1.2.

2 Weathering profile

The weathering profile is the sequence of zones, with different physical properties, and they are
found in the same place where the parent rock was altered. Generally, residual soil profiles are
composed of zones of different degrees of weathering ranging from the soil itself to healthy rock.

The weathering profile is produced by the interaction of five modifying factors, which change
horizontally, so the weathering profile can vary over relatively short distances.

1.2.2.1 Weathering profile classifications

Any classification is a powerful tool, due to its ability to transmit ideas, and its objective is to offer
unambiguous terminology.

Several studies were carried out with the objective of understanding the weathering profiles of
residual soils (See Table 1.2), the classification systems present different weathering states and
separate the profiles into different zones, trying to define homogeneous zones, although in reality
the variation is gradual with depth.

Below are two works among the several existing ones on weathering profiles.

1.2.2.1.1 Deere and Patton (1971)

They carried out an extensive study on the weathering profiles, proposing three zones with
subdivisions, resulting in three soil zones and three rock zones:

 Zone I; of residual soil subdivided into:

• Zone IA; colluvium, generally with the presence of organic matter;

• Zone IB; mature soil, soil is made up of secondary and primary minerals that resisted weathering,
presents variable gradation and has no inheritance from its rock of origin, its behavior being
similar to that of a sedimentary soil. It is mainly a homogeneous soil with a porous structure;

IC zone; rock alteration soil (saprolite), the soil is made up of primary and secondary minerals,
which has structures inherited from the original rock. It may have intact rock blocks in its mass.

 Zone II; of altered rock, subdivided into:

• Zone II-A; transition between the saprolite and the altered rock, with extremely heterogeneous
characteristics, presents sensitive variations in various physical and mechanical properties.

• Zone II-B; of altered rock, where the rock maintains its original structure, presenting alterations
in the physical-chemical properties such as coloration, permeability and resistance, presenting
decomposed zones, especially next to discontinuities.
 Zone III; of essentially healthy rock, sectors of the massif where it has not yet been affected by
weathering. The minerals show no signs of having been altered.

The biggest problem in separating these horizons consists of the subdivision, which is arbitrary and
depends greatly on the experience of each researcher.

The behavior of the superficial zones (zone IA and zone IB) must be treated in accordance with
conventional soil mechanics methods. The IC zone, saprolitic soil, will have the predominant
behavior of a soil, but the heterogeneities and discontinuities of the relic structures must be taken
into consideration. Finally, zone II, saprolite, its behavior must be analyzed by rock mechanics.

DEERE AND PATTON WEATHERING PROFILE

1.2.2.1.2 ISRM – International Society of Rock Mechanics (1981)

Since 1981 there seems to be an international trend of using classifications subdivided into six
classes of weathering, normally designated as follows:

 (VI) Residual soil; The rock is completely decomposed into soil, and there are no vestiges of the
original structure. The material remains in situ and there is a significant change in apparent
volume.

 (V) Completely weathered rock; All the material is decomposed to soil, the original rock structure
remains intact.
 (IV) Weathered rock; More than half is decomposed into soil, healthy or slightly weathered rock
appears discontinuously.

 (III) Moderately weathered rock; Less than half of the material is decomposed, or transformed
into soil, healthy or slightly weathered rock appears continuously, or in isolated areas.

 (II) Slightly weathered rock; There are barely any weathering marks along the existing
discontinuities in the massif. Discoloration indicates alteration of the massif, and discontinuities.

 (I) Healthy rock; The rock does not show visible signs of weathering, there may be slight loss of
color, or small oxide spots in the existing discontinuities.

Of this classification, I and II correspond to rock, V and VI correspond to soil, III and IV correspond
to intermediate weathering material called saprolites.

1.2.2.2 Characterization of the zones of the weathering profile

Qualitative and quantitative criteria are presented that describe the component zones of the
weathering profile, based on the characteristics usually found in the definition of the various zones
of the typical weathering profile, based mainly on the classifications presented above and on
others. jobs .

