IES “SAINT CATHERINE OF ALEXANDRIA”

SUBJECT: INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY PROJECT. COURSE: 2011 -2012.

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS.
INDEX:
1. INTRODUCTION.
2. ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS.
2.1. Characteristics of an electrical circuit.
2.2. DC circuits.
■ Characteristics.
■ Fundamental parameters (Magnitudes basic electrical: current intensity
electrical, electrical resistance and tension or voltage.
■ Ohm's law.
■ Electrical power.
■ Electric power.
■ Wasted energy.
■ Resistor couplings.
■ Elements of a direct current (DC) circuit.
a. Generator.
b. Accumulator.
c. Protective elements.
d. Maneuver and control elements (switches, relays, resistors and receivers).
2.3. Alternating current (AC) circuits.
■ Operation of an alternating current circuit (theoretical study and practical study).
■ Why is alternating voltage used instead of direct voltage?
■ Distribution of electrical energy.
■ Elements of an alternating current (AC) circuit.
a. Alternating current (AC) generator.
> Converter.
> Alternator.
^ Commercial generators (dynamo, power plant alternator and
transformers).
b. Protection elements (against short circuits or network overloads and against
indirect contacts).
c. Control elements (switches, switches and electromagnetic contactors.
d. Receivers (motors)
1. INTRODUCTION.

Throughout this teaching unit you will study electrical circuits. In the initial illustration, the elements that
make up the circuits have been shown schematically. It is necessary to highlight that there may be
circuits whose sequencing of elements is different from that shown here or even lacks some.

2. ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS.

The set of elements necessary for the transmission and control of electrical energy from the generator to
the place where the receiver is located (consumer element or rather, transformer of electrical energy into
another type of energy) is called an electrical circuit.

Generator

Receiver

Open circuit

States of a circuit.

2.1. Characteristics of an electrical circuit.

For a receiver (motor, light bulb, resistor, etc.) to work, it is necessary that the generated electrical
current reaches the receiver (through a conductor: cable), gives up its energy and returns to the
generator again. Therefore, it will be necessary for both the generator and the receiver to have two
current "outlets." One for entry and one for exit.

Considering this, the circuits can be found in two states:

• Closed circuits: The current circulates along the circuit, passing through the receiver and
returning to the generator.

• Open circuits: There is no current circulation (therefore there is no transmission or conversion of

energy) nor does the receiver (light bulb) work.

2.2. DC circuits.

■ Characteristics

To study the direct current we are going to use the hydraulic simile that appears in the attached figure.

As can be seen, it is characterized because the water current (electric current) always circulates in the
same direction, driven by the water pump (electricity generator), through the pipes or pipes (electrical
conductors). It reaches the receiving element: the turbine, which converts the potential energy of the
water into mechanical rotation energy (motor in the case of electricity). In the case of the hydraulic
simile, the transport of energy is carried out by water while in electricity it is carried out by electrons.

2
 conductors
deposit or cables

s generator

Hydraulic simile of the current.

Equivalences between electrons and cu
lombios.

■ Fundamental parameters.

In electricity there are three fundamental parameters: intensity, voltage and resistance, which should be
understood before proceeding to a more in-depth study.

a) Electric current intensity: It is defined as the amount of electrons that circulate through an
"electric element" in the unit of time. As electrons are a very small unit, the one normally used is the
coulomb per second. The formula is:

I = Current intensity.
Q = Charge (coulombs).
t = Time (in seconds).

Electrical diagram with its parameters

tros.

An ampere is defined as one coulomb per second (1 A = 1 C/1s).

The electrical device that measures the intensity of current (the number of amperes) is called an
ammeter (it is connected to the series circuit).

Silver 0,0164
Copper 0,0172
Aluminum 0,0278
Constantan (60% Cu +
40% Ni)
0,5000
Gold 0,0230
Graphite 0,0460
Platinum 0,1070

Resistivity of some materials.

3
b) Electrical resistance: It is the opposition of a body to the passage of electric current. The value of
this resistance is given by the formula:

R = Electrical resistance. It is measured in ohms (Ω).

l ρ= Resistivity (Ω m). Constant and own value of each material.
Ps L= Length of the electrical conductor or cable (in meters).
S = Conductor section (in m ). 2

EXAMPLES:
Calculate the resistance offered by a copper conductor wire 300 m long and 2 mm in diameter.
/ 300
R=p ------= 0,0172 --------= 1.6Q , ■ ■ iei .
5 3,14
Copper Plastics
S = n ■ ,2 = T • l 2 = 3.14 mm 2
Aluminum Glass
What diameter should a 5,000 meter long aluminum conductor wire (cable) have if its Iron Wood
resistance cannot be greater than 5 Q2? Gold Ceramics

R=pl ; s= 0,0278 ■ 5.000 Good and bad conductors of

Yes electricity.

tR2=S ; R =

The device used to measure electrical resistance is called an ohmmeter or ohmmeter .

