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Issue
Vol.6 / 2015
 Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 2015 Volume 6 Issue 4

СОВРЕМЕННЫЕ СИЛЬНЫЕ ЗЕМЛЕТРЯСЕНИЯ ЦЕНТРАЛЬНОЙ АЗИИ: ТЕКТОНОФИЗИЧЕСКИЕ

ЗАКОНОМЕРНОСТИ ЛОКАЛИЗАЦИИ В СТРУКТУРЕ И ГЕОДИНАМИКЕ ЛИТОСФЕРЫ.
ЧАСТЬ 1. ГЛАВНЫЕ ГЕОДИНАМИЧЕСКИЕ ФАКТОРЫ ЛОКАЛИЗАЦИИ СИЛЬНЫХ ЗЕМЛЕТРЯСЕНИЙ
В СТРУКТУРЕ ЛИТОСФЕРЫ ЦЕНТРАЛЬНОЙ АЗИИ
С.И. Шерман, Ма Цзинь, Е.А. Горбунова

ОБ ОСОБЕННОСТИ НАПРЯЖЕННОГО СОСТОЯНИЯ КОРЫ ВНУТРИКОНТИНЕНТАЛЬНЫХ ОРОГЕНОВ

Ю.Л. Ребецкий

БАЙКАЛЬСКИЙ РИФТ: ПЛИОЦЕН (МИОЦЕН) – ЧЕТВЕРТИЧНЫЙ ЭПИЗОД ИЛИ ПРОДУКТ ДЛИТЕЛЬНОГО

РАЗВИТИЯ С ПОЗДНЕГО МЕЛА ПОД ВОЗДЕЙСТВИЕМ РАЗЛИЧНЫХ ТЕКТОНИЧЕСКИХ ФАКТОРОВ.
ОБЗОР ПРЕДСТАВЛЕНИЙ
В.Д. Мац

ПАРАГЕНЕЗ АКТИВНЫХ РАЗЛОМОВ И ПОЗДНЕКАЙНОЗОЙСКОЕ НАПРЯЖЕННОЕ СОСТОЯНИЕ ЗЕМНОЙ

КОРЫ ЦЕНТРАЛЬНОЙ ЧАСТИ МОНГОЛИИ
В.А. Саньков, А.В. Парфеевец, А.И. Мирошниченко, А.В. Саньков, А. Баясгалан, Д. Баттогтох

РАЗРАБОТКА КУЛТУКСКОГО СЕЙСМОПРОГНОСТИЧЕСКОГО ПОЛИГОНА:

ВАРИАЦИИ (234U/238U) И 87SR/86SR В ПОДЗЕМНЫХ ВОДАХ ИЗ АКТИВНЫХ РАЗЛОМОВ
ЗАПАДНОГО ПОБЕРЕЖЬЯ БАЙКАЛА
С.В. Рассказов, Е.П. Чебыкин, А.М. Ильясова, Е.Н. Воднева, И.С. Чувашова, С.А. Борняков, А.К. Семинский,
С.В. Снопков, В.В. Чечельницкий, Н.А. Гилева

ВСЕРОССИЙСКОЕ СОВЕЩАНИЕ «ФЛЮИДНЫЙ РЕЖИМ ЭНДОГЕННЫХ ПРОЦЕССОВ

КОНТИНЕНТАЛЬНОЙ ЛИТОСФЕРЫ», ИРКУТСК, РОССИЯ, 6–9 ОКТЯБРЯ 2015 Г.
Ф.А. Летников, Ю.В. Данилова, Т.С. Соколова, А.В. Левин

https://www.gt-crust.ru
GEODYNAMICS & TECTONOPHYSICS
-
PUBLISHED BY THE INSTITUTE OF THE EARTH’S CRUST
SIBERIAN BRANCH OF RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

2015 VOLUME 6 ISSUE 4 PAGES 409–436 ISSN 2078-502X

http://dx.doi.org/10.5800/GT-2015-6-4-0188

RECENT STRONG EARTHQUAKES IN CENTRAL ASIA: REGULAR

TECTONOPHYSICAL FEATURES OF LOCATIONS IN THE STRUCTURE AND
GEODYNAMICS OF THE LITHOSPHERE. PART 1. MAIN GEODYNAMIC
FACTORS PREDETERMINING LOCATIONS OF STRONG EARTHQUAKES

Tectonophysics
IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE LITHOSPHERE IN CENTRAL ASIA

S. I. Sherman1, Ma Jin2, Е. А. Gorbunova1

1 Institute of the Earth's Crust, Siberian Branch of RAS, Irkutsk, Russia
2 Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing, China

Abstract: Studying locations of strong earthquakes (М≥8) in space and time in Central Asia has been among top prob-
lems for many years and still remains challenging for international research teams. The authors propose a new ap-
proach that requires changing the paradigm of earthquake focus – solid rock relations, while this paradigm is a basis
for practically all known physical models of earthquake foci. This paper describes the first step towards developing a
new concept of the seismic process, including generation of strong earthquakes, with reference to specific geodynamic
features of the part of the study region wherein strong earthquakes were recorded in the past two centuries.
Our analysis of the locations of М≥8 earthquakes shows that in the past two centuries such earthquakes took place
in areas of the dynamic influence of large deep faults in the western regions of Central Asia.
In the continental Asia, there is a clear submeridional structural boundary (95–105°E) between the western and
eastern regions, and this is a factor controlling localization of strong seismic events in the western regions. Obviously,
the Indostan plate’s pressure from the south is an energy source for such events. The strong earthquakes are located
in a relatively small part of the territory of Central Asia (i.e. the western regions), which is significantly different from
its neighbouring areas at the north, east and west, as evidenced by its specific geodynamic parameters. (1) The crust is
twice as thick in the western regions than in the eastern regions. (2) In the western regions, the block structures re-
sulting from the crust destruction, which are mainly represented by lense-shaped forms elongated in the submeridio-
nal direction, tend to dominate. (3) Active faults bordering large block structures are characterized by significant slip
velocities that reach maximum values in the central part of the Tibetan plateau. Further northward, slip velocities
decrease gradually, yet do not disappear. (4) In the western regions of Central Asia, the recurrence time of strong
earthquakes is about 25 years. It correlates with the regular activation of the seismic process in Asia which is mani-
fested in almost the same time intervals; a recurrence time of a strong earthquake controlled by a specific active fault
exceeds seems 100–250 years. (5) Mechanisms of all the strong earthquakes contain a slip component that is often
accompanied by a compression component. The slip component corresponds to shearing along the faults revealed by
geological methods, i.e. correlates with rock mass displacements in the near-fault medium. (6) GPS geodetic meas-
urements show that shearing develops in the NW direction in the Tibet. Further northward, the direction changes to
the sublatitudinal one. At the boundary of ~105°E, southward of 30°N, the slip vectors attain the SE direction. Further
southward of 20°N, at the eastern edge of the Himalayan thrust, the slip vectors again attain the sublatitudinal direc-
tion. High velocities/rates of recent crust movements are typical of the Tibet region. (7) The NW direction is typical of
the opposite vectors related to the Pacific subduction zone. The resultant of the NE and NW vectors provides for the
right-lateral displacement of the rocks in the submeridional border zone. (8) The geodynamic zones around the cen-
tral zone (wherein the strong earthquakes are located) are significantly less geodynamically active and thus facilitate
the accumulation of compression stresses in the central zone, providing for the transition of rocks to the quazi-plastic
state and even flow. This is the principal feature distinguishing the region, wherein the strong earthquakes are loca-
ted, from its neighboring areas.
In Central Asia, the structural positions of recent strong earthquakes are determined with respect to the following
factors: (1) the western regions separated in the studied territory; (2) the larger thickness of the crust in the western
regions; (3) strong submeridional compression of the crust and upper lithosphere in combination with shear stresses;
(4) high rates of recent crustal movements; and (5) the rheological characteristics of the crust.

Key words: seismicity; strong earthquake; earthquake foci; magnitude; focal mechanism; fault; crustal thickness;
crustal movement; recurrence time; block; shear/slip amplitude; rheology

409
S.I. Sherman et al.: Recent strong earthquakes in Central Asia…

Recommended by K.Zh. Seminsky

For citation: Sherman S.I., Ma Jin, Gorbunova Е.А. 2015. Recent strong earthquakes in Central Asia: regular
tectonophysical features of locations in the structure and geodynamics of the lithosphere. Part 1. Main
geodynamic factors predetermining locations of strong earthquakes in the structure of the lithosphere in
Central Asia. Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 6 (4), 409–436. doi:10.5800/GT-2015-6-4-0188.

СОВРЕМЕННЫЕ СИЛЬНЫЕ ЗЕМЛЕТРЯСЕНИЯ ЦЕНТРАЛЬНОЙ АЗИИ:

ТЕКТОНОФИЗИЧЕСКИЕ ЗАКОНОМЕРНОСТИ ЛОКАЛИЗАЦИИ
В СТРУКТУРЕ И ГЕОДИНАМИКЕ ЛИТОСФЕРЫ. ЧАСТЬ 1.
ГЛАВНЫЕ ГЕОДИНАМИЧЕСКИЕ ФАКТОРЫ ЛОКАЛИЗАЦИИ СИЛЬНЫХ
ЗЕМЛЕТРЯСЕНИЙ В СТРУКТУРЕ ЛИТОСФЕРЫ ЦЕНТРАЛЬНОЙ АЗИИ

С. И. Шерман1, Ма Цзинь2, Е. А. Горбунова1

1 Институт земной коры СО РАН, Иркутск, Россия
2 Государственная лаборатория динамики землетрясений, Институт геологии, Администрация
по землетрясениям Китая, Пекин, Китай

Аннотация: Изучение пространственно-временной локализации сильных (М≥8) землетрясений Центральной

Азии – актуальная современная задача. Над ее решением в течение многих лет работают группы специали-
стов ряда стран. Принятый авторами подход требует изменения парадигмы о связи очагов землетрясений с
очень прочным составом пород. На этот тезис опираются практически все известные физические модели оча-
гов землетрясений. В статье изложен новый подход к пониманию сейсмического процесса, при котором гене-
рируются сильные землетрясения. Он базируется на акцентировании специфики геодинамики части региона,
в которой зафиксированы сильные землетрясения двух последних столетий.
Локализация землетрясений с М≥8 за последние два столетия показывает их приуроченность к областям
динамического влияния крупных глубинных разломов только западной части Центральной Азии. Наличие
четкой субмеридиональной структурной границы, проходящей примерно по 95–105° в.д. и разделяющей
континентальную Азию на западную и восточную части, предопределяет локализацию сильных событий в
западной части. Их энергетическим источником является давление с юга Индостанской плиты. Это факт, не
подлежащий сомнению. Важную роль в локализации сильных событий в относительно небольшой по площа-
ди центральной части Центральной Азии играют окружающие территории. Установлены специфические гео-
динамические параметры, отличающие регион от сопредельных территорий с севера, востока и запада, к ко-
торым относятся следующие. 1. Толщина земной коры в два раза больше. 2. Большая ранговая раздроблен-
ность блоковых структур с тенденцией к превалированию линзовидных обтекаемых форм, вытянутых в суб-
широтном направлении. 3. Активные разломы, ограничивающие крупные блоковые структуры, характери-
зуются существенными сдвиговыми скоростями, достигающими максимальных значений в центральном
части Тибетского плато. Севернее скорости постепенно снижаются до минимальных значений. 4. Рекуррент-
ное время сильных землетрясений в целом для территории западной части Центральной Азии составляет
около 25 лет. Численно оно совпадает с периодической активизацией сейсмического процесса, которая про-
исходит в Азии примерно с таким же временным интервалом; рекуррентное время для сильных событий в
зоне влияния одного разлома составляет 100–250 лет и более. 5. Механизмы очагов всех сильных землетря-
сений содержат сдвиговую компоненту, чаще всего сочетающуюся с компонентой сжатия. Она корреспонди-
рует со смещениями по разломам, установленными геологическими методами, то есть с движениями масс
горных пород в околоразломной среде. 6. Современные данные по движениям земной коры методом GPS-
геодезии показывают их векторную направленность в СВ направлении в Тибете, севернее направление меня-
ется на субширотное, а на границе ~105°в.д. и южнее 30° с.ш. векторы приобретают ЮВ направление; южнее
20° с.ш., в области выступа на восток Гималайского надвига, векторы вновь приобретают субширотное на-
правление. Высокие скорости современных движений характерны для Тибета. 7. Встречные векторы, связан-
ные с тихоокеанской зоной субдукции, характеризуются северо-западным направлением. Равнодействующая
северо-восточных и северо-западных векторов способствует правостороннему сдвижению горных масс в
субмеридиональной пограничной зоне. 8. Геодинамические зоны, окружающие центральную зону с локали-
зацией сильных землетрясений, характеризуются несравненно более низкой геодинамической активностью.
Они способствуют накоплению напряжений сжатия в центральной геодинамической зоне, в которой проис-
ходит переход пород в квазипластическое состояние и даже течение. Это обстоятельство принципиально
выделяет регион локализации сильных землетрясений из окружающего пространства.
Структурная позиция современных сильных землетрясений континентальной Центральной Азии ограни-
чивается: (1) территориальным вычленением только западной части названной территории; (2) увеличен-

