that produced them but also temporally adjacent connections.

2.3 INFLUENCE OF THEORY ON LEARNING.

2.3.1 LAW OF EFFECT

It says that when a connection between a stimulus and response is rewarded
(positive feedback), the connection is strengthened and when it is punished
(negative feedback), the connection weakens. Thorndike later revised this law
when he discovered that negative reward (punishment) did not necessarily
weaken bonding and that to some extent it seemed to have pleasurable
consequences rather than motivating behavior.

2.3.2 LAW OF EXERCISE

He maintains that the more the E - R link is practiced, the greater the union will
be. As with the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be updated when
Thorndike found that practicing without feedback does not necessarily reinforce
performance.

4
2.3.3 NO READ LAW
Due to the structure of the nervous system, certain conduction units, under
certain conditions, are more willing to drive than others. Thorndike's laws are
based on the E - R hypothesis. He believed that a neural link was established
between the stimulus and the response when the latter was positive. Learning
occurred when the link was established within an observable pattern of
behavior.

2.4 APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF THE THEORY.

Behaviorism is a general theory of learning applied to animals and humans.
Thorndike was especially interested in the application of his theory with respect
to mathematics education (Thorndike, 1922), learning to read (Thorndike, 1921),
measurement of intelligence (Thorndike et al., 1927), and adult learning
(Thorndike , 1928).

The classic example of Thorndike's E - R theory considers a cat learning to

escape from a closed box by pressing a lever inside the box. After much trial
and error, the cat learns to associate pressing the lever (E) with opening the
door (R). This E - R connection is established because it causes a satisfactory
state (escaping from the box). The exercise of the law specifies that the
connection was established because the E - R link occurred many times (law of
effect) and was rewarded (law of effect) thus forming a unique sequence (law of
promptness).

5
2.5 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS.
• Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/exercise)

• A series of SR connections can be chained together if they belong to the

same action sequence (law of readiness).

• The transfer of learning occurs because of the situations previously

encountered.
• Intelligence is a function of the number of learning connections.

2.6 LINKAGE WITH OTHER THEORIES.

- Behaviorism and Associationism.

3.1 EDWIN R. GUTRHIE

3.1.1 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DATA
Edwin Ray Guthrie3 was born and raised in
Lincoln, Nebraska. After finishing high school,
he attended the University of Nebraska where
he earned his bachelor's degree in
mathematics. He remained there to obtain his
master's degree in philosophy.

He received his doctorate in philosophy from

the University of Pennsylvania. After obtaining
his doctorate, he was hired as an instructor in the philosophy department at the

University of Washington.
After 5 years, he moved to the Department of Psychology, where he remained
for the rest of his career. He was the winner of the second gold medal awarded
by the American Psychological Association for a lifetime of contributions to
Psychology.

3 Brower. G., and Hilgard E. (2011) Chapter 4 "Gutrhie's Contiguous Knowledge". Learning
Theories. Mexico: Thresholds

6
3.2 THEORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE SAME.
Guthrie's law of contiguity stipulated that a combination of stimuli that had
accompanied a movement, in its recurrent emission, would tend to be followed
by that same movement. He claimed that all learning was based on stimulus-
response associations.

Contiguity theory implies that forgetting is a form of retroactive or associative

inhibition. Associative inhibition occurs when one habit prevents another from
manifesting, because it has stronger stimulation. Guthrie established that
forgetting is due to interference, because the stimulus would have been
associated with new responses. To break a habit, you have to find the signals
that start it and practice different responses to those signals.

3.3 INFLUENCE OF THEORY ON LEARNING.

We can observe this theory today, for example in an institution, we can see that
students go to school to obtain something (accreditation, degree, etc.) and for
this they have to make a series of movements which they do daily, (these
become habits), whether it is the transfer from home to school, when they take a
place in the classroom, when they raise their hand to participate, (answer) all
this for a single objective, to accredit and of course to learn, (stimulus).

3.4 APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF THE THEORY.

When we learn to play a musical instrument, be it a violin, guitar, etc.
Demonstrating certain skills, which are developed trial by trial. Everything begins
with a rehearsal, if the first one goes perfectly it is called the principle of
presence, since the learning occurred completely in a single rehearsal, through
external stimuli that would be hearing or seeing the notes, which will generate
movements kinesthetic.