A body that does not conduct electricity or conducts it poorly is called an insulator or a bad conductor.
On the contrary, if it allows electricity to pass easily, it is called a conductor .

Lately, materials have been discovered that offer virtually no resistance to the passage of electrons
(current); these materials are called superconductors .

In addition, there are materials that, when properly treated, allow the current to pass in one direction and
offer great resistance when the current passes through them in the opposite direction. These conductors
are known as semiconductors .

An example of these materials is germanium and silicon, which, treated (doped) with other materials,
such as indium or aluminum, are the basis of all electronic components (diodes and transistors).

If pressure losses in If the value of the

the pipes are not internal resistance
taken into account, of the cable is
PA = Ps neglected, v, = V2

Hydraulic tension simile.

4
c) Tension or voltage: Represents the energy that the electrons have. Voltage is always measured
relative to another point in the circuit.

The hydraulic simile of tension or voltage would be the pressure of water. When we say that there is
water inside a pipe at a pressure of 5 bar, we mean that the pressure inside, with respect to the pressure
of the outside air, is 5 bar.

The voltage is measured in volts (V) with an electrical device called a voltmeter (it is connected to the
circuit in parallel).

The most used multiples and submultiples of the volt are:

• Millivolt (mV) = 0.001 V

• Volt = 1V
• Kilovolt (kV) = 1,000 V

■ Ohm's law.

In 1826, the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm published the law of the same name, in which the three
previous parameters were related to each other using the following formula:

and I= Current intensity (A).

I= - V = Voltage (V).
R R = Electrical resistance (Ω).

■ Electrical power.

The power supplied to a receiver is given by the expression:

P = Power in watts (W).

v2
2
P = VI = I R = — V = Voltage in volts (V).
R I= Intensity in amperes (A).

Other units used:

• Milliwatt (mW) = 0.001 W

• Watt = 1 W
• Kilowatt (kW) = 1,000 W

■ Electric power.

The total energy consumed by a receiver is:

P = Power in kilowatts (kW).

E =P t E = Energy in kW hour (kW h).
t = Time in hours.

Electrical companies bill the monthly bill for the total energy consumption.

5
Examples:
Calculate the resistance that a light bulb offers to the passage of connected to a 6 V generator.
electric current if the intensity passing through it is 0.05 A when

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS.........................1
1. INTRODUCTION.......................3
2. ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS..........3
States of a circuit.....................................3
2.2. DC circuits................................3
■ Characteristics..............................3
■ Fundamental parameters..............4
EXAMPLES:.......................................5
■ Ohm's law.....................................6
■ Electrical power...........................6
v 2.........................................................6
R..........................................................6
■ Electric power..............................6
Examples:............................................7
■ Wasted energy..............................8
Resistor coupling...............................10
L Problems...................................................11
1.5*,-0.3,-1290A;1.5*,-12=4A=1;1,=I,=..................11
■ Elements of a direct current (DC) electrical circuit . 12
• Protective elements ...................14
• Maneuver and control elements. 15
2.3. Alternating current circuits (ac .). 16
■ Operation of an alternating current circuit (c. to.). 17
a) Theoretical study........................17
b) Practical study............................18
■ Why is alternating voltage used instead of direct voltage? 18
■ Distribution of electrical energy 19
Distribution network.............................20
■ Elements of an alternating current circuit (c. to.) . 20
• AC generator (c. to.).......................21
• bicycle dynamo..........................22
single phase alternator...........................23
• Alternator of power plants.........23
• Transformers...................................24
• Protective elements ...................25
• Control elements.............................26

6
 • Receivers ........................................26
VOCABULARY......................................28
Calculate the energy consumed by an installation if it has It
uses a motor that consumes 20 A and is connected to a 12 V
Calculate the power consumed by an electric motor if it is connected generator for 7 days.
to a 12 V generator and the current passing through it is 5 A.
P = 12 ■ 20 = 240 W = 0.240 kW
P=V1=12 5=60W
Time = í = 7 ■ 24 = 168 hours
E = P ■ t = 0.240 ■ 168 = 40.3 kW ■ h

Or How much will it cost to keep an electric lamp lit? 4.5 V AC if

it is crossed by an intensity of 1.5 A, and it is operating for 365
days, 8 hours a day, knowing that the kW • h is worth 18
pesetas.?
p = V. i = 4.5 ■ 1.5 = 6.75 W = 0.00675 kW
t = time = 365 • 8 = 2,920 hours
E = P • t = 0.00675 • 2920 = 19.71 kW ■ h
G = E- ptas/kWh = 19.71 ■ 18 = 355 ptas.

■ Wasted energy.

Until now, in all cases it was assumed that the conductors (cables) did not offer any resistance to the
passage of current, but as seen previously, this resistance depended on the material with which it was
made, as well as its length. and its section.