410
 Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 2015 Volume 6 Issue 4 Pages 409–436
ной мощностью коры в ней; (3) сильным субмеридиональным сжатием коры и верхней части литосферы в
сочетании со сдвиговыми напряжениями; (4) высокими скоростями современных движений земной коры и
(5) ее реологическими характеристиками.
Ключевые слова: сейсмичность; сильное землетрясение; очаг землетрясения; магнитуда; механизм
очага; разлом; толщина земной коры; движение земной коры; рекуррентное время;
блок; амплитуда смещения; реология
1. INTRODUCTION
Problems of determining locations of earthquakes in
space and time and earthquake forecasting are among
top priorities in the modern studies of seismicity. Actu-
ally, much effort has been already invested to study the
seismic process as an integral part of the recent geody-
namics, and many of its aspects are known. All the
identified seismic belts and seismic zones of the Earth
have been mapped, and the maps show a variety of de-
tails of the areas wherein the earthquakes were re-
corded. Concepts of relations between specific geody-
namic settings and the occurrence of earthquakes have
been proposed. Fault-block tectonics, detailed charac-
teristics of crustal movements, stresses and other pa-
rameters that are specific of the active tectonics (main-
ly, of the Holocene) have been described. Seismic zo-
ning maps are available for many regions; theoretical
problems of the seismic process, seismic regimes and
migration of seismicity have been studied; earthquake
mechanisms have been described; and over 200 indica-
tors/precursors that are useful for earthquake fore-
casting have been revealed. Nonetheless, in view of a
broad range of seismic safety issues, prediction of
times and locations of seismic events is still a major
challenge. The great Tohoku earthquake (11 March
2011, Japan) is another reminder of the fact that the
current earthquake prediction system remains defi-
cient and has many shortcomings. A post factum ap-
proach is most typical – after an earthquake took place,
its causes and some precursors suggesting its location
and timing are typically revealed by the analysis of the
past seismic events. Out of more than 200 known pre-
cursors of earthquakes, none ever occur jointly. Be-
sides, it is quite often discovered that that precursors
recorded prior to an earthquake were be unambigu-
ously interpreted and thus not properly taken into ac-
count. Obviously, problems with interpreting the pre-
cursors are due to the fact that the preparation and oc-
currence of an earthquake in nature are complicated
processes. The higher is the earthquake magnitude, the
more complex is the history prior to the earthquake
occurrence, and the more factors are integrated in the
natural setting before such an earthquake. In-depth
analyses of strong earthquakes that occur rarely are
hindered by the very fact of their rarity. An earthquake
focus or a hypocentre of an earthquake is a major
manifestation in a seismic zone. Foci of strong earth-
quakes as rare events should be studied in detail, and
precursors and potential triggering mechanisms need
to be discovered and understood.
Location and time are two indisputable characteris-
tics of the past strong earthquakes. In terms of geology
and geophysics, it can be stated that earthquakes typi-
cally occur in zones of large faults. Outside the zones of
the dynamic impact of large faults, there are no records
of any earthquakes with М≥5.5. An earthquake time is
a parameter that is registered only post factum. Time-
lines of potential earthquakes can be assessed, but may
not always be useful with regard to a broad range of
seismic safety issues. There have been numerous at-
tempts at predicting strong earthquakes on the basis of
precursors with account of the leading factors prece-
ding an earthquake, rather than the number of such
factors. The majority of the attempts were unsuccess-
ful, which is an evidence of the fact that the precursors
have not been properly studied yet.
While being well aware of the fact that the seismic
process is very complex, we support with the scientific
certainty the concept that the majority of natural phe-
nomena, especially those of the endogenic origin, re-
flect the sequential development of endogenic process-
ses and are thus predictable. It is not always easy to
distinguish a stage of the endogenic process within
which an event has occurred, or determine whether a
combination of additional factors or any special trigger
was involved in the process when the event took place.
Important factors that need to be studied in detail to
understand the origin of the earthquake and its occur-
rence are the physical and structural status of the en-
dogenic medium of the crust/lithosphere in the region
wherein a strong earthquake took place, and trends in
the development of the medium.
Based on the above concepts, the authors have ana-
lysed strong earthquakes (М≥8) registered in Central
Asia, the largest continental territory of the Earth, in
terms of the first main obvious criteria, including loca-
tions (at active faults and in areas of the dynamic influ-
ence of the faults), conditions of short-term activation,
thickness, state of stresses, and vector mobility of the
411
S.I. Sherman et al.: Recent strong earthquakes in Central Asia…
crust. The analysed earthquake data set covers the pe-
riod from 1900 to 2014. The objective of our study is in
compliance with the tectonophysical concept of the
seismic process [Sherman, 2014] and does not contra-
dict the ideas on the block/fault-block structure of the
basement in seismic zones discussed in many publica-
tions, including those by colleagues from China. Central
Asia provides abundant opportunities for such studies
– strong earthquakes in the continental lithosphere of
Central Asia are well recorded, and earthquake predic-
tion is among the priority social problems in this re-
gion. In our study, Central Asia includes the seismic
zone of the Pribaikalie, seismic zones of Mongolia and
the continental China.
2.GEODYNAMICS OF THE CRUST AND LITHOSPHERE
IN CENTRAL ASIA
Central Asia is the main component of the trans-
regional Alpine-Himalayan (Mediterranean-Transasi-
an) sublatitudinal seismic belt stretching from the Eu-
ropean Alps across the Carpathians, Caucasus, Tien
Shan, Pamirs and Himalayas. It is the largest global in-
tra-continental seismic belt (see Fig. 1 in [Sherman,
Zlogodukhova, 2011]). In Central Asia, the belt is ex-
panded, and near the boundary at 85–90°E in the sub-
latitudinal direction in Altai region, which changes to
the north-eastern direction in Pribaikalie, it has a nar-
row branch, the Baikal seismic zone that is locally ex-
tended along the Stanovoy zone to the Pacific coast.
The main branch of the belt, that is weakly manifested
from the Pamirs, goes to the east across the territory of
China and joint the West Pacific seismic belt that is ge-
netically related to the subduction zone.
Geological, structural, geomorphological, geophysi-
cal and other criteria of the studied territory are highly
variable. Actually, seismicity is one the most clearly
manifested criteria of the recent activity of Central
Asia. Based this criterion, two segments are clearly dis-
tinguished to comprise the western and eastern re-
gions. The boundary zone between the two segments is
narrow in the Pribaikalie at ~105°E and gradually wi-
dens southwards to the Burma mountains (i.e. the
western Himalayas) to become almost 500 km wide.
The boundary separates the western edge comprising
an independent structure of the Birma mountains with
active ongoing subduction and the seismic focal plane
that is steeply dipping underneath the Southern China
plate [Komarov et al., 1978; Ma Xingyuan et al.,1987; Ma
Xingyuan, 1990; Grachev et al., 1993; Trifonov, 1983,
1999; Burtman, 2012а, 2012b; Gatinsky, Rundquist,
2004; Gatinsky et al., 2005a, 2005b, 2011; Sherman,
1978, 2014; Kuchai, Bushenkova, 2009; Kuchai, Kozina,
2015; etc.]. However, variations in the recent seismic
process and other geological and geophysical charac-
412
teristics, such as earthquake intensity, distribution of
strong earthquakes, recent crustal movements etc., are
only a reflection of geodynamics factors predetermin-
ing the major manifestations of seismicity, i.e. strong
earthquakes. In this respect, main parameters of the
lithosphere structure are briefly reviewed below with a
focus on the parameters that predetermine the occur-
rence of strong seismic events. The review is based on
the commonly accepted scheme of the occurrence of
seismicity in the mobile fault-block structure of the
basement.
Foci of large earthquakes occur in faults separating
the blocks when such blocks are displaced [Sadovsky
et al., 1987; Sadovsky, Pisarenko, 1991; Sobolev, 1993,
2011; Sobolev, Ponomarev, 2003; Goldin, 2004; Gol'din et
al., 2003, 2004; Kocharyan, Spivak, 2003; Trifonov, Ka-
rakhanyan, 2004; Gatinsky et al., 2008; Kuzmin, 2002,
2004; Kuzmin, Zhukov, 2004; Sherman, 2014; etc.].
Blocks may be displaced due to a variety of causes,
primarily endogenic ones. Below we provide a detailed
overview of the recent geodynamic activity in the stud-
ied region.
In Central Asia, seismic activity is high, the state of
stresses is complex (see Fig. 1 in [Sherman, Zlogodu-
khova, 2011]), the crust thickness is variable, crustal
movements and other geological and geophysical pa-
rameters of the crust are diverse [Trifonov, 1999;
Burtman, 1990, 2012а; Makarov, 1977; Grachev et al.,
1993; etc.]. The available data are consolidated in the
map of the recent geodynamics of Asia (Fig. 1) [Levi et
al., 2005, 2009] which is based on a number of general
and specific geodynamic parameters. The map shows
that the lithosphere thickness is slightly variable across
the mapped territory. The lithosphere top is near the
ground surface in the Baikal and Shansi rift systems. A
more detailed scheme of the lithosphere thickness of
the Mongolia-Siberian mountainous region and neigh-
bouring territories is given in [Zorin et al., 1989], and it
does not show any significant variations of the litho-
sphere thickness in this region.
It should be noted that the most recent studiespro-
vided new data on variations in the lithosphere thick-
ness and relations between the lithosphere thickness
and strong earthquakes in Central Asia [Gatinsky et al.,
2009]. The lithosphere is 200 km thick in Southern
Kazakhstan and the Tarim massif; the thickness de-
creases to 80–90 km in Tien Shan located between the
above-mentioned regions [Bao et al., 2011]. From East
Tibet to the Sichuan basin, the thickness changes from
100–120 km to 130–170 km [Hu et al., 2012]. More-
over, the boundary between Tibet and the southeas-
tern China is distinguished by both the thickness and
properties of the lithosphere. In Tibet, the lithosphere
is layered and contains semi-plastic layers [Gatinsky
et al., 2009] as shown by electric sounding and geologi-
cal survey data [Burtman, 2012a], while in the south-
 Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 2015 Volume 6 Issue 4 Pages 409–436

Fig. 1. The map of recent geodynamics of Asia [Levi et al., 2009].

Structure of the lithosphere: 1 – lithosphere thickness isolines, km; 2 – boundaries between oceanic lithosphere and continental litho-
sphere. Movements, active faults, seismicity and volcanism: 3 – vectors of recent horizontal block movement velocities with confidence el-
lipses (by GPS data); 4 – scale of recent horizontal movement velocities; 5 – normal faults; 6 – reverse faults and thrusts; 7 – strike-slip
faults; 8 – faults of undetermined kinematics; 9 – active volcanoes; 10 – epicenters of earthquakes with M≥6.

Рис. 1. Карта современной геодинамики Азии [Levi et al., 2009].

Структура литосферы: 1 – изолинии толщины литосферы, км; 2 – границы между океанской и континентальной литосферой.
Движения, активные разломы, сейсмичность и вулканизм: 3 – векторы скоростей современных горизонтальных движений ли-
тосферных блоков с эллипсами ошибок (по данным GPS); 4 – масштаб векторов скоростей современных горизонтальных движе-
ний; 5 – сбросы; 6 – взбросы и надвиги; 7 – сдвиги; 8 – разломы с неустановленным типом смещений; 9 – действующие вулканы;
10 – эпицентры землетрясений М≥6.

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S.I. Sherman et al.: Recent strong earthquakes in Central Asia…
Fig. 2. Thickness of the crust in the Mongolia-Siberia mountain region. In this scheme, isolines are spaced by 5 km (amended
from [Zorin et al., 1990]).
Рис. 2. Схема толщины земной коры Монголо-Сибирской горной страны. Сплошные изолинии проведены через 5
км (по [Zorin et al., 1990], с изменениями).
western China, the lithosphere is cold and rigid [Ga-
tinsky et al., 2009].
The boundary at ~105°Eis clearly noted in many
studies of the crustalthickness variations.
The map showing thickness of the crust is available
in [Zorin et al., 1990] for the territory of Pribaikalie and
Mongolia, i.e. the northern regions of the territory in
our study (Fig. 2). The distance between isolines is
50km. The map shows that the thinner crust segment
(up to 35 km thick) stretches in the Baikal rift zone
from the southern termination of Lake Baikal further to
the south in the meridional direction and at 106–107°E
goes across Mongolia to the border with China. A
thicker segment of the crust (up to 57 km) is located in
the Altai-Gobi zone.
Variations of the crust thickness are considerably
different in the territory southward of Gobi. In the map
in [Li et al., 2006] (Fig. 3),the two areas differ in strikes
of isopachs and crust thickness values. In the eastern
area, the strike of local structures is submeridional, and
the crust thickness varies from 30 to 42 km. Only at the
south termination of this area (i.e. at the edge of the
414
Himalayan thrust and the Burma mountains), the strike
of the structures changes to latitudinal, and the crust
thickness is up to 32 km. In the western area, the crust
thickness varies in the sublatitudinal direction from
70+ to 40 km. According to the map, the crust thickness
gradually decreases from the south to the north. The
thickness of the crust has maximum values (over
70 km) at the Tibetan Plateau and minimum values
(around 44 km or less) at the Tarim block. The crust
thickness variation gradients reflect the zones of dy-
namic influence of deep faults that predetermine sub-
horizontally striking forms of the block divisibility of
the crust and lithosphere, as well as locations of strong
earthquakes in the regions wherein the crust thickness
is more than 45 km. A meridional zone that is clearly
distinguishable in the map [Li et al., 2006] is the
boundary between the western and eastern areas of
the territory of Central Asia. Its width is variable. Val-
ues of the crust thickness in this zone are persistent,
about 42–44 km. In the north, a similar boundary zone
can be observed in the map in [Zorin et al., 1990]. In the
south, it is blocked by the sublatitudinal thinning of the
 Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 2015 Volume 6 Issue 4 Pages 409–436

Fig. 3. Contour map of crustal thickness obtained from profile data (contour interval is 2 km).
Crustal thickness ranges from 28 to 46 km in the eastern China, and from 42 to 74 in the western China. The margins of the Tibetan pla-
teau are marked by a steep gradient in crustal thickness [Li et al., 2006].

Рис. 3. Схема толщины земной коры, построенная по профилям, изопахиты проведены через 2 км.
Толщина коры изменяется от 28 до 46 км в Восточном Китае и от 42 до 74 км в Западном Китае. Граница Тибетского плато вы-
деляется крутым градиентом толщины земной коры [Li et al., 2006].

crust. According to the intensity of isopachs (gapped by
2 km), the western boundary of the meridional mar-
ginal area seems to be steeply dipping westwards,
while the eastern boundary is gently dipping east-
wards. It is noteworthy that the submeridional bound-
ary identified by variations of the crust thickness is re-
flected in the fault-block structure of Central Asia as
shown the atlas of the territory of China and neigh-
bouring countries in [Ma Xingyuan et al., 1987] and in
the map in [Ma Xingyuan, 1990].
Tomographic data published by the Russian and
Chinese scientists show that the submeridional boun-
dary is also traceable at the deeper horizons.
In [Yanovskaya, Kozhevnikov, 2003; Kozhevnikov et
al., 2014], 3D models of S-wave velocities in Central
Asia are proposed for depths from 50 to 700 m. The
two above-mentioned publications cover a significant
part of the Asian continent between 25° and 65°N and
80° and 155°E. At depths of 50 km between 25° and
45°N (at the north, up to the southern termination of
Lake Baikal) along the meridian at ~105°, a clear
boundary is traceable between areas wherein S-waves
are significantly different – the velocities are low in the
western area, and high in the eastern area (Fig. 4). An
average S-wave velocity is 4.46 km/sec. The low veloci-
ties refer to the thick, and relatively strongly disturbed
crust under the Pamirs. The Southern China block is
located eastward of this boundary. Its bottom seems to
be located at a depth of about 100 km as the relevant
profile shows a low-velocity mantle underneath the
block at this depth. Quite an opposite setting is re-
vealed for a depth of 300 km – from 25°N to 55°N and
also along ~105°E there is a continuous boundary
between the low-velocity mantle in the east and the

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S.I. Sherman et al.: Recent strong earthquakes in Central Asia…

Fig. 4. Maps of variations of transverse wave velocities [Kozhevnikov et al., 2014].

Numbers at isolines show percentage values of variations of transverse wave velocities. Under each map, a corresponding depth and an
average velocity is shown (VS average).

Рис. 4. Карты вариаций скоростей поперечных волн [Kozhevnikov et al., 2014].