Now, in the event that one stops playing such an instrument and in the future
one wants to resume this skill, the only thing that would occur is a transfer,
which will create the learning of new responses that replace the old ones.

7
3.5 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS.
Principle of decency: If learning occurs entirely on one trial, the learning that
occurred last in the presence of a stimulus combination will be the learning that
occurs when the stimulus combination occurs again.

• Skills: A component of the so-called motor skills, understood as the

ability acquired through learning to achieve previously set results with
maximum success, and often with minimum time, energy or both
together.

• External stimulus: Movement of the organism that, in turn, produces

Kinesthetic stimuli.

• Kinesthetic stimuli: Associations between stimuli and responses

separated in time, such intervening movements fill the void.
• Void: True association that occurs between simultaneous events.
• Stimuli produced by movement: Allows integrations of habits within a
wide range of environmental changes and stimulation (organisms
transmit these stimuli).

• Active stimuli: They determine the response and can be conditioned in

a given trial.

• Drive reduction: Rewards act by changing internal drive states, and

some aspects of anticipated reward interpretation of reinforcement action.

• Previously experienced consequences of the act: Muscle tensions,

characteristics of the behaviorist position regarding cognitive events.

• Reason: The motivational state of the organism (basic needs) is

important for the stimulus-response sequence that occurs.

• Motivational state: Determines the presence and vigor of movements

that can make associative connections.

• Maintenance stimulus: Active organism until it reaches a goal.

• Intention: Behavior is organized into sequences in which people

formulate plans and put them into practice, or at least begin to execute
them.

8
 • Breaking a habit: Cause against movements that occur in the presence
of the signs for the habit.

• Tolerance method: It consists of introducing the stimulus that we want to

eliminate and does not provoke a response.

• Counter conditioning: Consists of presenting the stimulus when other

characteristics in the situation inhibit the undesirable response.
• Stereotypy: “Equality” between trials.

3.6 TYPICAL LEARNING PROBLEMS.

Capacity: Maturation as a determinant of many types of acts.

Practice: Assimilate or set aside cues for specific movements until a complete
family of stimulus combinations appears, to evoke an entire range of responses
that is socially described as “successful performance.” Learning seems to
accumulate with repetition.

• Motivation: It indirectly affects learning.

• The reward: It is a secondary or derived principle, it does not strengthen

your behavior, but rather prevents its weakening.
• Punishments: They produce different things at the same time.
• Transfer: Learning transfers to new things because of the common
elements between the new and the old.

• Forgetting: All forgetting is due to learning new responses that replace

old ones.

3.7 LINKAGE WITH OTHER THEORIES.

- John B. Watson (1878-1958). Muscular movements and glandular
secretions that these stimuli produce. Kinesthetic stimuli occur during the
movements of the organism.
- Thorndike. It accepted two types of learning: 1 Response selection and
connection with stimuli (law of effect). 2 Change by association in which a
response to one stimulus varies toward another. Understanding
mechanical and repetitive nature.

9
 - Watson. He used Pavlov's experiment as a learning paradigm, and, for
him, the unit of habit was the conditioned reflex around which he built his
entire system.

3.8 GESTALT THEORY. TYPICAL LEARNING PROBLEMS.

• Practice: The repetition of an experience.

• Motivation: They acted to confirm or disconfirm the proposed solutions

to the problems.
• Comprehension: Faster learning.
• Transfer: When one situation is applied to another.
• Forgetfulness: Changes in the footprint.

10
4.1 CLARK LEONARD HULL

4.1.1 BIOGRAPHICAL DATA.

Clark Leonard Hull (Akron, New
York, 1884 - New Haven,
Connecticut, May 10, 1952)4 was an
influential American psychologist
who set out to understand learning
and motivation through scientific
laws of behavior.

Hull earned his bachelor's and

master's degrees from the University
of Michigan, and in 1918 his
doctorate from the University of
Wisconsin-Madison, where he also
taught from 1916 to 1929. His doctoral research on "Aspects of the evolution of
concepts."

Hull conducted research showing that his theories could predict and control
behavior. His most significant works were Mathematico-Deductive Theory of
Rote Learning (1940), and Principles of Behavior (1943), which established his
analysis of animal learning and conditioning as the dominant theory of behavior
of his time.