Unfortunately, these internal resistances of the conductors absorb energy, which is transformed into heat,
and is usually wasted.

Let's look at an example of the problems that this cable resistance can cause. Suppose we are trying to
illuminate a certain area using a lamp of R 1 = 4 Ω that is 300 m away from the 6 V generator, using a
copper cable with a section of 0.75 mm . 2

For calculation purposes, the lamp can

be replaced by the resistor R].

It is about finding out the energy consumed by the lamp in 100 hours, considering:

1°. That there is no electrical resistance of the cables:

I= V/R = 6/4 = 1.5 A

P = 6 1.5 = 9W = 0.009kW
E = P t = 0.009 100 = 0.9 kWh

7
 2°. Taking into account the resistance of the cable:

a) The value of the resistance R 2 is equal to:

l 300
R = p. - = 0,00172 --------------- = 6.88Q £6Q
2PS
0,75

When in a circuit there are two resistors in series (one after the other), their values are added and an
equivalent one is placed.

b) Calculation of the intensity of electric current that passes through the entire circuit:

I= V/R = 6/10 = 0.6 A

c) Calculation of the voltage at the ends of each resistor:

V 1 = IR 1 = 0.6 4 = 2.4 V
V 2 = I · R 2 = 0.6 · 6 = 3.6 V

d) Calculation of the power consumed by each resistor:

P 1 = V 1 · I = 2A · 0.6 = 1.44 W

Note that for it to work well it should consume 9 W. Therefore, it will barely light up.

P 2 = V 2 · I = 3.6 · 0.6 = 2.16 W

All this power is lost as it is transformed into heat.

e) Energy consumed:

E 1 = P 1 · t = 1.44 · 100 = 14.4 W · h

E 2 = P 2 · t = 2.16 · 100 = 21.6 W · h

Conclusion:
Since there is only 2.4 V at the ends of the
bulb, no wonder they don't turn on if, or if, it
had little luminosity.

The resistance R is equivalent to the

two in the previous circuit.

8
 Resistor coupling 2. Parallel coupling: In this case the current intensity that passes
through one of the receivers no longer passes through the other.
For the study of the parameters or magnitudes it is fundamental les,
of those listed above, any receiver (energy consuming element) can 2.1. Equivalent total resistance value (Rr)
be considered as an electrical resistance.
1. Series coupling: Two receivers are said to be in series when
the current leaving one of them passes entirely through the other.
1.1. Calculation of the total intensity that passes through the
circuit

2.2. Calculation of partial intensities:

1.2. Calculation of the voltage at the receiver terminals:

V 2 = IRI

In a series circuit their resistances add up. The circuit on the right, In a parallel circuit, its resistances become equivalent to one, of
electrically, is equivalent to the one on the left. value R r . The circuit on the right is equivalent to the one on the
left.

9
L Problems________________________________
Resistance coupling exercises P, = V 2 -7 = 3.2-0.8 = 2.5 W
One of the electrical circuits that powers the lights of a E 2 = P 2 t = 2.5- 10 = 25W-h
Christmas tree has twelve equal lamps, in series, with /' 3 = V 3 -/ = 2.4-0.8=l.9W
resistance R=59. Knowing that they are found tran
connected to a 12 vol power source guys, calculate: a) Total Ey = P 2 t= 1.9- 10= 19W-h
intensity that crosses the circuit. b) Power of each of the
lamps, c) Energy with summed if they are connected for 8 Note: Note that V,+V+V,= 12 volts = V
hours.
R,=R+R,+.=5. 12=609

I=1—v,=1.R,=0,2.5-, V, = 1V
R,
P, = P 1 = ... = P a = V l I=i • 0.2 = 0.2 W
E\= P ■ t = 0.2 ■ 8 = 1.6 W • h/lamp
If R=59
A circuit has two motors, two lamps and an electrical
resistance with values: 3, 5 and 150 Q respectively. mind,
which are connected in parallel to a 12 V battery. Calculate:
a) Intensity that crosses the entire circuit, b) Intensities that
circulate through each receiver. c) Total energy consumed
during 8 hours.

A series circuit has two lamps and a motor of 8, 4 and 3 Q

respectively. Knowing that it is connected to a 12 V battery.
Calculate: a) Current intensity that passes through the circuit, b)
Voltage or tension in each of the receivers, c) Energy consumed
by each receiver after 10 hours.

=150=0,939
101
R=3%
This circuit is equivalent
you to the one on the right. 1.5*,-0.3,-1290A;1.5*,-12=4A=1;1,=I,=
=12-24A ;
12
Is = 150 = 0.08 A ; Birthday:/7- = /|+/2 + / 3 +

+ /4 + /5 = 2 • 4 + 2 • 2,4 + 0,08
1 T = 12.88 A = 12.9
P T = V l T = 12- 12.88= 154.5 'N\E T = P t= 154.5 -8 =
1236 W • h = 1.2 kW • h
RT=R}+ +
=8+4+3=159

V 12 V.
I=,=1=0.8A ; 7=^ = V, = I- R,=0.88=6.4V;

1 = ^ = V=|. W 2 = 0.8-4 = 3.2V ;

R2

1=% = V 3 = /«J = O, 8-3 = 2.4V;

P= V, I= 6.4 -0.8 = 5.12 W
Et=P>-1 = 5, 12- 10 = 51.2W-h

In the electrical circuit in the figure, calculate: a) Total

intensity, b) Power that the electric motor will supply.