Цифры у изолиний – вариации скоростей поперечных волн в процентах. Над каждой картой приведены соответствующие глу-
бины и средняя скорость (VS ср.).

high-velocity mantle in the west. The boundary is par-
tially traceable at a depth of 250 km between 35°и
60°N [Kozhevnikov et al., 2014]. At depths of 400 and
600 km, the setting is more complicated. At the depth
of 400 km, the boundary is traceable along 105°E. The
ratio of variations in S-wave velocities (dV s /V s average ,
%) is higher in the western area than in the eastern
[Yanovskaya, Kozhevnikov, 2003]. Other profiles show
less unambiguous settings.
Based on the interpretation of the deep seismic pro-
files, there are grounds to distinguish between the two
areas in Central Asia which are significantly different
in terms of recent seismic activity and separated by
the transregional meridional boundary that is mani-
fested by differences in the physical fields. The trans-
regional boundary may penetrate to a depth of around
600 km.
According to the map in Fig. 9 in [Priestley,
McKenzie, 2006], this boundary is located in the seg-
ment between 25 and ~40°N along the meridian at
~106–108°E. It reflects a 100-km difference between
depths of the lithosphere in the eastern and western
areas (~180 km and ~280 km, respectively). In nature,
this is the region of the boundary between the Tibet
and the Southern China block.
In [Priestley et al., 2006], the scheme of East Asia
shows the lithosphere thickness and earthquake epi-
centres (М≥5). It is obvious from the above-mentioned
scheme that the earthquakes are generally associated
with the relatively thick lithosphere of the Tibet, Pamir
and Tien Shan, as well as to the transitional-thickness
lithosphere of the Gobi-Altai zone (S.Sh. – the recent
lithosphere destruction zone) of the NW strike, linear
zones of the NE strike in Pribaikalie and the latitudinal

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 Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 2015 Volume 6 Issue 4 Pages 409–436
zone of the Stanovoy ridge. It can be concluded that
earthquakes tend to occur in relatively thick segments
of the lithosphere, and earthquake magnitudes of cor-
relate with the lithosphere thickness values and the
state of stresses (in the above-mentioned case, stresses
of compression or shear) in the lithosphere [Sherman,
Zlogodukhova, 2011].
Fault-block structures and faults in the lithosphere
can be viewed as geological objects that directly control
epi- and hypocentral fields of earthquakes.
3. ACTIVE DEEP FAULTS AND FAULT-BLOCK STRUCTURES AS
OBJECTS OF THE DIRECT STRUCTURAL CONTROL OVER
STRONG EARTHQUAKES
The notion of 'active fault' is broad in terms of ge-
netic criteria of factors that trigger activation. It is also
broad, considering the duration of the active process,
which depends on triggers'/excitation sources [Sher-
man et al., 2005]. For the purpose of analysis of rela-
tionships between the seismic process and faults, it is
reasonable to consider that a fault is active in the re-
cent geodynamic stage if earthquake foci were regis-
tered in the zone of its dynamic influence [Sherman et
al., 1983] within the past 100 years. This criterion is
important for the short-term period when earthquake
foci are registered by instrumental methods. In studies
of fault activation, the research method using the soft-
ware [Sherman et al., 2005; Sherman, 2014] allows a
researcher to reduce an interval to one year and pro-
cess fault databases in order to identify individual
faults in fault sets and conclude that such faults mani-
fested short-term activation in specified years. When
studying the seismic process in a group of faults in any
territory, it is possible to identify faults that were acti-
vated many times and those not involved in the seismic
process for many years.
In our study, the above-mentioned method provi-
ding for the assessment of short-term activation of
large seismically active faults [Sherman et al., 2005;
Sherman, 2014] is applied to analyse strong earth-
quakes. For the purposes of our study, a fault is consid-
ered active if earthquakes of М≥8 were recorded in the
zone of its dynamic influence in the specified time in-
terval. Data on active faults with seismic events of М≥8
are selected from the earthquake catalogue published
in China and kindly provided by Acad. Ma Jin who con-
solidated the data in Table 1. With reference to the
short-term activation criterion (Fig. 5), the faults are
classified into two groups: (1) recently activated faults
(with earthquake foci in the period from 1900 to
2014), and (2) faults of more ancient activation (with
earthquake foci in the period from 1800 to 1900). The
latter group also includes the largest historical earth-
quakes known for the studied area. In the studied terri-
tory of Central Asia within the specified period (from
1900), the activation of large inter-block faults has
been observed only within the western region of Cen-
tral Asia. Earthquakes of М≥8 did not take place any-
where in the eastern regions in the past 100 years.
Moreover, cases of two seismic events of equal magni-
tudes were very rare in the zones of dynamics influ-
ence of large faults. An exceptionally rare phenomenon
is repeated activation of the same large faults and the
stimulation of the occurrence of strong earthquake foci
in the zones of dynamics influence of large faults with
the interval of less than 100 years. Therefore, the ge-
netic origin of activation of large faults in the litho-
sphere, which can stimulate seismic events with М≥8,
is related to one or several geologo-geophysical criteria
that rarely occur during the process of the recent geo-
dynamic development of the territory.
In the publication on long-term seismicity and
strong earthquakes in the eastern regions in the Medi-
terranean [Trifonov, Karakhanyan, 2004], E.R. Sen'ko
and colleagues distinguish between three stages of
seismic activation which last for 200÷300 years with
the recurrence period of 1300-1700 years. Within each
stage, there are two periods of peak activity. The stages
and activity peaks differ in the size of involved territo-
ries. In the summary of results of seismic activity stu-
dies in the central part of the Alpine-Himalayan colli-
sional belt, V.G. Trifonov and A.S. Karakhanyan (p. 201)
[2004] emphasise that “activation period of 200÷250
years are typical of some zones, and such periods cor-
respond to seismic cycles defined by S.A. Fedotov”. Our
conclusions on the studied territory of central Asia are
in agreement with the ideas of the above-mentioned
authors, though admit shorter periods of seismic acti-
vation of the faults in case of control over earthquakes
of maximum magnitudes. This may be related to a spe-
cific position of the studied territory of Central Asia
which is described below.
As shown in Fig. 5, block structures are bordered by
large active faults that were activated recently and sub-
ject to ancient short-term activations. The inter-block
boundaries are controlled by faults that occurred in the
Paleozoic; seismic events with М≥8 took place in the
zones of dynamic influence of the faults. The blocks of
the Tibetan Plateau, Tarin, Altai-Sayan and smaller
block structures are identified in the western regions.
The interplate boundary, i.e. the western margin of the
huge Amur plate, is located at ~105°E. In the western
regions, the blocks have irregular shapes, and most of
them are lense-shaped and elongated in the sublatitu-
dinal directions.
In the eastern regions, the blocks are rectangular
and often isometric. The South China, Ordoss, North
China, East China, Mongolia and Tranbaikalia blocks
are distinguished in the eastern regions [Zhang et al.,
2003; Sherman, Levi, 1978].
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S.I. Sherman et al.: Recent strong earthquakes in Central Asia…

T a b l e 1. Strong earthquakes of Central Asia, according to historical data and recent records (1900 to 2014)
(compiled by Ma Jin after [Song Zhiping et al., 2011; China…, 2015])
Т а б л и ц а 1. Cильные землетрясения Центральной Азии за историческое и современное (1900–2014 гг.)
время (составлено Ма Цзинь по данным [Song Zhiping et al., 2011; China…, 2015])
Year Month Day Latitude Longitude Magnitude
1303 9 25 36.3 111.7 8
1411 10 8 30.1 90.5 8
1505 6 6 29.5 83 8.2
1556 2 2 34.5 109.7 8.25
1654 7 21 34.3 105.5 8
1668 7 25 34.8 118.5 8.5
1669 6 4 33.4 73.3 8
1679 9 2 40 117 8
1725 2 1 56.5 118.5 8.2
1739 1 3 38.8 106.5 8
1761 12 9 50 90 8.3
1803 9 1 31 79 8.1
1812 3 8 43.7 83.5 8
1833 8 26 28.3 85.5 8
1833 9 6 25 103 8
1879 7 1 33.2 104.7 8
1889 7 11 43.2 78.7 8.3
1897 6 12 26 91 8.7
1902 8 22 39.9 76.2 8.25
1905 7 9 49 99 8.4
1905 7 23 49 98 8.4
1920 12 16 36.7 104.9 8.5
1927 5 22 37.7 102.2 8
1931 8 10 47.1 89.8 8
1934 1 15 26.5 86.5 8.1
1935 5 30 28.894 66.176 8.1
1950 8 15 28.5 96.5 8.6
1951 11 18 31.1 91.4 8
1957 12 4 45.153 99.206 8.1
2001 11 14 35.918 90.543 8.1
2008 5 12 30.95 103.4 8

It is noteworthy that when Academician Ma Xing-
yuan analysed the geodynamics of the lithosphere in
China [Ma Xingyuan, 1990; Ma Xingyuan et al., 1987], he
focused on subplates and tectonic block bordered by
active faults or graben zones. In the territory of China
and the neighbouring regions, he distinguished eight
active subplates and 18 tectonic blocks. The Tibet plate
was viewed as an active subplate of the low integrity,
i.e. relatively low quasi viscosity of the medium. The
highly intensive seismicity to depths more than 120 km
suggest that the crust is highly disturbed and very mo-
bile, and its quasi viscosity is low, which predetermine
the recent seismicity of various magnitudes in a wide
range of depths. The maximum number of the recent
strong earthquakes took place at the large faults that
border the Tibetan Plateau and at its inter-block large
faults.
In [Gatinsky et al., 2009] the same ides is highlighted
with account of the most recent data, and it is conclu-
ded that, generally, boundaries of the blocks are seis-
mically active, earthquake epicentres tend to occur in
narrow zones between the blocks, and such zones are
typically 50–100 km wide. In view of lengths of the
faults separating the blocks, the width of 50–100 km
refers to areas of dynamic influence of the faults
[Sherman et al., 1983]. According to [Gatinsky et al.,
2009], in the inter-block zones, rocks are strongly
crushed and the accumulated seismic energy is high,
and seismic hazard in such zones is thus high. Hypo-
centres occur at depths of 20–40 km in the inter-block
zones in Tibet. Earthquake foci at depths from 80 to
240+ km are recorded rarely in areas southward
and westward of Tiber, in the region neighbouring
Himalayas, at Hindukuch, Pamir, and Birma mountains.

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 Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 2015 Volume 6 Issue 4 Pages 409–436

Fig. 5. Map of active major (deep) faults and blocks of Central Asia which control recent strong earthquakes and historic
seismic events (М≥8 and 8>М≥7).
1 – global transregional boundary structure separating the areas of recent high (western regions) and medium (eastern regions) seismic
activity (VEBIRS zone [Komarov et al., 1978]); 2 – Himalayan thrust; 3 – active major faults (earthquakes М≥8 which occurred after 1900
in zones of dynamic influence of these faults); 4 – active faults (earthquakes 8>М≥7 are in zones of their dynamic influence); 5 – uplifted
block (thicker lithosphere); 6 – active blocks (35–40 km thick lithosphere); 7 – blocks of low, scattered seismic activity; 8 – earthquakes
М≥8 and 8>М≥7, respectively, which occurred in the period from 1900 to 2014; 9 – earthquakes М≥8 and 8>М≥7, respectively, which oc-
curred in the period from 1800 to 1900; 10 – axes of local crust extension zones (Baikal and Fen Wei rift systems); 11 – local faults. I – Ti-
bet; II – Tarim block; III – western segment of the Amur plate; IV – South China block; V – Ordoss block; VI – Gobi block; VII – North China
block.

Рис. 5. Карта активных генеральных (глубинных) разломов и блоков Центральной Азии, контролирующих силь-
ные современные и исторические землетрясения с М≥8 и 8>М≥7.
1 – глобальная трансрегиональная пограничная структура, разделяющая области высокой (западная часть) и средней (восточ-
ная часть) современной сейсмической активности (зона ВЕБИРС [Komarov et al., 1978]); 2 – Гималайский надвиг; 3 – активные
генеральные разломы, в границы динамического влияния которых входят сейсмические события, контролирующие землетря-
сения с М≥8, произошедшие после 1900 г.; 4 – активные разломы, в области динамического влияния которых включены сейс-
мические события с 8>М≥7; 5 – высокоподнятый блок с утолщенной литосферой; 6 – активные блоки с толщиной литосферы
35–40 км; 7 – слабоактивные блоки с рассеянной сейсмичностью; 8 – землетрясения с магнитудами М≥8 и 8>М≥7, соответствен-
но произошедшие в последнее столетие (1900–2014 г.); 9 – землетрясения с магнитудами М≥8 и 8>М≥7, соответственно про-
изошедшие в предшествующее столетие (1800–1900 г.); 10 – оси зон с локальным растяжением земной коры (рифтовые систе-
мы Байкальская и Фэн-Вей); 11 – локальные разломы. Римскими цифрами обозначены: I – Тибет; II – Таримский блок; III – за-
падная часть Амурского блока; IV – Южно-Китайский блок; V – Ордосский блок; VI – Гобийский блок; VII – Северо-Китайский
блок.

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S.I. Sherman et al.: Recent strong earthquakes in Central Asia…
A sharp increase of the seismic energy release in the
inter-block fault zonesis closely related to mobility of
the blocks and variations in the lithosphere thickness.
The conclusions by Yu.G. Gatinsky and his colleagues
are very important – our attention is focused on three
conditions charactering locations of strong earth-
quakes: (1) block structure of the crust; (2) thicker
crust, (3) high mobility of the crustal blocks.
The conclusions concerning mobility of the blocks
and their impact on seismic potentials of generated
earthquakes are based on calculations by the above-
mentioned authors under the concept of seismic inten-
sity inside transit zones (S.Sh. – areas of dynamic influ-
ence of faults separating the blocks). The block tecto-
nics, active faults and seismicity, horizontal slip vectors
measured from space geodesy data on the Central
Asian transit zone are analyzed in [Gatinsky et al.,
2005b, Gatinsky et al., 2008, Gatinsky, Prokhorova,
2014], and it is established that the quantity of seismic
energy reduces with a distance inland from the colli-
sional suture between Indostand and Eurasia. It is no-
ted that the energy dissipation correlates with reducing
values of moduli of horizontal slip rates. The high mo-
bility of the blocks is thus associated with the horizon-
tal displacement vector, which is the major component
of mobility and potential seismicity of the rocks.
A more detailed division of the territory of China in-
to blocks of various ranks is described in [Wang et al.,
2011]. They distinguish 26 blocks of different sizes and
estimate Euler rotation poles and clockwise/counter-
clockwise angles of block rotation. They believe that
both shear/slip displacements of blocks along the
faults bordering such blocks and rotation of the block
structures are possible. For the purpose of our paper,
we specially note slip rates along the main faults in the
studied territory, especially those which zones of dy-
namic influence contain foci of strong earthquakes. The
large faults are reasonably termed as 'seismic belts'
(Fig. 6), and average rates of slip along such faults are
calculated (Table 2). It is revealed that average slip
rates and magnitudes of the strong earthquakes do not
correlate with each other.This means that the well-
known dependence between slip rates, faults lengths
and earthquake magnitudes [Anderson et al., 1996] is
not applicable to systems of shear faults which are in-
tegrated into local seismic belts. Conclusions stated in
[Wang et al., 2011] support our opinion that the majori-
ty of the strong earthquakes in the continental litho-
sphere are associated with the systems of shear faults
or large individual shear faults.
The intensity of block divisibility is variable as evi-
denced by average sizes of the blocks and dominant
forms of the blocks located westwards and eastwards
of the submeridional marginal zones. The Tarim, South
China and Tibetan Plateau blocks as well as other local
block structures are significantly different in this re-
420
spect. The Tibetan Plateau is the largest geomorpho-
logically manifested upland that can be viewed as a
specific subplate that is separated from the Tarim block
by Altyn Tagh, Qilian и Haiyuan faults. The Tibetan
Plateau is composed of smaller blocks and more frac-
tured at the southern and south-western margins, i.e.
in the zone of its junction with the Himalayan thrust.
The high intensity of 'crushing' in the Tibetan Plateau is
correlated with the high thickness of the crust in this
region and a specific sequence of thrusting of the large
blocks over each other [Burtman, 2012a].
Lense-shaped and latitudinally elongated structures
are dominant in the western regions of Central Asia,
while isometric and mainly four-sided forms are pre-
vailing in the eastern regions.
In our study, the block structures of the lithosphere
are classified into recently kinematically active/mobile
blocks and passive blocks. This classification is based
on the occurrence of strong earthquakes in time. At the
recent stage of development, the Tibet block is consi-
dered as the most active one. It is intensely crushed
and, in terms of geomorphology, represented by the
Tibet upland. It contains three sublatitudinally oriented
blocks separated by faults that control one/two recent
earthquakes with М≥8. The Tarim and Orodoss blocks
are smaller in size; they are also active and mobile. The
activity of the Tarim and Orodoss blocks is determined
by kinematic slip along seismically active faults (with
dominant earthquakes of 8≥М≥7) which border these
blocks.
The South China, North-east China and Transbai-
kalia (i.e. Amur block which western segment includes
North-East Mongolia and Transbaikalie, Russia) blocks
are relatively passive and characterized by scattered
weak seismicity.
The faults and zones of dynamic influence of faults
can be classified by activity with respect to locations of
strong earthquakes (М≥8 and 8>М≥6.9) which took
place in the period from 1900 to 2015 and in the past
(see Fig. 5 and 6).
This method allows us to identify active major faults
and take areas of dynamic influence of such faults
(marked by thick red lines) into account in the analysis
of seismicity. Local seismic belts with the higher recent
activity (including those with earthquakes of М≥8
which took place after 1900) are located within the
limit of the zones of dynamic influence of faults: 8 –
South Tien Shan; 6 and 3 – Kunlun; 5 – Haiyuan-Qilian;
2 – Karakorum; 1 – Himalayan; 15–16 – Meridional
(Anninghe-Xiaojiang and MinShan-Longmen Shan)
seismic belts.
The second objective is to identify active major fault
and areas of dynamic influence of such faults (see Fig. 5
and 6), within the limits of which there are highly ac-
tive local seismic belts that control seismic events with
8≥М≥7 and rare earthquakes of М≥8 which took place
 Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 2015 Volume 6 Issue 4 Pages 409–436

Fig. 6. Major seismic belts in mainland China.