Hull's model is supported in evolutionary terms: Organisms suffer deprivation,

deprivation creates needs, needs activate drives; Behavior is goal-directed and
achieving goals has survival value. He died in New Haven, 1952.

4.2 THEORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE SAME.

Hull's theory is recognized as mechanistic behaviorist and intentionally avoids all
4 Gordon H. Bower, Ernest R. (1989) Chapter 5. "Learning Theories" . Hilgard, Edit. Trillas,
Mexico City

11
reference to consciousness, its central concept is habit. Hull understood learning
as a means that organisms use to adapt to their environments in order to
survive.

Hull formulates postulates, which are carried out to experimentation for

verification or invalidation. Its participating variables, or better called intervening
variables, are the inferences it made about the events that occurred within the
organism. In the paradigmatic formula of the reflection there are only two
elements, E (stimulus) and R (response) E - R.

Behavior is a matter of stimuli and responses, the objective of their work was to
predict the dependent variables based on the participation of the independent
variables, introducing the intervening variables into this game. The first and the
last were observable and measurable, the second only represented possible
hypothetical states of the organism.

The “input” or stimulus variables are objective factors such as the number of
reinforced trials, the deprivation of the incentive, the intensity of the conditioned
stimulus, the amount of the reward. These factors are directly associated with
the resulting processes, which hypothetically function in the organism: the first-
order intervening variables.

The continuity hypothesis; Learning is continuous and cumulative. Each

reinforcement strengthens learning, even if it does not manifest itself at first.
Learning consists of strengthening, within a category of habits, those that are
weaker, it must reinforce these and avoid extinguishing those that are more
likely. Hull understood learning as a means for organisms to adapt to their
environments in order to survive.

4.3 INFLUENCE OF THEORY ON LEARNING.

The term habit can be used as a prototype of a concept in which the classical

12
law of association is linked to action rather than cognition and is interpreted as a
psychological force similar in character to motivational forces.

The relationship between memory and learning is highly complex. Following

past experiences is a way of learning from experience. The breakdown between
the activation of behavior and its direction made the motivational process
extremely flexible and there would be the possibility of its regulation by learning
and higher cognitive processes.

Hull's main contribution in this context consisted of transforming the law of effect
into a systematic and brilliant theoretical system in which reinforcement was
nothing other than the reduction of impulse. The success of this operational
definition of impulse had the effect that motivation would become as relevant in
the explanation of behavior as learning, once its almost sole reference.

Learning depends on the contiguity of the stimuli and the response, closely
associated with reinforcement. This is essentially a restatement of Thorndike's
law of the effect with the reward specified in terms of need reduction. The
course of learning described as a simple function of growth is based on the
implicit assumption that the increase in habit strength with each reinforcement is
a constant fraction of the amount that remains to be learned.

4.4 APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF THE THEORY.

A man has the habit of smoking whenever he goes out with his colleagues at
breakfast time at work, but when he is alone, he very rarely does this action. To
improve this unwanted behavior, a plan must be devised. In this case, the
person who smokes will be deprived of the stimulus, so he has been asked to go
and rest alone. In this way, no one will be smoking in front of him, thus the
subject will avoid repeating what he sees, since the behaviors stimulus
(observing another smoker) will not have a response (smoking), thus it will make
it easier for you to quit smoking and your habit will have been modified.

13
4.5 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS.
Habit: These are the behaviors that are established by reactions.
Impulse: Motivational construct, fills the body with energy and inclines it to
action.
Inhibition: The impulse and force of habit lead organisms to respond, inhibition
prevents them from doing so.
Negative variables: These will eradicate the behavior, to prevent it from
becoming a habit.

4.6 LINKAGE WITH OTHER THEORIES.

- Skinner: Even if there are punishments, the behavior will not be modified
because the habit is stronger.
- Pavlov: He took the principles of conditioning, with these contributions he
tried to integrate a new system.
- Thorndike: Hull adopts the law of effect, using the results of this
experiment since learning depends on the contiguity of stimuli and
response.
- Under the influence of Thorndike, Pavlov and Tolman: Behavior is
understood as a survival mechanism of the organism, their perspective is
functionalist; Reinforcement theory is added to it.