Ry2 = R +R,=6+8= 14 Q
Rn=R,=62

1
= 2.86A 0
V 12
1
1
■ Elements of a direct current (DC) electrical circuit .
They are each of the parts or physical devices that characterize it, which contribute to the whole
functioning efficiently.

The above organization chart shows the five most significant blocks that make up an electrical circuit.

• Generator. It is usually made up of two main physical devices:

a) Converter 1: It is responsible for transforming usable energy into mechanical rotation energy.

Depending on the type of energy source to be used, they will have one form or another. For example:

• Wind energy: Turbines with blades (wind turbines) will be used.

• Water energy: The turbines used would be Francis, Kaplan or Pelton type.
• Petroleum energy: It would be necessary to have an internal combustion engine (gasoline or diesel).
• Nuclear energy: This turbine will be different from those used previously.

b) Converter 2: Takes advantage of the mechanical rotation energy to transform it into electrical energy.
For this, dynamos are used, which are the elements that convert mechanical energy into direct current. In
practice, most of the continuous energy consumed comes from alternating current that has been rectified
(transformed into direct current).

1
2
• Accumulator . It is an element that allows electrical energy to be stored in order to be able to use it
later.

The problem that currently exists is that an effective electrical energy accumulation system has not yet
been discovered, that is, a system that allows the massive storage of this type of energy.

To give you an idea, a television connected to a battery, the kind found in cars, would consume all its
energy in less than an hour and a washing machine in two minutes at most; Therefore, accumulators are
used to store energy in small quantities. It is not conceivable that electricity could be supplied to a town,
no matter how small, through energy stored in accumulators since their number would have to be very
high. It would be neither profitable nor effective.

What is usually done when a generator is working and part of the energy it produces cannot be consumed
is to use it to pump water from a lower reservoir to a higher one (hydraulic pumping plants), to later use
this potential energy (this is the principle of operation of hydroelectric plants). This method is also
applicable to solar generators.

The direct current batteries most commonly used in a circuit are lead batteries, rechargeable batteries and
capacitors.

• Protective elements .

Direct current circuits must be protected against overcurrents that may accidentally damage some
element of the circuit. For this, fuses are usually used. These fuses are made up of a piece of conductive
wire, whose electrical resistance is a little higher than that of the rest of the conductors in the circuit, but
which has a not very high melting point. When the intensity of the circuit exceeds a certain value, it
begins to heat up, possibly melting, which opens the circuit and interrupts the flow of current.

The conversion of electrical energy to heat energy is given by Joule's Law:

R = Electrical resistance in Ω
I = Electrical intensity in A
t = Time in seconds
Q = 0.24 I R t
2
Q = Amount of heat in calories

Fuse placement and symbol.

1
3
Currently, bimetallic blade fuses are being used, which, due to the heat produced as a result of an
overcurrent, expand, opening the electrical circuit. Once they cool down they return to their initial
position.

• Maneuver and control elements

These elements allow the opening or closing of the electrical circuit at will. The most used are:

a) Switches : These are electrical current cutting elements that are installed differently depending on
whether they are:

• Single-pole switches: One of the conductors is interrupted and connected to the terminals provided for
this purpose on the switch.

• Bipolar switches: In this case the two conductors are interrupted by connecting four cables to the
switch.

• Switches: Externally they are the same as switches, but inside they have more contacts.

Different positions of an inte bipolar

switch. (Open and closed the circuit.)

Control of a receiver from two different

points.
The most used is the simple switch that allows a lamp to be turned on from two different places.

b) Relay : It is an element that consists of two very different circuits:

• Electromagnetic circuit: When the current passes, it behaves like a kind of magnet that opens or closes
the other circuit.

• Contact circuit: Opens or closes a secondary electrical circuit.

1
4
In general terms, it can be said that a relay is an electromagnetic switch or switch, that is, a switch that
can open or close a secondary circuit when the primary circuit is connected to a generator.

c) Resistors : Their function is to regulate the amount of current that will pass through a circuit. There
are many applications where these elements are used.

There are some that are fixed, since their value is always the same. There are also adjustable ones and
they are called adjustable or potentiometers. In the latter case, the variation of the resistance value is
done manually.

d) Receptors : An electrical receiver is understood as any element placed specifically in the circuit to
transform electrical energy into another type of energy (heat, mechanical, chemical, etc.).