Blue dots indicate epicenters of historic earthquakes before 1900; red dots indicate earthquakes during 1900–2010 (mostly instrumental
records). Number shows the seismic belts listed in Table 2 [Wang et al., 2011].

Рис. 6. Основные сейсмические пояса континентального Китая.

Голубыми точками обозначены землетрясения по историческим данным до 1900 г.; красными точками показаны землетрясе-
ния за период 1900–2010 гг. (большинство из которых были зарегистрированы инструментальными методами). Цифра соот-
ветствует номеру сейсмического пояса в таблице 2 [Wang et al., 2011].

before 1900: 9 – North Tien Shan; 3 – North Kunlun;
12–13 – Red River and Sanjiang; 24–25 – Yan Shan-
Bohai; 23 – Tanlu; 4–19 – West Qinling-QinlingDabie;
10 – Altai; 17 – West Ordoss; 20 – East Ordoss seismic
belts.
The active faults and the areas of dynamic influence
of such faults control the local seismic belts which are
highly active in the past 200 years. No catastrophic
events (М≥8) were recorded in the eastern regions of
the studied territory wherein seismicity is associated
with faults bordering the Ordoss block.
Thus, a general scheme of the fault-block tectonics is
now available. It shows locations of the strong earth-
quakes that occurred in the past 200 years and a few
earlier seismic events. Below we discuss the mecha-
nisms of strong earthquake foci in close relation to the
fault-block tectonics.
4. MECHANISMS OF STRONG EARTHQUAKE FOCI
An earthquake focal mechanism reflects an 'instan-
taneous' release of stresses in a focal area of an earth-
quake and its surrounding area. The mechanism may
suggest potential directions of displacements of wings
of seismically active faults.
Record of 31 strong earthquakes (М≥8) are availa-
ble for the studied territory. A detailed analysis of pa-
rameters of mechanisms of crustal and deep-foci
earthquakes in [Kuchai, Bushenkova, 2009] coversre-
gions in Central Asia, including Tien Shan, Tarim, Tibet,
Pamir-Karakorum, Kunlun, Altai and Sayan mountains.
Data on earthquakes in Pribaikalie and Mongolia are
analysed in [Melnikova, Radziminovich, 2007].
Earthquakes with foci at depths of 200-300 km are
typical of the southern areas in Central Asia (Pamir and

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S.I. Sherman et al.: Recent strong earthquakes in Central Asia…

T a b l e 2. Seismic belts of Central Asia, which are controlled by areas of dynamic influence of large faults [Sherman
et al., 1983], and mean slip rates (an incomplete list from [Wang et al., 2011])
Т а б л и ц а 2. Сейсмические пояса Центральной Азии, контролируемые областями динамического влияния
крупных разломов [Sherman et al., 1983], и средние скорости смещений в них ([Wang et al., 2011]
с сокращениями)
№a Seismic belt Slip rate b (mm/yr)
1 Himalayan 15.6 ± 3.3
2 Karakorum‐Jiali 12.9 ± 3.3
3 East Kunlun 11.2 ± 1.8
4 West Qinling‐Delingha 3.7 ± 1.8
5 Haiyuan‐Qilian 8.2 ± 1.3
6 West Kunlun 9.7 ± 2.1
7 Altyn Tagh 8.3 ± 1.7
8 South Tian Shan 5.3 ± 1.1
9 North Tian Shan 2.9 ± 1.3
10 Altai 8.0 ± 1.1
11 Lancang River 10.0 ± 1.8
12 Red River 8.2 ± 1.3
13 Sanjiang 1.6 ± 1.7
14 Xianshuihe 18.1 ± 1.3
15 Anninghe‐Xiaojiang 12.7 ± 0.9
16 Min Shan‐Longmen Shan 2.8 ± 0.8
17 Yinchuan graben 3.0 ± 0.7
18 Southeast China coastal zone 4.9 ± 0.6
19 Qinling‐Dabie 1.5 ± 0.6
20 Fenhe‐Weihe 1.2 ± 0.6
21 Hebei Plain 0.5 ± 0.7
22 Anyang‐Heze‐Linyi 0.4 ± 0.9
23 Tanlu 0.9 ± 0.8
24 Yin Shan 0.9 ± 0.7
25 Yan Shan‐Bohai 1.5 ± 0.7
N o t e. a – numbers of seismic belts correspond to those in Fig 6; b – slip rates are mean values for the seismic belts.
П р и м е ч а н и е. а – цифры у названия пояса соответствуют номерам на рис. 7; b – скорости смещений отражают среднее зна-
чение для сейсмического пояса.

Hindukush). In the area of the edge of the Indostan
plate (Burmamountains), earthquake foci may occur at
depths of 160 km. These two seismic zones are gradu-
ally sinking in the westward direction. The strongest
seismic events took place in the Hindukush at depths of
80–120 and 180–230 km, and maximum depths were
recorded in the narrow area between 70–71°E and
35.5–36.5°N [Kuchai, Bushenkova, 2009]. By depths,
focal mechanisms are distinguished as follows: thrust,
shear and normal-shear types are typical of depths
from 80 to 150 km, and the thrust type is typical only of
depths from 180 to 260 km. The distribution of focal
mechanisms is different at the edge of the Indostan
plate – shear and normal-shear slip dominate at depths
from 45 to 110 km, thrusting (!) is noted in the eastern
part of the edge (S.Sh. – this important concussion is
stated by O.A. Kuchai and N.I. Bushenkova). The thrust-
type mechanism at depths exceeding 110 km is also
observed in the northern area of the Burmamountains
[Kuchai, Bushenkova, 2009].
Additional arguments in support of the above-
mentioned data are presented in [Kuchai, Kozina,
2015]. With the reference to the focal mechanisms, we
have calculated vectors of seismotectonic deformation
of the crust volumes in the geographic system of coor-
dinates and revealed specific features of vectors of
shortening and extension of the crust volumes in Cen-
tral Asia (Fig. 7). In the western regions of Central Asia,
the crust volumes are mainly subject to shortening in
the meridional direction and extension in the latitudi-
nal direction, while the SE part (i.e. Amur plate) is sub-
ject to extension in the meridional direction and shor-
tening in the latitudinal direction. Shortening zones are
typical of the areas near the Himalayan thrust zone.
Maximum vertical movements are typical of the entire
Tibet uplift and reflect tension combined with sublati-
tudinal movements. Compression of the crust volumes
is recorded in the zone of the submeridional margin.
In [Gatinsky, Prokhorova, 2015], based on analyses
of CMT2015 data, it is concluded that compression is
dominant at depths from 10 to 250 km in the Southern
Pamir, right-laterral shear dominates at depth from 28
to 56 km in the Northern Pamir, thrusting takes place
northward in the Southern Tien Shan at the boundary

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 Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 2015 Volume 6 Issue 4 Pages 409–436

Fig. 7. The map of maximum magnitudes of one of the three linear components of the seismotectonic strain tensor in the
geographical coordinates [Kuchai, Kozina, 2015].
Maximum negative magnitudes are marked by pink and red (1a – Ехх, 1b – Еуу, 1c – Еzz); maximum positive magnitudes – light blue and
dark blue (2a – Ехх, 2b – Еуу, 2c – Еzz ). The black line shows the regions of maximum latitudinal and vertical extension.

Рис. 7. Карта максимальных значений (по абсолютной величине) одной из трех линейных компонент тензора сей-
смотектонических деформаций, полученных в географической системе координат [Kuchai, Kozina, 2015].
Розово-красные цвета соответствуют максимальным отрицательным значениям – сжатию (1a – Ехх, 1b – Еуу, 1c – Еzz), сине-
голубые цвета – максимальным положительным значениям – растяжению (2a – Ехх, 2b – Еуу, 2c – Еzz). Черной линией оконту-
рены области максимального широтного и вертикального удлинения.

with the Tarim massif at depth from 7 to 14 km; be-
sides, left-lateral shears are located in the same region
at depth of 20–35 km and 50–70 km. The available
magnetotelluric sounding data on Tien Shan give evi-
dence that its lithosphere is layered [Rybin, 2011].
Compression with shear is dominant in the West Sa-
yan region. In Pribaikalie, the southern areas are sub-
ject to extension, and compression is recorded in the
northern areas. In the Baikal rift system, extension is
typical of the central part, and left-lateral shearing
takes place at the flanks [Sherman, Dneprovsky, 1989].
The territory of Mongolia is subject to seismotec-
tonic deformation whichvariable values are well re-
corded in the Gobi-Altai seismic zones.
Generally, subvertical compression and subhorizon-
tal extension of the crust is typical of Central Asia as
suggested by our analysis of the focal mechanisms and
the vectors of seismotectonic deformation caused by
the strong earthquakes. The NE compression replaced
by the sublatitudinal compression in the east is typical
of the North Tibet. The Tien Shan is subject to subme-
ridional compression. In the Altai-Sayan and Mongolian
Altai, submeridional compression is present only ge-
nerally; in this territory, directions of subhorizontal
compression axes vary from NW in the west to NE
in the east. Left-lateral shearing and corresponding
foci are recordedat the Tunka fault [Sherman, 1977;
Parfeevets, San'kov, 2006; Mel’nikova, Radziminovich,

423
S.I. Sherman et al.: Recent strong earthquakes in Central Asia…
2007]. Left-lateral components are also noted in earth-
quake foci in North Pribaikalie.
Figure 8 shows selected seismic events and focal
mechanisms according to [Feng et al., 2007; Gao et al.,
2010]. The map shows slip vectors of wings of the large
faults and focal mechanisms of the earthquakes of vari-
ous magnitudes. All the large deep faults strike sublati-
tudinally and have a shear component; the left-lateral
shear/slip dominates in the northern area, while the
right-lateral shear/slip is dominant in the southern ar-
ea. The left-lateral shear/slip is typical of the Gobi-Altai
fault in Mongolia and the Main Sayan fault in the East
Sayan region. Below we discuss data on several faults
that control seismic events with М≥8 and a few one
with М~7.
At the latitudinal Khangai fault in Mongolia, two
strong seismic events took place, Bolnai (July 1905,
М=8.2) and Mogod (January 1964, М=7.8) earthquakes.
The latter was recorded at the eastern termination of
the fault, in its submeridional feathering structures. Ac-
cording to [Gao et al., 2010; Atlas…, 2013], the Khangai
fault is characterized by left-lateral slip with an average
rate of 2.6 mm per year. The focal mechanism of the
Bolnai earthquake is shearing, and that of the Mogod
earthquake is right-lateral shearing andslip (among the
two, the slip component is most important).
The western dichotomic termination of the Khangai
fault is limited by the NW termination of the Gobi-Altai
fault system, and a complex junction zone comprising
the NW, NNE and latitudinal fault zones is formed. In
the western part of the Gobi-Altai fault system, inside
the area of its dynamic influence, the Chuya (Altai)
earthquake took place in September 2003 (coordinates
of the epicentre: – 50°08′N, 87°48′E), М=7.5 with a hy-
pocentre at a depth of about 15 km. According to
[Gol'din et al., 2004], the focal mechanism was shear. It
should be noted that the Chuya earthquake (М≈6) oc-
curred in the same region in 1923, but any detail de-
scription of this event is not available.
In the SE part of the Gobi-Altai fault system, the Go-
bi-Altai earthquake took place in 1957 (coordinates of
the epicentre: 45.1°N, 99.4°E.), М=8.1 [Florensov, Solo-
nenko, 1963]. The left-lateral slip occurs at the rate of
1.2 mm per year. The focal mechanism is compression
with shear.
The catastrophic Sichuan earthquake (China) of 12
May 2008 deserves special attention. It was associated
with the Longman fault of the NE strike which deter-
mines the Himalayan folding of the Tibetan Plateau
from the South China block. This thrust fault is among
the numerous faults in the VEBRIS submeridional
transregional zone. The earthquake focus was in the
thrust zone combined with the right-lateral component
[Zheng et al., 2009]. The earthquake magnitude is speci-
fied as M w =8 in the data from the China Seismological
Bureau, and M w =7.9 in the catalogue of the USA Geo-
424
logical Survey. The earthquake hypocentre is located at
a depth of about 19 km. The fact that the earthquake
focus is located in the VEBRIS submeridional trans-
regional zone and, at the same time, in the area of dy-
namic influence of the Himalayan thrust, predeter-
mines its high seismic potential. The crustal move-
ments take place in the SE directions towards the South
China block and are related to compression of the crust
due to the impact of the Himalayan thrust. Another
opinion is described in [Li et al., 2010] – the Sychuang
earthquake might have been triggered by infilling the
water reservoir; obviously, infilling the water reserve
increased stresses in this region. Anyway, it is more
significant that the earthquake focus is associated with
two fault structures, the transregional boundary be-
tween the active seismic zone and the very passive,
practically aseismic zone (which reflects the state of
high stresses) and the thrust (that is also characterised
by high stresses). It is most probable that an important
trigger was an additional pressure caused by the water
column.
The Karakorum fault zone is located in the direct vi-
cinity to the Himalayan thrust and goes almost parallel
to its strike. Its area of dynamic influence controls the
Karakorum seismic belt. The Karakorum earthquake
(М=8) took place in November 1951, and its focus was
located at a depth of about 30 km(according to USGS
data, http://earthquake.usgs.gov).
More northward, there is the Kunlun fault, the
largest in Central Asia, which controls the Kunlun
seismic belt. The Kunlun earthquake (M s =8.1) took
place on 14 November 2001 (coordinates of the epicen-
tre: 36.1°N, and 90.9°E).
In [Wen et al., 2009], concerning the growth of the
major fault associated with the Kunlun earthquake, it is
shown that its hypocentre was relatively shallow
(about 15 km), and its aftershocks were scatted at
depths from 10 to 35 km. The fault zone was activated
minimum to the level of the specified maximum depth.
When the seismic event took place, left-lateral slip was
recorded with amplitudes gradually increasing from
the epicentre along the fault strike in the eastward di-
rection. The slip values ranged from about 4 m in the
epicentre to 16 m at a distance of 270 km along the
fault strike to the east. The above information corre-
sponds well to the data in [Kim, Choi, 2007]; this paper
also provide data on maximum displacement along this
seismogenic fault, which occurred kilometres away
from the fault.
A specific feature of the strong Kunlun earthquake is
noted by Yu.F. Kopnichev and I.N. Sokolova [2010] –
prior to this catastrophic seismic event, within several
dozens of years, epicentres of relatively weak earth-
quakes formed ring-shaped structures in this area.
Such ring-shaped structures are marked by the rela-
tively high absorption of S-waves in comparison with
 Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 2015 Volume 6 Issue 4 Pages 409–436

Fig. 8. Seismotectonics of the north segment of the eastern boundary of the strong earthquake domain in Central Asia (map
II-12, by Huang Xiongnan, Liu Fenga, Feng Ju [Atlas…, 2013]).

Рис. 8. Сейсмотектоника северной части восточной границы района сильных землетрясений в Центральной Азии
(карта II-12, авторы: Huang Xiongnan, Liu Fenga, Feng Ju [Atlas…, 2013]).