14
5.1 BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER

5.1.1 BIOGRAPHICAL DATA.

Burrus Frederic Skinner, was born in 1904 in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania. 5
After failing in his attempts to be a writer he switched to psychology, of which he
had only a vague idea. He obtained his doctorate in 1931.

In 1938 he wrote the book entitled “The Behavior of Organisms”, in which he

introduced his studies on operant
conditioning, then he wrote Walden II in
1948, his intention was to describe the use
of a design for the good life in a community
governed by the principles of operant
knowledge. Numerous writings followed, until
his death on August 18, 1990.

5.2 THEORY AND DESCRIPTION

OF THE SAME.
Operant conditioning, also called
instrumental and nowadays experimental
behavior analysis (AEC), can be defined as
follows: It is the psychological theory of learning that explains the voluntary
behavior of the body, in its relationship with the environment, based in an
experimental method.

That is, when faced with a stimulus, a voluntary response is produced, which
can be reinforced positively or negatively, causing the operant behavior to
become stronger or weaker. Skinner would state that “operant conditioning
modifies behavior in the same way that a writer shapes a pile of clay,” since
within operant conditioning learning is simply the change in the probabilities of a
response being made.
5 Lorenzo Quezada, A., Gracia and Jiménez, (2003) Geography and History , Spain: MAD SL
Mora Ledesma, J. (1977) Psychology of learning , Mexico, DF: PROGRESO SA DE CV

Gordon H. Bower, E. (1989) Learning Theories , Mexico City: TRILLAS

15
5.3 INFLUENCE OF THEORY ON LEARNING.
Skinner states that when students are dominated by an atmosphere of
depression, what they want is to get out of trouble and not really learn or
improve themselves. It is known that for learning to take effect, reinforcing
stimuli must follow immediate responses.

Since the teacher has too many students and does not have the time to deal
with their responses, one by one he has to reinforce the desired behavior using
groups of responses. Skinner believes that the purpose of psychology is to
predict and control the behavior of individual organisms. In operant conditioning,
teachers are considered as modelers of students' behavior.

5.4 APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF THE THEORY.

• Reinforcement learning: It is the learning in which the behavior is new
for the organism that increases its frequency of appearance after
receiving some reinforcing stimulus.

• Avoidance learning: It is learning where the organism acquires a new

behavior that ends or prevents the application of some aversive
(unpleasant) stimulus, and increases the frequency of appearance of that
behavior so that it does not return.

• Superstitious learning: It is learning where some casually reinforcing or

aversive consequence increases the frequency of appearance of some
behavior.

• Punishment learning: It is learning where an organism increases the

frequency of appearance of behaviors that were not followed or that did
not receive any aversive or unpleasant stimulus.

• Forgetting: All behaviors that do not receive or stop receiving

reinforcement tend to reduce their frequency of appearance and
disappear.

5.5 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS.

• Discriminative Stimulus: It is one in which the presence of a certain
portion of behavior is highly probable, because it was previously

16
 reinforced by a stimulus.

• Operant Behavior: It is what an organism has, that is, how the

environment behaves.

• Reinforcing Stimulus: It is a stimulus that increases the probability of a

contingent response.

• Generalization: It is when reinforcing a response produces an increase

in another similar response.

• Discrimination: It is when an organism behaves differently in the

presence of two stimuli.

• Extinction: It is a procedure in which an operant behavior that has been

reinforced ceases to be so and that produces the end of the response.

5.6 TYPES OF REINFORCERS.

• Positive: Any stimulus that increases the probability that a behavior will
occur.

• Negative: Any aversive stimulus that, when removed, increases the

probability that the behavior will occur.

• Extinction: Occurs when a stimulus that previously reinforced the

behavior stops acting.
• Punishment: Like extinction, it works to reduce behavior.
• Multiple: Application of two or more different programs.

• Composite: Reinforcement of two or more responses with one or more

programs.

• Concurrent: Reinforcement of two or more responses with one or more

programs.

• Punishment: This is when an aversive stimulus is used to obtain a

reduction in the rate of a response.

17
5.7 LINKAGE WITH OTHER THEORIES.

5.8 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND

OPERANT CONDITIONING.

5.8.1 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING.