Depending on the type of energy transformed, we have:

• Motors: Transform electrical energy into mechanical rotation.

• Lamps: They transform electrical energy into luminous or radiant energy.
• Electromagnets: They transform electrical energy into electromagnetic energy of attraction (magnets)
of ferrous metals.
• Resistors: They transform electrical energy into heat energy, as is the case with electric stoves or
radiators.
• Batteries: They store electric current in the form of chemical energy and later release it again in the
form of electrical energy.

2.3. Alternating current circuits (ac .).

Electrical energy, generated in power plants, reaches our homes in the form of alternating current. Their
magnitudes (tension and intensity) change direction 50 times per second. This last parameter is known as
frequency (f). This means that the electrons move along the conductor (cable) in one direction and then
in another, repeatedly, doing so fifty times per second.

To understand it more clearly, look at the attached figures and follow the reasoning indicated below.

• There are some moments (times A and E) in which there is no current of electrons through the
conductor.

• The maximum current intensity coincides at points C and G.

• At points B and F, the electric current (electrons/s) increases, while at points D and H it
decreases.

1
5
 To the right braking

Electrons at rest

Accelerating to the left

To the left at maximum speed

To the left braking

Electrons at rest
EU*"
(Then the cycle repeats)

■ Operation of an alternating current circuit (c. to.).

The following figure represents a simple electrical circuit formed by an alternator and a lamp, in which
different phases of operation have been represented, corresponding to the moments studied in the
previous section.

Reasoning

According to Ohm's law: I = V/R. Since

The intensity is variable but
it circulates in the same
direction
The intensity is variable but it
circulates in the same direction
there is no variation in the electrical
resistance trica, it can be stated that any
variation in current intensity It comes
accompanied by a variety of tion of tension.
So it follows that at the terminals of a gene
alternating current generator (called
alternator) its polarity constantly varies from
positive to negative. vo and vice versa,
reaching a maximum value and decreasing
again.

a) Theoretical study

• At the initial instant we see that there is no tension or voltage between the terminals of the
alternator (instant A).

• From this moment on, a voltage begins to appear between the terminals of the alternator that
increases proportionally until it reaches its maximum value, at instant C (after a time of 1/200
seconds has passed). The intensity increases as the tension increases.

• At this maximum point, both the voltage (at the alternator terminals) and the intensity begin
to decrease (note that the direction of the current is the same) until they reach zero (instant
E, 1/100 of a second after instant initial).

• Now the process is repeated, but in reverse, that is, the polarity of the alternator terminals
begins to be reversed until reaching a maximum voltage (instant G, which will correspond to

1
6
 • the maximum intensity, after 0.015 seconds have elapsed) to decrease and return to zero
(instant 1, after 1/50 seconds).
• The process is then repeated indefinitely.

As can be seen in the figure, theoretically the luminosity of the bulb will have varied from zero to a
maximum value, to turn off, turn on again and turn off again.

b) Practical study

As seen above, in theory it seems that the lamp would be constantly turning on and off. This actually
happens, but due to the speed with which it does so, our eyesight is not able to distinguish these
variations, so it apparently appears as if the current passing through them is continuous.

Note: Sometimes this "flickering" of brightness can be noticed when fluorescent tubes are used.

■ Why is alternating voltage used instead of direct voltage?

At first glance it might seem like an unnecessary complication to use alternating current instead of direct
current, since in many cases it is necessary to convert it into direct current (rectified), as is the case with
music equipment, computers, etc.

The main reason lies in the expenses that would be involved in transporting electric current over long
distances, due to the internal resistance of the conductors or cables.

To better understand this fact, we are going to present two hypothetical cases in which it is necessary to
supply a power of P = 1,000 kW to a factory in which the cable resistance is 10 Ω.

Case A : The voltage of the electric current for transport rises to V = 10,000 volts. The intensity that will
circulate through the conductors will be:

p = V. I -1 = P = 1,000,000 W / 10,000 V = 100 A

The usable power dissipated by the internal resistance of the cables is:

P = V-I; V = R-1

P = R - I - I = I 2 -R

P1 = 100 2 10 = 100,000 W = 100 kW

1
7
Therefore, the power that will reach the consumer will be:

P = 1,000 - 100 = 900 kW

Case B : In this case the voltage of the electric current rises to 100,000 volts. The intensity of current
flowing through the cables will be:

I = P = 1,000,000 W / 100,000 V = 10 A

The internal resistance of the cable is still 10 Ω, so the heat power dissipated by the resistance is:

P = I 2 • R = 10 2 • 10= 1,000 W = 1 kW

and the power that reaches the consumer will be P = 1,000 - 1 = 999 kW

Conclusion : Raising the voltage is advantageous to reduce energy losses when you want to transport
electric current over long distances.

Problem caused : High voltages can be dangerous, which is why they are not suitable for industrial and
domestic use. To solve this difficulty, transformers are used, which are elements that can raise or
reduce the voltage of alternating current without significant power losses.