425
S.I. Sherman et al.: Recent strong earthquakes in Central Asia…
that in the areas inside the 'rings'. According to
[Kopnichev, Sokolova, 2010], this effect is related to the
high content of free fluids in the upper mantle. It is
know that the absorption of short-term transverse
waves can be high if partially melted materials or fluids
are present in significant amounts. In case of the Kun-
lun earthquake, recent volcanism is absent in the area
wherein the 'seismicity rings' are located, which sug-
gests the presence of fluids in significant amounts
[Kopnichev, Sokolova, 2010]. The accumulation of fluids
to a certain amount might have been the trigger in this
case.
The Haiyuan-Qilian deep fault and the area of its
dynamic influence control the seismic belt of the same
name. Two strong events took place at this fault – М s =8
on 22 May 1927 (coordinates of the epicentre: 102.2°E
and 37.7°N; focal depth depth 15 km, according to
data from USGS, http://earthquake.usgs.gov), and
М s =8.5 on 16 December 1920 (36.7 N, and 104.9 E;
focal depth 15 km, according to data from USGS,
http://earthquake.usgs.gov). The foci were associated
with the thrust segments of the SE dichotomic termina-
tion of the Altyn Tagh fault, the largest in Asia. Accor-
ding to [Shen Jun et al., 2013], the focal mechanisms are
shear-thrust with the left-lateral slip. It should be noted
that the seismic event of 1920 occurred in the zone of
influence of the VEBIRS submeridional structure, and
its location was controlled by a specific cross-section of
the faults.
At the recent stage of its development, the entire
territory of Central Asia, except its northernmost seg-
ment (partially Pribaikalie), can be viewed as the area
of high seismicity with typical medium- and deep-foci
earthquakes that took place everywhere across the
profile of the crust and, partially, lithosphere. The
deep-foci earthquakes are most typical of the southern
regions of the studied territory and recorded at the
margin of the Indostan plate, in the Pamirs and Hin-
dukush mountains, as well as at the eastern edge of the
plate near the VEBIRS meridional boundary.
Northwards, in Mongolia and Pribaikalie, focal
depth are smaller and classified as those in the crust.
The review of the state of stresses in the crust and
lithosphere from the focal mechanisms gives grounds
for the following conclusions: (1) The strong earth-
quakes tend to occur in areas wherein the crust is more
than 45 km thick, and the hypocentres are recorded at
depths to 190 km. (2) The focal mechanisms of all the
strong earthquakes contain a shear/slip component.
(3) The shear/slip component corresponds to shearing
along faults revealed by geological methods, i.e. corre-
lates with rock mass displacements in the near-fault
medium.
Based on the analysis of the stress orientations in
the foci of the strong earthquakes and the foci locations
(especially, in the VEBIRS zone) in the territory south-
426
ward of Mongolia, it is possible to reveal the deep
structure of the transregional zone and suggest that it
is slightly tilted and dips underneath the high moun-
tains in Asia, and underthrusting takes place.
Below we review our general calculations of recur-
rence periods of the strong earthquakes.
5. RECURRENCE PERIODS OF THE STRONG EARTHQUAKES
The above-mentioned meridional zone is also a
boundary between some parameters that refers only to
the strong earthquakes, including the number of the
registered strong earthquakes. There were more recent
events with М≥7 in the eastern regions than in the
western regions (Table 3). In the past 100 years, all the
strong seismic events in these regions were recorded. A
reasonable observation is that the intensity of activa-
tion of the large deep faults that control the strong
earthquakes was different in the western and eastern
regions separated by the meridional zone. It can be re-
liably stated that the geodynamic differences of the
western and eastern regions of Central Asia were the
main cause predetermining the lack of strong seismic
events in the eastern regions of Central Asia through
the past 100 years. The strong earthquakes that took
place in the eastern regions over 200 years ago are an
evidence of a high seismic activity of the faults in the
eastern regions, but not in the recent development
stage. With account of the fact that the studied territory
has been seismically active through thousands of years,
it is reasonable to suggest that the above-mentioned
difference between the western and eastern regions is
due to deep processes and structures involved in such
processes.
A similar observation concerns seismic events of
8≥М≥7 which are irregularly scattered across the stu-
died territory. The majority of earthquakes with
8≥М≥7 occurred in the western regions. Therefore, the
VEBIRS zone plays an important role in differences (as
a minimum) in the manifestation of intensity of seismic
events across the territory of Central Asia. In view of
the above, it is challenging to precisely calculate the
recurrence time. Nonetheless, we have attempted such
calculations and analysis to determine, in general, the
recurrence time/ periods between the strong earth-
quakes across the entire territory and at its large faults.
At the recent development stage, each of the large deep
faults shown in Fig. 6 controls one seismic event with
М≥8 (Table 3). The Jiaii и Haiyuan faults located in the
southern and eastern segments of the Tibetan Plateau,
respectively, and the sublatitudinal Khangai fault in
Mongolia may be excluded.
According to [Trifonov, Karakhanyan, 2004], ancient
cycles of seismic activation of different duration were
manifested in the Middle and Late Holocene in the

T a b l e 3. Historical and recent strong earthquakes: quantity distribution across the territory of Central Asia
Т а б л и ц а 3. Количественное распределение исторических и современных сильных землетрясений на
территории Центральной Азии
Years
М≥8
1800–2008
1800–1899
1900–2008
8≥М≥7
1800–2015*
1800–1899
1900–2015*
N o t e. * – The data as of April 2015.
П р и м е ч а н и е. * – Данные по состоянию на апрель 2015 г.
central segment of the Alpine-Himalayan collisional
belt. Considering the entire region, the cycles are
smoothed and reflected in seismic activity recurrence
periods of 200÷300 years.
In our calculations, the recurrence time between the
strong seismic events at one and the same fault is evi-
dently more than 100 years, which generally correlates
with the data in [Trifonov, Karakhanyan, 2004].
For the western regions of the studied territory,
calculations regardless of the locations of the seismic
events in the fault zones show that the recurrence
time between the earthquakes with М≥8 is 24.9 years
(Table 4). With account of the 200-years monitoring
period of the earthquakes with М≥8, we receive a close
estimation of the recurrence time for the entire territo-
ry, 23.5 years. The recurrence time of the seismic
events with 8≥М≥7 does not differ a lot for the entire
territory and its western regions – the difference in on-
ly 1.2 fold. The recurrence time of the seismic events
with М≥8 is by a factor of 2.1 longer than that of the
events with 8≥М≥7. The above may suggest identical,
but asynchronous triggers or other mechanisms that
lead to the occurrence of seismic events of different
strength at different times in the fault-block medium of
the crust and, probably, lithosphere under the state
of stresses. Calculating the recurrence time for the
eastern regions is problematic. Only the general regu-
lar feature is confirmed– seismic activity is lower in the
eastern regions.
T a b l e 4. Recurrence time (years) between earthquakes (М≥8; 8 ≥М≥7) in Central Asia
Т а б л и ц а 4. Рекуррентное время (в годах) между землетрясениями М≥8 и 8 ≥М≥7 в Центральной Азии
Entire territory Western regions
М≥8 23.5 24.9
8≥М≥7 9.8 11.8
Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 2015 Volume 6 Issue 4 Pages 409–436
Entire territory Western regions Eastern regions
20 20 0
7 7 0
13 13 0
147 139 8
28 26 2
119 113 6
Based on the above, it can be generally concluded
that strong earthquakes in Central Asia take place in
the inter-block seismic belts.
1. For the fault zones in the western regions of the
studied territory, the recurrence time of the seismic
events with М≥8 is by a factor of 2.1 longer than that of
the events with 8≥М≥7. Considering seismic events in
the seismic belts determined by the areas of dynamic
influence of the large faults, it can be suggested that
identical, but asynchronous triggers or other mecha-
nisms lead to the occurrence of seismic events of dif-
ferent strength at different times in the fault-block me-
dium of the lithosphere under the state of stresses. In
further studies, it seems most reasonable to focus on
the wave mechanism, as well as on the origin of move-
ments of large rock massifs in the western regions. Be-
sides, it is important to study the physical features of
the meridional zone that goes across the significant
portion of the continental Asia and to clarify its geody-
namic indicators. It may be possible that one of such
indicators may be a cause of the differences in the ma-
nifestation of seismic activity in the studied regions. It
is obviously required to conduct additional studies of
this zone in terms of geology and structure primarily in
the recent geodynamic development stage.
2. The main causes of strong earthquakes at large
faults in the western regions of Central Asia include the
following: (а) high mobility of the blocks due to their
depths and impacts of convection in the astheno-
Eastern regions
105.5
94.9
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S.I. Sherman et al.: Recent strong earthquakes in Central Asia…
sphere; such impacts may explain the asynchronous
activation of the blocks and rare seismic events in spe-
cific blocks; (b) impact of the strong pressure from the
Himalayan transregional thrust belt.The latter causes
directional quasi-plastic slip of the rock mass, com-
pression and shearing in the large fault zones, and the
strongest displacements of the fault wings (i.e. blocks)
are followed by strong earthquakes.
A common criterion of the above-mentioned causes
is displacements of wings of large faults due to impacts
of various sources.
6. RECENT MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE:
GPS GEODESY RESULTS
Using data from the Global Positioning System (GPS)
is one of the most efficient and informative techniques
applied to study movements of the crust, especially
when medium- and small-scale works are conducted.
GPS data are used in many studies of recent geodyna-
mics in Central Asia [San’kov et al., 2011; Ashurkov et
al., 2011; Burtman, Molnar, 1993; Calais et al., 2003;
Royden, 1993; Lombardi, Marzocchi, 2007; Chéry et al.,
2001].
Based on the GPS data, recent movements of the
crust were studied in short-term time intervals, and the
general map of such movements in the fault zones was
compiled by the scientists from China (Fig. 8). In gen-
eral, the crustal movements in Central Asia tend to go
from SW to NE, and the vectors are rotated eastwards
and even south-eastwards and gradually 'cease'. The
significant amplitudes of the movements are reduced
towards the meridional boundary at ~105°E. A consid-
erable reduction of the absolute values of the vectors is
noted, which corresponds to a lower level of the recent
kinematic activity of the blocks and other structures, as
well as a lower rheological flow of the crust.
GPS data were used to determine vectors of crustal
movement rates/velocities and to construct Map II-1
by Gao Xianglinin in [Atlas…, 2013] for Central Asia and
the neighbouring territories (Fig. 9). High rates above
30 mm per year are typical of the Tibet; the vector is
SE. The rates are reducednorthwards and change the
direction. The NW and WNW vectors are typical of the
Altai and Sayan regions. The vectors of all the direc-
tions are replaced by sublatitudinal ones at the subme-
ridional boundary at ~105°E and acquire the SE direc-
tion southward of 30°N. Southward of 20°N, in the area
of the Himalayan thrust edge, the vectors again acquire
the sublatitudinal direction to the west. Quite charac-
teristically, the vectors of slip rates in the neighbouring
territories confirm the exceptionally high compression
of the studied territory. From the south, the huge In-
dostan plate produces high stresses in the NNE direc-
tion towards the Tibet. The impacts of such stresses
428
cease near 45°N and are replaced by shearing. Near
120°E, vectors of slip rates of the crust at the entire
eastern boundary are neutralized by the vectors of the
opposite direction which reflect the 'ceasing' forces
caused by the West Pacific subduction.
More detail patterns of recent slip rates in Central
Asia, Mongolia ad Pribaikalie are shown in Fig. 10 [Gan
Weijiun, Xiao Genru, 2013; Niu, 2014]. The map clearly
shows that the recent slip rates are gradually reduced
from 40 mm per year in the Himalayas and Pamirs to
20 m per year in the Gobi-Altai mountain region and to
lower values in Pribaikalie and the East Sayan region.
The position of the transmeridional boundary of Asia is
more clearly specified. This boundary hinders the
propagation of deformation to the east and makes them
'rotate' to the meridional direction. It should be noted
that a similar rotation can be revealed from the GPS
data published in [Li Yanxing et al., 2001]. The above
conclusions are fully supported by slip rate values and
vectors published by other authors.
The following is confirmed: (1) variability of the slip
vectors of the crust in the contemporaneous period; (2)
abrupt changeability of the slip rate vectors or reduc-
tion to 'extinction' from the southern regions of Asia to
the north; (3) strong resistance of large blocks of the
lithosphere from the east which is supported by vec-
tors of the 'opposite' crustal movements in the NW di-
rection. The boundary between the areas with slip vec-
tors of the opposite directions goes along the VEBIRS
submeridional zone. With reference to the variations of
crust deformation, variations of the state of stresses
which are revealed from the earthquake focal mecha-
nisms and GPS data, it is reasonable to increase the
width of the transregional meridional boundary up to
95°E. It is clearly observed that this zone becomes wid-
er from the north to the south, and its control over the
contemporaneous processes is also increasing.
Thus, in the past 100 years, the differentiation of the
areas wherein the strong earthquakes occurred was
significantly influenced by the recent velocities of dis-
placements of the large massifs of the crust. Together
with the slip along the large faults, which reflects dis-
placements in the earthquake foci, the recent velocities
of displacements predetermine the generation of
strong earthquake foci.
7. CONCLUSION
Our analysis of the locations of М≥8 earthquakes
shows that in the past two centuries such earthquakes
took place in areas of the dynamic influence of large
deep faults in the western regions of Central Asia. The
western regions are characterized by specific parame-
ters that are significantly different from those of the
background geodynamic setting:
 Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 2015 Volume 6 Issue 4 Pages 409–436

Fig. 9. Velocities of recent crustal movements in Asia and neighboring territories (map II-1, by Gao Xianglin [Atlas…, 2013]).

Рис. 9. Скорости современных движений земной коры Азии и окружающих территорий (карта II-1, автор: Gao
Xianglin [Atlas…, 2013]).

1. In the continental Asia, there is a clear submeridi-
onal structural boundary (95–105°E) between the
western and eastern regions which geological, struc-
tural and geophysical parameters are considerably dif-
ferent.
2. The crust is twice as thick in the western regions
than in the eastern region (maximum 74 km to mini-
mum 42 km versus maximum 40 km to 32 km).
3. In the western regions, the block structures
resulting from the crust destruction, which are mainly
represented by lense-shaped forms elongated in
the submeridional direction, tend to dominate. In the

429
S.I. Sherman et al.: Recent strong earthquakes in Central Asia…
Fig. 10. Standard plate boundaries and the present-day plate motion vectors using the “sub-asthenosphere” reference frame
(a partial representation from [Niu, 2014]).
Рис. 10. Границы плит и векторы современных движений плит, установленные относительно «под-астеносферы»
(по [Niu, 2014], представлена частично).
eastern regions, large blocks (most of which are
square-shaped) are dominant.
4. The large fault structures are bordered by the ac-
tive faults. In the western regions, the faults separating
the blocks control the earthquakes with М≥8, which
were recorded from 1900 to 2014. The faults are cha-
racterized by shear/slip displacements which ampli-
tudes increase from the south to the north and reach
maximum values in the central part of the Tibetan Pla-
teau and the Gobi-Altai fault system. Further north-
ward, the shear/slip amplitudes decrease gradually, yet
do not disappear. In many cases, shearing is right-
lateral in the southern regions and left-lateral in the
northern regions.
Earthquakes of М≥8 did not take place anywhere in
430
the eastern regions of the continental Central Asia in
the past 100 years.
5. Generally, in the western regions of Central Asia,
the recurrence time of strong earthquakes is about 25
years. It correlates with the activation of the seismic
process in Asia which is manifested in almost the same
time intervals [Trifonov, Karakhanyan, 2004; Sherman,
2014]. Due to the lack of records, it is now impossible
to determine a recurrence time of a strong earthquake
controlled by a specific active fault. However, it seems
to be more than 100 years, if we take into account the
information collected through the monitoring period
and refer to the data published in [Trifonov, Kara-
khanyan, 2004; Wang, Zhang, 2004].
6. Mechanisms of all the strong earthquakes contain
 Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 2015 Volume 6 Issue 4 Pages 409–436
a slip component that is often accompanied by a com-
pression component. The shear/slip component corre-
sponds to shearing along faults revealed by geological
methods, i.e. correlates with rock mass displacements
in the near-fault medium.
Based on the analysis of the stress orientations in
the foci of the strong earthquakes and the foci locations
(especially, in the VEBIRS zone) in the territory south-
ward of Mongolia, it is possible to reveal the deep
structure of the transregional zone and suggest that it
is slightly tilted and dips underneath the high moun-
tains in Asia, and underthrusting takes place.
7. GPS geodetic measurements show that shearing
develops in the NW direction in the Tibet. Further
northward, the direction changes to the sublatitudinal
one. At the boundary of ~105°E, southward of 30°N,
the slip vectors attain the SE direction. Further south-
ward of 20°N, at the eastern edge of the Himalayan
thrust, the slip vectors again attain the sublatitudinal
direction. High velocities/rates of recent crust move-
ments are typical of the Tibet region.
In the eastern regions of Central Asia, vectors of
movements of the lithospheric blocks are directed to
the north-east and limited by the VEBIRS submeridio-
nal zone that facilitates the complete decay of the im-
pacts of the Pacific zone of subduction to the Central
Asia continent. It should be noted that in [Ma Xingyuan,
1990], the junction of the western and eastern regions
is shown as the fault striking from the Southern Baikal
(~48°N) to ~20°N, i.e. the fault structure with the
right-lateral slip, which is fully correlated with the
VEBIRS zone. Along with other observations, this in-
formation provides for a better understanding of the
tectonic features of the large transregional zone of the
Continental Asia.
The transitional territory is a marginal zone where-
in the crustal thickness is about 42 km. This zone has
not been the subject of special studies yet, but a variety
of its definitions can be found in many publications. It
is manifested by dominating submeridional faults,
mainly of shear, shear with normal component, and
reverse-thrust types. Three recent earthquakes with
М≥8, including the Sichuan earthquake, were recorded
within this zone. The reverse-thrust fault controlled the
Sichuan earthquake and is the major structural reflec-
tion of the entire marginal zone.
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This study was financially supported by the Russian
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Sherman, Semen I., Academician of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences,