- A neurological stimulus becomes an associated reflex. Example: The
sound of the bell is associated with salivation.
- The reflection. A simple innate behavior is one that produces an
inevitable response to changes in the environmental situation.
- It is a combination of stimulus-response factors. The behaviour is internal
and innate.

5.8.2 OPERANT CONDITIONING.

- Human behavior is a product of operant reinforcement. Example: The

individual presses a lever and receives food.
- It is not a reflex, the subject must carry out an activity to obtain something
in return.
- Behavior is external since it has an effect on the world outside the
individual. The relationship of the behavior has an effect that increases
the probability that the same behavior will reappear under similar
conditions.

18
6.1 EDWARD CHACE TOLMAN

6.1.1 BIOGRAPHICAL DATA.

(1886 – 1959) Edward Chace Tolman,6
American psychologist; Born in West
Newton, Massachusetts, he studied at
the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.

6.2 THEORY AND

DESCRIPTION
OF THE SAME.

“Behaviorist.” It is called sign, Gestalt

or expectancy theory. It shows a
systematic conception of behavior, where it establishes that behavior depends
on a variety of factors that are independent of each other, such as genetics,
maturation and environmental stimuli that influence it.

6.3 INFLUENCE OF THEORY ON LEARNING.

Stimulus-response theories imply that the organism prompted along a path by
internal and external stimuli learns the sequence of correct movements. Tolman
mentions that men and animals act mainly towards proposed goals in order to
reach a determined and satisfactory end for the subject.

6.4 APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF THE THEORY.

One of his great contributions was applied thanks to the theory of evolution to
address behaviorism, which led him to do research on animals.

Example:
When the doorbell button (E1) is pressed, (R1) expected to hear the doorbell

66 Gordon H. Bower, Ernest R. (1989) Chapter 11. "Learning Theories" . Hilgard, Edit. Trillas,
Mexico, DF

19
ring (E2), the expectation is the doorbell before anything is done with the goal
being to ring the doorbell.

6.5 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS.

- Goal: End to which an action or operation is directed.
- Expectation: It refers to waiting with curiosity and tension for an event.
- Behaviorism: Branch of psychology that studies animal behavior.

6.6 LINKAGE WITH OTHER THEORIES.

- Thorndike: “Connectionism”- Stimulus-Response.
- Guthrie: “Behaviorism”- Gradual learning.
- Skinner: “Behaviorism.”
- Hull: “Behaviorism” and “Mechanism.”
- Pavlov: “Behaviorism.”

7.1 GESTALT

7.1.1. THEORY AND APPLICATION OF THE SAME.

Gestalt theory. German term, without direct translation into Spanish, but which
approximately means "form", "totality", "configuration". The form or configuration
of anything is composed of a "figure" and a "ground." For example, at this
moment for you, who read this text, the letters constitute the figure and the white
spaces form the background; although this situation can be reversed and what is
figure can become background.

The phenomenon described, which is located at the level of perception, also

involves all aspects of experience. This is how some situations that concern us
and are located at the current moment in the status of figure, can become in
other moments, when the problem or need that caused it to arise disappear, in
situations of little significance, then passing into the background.

This occurs especially when a Gestalt is managed to "close" or conclude; then it

withdraws from our attention towards the background, and from said background

20
a new Gestalt arises motivated by some new need. This cycle of opening and
closing Gestalts (or Gestalten, as they say in German) is a permanent process,
which occurs throughout our entire existence.

The Gestalt Approach is a holistic approach; That is, it perceives objects, and
especially living beings, as wholes. In Gestalt we say that "the whole is more
than the sum of the parts." Everything exists and acquires meaning within a
specific context; nothing exists by itself, isolated. We must remember that
Gestalt psychologists were fundamentally interested in perception and problem-
solving processes.

8.1. APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF THE THEORY.

8.1.1. LAWS OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION.

8.1.1.1. FIGURE-GROUND RELATIONSHIPS.

The figure is what attention focuses on: it stands out and is more notable or
outstanding than the background. In some cases, what figure and background
are in a given scene turns out, and the perceiving subject can organize them in
a certain way, and then change and see them in another way. People basically
learn about the figure on which they focus their attention, and not about the
background.

8.1.1.2. LAW OF PROXIMITY.

The elements of a field tend to be grouped according to their closeness or
proximity. The closer two elements are, the more likely they are to group
together.