As there are currently no devices that can raise or reduce the direct current voltage on a large scale with
the advantages that alternating current transformers do, high voltage alternating current transmission is
chosen.

This entails the use of receivers that directly use alternating current for their operation, such as motors,
lamps, electrical resistors, etc., although in many cases it is necessary to convert this alternating current
into direct current using rectifiers.

■ Distribution of electrical energy

Once the electrical current is generated in the production centers (hydroelectric, thermal, nuclear plants,
etc.), it is necessary to transport it to the consumption centers. For this it is usually:

a) Raise its voltage between 220,000 and 420,000 volts, in order to reduce losses (due to dissipated
heat) during transportation.

b) When reaching the vicinity of consumption centers, reduce their voltage between 11,000 and 20,000
volts. There are large industries that use this voltage for their operation.

c) Reduce the service voltage of the network to low voltage consumption voltage values (380, 220 or 127
volts).

In the following figure you can see a diagram of the operation of the distribution network. The grid is
designed with the capacity to supply power when high demands occur. To do this, all the production
plants are interconnected with each other (currently almost all European plants are already connected to
the network). Thus, in the event that one of the plants suffers a breakdown or needs to be repaired, the
supply does not have to be interrupted, since the other plants would be the ones that would provide the
necessary current.

1
8
 Distribution network

The normalized service voltages are shown in the table above. It can be seen that the minimum
recommended voltage for transporting energy over long distances corresponds to 66,000 V. All of this will
depend on the amount of power that needs to be transferred, as well as the distance that separates the
producing center from the consumer.

420,000 Very high

380,000 voltage
220.000

132.000
66,000 High voltage
45.000

35.000
15.000
10.000 Medium
6.000 voltage
5.000
3.000
1.000
380
220 Low voltage
127

Table with normalized service voltages.

■ Elements of an alternating current circuit (c. to.) .

The main elements of an alternating current circuit appear grouped into six large blocks. Note that it does
not have an accumulator, since currently there is no method that can be used, on a large scale, to
accumulate electrical energy.

What is normally done with the electrical energy that may be surplus in the general network, at certain
times, is to use it to pump water from a reservoir to another that is at a higher altitude, which is stored in
the form of potential energy (hydraulic ), even when this energy comes from nuclear or solar plants.

1
9
 Energy ELEMENTS OF ALTERNATING
Most common energy:
• Hydraulics CURRENT CIRCUITS
• Thermal
• Wind
• Internal combustion
• Gas engines/turbines
• Gasoline/diesel engines
Converter

Alternator

Voltage
Boost

Voltage
reduction

Protective
elements

Control
elements

Receiver

• AC generator (c. to.).

Within the alternating current generator, in many cases, two main elements can be distinguished:

a) Converter : It is an element that transforms the energy that feeds the generator into mechanical
rotation energy. So we have that in centrals:

• Wind would correspond to the blades.

• Nuclear, thermal hydraulics, etc., would correspond to turbines specially designed to obtain maximum
performance.

2
0
• Generating sets correspond to the internal combustion engine that transforms the mechanical rotation
energy into an engine.

b) Alternator . To understand the principle of operation of an alternator, you can build a model like the
one shown in the following figure.

Winding with
enameled wire
(800 turns)
Medium

Crank Tin contact

(brushes)
Wooden support
A (a) The tension generated
b between points A and B is
maximum.
(b) In this position of the coil the
Pen rod or thin tube induced electromotive force
Rolled and glued
aluminum foil (emf) is zero (tension between
(collector) A and B

either
' Wire Insulated Piece of
cable terminal wood

The end of cable 1 is electrically connected to the metal contact (a), while the end of
cable 2 will be electrically connected to the metal contact (b).
Alternator operation diagram.

An enameled copper wire is wound on a piece of wood, electrically joining each of its terminals to the
corresponding collector (a type of ring obtained by rolling aluminum foil over an insulating cylinder, like
plastic).

The brushes (tin contacts) must remain in contact with the respective commutators when the crank is
turned.

The magnets should be as close as possible to the coil, but taking care that they do not collide with it
when it rotates.

An oscilloscope can be placed between terminals A and B to see the generated signal, which will
correspond to the one in the figure.

c) Commercial generators . The design of a commercial generator is more complex than the simple
laboratory model. Two models will be studied:

• bicycle dynamo

Modernly, these dynamos are built to generate alternating current, which should be called an alternator
instead of a dynamo.

It is the generator that bicycles carry to power the light bulbs. It has a knurled wheel that rotates when
one of the bicycle wheels does, as it rubs against it.

A permanent magnet is used and the coil is wound on an iron armature.

Sliding rings are used as brushes that allow the current to be removed to the outside.
The dynamo housing serves as the contact.

2
1
In the attached figure you can see each of the elements of the dynamo as well as the signal obtained at
its output if it is connected to an oscilloscope.