Doctor of Geology and Mineralogy, Professor, Chief Researcher
Institute of the Earth’s Crust, Siberian Branch of RAS
128 Lermontov street, Irkutsk 664033, Russia
Tel.: (3952)428261;  e-mail: ssherman@crust.irk.ru

Шерман Семен Иойнович, академик Российской академии естественных наук,

докт. геол.-мин. наук, профессор, г.н.с.
Институт земной коры СО РАН
664033, Иркутск, ул. Лермонтова, 128, Россия
Тел.: (3952)428261;  e-mail: ssherman@crust.irk.ru

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S.I. Sherman et al.: Recent strong earthquakes in Central Asia…

Ma Jin, Academician of Chinese Academy of Sciences

State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics, Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration
Yard No. 1, Hua Yan Li, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, China
e-mail: majin@ies.ac.cn

Ма Цзинь, академик Китайской академии наук

Государственная центральная лаборатория геодинамики Земли, Институт геологии,
Администрация по землетрясениям Китая
e-mail: majin@ies.ac.cn

Gorbunova, Ekaterina A., Candidate of Geology and Mineralogy, Junior Researcher

Institute of the Earth’s Crust, Siberian Branch of RAS
128 Lermontov street, Irkutsk 664033, Russia
e-mail: smallwizard@mail.ru

Горбунова Екатерина Алексеевна, канд. геол.-мин. наук, м.н.с.

Институт земной коры СО РАН
664033, Иркутск, ул. Лермонтова, 128, Россия
e-mail: smallwizard@mail.ru

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GEODYNAMICS & TECTONOPHYSICS
-
PUBLISHED BY THE INSTITUTE OF THE EARTH’S CRUST
SIBERIAN BRANCH OF RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

2015 VOLUME 6 ISSUE 4 PAGES 437–466 ISSN 2078-502X

http://dx.doi.org/10.5800/GT-2015-6-4-0189

ON THE SPECIFIC STATE OF CRUSTAL STRESSES IN

INTRACONTINENTAL OROGENS

Yu. L. Rebetsky

Tectonophysics
O.Yu. Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth RAS, Moscow, Russia

Abstract: The article presents a systematic review of the available tectonophysical data on the state of crustal uplifts
and basins in intracontinental orogens. Based on results of the tectonophysical analysis of data on earthquake focal
mechanisms for the Altai-Sayan and Northern Tien Shan regions, it is established that in many cases the crust in the
basins and uplifts has antipodal structures, considering various types of the state of stresses. In the crust of the uplifts,
maximum compression axes are usually sub-horizontal; in the crust of the basins, only the axis of the principal stress
of minimum compression (i.e. maximum deviatoric extension) is sub-horizontal. These observations correlate well
with estimations of deformations on the surface of the crust on the basis of the GPS-geodesy data, as well as with
stress measurements taken directly on mining sites. The antipodal structures and physical fields in the crust of the
uplifts and basins are not a random phenomenon. This suggests a common mechanism of deformation at the stage of
active formation of the uplifts and basins.
However, results of a similar tectonophysical analysis performed for the crust of the Pamir plateau and Tibet show
that minimum compression stresses are sub-horizontal in these regions, and the geodynamic type of the state of
stresses is determined as horizontal extension or horizontal shearing. This pattern contrasts sharply with the type of
the state of stresses of horizontal compression in the crust of the mountain ranges around the plateau (the Himalayas,
Kunlun, Tsilian Shan, Hindu Kush), as well as with the state of stresses of active orogenic structures of the Tien Shan
and Altai-Sayan regions.
Based on the stress values estimated for a range of geodynamic types of the state of stresses, it is estimated that
additional compression stresses of the order of 5.4 kbar are required for the transition from horizontal extension to
horizontal compression. If the regional strain rates currently recorded by the GPS-geodesy are taken into account,
such additional stresses need to be applied for about 10 million years to fulfill the transition.

Key words: stress; strain; deformation; fractures; joint; mountain uplift; basin; plateau

Recommended by V.G. Trifonov

For citation: Rebetsky Yu.L. 2015. On the specific state of crustal stresses in intracontinental orogens.
Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 6 (4), 437–466. doi:10.5800/GT-2015-6-4-0189.
Для цитирования: Ребецкий Ю.Л. Об особенности напряженного состояния коры внутриконтинен-
тальных орогенов // Геодинамика и тектонофизика. 2015. Т. 6. № 4. С. 437–466. doi:10.5800/GT-
2015-6-4-0189.

ОБ ОСОБЕННОСТИ НАПРЯЖЕННОГО СОСТОЯНИЯ КОРЫ

ВНУТРИКОНТИНЕНТАЛЬНЫХ ОРОГЕНОВ

Ю. Л. Ребецкий

Институт физики Земли им. О.Ю. Шмидта РАН, Москва, Россия

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Yu.L. Rebetsky: On the specific state of crustal stresses…

Аннотация: Проведена систематизация существующих тектонофизических данных о состоянии коры подня-

тий и впадин внутриконтинентальных орогенов. Результаты тектонофизического анализа данных о меха-
низмах очагов землетрясений для Алтае-Саян и Северного Тянь-Шаня позволили выявить, что кора впадин и
поднятий в большом числе случаев выглядит как антиподная структура по режиму напряженного состояния.
В коре поднятий, как правило, оси максимального сжатия субгоризонтальны, а в коре прогибов субгоризон-
тальна ось главного напряжения минимального сжатия (максимального девиаторного растяжения). Эти дан-
ные хорошо коррелируют с результатами расчетов деформаций на поверхности коры, полученными GPS-
геодезией, и с данными по замерам напряжений методами in-situ в горном деле. Такая антиподность строе-
ния и физических полей коры впадин и поднятий не случайна и говорит о едином механизме деформирова-
ния на стадии их активного развития.
Вместе с тем по результатам такого же тектонофизического анализа, выполненного для коры плато Па-
мира и Тибета, установлено, что здесь в субгоризонтальном направлении действуют напряжения минималь-
ного сжатия, что определяет геодинамический тип напряженного состояния в виде горизонтального растя-
жения или горизонтального сдвига. Подобная закономерность резко контрастирует с типом напряженного
состояния горизонтального сжатия в коре поднятий в виде хребтов, окружающих эти плато (Гималаи, Кунь-
лунь, Цилиан-Шань, Гиндукуш), а также с характером напряженного состояния активных орогенных струк-
тур Тянь-Шаня и Алтае-Саян.
Выполненные оценки величин напряжений, отвечающие различным геодинамическим типам напряжен-
ного состояния, показывают, что переход от режима горизонтального растяжения к горизонтальному сжа-
тию требует приложения дополнительных сжимающих напряжений порядка 5.4 кбар, что может занять око-
ло 10 млн лет при наблюдаемых в настоящее время с помощью GPS-геодезии скоростях региональных де-
формаций.

Ключевые слова: напряжение; деформация; разрыв; трещина; горное поднятие; впадина; горное плато

1. ВВЕДЕНИЕ Однако практика показывает, что решение по-

Целью настоящей работы является изучение ме-
ханизмов генерации напряжений, действующих в
континентальной коре в областях орогенов. По оп-
ределению М.В. Гзовского [Gzovsky, 1975], выясне-
ние параметров напряженного состояния и меха-
низмов их генерации в коре является основной об-
ратной задачей тектонофизики. Наряду с этим,
установление условий нагружения и деформиро-
вания литосферы внутриконтинентальных ороге-
нов, определяющих особенности морфологическо-
го строения и физических свойств пород коры гор-
но-складчатых областей, является обратной зада-
чей геодинамики [Leonov, 1995, 2009], тектонофи-
зика при этом рассматривается как важнейший ин-
струмент исследований.
При решении таких обратных задач использу-
ются методы физического [Gzovsky, 1954a, 1954b,
1963; Osokina, 1963; Geptner, 1970; Mikhailova, 1971;
Stoyanov, 1979; Bondarenko, Luchitsky, 1985; Bornya-
kov, 1988; Seminsky, 1991] и математического [Grigo-
riev, Mikhailova, 1985; Grigoriev et al., 1989; Grigoriev,
1991; Rebetsky, 1988; Rebetsky, Mikhailova, 2014; Ste-
fanov et al., 2009] моделирования, на основе кото-
рых делаются выводы о соответствии принятых в
моделях краевых условий нагружения природному
объекту.
добных обратных задач геодинамики не единст-
венное и результат зависит от широты спектра па-
раметров, по которым выполняется сопоставление
природного объекта с моделью. Чем уже спектр
сравниваемых параметров, тем больше вариантов
нагружения модели позволят получить значения
этих параметров, близкие к природным. Т.е. разные
модели среды и модели нагружения могут давать
результаты, удовлетворяющие природному объек-
ту, в рамках каких-то сравниваемых параметров.
Увеличивая спектр сопоставляемых параметров,
можно уменьшить число модельных вариантов ус-
ловий нагружения и свойств геологического объ-
екта, дающих результаты, близкие к природному
объекту.
Достаточно часто сопоставление природного
объекта и модели ограничено данными о кинема-
тике поверхности коры и рельефе основных ее сло-
ев, а также о геометрии глубинных областей разру-
шения – зон повышенной сейсмичности. На примере
конкретных работ по моделированию зон субдук-
ции [Guterman, 1987; Demin, Nikitin, 1991; Maslov, Ko-
mova, 1990], выполненных с разных научных пози-
ций, можно показать, что этих данных недостаточно
для получения единственного решения задачи. Су-
щественно сужает неединственность подбора усло-
вий нагружения привлечение данных о природном

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 Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 2015 Volume 6 Issue 4 Pages 437–466
напряженном состоянии, которые могут быть полу-
чены в результате тектонофизического анализа со-
вокупностей сейсмологических (механизмы очагов
землетрясений) или геологических (зеркала сколь-
жения) индикаторов о разрывных смещениях (об-
зоры этих методов представлены в работах [Sher-
man, Dneprovsky, 1989; Rebetsky, 2003, 2007]). Несмот-
ря на то, что подобные данные невозможно полу-
чить для всего исследуемого трехмерного участка
коры, а также на то, что эти напряжения всегда яв-
ляются средними для некоторых частей его объема,
именно данные о напряженном состоянии коры сле-
дует рассматривать как критически необходимые
при решении подобных задач.
Отправной точкой настоящих исследований яв-
ляются результаты тектонофизической реконст-
рукции природных напряжений, выполненные с
применением метода катакластического анализа
[Rebetsky, 1997, 2007], которые ранее были получе-
ны в совместных исследованиях с О.А. Кучай (ИНГГ
СО РАН, г. Новосибирск) и Н.А. Сычевой (НС РАН,
г. Бишкек) [Rebetsky, 2008a, 2008b; Rebetsky et al.,
2007, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013], для коры двух цен-
тральноазиатских орогенов: Алтае-Саян (АС) и Се-
верного Тянь-Шаня (СТШ). Продолжением этих ра-
бот также являлись исследования современного
напряженного состояния коры Тибета, Памира и
Гималаев – Высокая Азия (ВА) [Rebetsky, Alekseev,
2014]. Анализ данных о природных напряжениях
этих регионов позволил выявить ряд важных зако-
номерностей их пространственного распределе-
ния, которые не укладывались в простую схему ла-
терального сжатия как единственно «верного» ме-
ханизма, ответственного за горообразование.
На рис. 1 показаны районы исследований напря-
женно-деформированного состояния коры, выпол-
ненные как по нашим собственным данным, так и
по данным других авторов. Особо следует отметить,
что использованы различные подходы в изучении
напряженно-деформированного состояния коры.
Нами рассматривалось состояние коры не толь-
ко для горных поднятий, но и для сочленяющихся с
ними участков пониженного рельефа – прогибов
коры. При этом для участков прогибов будем, вслед
за В.И. Макаровым [Makarov, 1977, 1980; Makarov et
al., 2010, 2011], выделять внутригорные впадины,
захватывающиеся в процесс общего поднятия оро-
генических структур, а также межгорные впадины:
котловины, депрессии и предгорные прогибы. Эти
разные по характеру и масштабам структуры (под-
нятия и впадины) длительное время развиваются
параллельно и каким-то образом сосуществуют.
Будем также различать горные поднятия, имею-
щие форму хребтов (резко выраженный градиент
поверхности), и поднятия в виде нагорья и плато
(плоская форма).
2. НАПРЯЖЕНИЯ ВЕРХНИХ СЛОЕВ КОРЫ
ПО ДАННЫМ ГОРНОЙ МЕХАНИКИ
Измерения природных напряжений в массивах
пород, выполненные в горном деле (in-situ методы,
в основном методы разгрузки и гидравлического
разрыва скважин [Peive, Kropotkin, 1973; Turchani-
nov, 1982]), показывают определенную взаимосвязь
геодинамического режима напряженного состоя-
ния с направленностью вертикальных движений.
Так, согласно работе [Markov, 1977], в зонах проги-
бов и на участках медленных погружений поверх-
ности чехла платформ горизонтальные сжимаю-
щие напряжения 𝜎𝑥 и 𝜎𝑦 в основном (около 75 %
от общего числа замеров) меньше вертикальных
(рис. 2, б). В скальных породах кристаллического и
складчатого фундамента земной коры, выведен-
ных ближе к поверхности вертикальными текто-
ническими движениями, и для щитов [Markov,
1980; Kurlenya, 1996] напряжения горизонтального
сжатия обычно превосходят (около 60 %) верти-
кальные сжимающие напряжения (рис. 2, а). Уста-
новлено, что, несмотря на широкий диапазон из-
менений напряжений, действующих в горизонталь-
ном направлении, напряжения в вертикальном на-
правлении близки к значению литостатического
давления.
Превышение горизонтального сжатия над вер-
тикальным напряжением может быть 5–10-кратное
(на Хибинских рудниках такое превышение в неко-
торых случаях 20-кратное [Markov, 1972, 1977]). В
работе [Markov, 1985] Хибинский и Ловоозерский
массивы Кольского полуострова приводятся в каче-
стве наиболее ярких примеров приуроченности ре-
жимов горизонтального сжатия к областям восхо-
дящих движений земной коры. Подобные движения
эти массивы испытывали в прошлом и в настоящем.
Г.А. Марков в работе [Markov, 1985] особо обращал
внимание на тот факт, что в областях с восходящи-
ми движениями активно идут денудационные про-
цессы, поэтому он связывал повышенные значения
напряжений горизонтального сжатия с остаточны-
ми напряжениями, формирующимися как результат
упругой разгрузки пород, вызванной денудацион-
ными процессами [Voigth, 1966; Voight, Pierre, 1974].
В массивах, не испытывающих в настоящее время
активных тектонических поднятий, подобный тип
геодинамического режима менее распространен. От-
метим, что замеры напряжений in-situ методами
относятся к самой верхней части коры и отвечают
глубинам 1–3 км.
Отмечая особенности формирования режима
горизонтального сжатия, Г.А. Марков [Markov, 1977,
1985] обращает внимание на тот факт, что наибо-
лее высокие уровни этих напряжений наблюдают-
ся на небольших глубинах, чуть ниже уровня дна
439
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Istuimme Lundgrenin kanssa tavallisten askartemme ääressä, kun
ovensuuhun ilmestyi pitkä ja suoraryhtinen mies, jonka ulkoasusta
minä kohta panin merkille seuraavat seikat: olkapäille ulottuva tukka;
pesemättömät kasvot ja pitkä parransänki; nukkavieru talvipalttoo,
jonka ratkeimista pumpulitäyte pisti esiin; rajottuneet
pieksusaappaat, joista varret nilkkaa myöten oli leikattu pois; pitkä,
kuorimattomasta puusta leikattu ryhmysauva sekä lopuksi toisella
käsivarrella mustunut pärekori, jossa punaisen rievun alta pilkisti
leivänkannikoita ja kulunut kirja.