But this proximity factor is in constant use when we communicate through

reading, writing or speaking. We hear language as a series of distinctive words
with pauses between words and sentences, even though a spectrogram shows
a nearly continuous stream of sound. In readings, spaces are used between
words in order to segregate the words into groups, and it becomes complicated
when this segregation is broken.

21
8.1.1.3. LAW OF SIMILARITY.
The law of similarity stipulates that those similar with respect to some
characteristic (shape, color, texture, etc.) will have to be grouped together, as
long as proximity factors do not nullify this effect.

Our monitoring of a verbal message becomes increasingly difficult if the quality

of the voice is constantly altered (by splicing onto a tape a different voice for
each word in the message). A similar result is obtained when reading
ToDaSlAsLeTrAsJuNtAs (all the letters together), where all the letters within a
word usually have almost the same size and color, which makes grouping
easier.

8.1.1.4. LAW OF COMMON DIRECTION.

A set of points tend to group together if any appear to continue or complete a
valid series or explore a simple curve.

8.1.1.5. LAW OF SIMPLICITY.

It states that if everything remains constant, the person sees the perceptual field
as if it were organized in simple and regular figures. That is to say, there will be
a tendency towards good Gestalts of symmetry, regularity and uniformity.

9.1 BEGINNING.
The starting point of Gestalt treatment of learning is the premise that the laws of
organization in perception are applicable to learning and memory. What is
stored in memory are traces of perceptual stories, and as organizational laws
govern the structure of perceptions, they also determine the structure of the
information that is established in memory.

9.1.1 INFLUENCE OF THE GESTALT THEORY ON THE

LEARNING DEVELOPMENT.
They perceive a somewhat distorted emphasis on learning such as the
following:

22
• Practice: The repetition of an experience is accumulated on previous
experiences only if the second event is recognized as a recurrence of the
previous one.

• Motivation: They accepted the empirical law of effect, about the role of
rewards and punishments. They believed that side effects did not act
“automatically and unconsciously” to strengthen previous acts. Rather,
the effect had to be perceived as belonging to the previous act. Rewards
and punishments acted to confirm or disconfirm the proposed solutions to
problems.
• Comprehension: Faster learning, greater retention.
• Transfer: Transposition. A dynamic relationship pattern discovered or
understood in one situation is applicable to another.
• Forgetting: It is related to the course of changes in the footprint.

23
 10.1 CONCLUSIONS

- Each of these theories assumes different learning facilities for adults.

Theories focused on self-construction or on the learner as an individual
prevent the recognition of the situation and the context in which learning
takes place in time and space,
- The most appropriate theories for the learning style discovered in adults
are all those that imply a certain complexity and a certain dialectical
relationship between multiple elements.
- Learning is not done in a closed laboratory and controlling variables
everywhere, it is done outdoors, where the interference of many noises at
the same time makes itself felt.
- That is why more than the study of topics, problem-solving techniques are
needed, more than learning by disciplines, interdisciplinary methods are
needed, more than logical learning, other psycho- and socio-logical
learning is needed, more than simplified learning, complex learning is
needed, of time. and experiences.
- These theories focus on the learning process and therefore take into
account the different forms or styles of learning that occur depending on
each person's circumstances.

24
 11.1 RECOMMENDATIONS

- Concepts that are learned significantly can extend a person's knowledge

of related concepts.
- These concepts can later serve as drivers for later learning of related
concepts.
- With this mechanism, a large amount of information is retained and it is
retained for longer.
12.1 BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Gordon H. Bower, Ernest R. (1989) Chapter 3 "Learning

Theories". Hilgard, Edit. Trillas, Mexico City

• Brower. G., and Hilgard E. (2011) Chapter 4 "Gutrhie's

Contiguous Knowledge". Learning Theories. Mexico:
Thresholds

• Lorenzo Quezada, A., Gracia and Jiménez, (2003) Geography

and History , Spain: MAD SL

• Mora Ledesma, J. (1977) Psychology of learning , Mexico, DF:

Progreso SA DE CV

• Gordon H. Bower, E. (1989) Learning Theories , Mexico City:

Trillas

25
27
 13.1 ANNEXES
COMPARISON TABLE OF DIFFERENT LEARNING THEORIES
CONDUCTIVE COGNITIVE SIGNIFICANT LEARNING CONSTRUCTIVE
ELEMENT THEORY
AUTHOR skinner Bruner, Ausubel and Rogers Ausubel, Piaget, Khun, Toulmin Gregory
INSTRUCTION Synonym of teaching Exposition of a body of knowledge that A material can be learned by discovery Focuses interest on the student
the learner captures, transfers or by reception and their thinking scheme.
and transforms
Synonymous of teaching
No definition of instruction is presented.