Direct current that can come from:

• A small DC generator located
separately.
• ca rectified.

single phase alternator

Bicycle dynamo to generate alternating

current.

• Alternator of power plants.

Large generators producing hundreds of megawatts of power are designed according to the operating
principles described above. The substantial difference lies in the use of electromagnets to replace the
permanent magnets, the latter being the ones that rotate inside the alternator, the coils remaining
motionless in which an electromotive force (emf) or alternating voltage is induced.

The rotor rotates driven by turbines and has its own coils powered by a separate direct current source.

Each of the rotor arms constitutes a magnet, so the N and S poles pass near each stator coil when the
rotor is rotating (driven by the power plant turbine).

The upper right figure represents a single-phase alternator where all its coils are connected in series to
give a single output voltage.

Normally, power plants use alternators with a more complex arrangement, in which three different
outputs called phases (R, S and T) are used, in addition to the other one called neutral (N) that is
connected to ground in the plants and constitutes the which is called three-phase alternating current.

2
2
It consists of connecting opposite pairs of coils as shown in the following figure. The rotor is exactly the
same as for single-phase alternators, so it has not been drawn.

These alternators generate three voltages with the same frequency but out of phase with each other by
120°.

• Transformers.

The operation of a transformer is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction, which in general
terms can be defined as: «When an alternating current generator is connected to a coil or solenoid that is
crossed by an iron core, a magnetic flux along the iron bar. If another coil or secondary solenoid is
located on said bar at the ends of its cables, an electromotive force (emf) will be generated or, what is
the same, a voltage.

Therefore, it can be stated that a transformer is an alternating current device in which, by means of an
alternating current at its input, an emf is generated at its output. As you can see, there is no electrical
contact between the primary and secondary solenoid.

The closer the coils are placed to each other, the better the magnetic flux from the primary will reach the
secondary and the less energy will be wasted.

The best system is to join the coils using an iron core to obtain maximum use of the magnetic flux.
Different improved transformer designs are shown in the figures.
Solenoid Primary solenoid secondary

2
3
The iron core on which both coils are wound is not made up of a single piece, but is made up of steel
sheets or sheets electrically insulated from each other by a varnish coating that is applied to them before
joining them. In this way, energy losses due to Foucault currents that circulate through the iron core,
heating it, are avoided.

The high performance that characterizes transformers (more than 90 percent) means that they have a
wide application in electricity.

The behavior under voltage is determined by the number of coils or turns of the primary and secondary
solenoid or coil.

If we consider that the performance is 100 percent, the following expression is true:

1.1.^ hi
Input alternating voltage (Ve) No. of primary turns (n p )
Output alternating voltage (V) NI." of secondary turns (nJ
Transformers work only with
alternating current (acJ, never
with direct current). continuous go_np
(cc). v , ns

Therefore:

• For a transformer that raises the voltage, the following will be true: V e < V s , so the number of turns
of the secondary will be greater than that of the primary.

• For a transformer that reduces the voltage, V e > V s , the number of turns in the primary will be
greater than that of the secondary.

Since the input power is considered equal to the output power, because there are no losses, we have to:

Primary Secondary

• Protective elements .

Although protection systems must be found in all elements of the circuit, we are going to focus on
consumption centers (homes, factories, etc.). The following protection elements can be distinguished:

a) Against short circuits or network overloads : Depending on the type of installation, fuses,
thermal relays or automatic switches ( magnetic thermal switches) will be used.

b) Against indirect contacts : An indirect contact occurs when, due to a failure in a device or
accessory, the electric current is diverted through its metal parts. For this it is used:

• Reduce voltages to 24 V for humid locations and 50 V for dry locations.

• Insulation of metal parts, from the masses of machines or objects that use current, by coating.

2
4
 • Grounding of all masses by placing a differential switch . This element is very sensitive to
ground leakage current. It receives its name from the way it works, which is based on making a
balance between all the currents that enter the consumer installation and those that leave. This
difference is normally zero, but if a fault occurs, in which a phase is touching the mass of a
device, because it is connected to ground, a current would be produced through the ground.

The switch trips when the current intensity towards ground exceeds its intervention threshold I Δ N ,
regardless of the current consumption that is occurring in the installation.

Differential switches with a sensitivity of 0.03 A, or 30 milliamps, or with a lower intervention threshold,
are called medium and low sensitivity differential switches.

Grounding in the plant

Push
button

Rela
y
Button
test

Scheme of operation of the inte

differential switch.
• Control elements.

They allow the receivers to be used to be started or stopped. The most important are:

a) Switches and switches , which are exactly the same as those already studied in direct current, and
that we can find in all homes and buildings.

b) Electromagnetic contactors : Their operation is analogous to relays, studied in direct current, they
are used to control or govern medium and high power motors.

• Receivers .

The most important receivers of alternating current are motors. This study will focus on alternating
current induction motors, which are, in all probability, the most used in the industrial world.