Siis täydellinen korven profeetta, Elia Karmelin vuoristosta!

Ilmestys kysyi meiltä herra Silanderia. Vastasin, että hän tähän

aikaan on mahdollisesti kotonaan sekä neuvoin hänen osotteensa.
Ulos lähtiessään kohotti ilmestys koriaan sekä lausui juhlallisesti:

— Omnia mea mecum porto.

— Mitä, se rääsyläinenhän lasketti tulemaan puhtainta latinaa! —

käännyin minä hänen mentyään ihmeissäni Lundgrenin puoleen.

— Ettekö tunteneet? Sehän oli Juho, — ilmotti korrehtuurinlukija.

Juho oli saanut Silanderin käsiinsä ja seuraavana päivänä ilmestyi

hän toimitukseen kokonaan uudesta syntyneenä. Tukka ja parta oli
siistitty, päällään hänellä oli siistinpuoleinen herrasmiehen puku,
kova kaulus rusettineen ja patiinikengät jalassa. Takinhihat ja
housunlahkeet olivat tosin hieman lyhyet — sillä puku oli Silanderin
vaatesäiliöstä, — mutta se ei paljoakaan merkinnyt. Ylätaskussaan
hänellä oli pieni litteä pullo riikapalsamia, jonka avulla hän piti vireillä
pientä humalaa, saadakseen, kuten hän sanoi, hermonsa pysymään
tasapainossa.
 Kun Silander, joka myöskin oli toimistossa, esitti hänet minulle,
virkkoi hän kättäni puristaessaan kysyvästi:

— Civis academicus?

Kun minä olin myöntävästi vastannut, puristi hän uudelleen kättäni

ja lausui juhlallisesti:

— Ego etiam.

Hän oli mitä loistavimmalla tuulella ja ryhtyi auttelemaan meitä

toimitustyössä. Silander osotti hänelle käännettäväksi jonkun pätkän
Hufvudstadsbladetista, mutta pari lausetta suomennettuaan otti hän
kulauksen rohtopullostaan, nousi sen jälkeen täyteen pituuteensa ja
esitti juhlallisin elein yli laajan toimituspöydän lähempää tuttavuutta
kanssani.

— Kerran minäkin olen ollut Arcadiassa! — lausui hän silmät

kosteina ja kumartui jälleen Hufvudstadsbladetin yli.

Hetken kuluttua virkkoi hän Silanderille:

— Paremmin minulta sentään luistaa tämä työ kuin siltä sinun

entiseltä apulaiseltasi, joka suomensi… kuinka se nyt taas olikaan?

— Vaikka oli ylioppilasmies, niin käänsi lauseen: "Det är ett

sprängämne af farligaste slag" suomeksi näin: "Se on vaarallisimpia
iskuja synnyttävä räjähdysaine".

*****

Juho jäi useammaksi viikoksi Kolkkalaan ja muuttui lopulta Riento-

poloiselle todelliseksi maanvaivaksi. Koko vierailuaikanaan ei hän
kirjottanut riviäkään, mutta ilmestyi kylläkin joka päivä toimistoon
karhuamaan saataviaan. Luonnollisesti oli hän aina joltisessakin
hutikassa, milloin harmaan-kalseassa oluthumalassa, milloin
lienteämmässä riikapalsamihiprakassa. Saamatta jääneitä
kirjotuspalkkioitaan, joista tietystikään ei oltu minkäänlaista
sopimusta tehty, sai hän konttorista aluksi parin markan ja markan
suuruisissa erissä sekä lopuksi viiskymmenpennisinä, kunnes
kassaa hoitava konttorineiti lakkasi niitäkin antamasta. Viikon päivät
kävi Juho vielä senkin jälkeen päivittäin toimistossamme, karttaen ja
rukoillen edes viittäkymmentä penniä — summa, jolla Kolkkalan
tillikkapuodeissa sai pullon olutta ja voileivän — sekä lausuen aina
poislähtiessään profeetallisia uhkauksia Rientoa pian kohtaavasta
surkeasta perikadosta.

Ensimäisenä päivänä sen jälkeen kun kassaneiti oli sulkenut

häneltä sydämensä, annoin minä Juholle viimeiset lanttini.
Seuraavana päivänä minä luonnollisesti olin typö tyhjä, mutta kun
hän puoli tuntia oli ympäröinyt minua humalaisen hellyydellä sekä
huolimatta vakuutuksistani, että olin ihan pennitön mies, toisteli
itsepintaisesti: "Rakas veli, ainoastaan viisikymmentä penniä!" täytyi
minun lopulta kiristää kassaneidiltä omaan tiliini mainittu summa.

Kun Juho vielä tämän jälkeen oli tehnyt muutamia ihan

tuloksettomia vierailuja toimistoomme, katosi hän äkkiä
näkyvistämme. Kun Silander näyttäysi ensi kerran Juhon hävittyä
toimistossa, sain kuulla selityksen, Juho oli useat kerrat tavotellut
häntä kotoa, saanut vihdoin käsiinsä sekä pannut hänet lujille. Silloin
oli Silander varustanut hänet eväillä, vienyt asemalle ja ostanut
piletin Kolkkalasta lähinnä etelään käsin olevaan kaupunkiin, jonka
sanomalehdiltä Juholla oli myöskin saatavia.
 *****

Elää kitkuteltiin ja päästiin vähitellen seuraavaan talveen — ja,

ihme kyllä, niin Riennon toimistossa kuin koko Kolkkalassakin
suoritettiin tämä taival aivan yhtä rintaa suuren maailman kanssa.
Silloin — muistaakseni oli jo helmikuu kulumassa — ilmestyi Juho
uudelleen Kolkkalan horisontin sisäpuolelle.

Minä yritän tehdä lakon.

Juhon seuraava esiintyminen Riennon toimituksessa tapahtui

seuraavien olosuhteiden vallitessa.

Minussa oli jo pitemmän aikaa kytenyt tyytymättömyys asemaani

sillä vaatimattomasta palkastani rupesi yhä tuntuvampia eriä
jäämään rästiksi. Aloin yhä syvemmin tuntea itseni raatavaksi
proletaariksi ja rupesin tuumimaan lakkoa. Tosinhan Silander oli
kaikkea muuta kuin verenimijä-kapitalisti, mutta nyt hän oli puolitoista
viikkoa ollut yhtämittaa ihan tietymättömissä ja kaikki Riennon asiat
olivat niin rempallaan kuin ne ikinä olla saattoivat. Juhon
profeetalliset uhkaukset näyttivät rupeavan toteutumaan ja kaikissa
meissä kyti katkeruus Silanderia kohtaan.

Sattuipa sitten, että minä eräänä iltana olin viettämässä muutaman

toverini nimipäivää Kolkkalan seurahuoneella — klassillinen paikka,
missä puoliyön jälkeen joku ikuinen lääninkanslisti tai kaljupäinen
konttoripäällikkö nyökytti päätä pöydällään palavalle kynttilälle ja
koetti mörisevällä monoloogilla hämmentää Kolkkalan raskasta
yöhiljaisuutta. No niin, seuraavana aamuna havahduin puoli
kahdeksan, jolloin minä tavallisesti lähdin päivätyöhöni, mutta kun
pääni tuntui ylen raskaalta, katsoin minä hetken otolliseksi ryhtyä
lakkoon. Ummistin siis jälleen silmäni ja jatkoin velttoa
jälkipäiväuinailua.

Kello yhdeksän havahduin siihen, että joku minua tyrkki kylkeen.

Silmät avattuani näin ensimäiseksi Santerin vallattomat silmät ja
mustetahran koristaman nykerönenän. Faktorin nimessä pyysi hän
minua tulemaan toimistoon antamaan käsikirjotusta, sillä latojat
seisoivat joutilaina kastiensa ääressä. Ilmotin hänelle
järkähtämättömän tahtoni olla liikahtamatta sijaltani sekä kehotin
etsimään Silanderia. Pitäköön hän nyt kerrankaan huolen lehden
ilmestymisestä!

Tasan tunnin kuluttua havahduin musteen ja tuoreen painopaperin

epämieluisaan hajuun ja silmät avattuani näin vuoteeni äärellä
jälleen Santerin.

— Faktori pyysi oikein tosissaan herra Räisästä tulemaan

käsikirjotusta leikkaamaan, kun…

— No miksette ole Silanderia hakeneet? — keskeytin minä

äreästi.

— No, kun sitä ei löydy mistään, — selitti Santeri silmiään

vilkuttaen.

— Menehän siitä nyt matkaasi, — hoputin minä häntä ja koetin

jatkaa "lakkoa".

Mutta hengessäni näin minä latojain seisovan neuvottomina

kirjapainossa ja kuiskivan pahaa ennustavasti, samalla kun faktori
toimitushuoneessa selailee aamun postia ja harkitsee, uskaltaisiko
hän käydä saksiin käsiksi ja valmistaa omalla uhallaan annoksen
käsikirjotusta. Minua alkoi todella huolettaa päivän numeron kohtalo,
sillä olinhan kaikesta huolimatta kiintynyt Riento-rääsyyn, josta olin
niin paljon vaivaakin nähnyt. Lopulta kaikkosi minusta uneliaisuus
kokonaan ja minä hankkiusin tavalliseen päivätyöhöni.

En kuitenkaan pitänyt mitään kiirettä, vaan söin aamiaisen

kaikessa rauhassa, tupakoitsin sen jälkeen vielä hetkisen ja lähdin
sitte hiljalleen toimistoon.

Astuessani sisälle toimitushuoneeseen kohtasi minua seuraava

näky:

Kokoon painuneena istui Silander huojuvassa päätoimittajan

tuolissaan, kyynärpäät pöydällä ja pää tuettuna käsien varaan.
Verestävät silmät olivat pikkusen raollaan, turvonneiden huulten
välitse näkyi hammastarhassa leveä aukko, sillä pari alaleuan
etuhammasta oli hävinnyt sijaltaan ja — horribile visu — vasemman
silmän alta paistoi ankara mustelma. Hänen kyynärpäidensä alla oli
kasassa aamun posti ja päätä tukevassa oikeassa kädessä
törröttivät sakset, joiden sakarat murheellisesti viittasivat kattoa
kohti.

Jos sydänlokeroihini viime päivinä oli kaivautunut närää

esimiestäni kohtaan, haihtui se tämän näyn edessä nopeasti ja
muuttui päinvastaiseksi tunteeksi.

Päästyään muutamain aivoponnistusten jälkeen selville minun

läsnäolostani, antoi Silander itsestään ensimäisen elonmerkin
liikuttamalla saksia, mikä samalla oli selvästikin tarkotettu minulle
tervehdykseksi. Tämän jälkeen virkkoi hän äänellä, jota lähinnä voisi
verrata reenjalasten kitinään sulalla maantiellä:
 — No jopa se sattui hullusti, että me kumpikin jouduimme samalla
kertaa sairaaksi!

Se kanalja otaksui siis ilman muuta, että minullakin oli kohmelo ja

ettei minulla muka olisi ollut painavampiakin syitä jäädä pois työstä.
Mutta olihan totta, että minä en ollut antanut mitään muodollista
lakko julistusta, joten annoin hänen pitää vakaumuksensa, koska
hän sitä paitsi oli puolittain oikeassakin. Itsensä hänet oli muutoin,
kuten myöhemmin faktorilta sain kuulla, monien etsiskelyjen jälkeen
löydetty Kolkkalan ulkoravintolasta, missä hän jonkun
yksityishuoneen nurkassa oli kuorsannut tukkihumalassa. Ankarain
ponnistusten jälkeen oli hänet saatu tajuamaan toimistossa
vallitsevan tilanteen epätoivoisuus, jolloin hän oli katsonut
tarpeelliseksi siirtää itsensä päätoimittajana hänelle kuuluvalle
paikalle.

Kun minä olin asettunut paikalleni häntä vastapäätä, työnsi hän

postin ja sakset minun eteeni.

Nähdessään, että toimitustyö alkoi käydä tavallisia raiteitaan ja

että latojat saivat työtä, kirkasti ilon hohde hänen sameita silmiään ja
hän lausui:

— Kuule, Riku, kyllä meidän välttämättä täytyy saada piiskaryypyt.

Minulla ei oikeastaan ollut mitään tätä esimieheni tekemää

kohtuullista ehdotusta vastaan. Tiedustettiin konttorista kassan tilaa
ja, ihmeellistä kylläkin, siellä osottausi olevan rahoja yli kymmenen
markan. Tästä harvinaisesta löydöstä riemastuneena pyysi Silander
toisen konttorineidin hakemaan puolikkaan konjakkia, muutamia
suudapulloja sekä puntin sikareja.
 Hetken kuluttua ilmestyivät nämä hyvyydet pöydälle ja maailma
alkoi yhä enemmän kirkastua silmissämme.

Kun Silander kaatoi kolmatta ryyppyä laseihin, aukeni ovi — ja

edessämme seisoi Juho täydessä pituudessaan.

— Osasitpa sinäkin tulla oikeaan aikaan! — virkkoi Silander, jonka

ääni oli jo ehtinyt muuttua iloisen lallattelevaksi..

Juho katsahti häneen kysyvästi, mutta vainusi samalla konjakin

tuoksun, näki pöydällä olevat varustukset ja ymmärsi kaikki. —
Saavuin puoli tuntia sitten Kolkkalan asemalle ja merkillinen vaisto
ohjasi minut suoraan tänne, — selitti hän, hieroen tyytyväisenä
suuria ja kohmettuneita käsiään.

Hän sai ryypyn, kotiutui nopeasti ja alkoi pöydän nurkalla kirjottaa

artikkelia. Minä kynin pääkaupungin lehtiä minkä kerkesin ja Silander
rallatteli tyytyväisenä. Lundgren ja faktori saivat luonnollisesti hekin
osansa toimituspöydän hyvyyksistä ja niin vallitsi Riennon
toimistossa oikea markkinamieliala.

Konjakkipuolikas ei luonnollisesti kestänyt kauan ja

kädenkäänteessä toimitti Silander samanlaisen tilalle. Kun hän
polviensa välissä juuri kiskoi korkkia sen suulta, näimme
puoliavoimesta konttorinovesta erään Kolkkalan papeista lähenevän
toimitushuonettamme.

— No nyt tästä hyvä tulee, kun saamme tänne vielä papinkin, —

virkkoi
Silander iloisesti ja silmät autuaasti killillään.
 Konjakkipullon, jonka suulla korkkiruuvi törrötti pystyssä, näpisti
hän polviensa väliin ja asettui viattomana miehenä rynkämöisilleen
pöydän nojalle. Minä riensin asettumaan keskusteluun pastorin
kanssa, jolla oli jätettävänä Rientoon muuan oikaisu. Asiansa
suoritettuaan poistui hän verrattain nopeasti, sillä arvatenkin
huomasi hän toimitushuoneessamme vallitsevan ilmanalan
vähemmän soveliaaksi papilliselle olemukselleen.