 Mature residual soil - VI (Residual soil); This zone corresponds to the pedological B horizon and
corresponds to the last state of in situ weathering of the parent rock, which due to its advanced
state of weathering, does not present vestiges of the original structure; all the material is reduced
to soil.

 Alteration soil, saprolite or young residual soil - V (Completely weathered rock); This zone
corresponds to the pedological C horizon and is easily recognized as it shows the structure
inherited from the source rock. They present a percentage of extremely altered rock blocks, which
break up easily with finger pressure. This material is easily sampled and generally be perfectly
characterized by routine soil mechanics tests; although sometimes there is significant structuring
in certain regions of the profile. This area has its behavioral mechanisms more oriented towards
Soil Mechanics. In its compacted state, it is an excellent embankment construction material.

 Fine saprolite – IV (Weathered rock); In this area there are blocks normally originating from the
original fracturing system of the massif. Such blocks are difficult to disintegrate with finger
pressure, but their edges do break easily when subjected to bending efforts. This material, due to
the numerous presence of altered blocks, or due to the strong structuring inherited from its rock
of origin, cannot be perfectly characterized by conventional soil mechanics tests. These blocks
present a certain resistance to disintegration when they are immersed in water, and can give rise
to smaller blocks that remain unchanged. Through manipulation they form smaller fragments.

 Coarse saprolite – III (Moderately weathered rock); Compared to the previous area, it has a
greater presence of rock blocks, substantially more resistant than the first; because they have a
lower degree of weathering. The matrix of fines present, in general, is a well-graded sandy
fraction, with the eventual presence of silt and absence of clay fraction. In this material the matrix
of fines does not necessarily completely surround the weathered blocks. Blocks immersed in water
generally remain unchanged. RQD results range from 0 to 50%. The fragments are difficult to
break manually. When compacted, hard saprolites give rise to a fairly permeable material.

 Hard rock, little altered – II (Slightly weathered rock); Under the saprolite the rock appears with a
low degree of weathering, practically summarizing weathering along the existing fractures in the
massif. For its use it is necessary to resort to the use of explosives. RQD results typically indicate a
variation between 50 to 75%. The edges of the fragments are not broken by manual action.

 Healthy rock – I; final part of the profile. Healthy rock that presents practically no weathering,
being totally preserved. Small alterations can be noticed sporadically along the largest fractures.
RQD normally greater than 75%, average values around 90%.

Table 1.2.- Weathering profile, according to different authors

Vargas (1951) Sowers

(1954, 1963) Chandler

(1969) Deere and Patton

(1971) International Society for Rock Mechanics

ISRM (1981)

Igneous and sandstones Igneous and metamorphic Marls and siltstones Igneous and metamorphic
Igneous and metamorphic

Mature residual soil Upper zone V

Completely altered Horizon AI

(Transported soils) VI

Residual soil

Partially altered IV Residual Soil Horizon IB

(mature soil)

Young residual soil Intermediate zone III Horizon IC

(Saprolite) V

Completely weathered rock

Disintegrated rock layers Partially altered zone Transition zone Horizon IIA

(Transition between saprolite and altered rock) IV

weathered rock

II Horizon IIB

(Altered rock) III

Moderately weathered rock

II

slightly weathered rock

Healthy rock Unaltered rock I

Unaltered Rock Horizon III

(Healthy rock) Healthy rock

a) b)

Figure 1.08. – Weathering profile: a) metamorphic rock (gneiss); b) intrusive igneous rocks
(granite)

Figure 1.09. – ISRM classification for the degree of weathering

1.2.3 Degree of Weathering

To quantify the progress of weathering, it can be done using in-situ or laboratory tests. The use of
in-situ tests is due to the fact that the residual soils are heterogeneous, structured and may
contain large particles with gravel and blocks; In the laboratory, the degree of weathering can be
measured in several ways; several types of indices have been proposed based on physical,
chemical and mechanical properties of the material under study.