To understand how it works, the following experience can be carried out in the workshop:

1. Place a magnet, fixed to an axis, on the chuck of a drill press and keep it close to an aluminum
disc, without touching it.

2. When you start the drill press and start the magnet to rotate, you will be able to see that the disc
also tries to do so, following the circular path described by the magnet, even when the disc and
the magnet are physically separated.

2
5
This property is used to build induction motors in which there is a rotating electromagnetic field
(generated in the stator due to alternating current) and as a rotor, an "aluminum disc."

wooden supports

Scheme of an electric motor.

The operation of the engine will depend on whether it is:

• Small motors: For this purpose, single-phase alternating current is used, using two pairs of poles,
requiring a capacitor to shift the voltage.
• Large motors: Three-phase alternating current with three pairs of poles is used.

The most important advantage of induction motors is that:

• They do not have permanent magnets.

• They do not have electrical contacts attached to moving parts (brushes or collector), which means they
have greater durability and fewer breakdowns.

The operation of a single-phase motor is represented in detail below. To do this, the growth and
decrease, respectively, of the electromagnetic field have been represented by up and down arrows.

The coils of the opposite stators are wound in opposite directions so that when one of them is
N pole the opposite be S pole and vice versa.
Corresponding curve
The capacitor is placed in one of the conductors that feeds two to winding A and C
pairs of poles, in order to shift the voltage by 90°, as it appears
in the margin graph, in such a way that when the voltage in a
pair of windings is maximum in the other it is zero and vice
versa. 5 6 7 8 Time

Below eight positions of the polarities of two pairs of poles have

been drawn for one turn of the rotate or, what is equal, for a
complete period of the current. They indicate the polarity of each
one. The arrow indicates the magnetic trend (increasing or Corresponding curve
decreasing), depending on the voltage. to winding By D
Both curves are 90' out of phase

Voltage diagram in the coils of a motor.

2
6
As can be seen, two consecutive poles can simulate a rotating magnet, since when one decreases the
other increases.

For example, between points (2) and (4) there seems to be a magnet that rotates, since in point (2) the N
pole was down and in position (4) it is placed to the right.

From all this it follows that to reverse the direction of rotation of an induction motor it is necessary:

•
versa.
If it is single-phase, change the conductor that has the capacitor with the other one and vice

• If it is three-phase, all you have to do is switch any two phases between each other.

VOCABULARY
Search throughout the topic for the meaning
fallen from the following terms:
• Coulomb • kw • h
• Insulating • Alternator
• Amp • Gap
• Resistivity • Generator
• Coil • Transformer
• Magnetothermal • Secondary
• Power • Solenoid
• Converter • Spirals
• Primary • Differential A

2
7
ACTIVITIES.

1. What losses originate in an electrical installation whose voltage is 220 V if it has a copper cable
with a section of 0.25 mm and 500 m in length that powers a light bulb that offers a resistance
2

of 500 Ω?
a) 14.8 W. b) 5.75 W. c) 43.1 W. d) 26.2 W.
2. The element that allows storing electrical energy in order to be able to use it later is called:
a) Accumulator.
b) Bomb.
c) Electric generator.
d) Dynamo.
3. A fuse is made up of a constantan wire 20 mm long and 0.1 mm in section. What intensity of
2

current is necessary to pass through it if it melts due to a heat of 2.4 calories after one second
has passed?
a) 10 amps.
b) 8 amps.
c) 6 amps.
d) 2 amps.
4. The energy that reaches our homes is in the form of alternating current. What frequency does it
present?
a) 50
b) 60
c) 220
d) 127
5. To change the direction of rotation of a three-phase motor it is necessary:
a) Adjust the condenser.
b) It can not be done.
c) Switch two phases with each other.
d) Change the conductor that has the capacitor with the other one, and vice versa.
6. What will it cost to keep a 6 V, 1.6 W light bulb on every day of the year for 4 hours/day,
knowing that the kWh is worth 18 pesetas?
a) 102 pts.
b) 18 points
c) 81 points.
d) 42 pts.
7. The operation of transformers is based on the principle of:
a) Basic electrostatic.
b) Three-phase alternating current.
c) Electromagnetic induction.
d) Short circuit.
8. To avoid overloads in the electrical network, they are protected with:
a) Magnetothermal.
b) Differentials.
c) Electromagnetic switches.
d) Batteries.
9. A transformer has a 550-turn coil in the primary circuit, powered at 220 volts. What voltage will
the secondary coil provide us if it has 15 turns?
a) 550V
b) 220V
c) 15V
d) 6V
10. The unit of electrical resistance is:
a) Volt. b) Ohm. c) Coulomb. d) Ampere.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.

2
8
• Silva Rodríguez, F.; Sanz Aragonés, J. AND. INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY I. Ed. McGraw Hill. Madrid.
1999.

2
9