TEACHING It is to gradually dispose of the It is an intentional pedagogical

contingencies of reinforcement action.
It is to help the student reach their Educational practices focused on
maximum abilities. It is an interaction concept maps or instruments to
process in which conditions are created represent, facilitate assimilation and
for meaningful learning to take place. evaluate significant and hierarchical
It is to facilitate learning, which is relationships between concepts
promoted by the teacher, so that its Teaching must be based on knowledge
meaning is a function of their of the concepts that students handle
experiences and motivations of the and an estimate of the skills that they
environment. possess at a given moment.
LEARNING It is the result of the stimulus The most important factor that It is a mental, dynamic,
response relationship and the Is capture the structure influences learning is what the student continuous, intensive,
application of the confronting new situations with already knows. personalized and autonomous
reinforcement contingencies. previous ones, to transform learning. It activity.
is acquiring and retaining new
knowledge in a meaningful way.
It is a process of searching,
strengthening and developing the
potential of the learner.
GOALS They are established by the They are a motivating and guiding They are set based on the pre It proposes the student as a
teacher. They must be factor for the learner. They must be in knowledge of the apprentices. builder of his or her own
detailed and express the accordance with the knowledge.

27
 observable behavior of the
learner. behavior that you want to achieve.
They must be established by the group
based on its needs.
INSTRUCTIONAL The material is organized in The contents are organized according Detects in the student what their
SEQUENCE AND small steps, applying to the student's knowledge interests and needs are and
STRATEGY reinforcement contingencies, so The contents are organized according based on this, the activities are
that the learner actively to the stages of development. planned.
participates. The role of the teacher is that of
facilitator of the learning.
The contents and materials are
organized by teachers and students
based on their learning needs.
EMPHASIS The contents Dynamic and flexible process Interest Difference between Teaching and Processes didactic
Behavior modification focused on the development of social Learning focused on the student and
relationships and personal his/her thinking scheme.
development.
ASSESSMENT Evaluate according to the The criteria are established by the It is a continuous process of
congruence between The trainee must immediately know his group based on its objectives. observation.
achievements and objectives. evaluation. All stages of the teaching-
learning process are evaluated. The
evaluation criterion is defined by the
trainee based on their planned
objectives.
STRUCTURE Rationalist and intentional. Programming flexible. There are two great possibilities: Programming outlined in three
Conceives a rational process of It conceives an active process where Receptive Learning, in which case the dimensions: Content, student
identifying objectives, contents, the information must be related to the final content to be learned is presented and context.
learning strategies and cognitive structure. It is opposed to in a completely finished manner. The starting point of all
evaluation strategies knowledge acquired automatically and Learning by discovery, in which case programming is experience
by rote. the final finished content is not delivered and the
to the student but rather it has to be prior knowledge.
discovered.

28
30
 14.1 SUMMARY

Learning theories make up a varied set of theoretical frameworks that often share
aspects and question others or even assume absolutely contradictory postulates.

All higher cognitive processes, such as memory, language, problem solving, images,
deduction and induction are different manifestations of the same underlying system; It is
the study of the mind and the mechanisms that intervene in learning.

The latest theoretical advances on the acquisition and development of intellectual skills
from the cognitive perspective of information processing also reveal the existence of
general and domain-specific skills.

These components are applied depending on the type of task that the subjects must
solve. And thus, selecting relevant information over irrelevant information or providing it
with coherence depends largely on the prior knowledge that the subject has.

The essence of learning is the creation of associations between the various parts of the
theory about the world that are activated at the same time consecutively, what is
learned remains linked to the context that has been learned. Therefore, one of the
teacher's tasks is to vary the non-essential features of the learning context so that the
content does not dominate and the relevant features are fixed.

30