Below are some of these indices:

 Color; The degree of color change can be described in terms of the original color of the rock
matrix; the terms heavily discolored, faintly discolored, locally discolored, or pervasively discolored
may be used in its description.

These terms are not quantitative, but they can be applied to describe the weathering process.
Their usefulness lies in having information about the extent of the color change, and its
penetration into the discontinuities, to determine the progress of the weathering processes.
weathering.

 Physical indices; based on the index properties of the rocks, which change as weathering
progresses. The most used are the alteration index, ultrasonic index, porosity, specific gravity,
hardness and tip resistance (gritness).

 Chemical indexes; based on molar relationships between the different chemical elements
present, which evolve with the weathering processes. We can cite molar indices such as
silica/aluminum, silica/iron oxide, and weathering indices based on amounts of silica or alkali.

 Petrographic indices; formulated from microscopic techniques, which allow determining the
fabric of the rock, the primary minerals and the secondary minerals present in the microfractures.

 Mechanical indices; based on mechanical properties, for different weathering states, defining
indices based on the modulus of elasticity, simple compression resistance, and shear resistance.

These indices can present different results depending on the type of rock analyzed.

Table 1.3.- Measurement of the degree of weathering, using the physical sandiness index

Degree of weathering Sandiness terms Mode of recognition

Fresh Hard They cannot be cut by a knife, nor engraved by a nail.

Moderate Sandy Can be cut by a knife or engraved by a nail.

High Fragable Can be crumbled to slime fragments by hand.

Complete Soft Can be easily molded with hands.

1.3 COMPOSITION OF RESIDUAL SOILS

Residual soils represent a large family, with a broad family tree characterized by the variety of
compositions and nuances. These soils inherit a mineralogical “DNA” from the parent rock.

As weathering progresses, the rocks are altered, so that their mineralogical composition and
structure undergo major transformations. Due to the large amount of rocks and the varied
environmental conditions, they produce a wide spectrum of residual soils.

However, this variety of soils have certain common basic characteristics that govern their behavior
under stress, and constitute part of our object of study. These characteristics are determined by
mineralogy and structure, two fundamental factors for understanding these soils.

The mineralogy of residual soils is derived from the minerals that form the source rock (primary),
which with weathering undergo different decompositions and transformations to reach more
stable configurations, called secondary minerals. In these soils, the presence of cementitious
materials and the resistance of the grains are directly influenced by the mineralogical
characteristics.

Structure refers to the physical arrangement of minerals in the soil mass. This includes grain or
factory distribution, cementation, pore size and distribution, inherited characteristics such as
foliations, fissures and failure surfaces.

1.3.1 Mineralogy of residual soils

The mineralogy of residual soils is derived from the minerals that form the source rock (primary),
which with weathering undergo different decompositions and transformations to reach more
stable configurations, called secondary minerals. In these soils, the presence of cementitious
materials and the resistance of the grains are directly influenced by the mineralogical
characteristics.

The mineralogical evolution of primary minerals can be described by the processes of

disintegration, decomposition, leaching and recementation, of variable intensity depending on
local climate and drainage conditions.

As indicated in Figures 1.10 and 1.11, the susceptibility of minerals to weathering action is closely
linked to the internal energy associated with them, or that derives from the crystallization process
undergone. Bowen (1928) analyzed these processes and proposed a series of crystallization of
minerals, starting with those that crystallize at higher temperatures to those that crystallize at
lower temperatures.

Goldich (1938) developed the Goldich Mineral Stability Series, this series describes the
susceptibility to weathering of different silicate minerals. The rationale is that minerals that form
at high temperature and pressure are less stable against the conditions of weathering. Therefore,
the order of stability is similar to that of the Bowen Reaction Series.

Figure 1.10. – Bowen Reaction Series