Hänen hävittyään oven taakse päästi Silander kevennyksen

huokauksen ja pamautti korkin pullon suulta. Hetken kuluttua kohosi
Juhokin jo sille asteelle, että hän arvioitsi kirjottamisen maalliseksi
turhuudeksi. Hän laski kynän kädestään ja yhdessä Silanderin
kanssa alkoi hän minun kielloistani huolimatta laulaa: "Hei Härmästä
poikia kymmenen".

Kun he olivat vetäneet viimeisen värssyn loppuun, lausui Silander

sammaltelevalla äänellä:

— Kuule, Juho, vaikka sinä ootkin noin pitkä, niin et sinä pärjää
minulle käsivoimissa.

Silmäniskulla kehotti Lundgren minua olemaan varuillani, jos

päätoimittaja alkaisi tappelua hankkia. Mutta Silander ei
nähtävästikään ollut tappelupäällä, sillä rauhallisesti ehdotti hän
Juholle:

— Koitetaanko sylipainia?

Juho puolestaan selitti asettavansa hengenominaisuudet raa'an

aineellisen voiman yläpuolelle, mutta siitä huolimatta täytyi hänen
lopulta antautua Silanderin kanssa sylipainiin.
 — Elä sinä sillä lailla kahmua, vaan ota minua housunkauluksesta!
— neuvoi Silander voimankoetukseen tottumatonta Juhoa ja sitten
alkoivat he vuorotellen nostaa jumputella toisiaan kohoksi lattiasta
sekä heittelehtiä ympäri huonetta, niin että tuolit ja lattialle nostetut
tyhjät pullot kaatuivat nurin sekä vieriskelivät painijain jaloissa.

Minä ehätin sulkemaan oven, ettei kukaan vieras pääsisi

odottamatta näkemään Riennon sen päiväistä toimitustapaa,
samalla kun Lundgren varoi toimituspöytää kellahtamasta nurin.

Paini päättyi Silanderin voitoksi. Huohottaen istahtivat he sitten

vastapäätä toisiaan, ottivat uudet ryypyt ja alkoivat rallattaa:

"Minun kultani kaunis on, vaikk' on kaitaluinen."

Kaikesta tästä huolimatta sain minä faktorin ja Lundgrenin kanssa

yhteisin ponnistuksin lehden painokuntoon ja voinpa vakuuttaa, ettei
sen päivän Riennon numero ollut sen huonompi kuin lukuisat
edeltäjänsäkään. Silmäillessäni iltapäivällä kotona vasta painosta
tuotua vielä tuoretta numeroa sekä muistellessani sitä ilmanpainetta,
minkä alaisena se oli syntynyt, tuntui minusta kuin siitä olisi
lehahtanut vastaan vahva konjakin tuoksu. Mutta se oli tietysti vain
pelkkää mielikuvitusta.

*****

Juhon vierailu ei tällä kertaa muodostunut kovin monipäiväiseksi.

Se päättyi suunnilleen samalla tavoin kuin edellinenkin: Silander
toimitti hänelle eväät ja kyydin etelään päin.

Kevättalven kuluessa lähetti hän sitten Rientoon useampia

kirjotuksia, jotka tietystikin heti lämpimiltään saivat sijansa lehdessä.
Palkkionpyyntikirjeitä ei tällä kertaa kuulunut, mutta sen sijaan
saapui eräänä kevätpäivänä konttoriimme samalle asialle Juhon
henkilökohtainen edustaja.

Tämä nuori mies oli uskonnollisen idealistin perikuva jo

ulkomuodoltaankin: sileät kasvot vakaine, hiukan surumielisine
silmineen, viaton suu ja pitkä vaalea tukka. Muutoin esiintyi hän
moitteettomassa herrasmiehen puvussa. Kävi selville, että hän oli
polyteknikko sekä samalla metodistinen puhuja. Hän esitti meille
Juholta valtakirjan, joka oikeutti hänet nostamaan Juhon palkkiot
valtakirjassa mainituista kirjotuksista. Tulimme kaikki uteliaiksi ja
aloimme tiedustella Juhon viimeisimmistä vaiheista. Polyteknikko
kertoi silloin seuraavaa:

Eräänä iltana talvella oli Juho ilmestynyt metodistien kokoukseen

Helsingissä, ollen tapansa mukaan hiukan juovuksissa ja muuten
surkeassa tilassa. Kertoja oli silloin tehnyt, kuten laupias
samarialainen eräässä toisessa tapauksessa: hän oli lähentynyt
Juhoa, joka oli ollut ihan rahatonna, leivätönnä ja katotonna, sekä
ottanut hänet hoivaansa. Siitä saakka oli Juho asunut hänen
huonetoverinaan, ollut useita viikkoja ihan maistamatonna sekä
kirjotellut eri lehtiin. Ja mikä parasta, hänessä oli tapahtunut
uskonnollinen kääntymys. Kun me tätä hiukan epäilimme, vakuutti
kertoja:

— Kyllä hänessä on tapahtunut aivan vilpitön kääntymys. Hän on

nyt aivan kuin lapsi.

Polyteknikon oli jossakin metodistien asioissa pitänyt lähteä

pienelle kiertomatkalle ympäri maan ja hän oli ottanut periäkseen
Juhon saatavia eri sanomalehdistä. Riennolta hän sai kokonaista
kolmekymmentä markkaa. Juho itse omassa persoonassaan ei
tietysti olisi saanut kuin vähäpätöisen osan tästä summasta. Mutta
hänen asiamiehensä nuhteeton olemus ei voinut olla tekemättä
vaikutustaan kassaneitiin, minkä lisäksi sattui sellainen harvinainen
päivä, että kassassa oli yhdellä kertaa kokonainen tukku seteleitä.
Se oli nimittäin saanut pari päivää olla rauhassa karhuilta ja
Silanderilta.

Mainittakoon muuten tässä samassa yhteydessä, että tuota onnen

ja levon aikaa ei Juho-poloisella kestänyt kauan, vaan hänen
elämänsä oli määrätty suistumaan entisille raiteilleen. Syksypuoleen,
jolloin olin jo jättänyt Riennon, tapasin hänet Helsingissä eräässä
lukusalissa. Uteliaana riensin häntä tervehtimään sekä samalla
todentamaan, oliko kääntymys ollut pysyvämpää laatua. Jo
lähemmäs tullessani huomasin ulkoasussa merkkejä, jotka panivat
epäilemään, että hän viime aikoina oli asustanut ennemminkin
vanhassa kolossaan Hietalahden kivihiiliröykkiössä kuin siistin
uskovaisen huonetoverina. Näitä epäilyksiä täydensivät vielä silmien
samea kiilto ja rankkitynnyrin läheisyyttä muistuttava tuoksu.

Haikein mielin kertoikin Juho, että hänen laupias samarialaisensa

oli joutunut pitemmäksi aikaa sairaalaan ja että puulaaki oli siis
hajonnut. Ja niin oli Juho tullut työnnetyksi entisille harharetkilleen.

— Sic volvere parcas! — lopetti Juho kertomuksensa.

Vähän myöhemmin näin sanomalehdistä, että Juhon huoltaja oli

kuollut sairaalassa, joten puulaakin uudistamisestakaan ei ollut enää
toiveita.

Karhuja.
 Edellisestä on jo käynyt selville, että Riennon päätoimittaja
istuskeli enimmiten kaikkialla muualla paitsi siellä, missä hänen
virkansa puolesta olisi tullut istua. Mutta tyhjänä ei hänen navassaan
kääntyvä ja huojuva nojatuolinsa toimitustunteina kuitenkaan ollut.
Siinä istui tavallisesti eräs Riennon lukuisista karhuista.

Olen jo ennen maininnut, miten kauppias Parkkanen kävi

vuokrasaataviaan karhuamassa, jyristen ja pauhaten sekä uhaten
nostattaa kaikki Riennon kompeet kadulle. Saman tapaisia olivat
edelleenkin hänen karhuamaretkensä: ne kulkivat kuin rajuilma
päittemme yli. Milloin Silander sattui olemaan toimistossa, kun ovelle
ilmestyi Parkkasen synkeä, parrakas hahmo kuin tuhoa ennustava
ukonpilvi taivaanrannalle, silloin me Lundgrenin kanssa aina
pelkästä hienotunteisuudesta poistuimme kiiruunkaupalla
painohuoneeseen. Sinne kuulimme sitte ovien läpi Parkkasen
jyrisevän passon, jota säesti Silanderin lepyttelevä ja suostutteleva
ääni. Kun jyrinä vaimeni ja me painon akkunasta näimme Parkkasen
poistuvan, uskalsimme jälleen palata toimitushuoneeseen, jossa
Silander istui punottavana ja hämillään. Kaiken alta pilkisti jo
kuitenkin näkyviin tyytyväisyys siitä, että kaikki oli sentään siksikin
hyvin päättynyt.

— No niinpähän sitä siitäkin nikarasta taas päästiin! — lausui hän

tupakkaa tarjoten.

Silander olikin esimerkiksi kelpaava mestari suoriutumaan hyvillä

puheilla vaikeimmistakin situatsioneista. Parkkasen käynnit olivat
sentään verraten harvinaisia, jota vastoin tuo alussa mainittu karhu
oli, varsinkin kesäiseen aikaan, jokapäiväinen vieras
toimistossamme.
 Hän oli ammatiltaan kirjansitoja sekä muuten hyvissä varoissa
oleva mies. Oliko hän tehnyt Riennolle ammattiinsa kuuluvia töitä vai
muutenko Silander oli hänelle yksityisesti joutunut velkaan, siitä en
niin tarkoin tullut selkoa ottaneeksi.

Puolenpäivän tienoissa, jolloin keskikesän aikaan ihmisen

näkeminen Kolkkalan kaduilla oli harvinainen ihme, lähti herra Tarkki
kirjansitojan verstaastaan liikkeelle. Läntistyneet tohvelit jaloissaan ja
päällään vanha tohvelipalttoo tuo hyväntuulinen, lihava ja
hyvinparroittunut elinkeinonharjottaja asteli verkalleen Kolkkalan
katuja, joiden kivityksen lomasta ruohonkorret kaupungissa
vallitsevan rauhan rohkaisemina pilkistivät esiin. Hän pysähtyi
ensimaiseen kadunkulmaan ja silmäili haukotellen jokaiselle neljälle
ilmansuunnalle. Mutta kun missäänpäin ei näkynyt mitään
mielenkiintoa herättävää, maleksi hän seuraavaan kalmaan ja niin
edelleen päämaaliaan kohti, joka oli Riennon toimitus.

Kun Tarkki saapui konttoriin, kuulimme me Lundgrenin kanssa

tavallisesti nuoremman konttorineidin tiuskivan:

— Hyi tuota Tarkkia, kun on hävitön! Menkää tiehenne siitä!

Kuuletteko?
Heti paikalla pois siitä!

Se oli merkki siitä, että Tarkki tiskin ympäri kiertäessään oli ilman
muuta kietaissut kätensä hänen kaulaansa sekä karheapartaisella
leuallaan hankasi hänen punastunutta poskeaan. Sen jälkeen kuului
Tarkin ääni kysyvän:

— Mitäs se kassanvartia tietää? Onko siellä laatikossa minkä

verran kolikoita?
 — On, mutta Tarkille niitä ei anneta, — kuului kassaneidin
vastaus.

— Vai ei anneta! — ja Tarkin askeleet siirtyivät kassaa kohti.

— Hui, ette saa tulla! — kirkui tällöin kassaneiti. — Menettekö pois

siitä, ei meillä ole kuitenkaan rahaa enempää kuin kaksi markkaa.

— Vai kaksi, — kuuluu Tarkin laiska vastaus. — Mihinkäs te olette

haaskanneet viime päivien tulot?

— Ei meillä ole kahteen päivään ollut tuloja muuta kuin yhdestä

kerta-ilmotuksesta.

Tämän jälkeen narahtaa toimitushuoneen ovi ja Tarkki paksuine

palttoineen, tohveleineen ja partoineen työntyy oven täydeltä sisään.

— Päivää! Kuuluuko sitä maailmalta mitä? — lausuu hän leveästi

ja sijottaa ruhonsa mahdollisimman mukavasti päätoimittajan tuoliin.

Vastaukseksi hänen kysymykseensä alan minä edessäni olevasta

maaseutulehdestä lukea esim. tällaista kesäuutista: "Jännittävän
taistelun haukan ja hauen välillä näkivät Heinävedellä muutamat
kalamiehet t.k. 5 p:nä. Taistelu päättyi siten j.n.e." Uutinen on jo
kierrellyt suurimman osan Suomen sanomalehdistöä, siirtyen kuin
haukotus suusta suuhun, ja nyt on sen vuoro tullut päästä Riennon
palstoille. Noin viikon kuluttua ilmestyy se sitten kajaanilaiseen
valonahjoon, minkä jälkeen se hyvässä lykyssä voi lähteä vielä
uudelle kiertomatkalle.

Tarkki kuuntelee uutista välinpitämättömästi, sytyttää paperossin ja

anastaa haltuunsa nuoraan kiinnitetyt sakset, joilla hän alkaa silputa
pöydällä olevia sanomalehtiä. Sitä tietä on usein mennyt minun
valmiiksi leikkaamani "käsikirjotuskin". Saksiin kyllästyttyään tarttuu
hän lyijykynään ja raapustaa pöydällä olevat tulitikku- ja
paperossilaatikot, kirjekuoret ja imupaperin täyteen kaikenlaisia
kuvioita. Kaiken aikaa juttelee hän laiskaan tapaansa, olematta
millänsäkään minun kärsimättömistä eleistäni, joilla minä koetan
antaa hänen ymmärtää, että hän häiritsee meitä
kansanvalistustyössämme. Kun hän ei enää löydä mitään ehyttä
pintaa piirustuksilleen, laittaa hän jostakin helsinkiläislehdestä
mukavan kärpäsläpän ja alkaa täydellä mielenkiinnolla räpsiä
kärpäsiä, jotka tappelevat ruokapaikasta Lundgrenin kaljulla kiireellä.

Siten viettää hän lähes joka päivä parisen tuntia toimistossa. Jos
hyvin käy, sattuu Silanderkin ilmestymään paikalle. Silloin otetaan
kassa, sekä Silanderin yksityinen että konttorin kassa,
perinpohjaisen tarkastuksen alaiseksi, jolloin Tarkin taskuun siirtyy
niin paljon kuin Riennon sen päiväinen ekonoominen tila suinkin
sallii.

Tyytyväisenä vääntäytyy Tarkki sen jälkeen paluumatkalle — eikä

hänen humoristisessa olemuksessaan voi huomata mitään
tyytymättömyyden oireita silloinkaan, kun saalis on käynyt yhteen
tyhjän kanssa. Kun hän on hävinnyt toimitushuoneen oven taakse,
kuuluu konttorista jälleen nuoremman neidin ääni:

— Tark-kii, menettekö siivolla siitä!

*****

Muista Riennon karhuista mainittakoon tässä enää ainoastaan

eräs Kolkkalan varakkaimpia rakennusmestareita — siis yksi sen
luokan ihmisistä, jotka ovat sangen huomattavina tekijöinä niin
Kolkkalan kuin koko tuhatjärvisen isänmaamme nykyisessä
kulttuurityössä, antaen sille oman vahvan rakennusmestarileimansa.
Puheenalainen karhu oli kuitenkin nähtävästi sangen pessimistinen
saataviinsa nähden, sillä hän ei minun aikanani käynyt
persoonallisesti kertaakaan Riennon toimistossa. Sen sijaan kiersi
hän ympäri Kolkkalaa kuin kiljuva jalopeura, panetellen Rientoa,
kuten Silander kerran tuskastuneena selitti. Yhden ainoan kerran
hän erään ilmotusasian takia soitti toimitukseen ja sekin tapahtui
sangen onnettomana hetkenä. Se oli näet silloin, kun Juho ja
Silander konjakin höyryjen innoittamina vetelivät Härmän poikain
laulua. Loilotus tunkeutui tietysti puhelinjohtoa myöten herra
pykmestarin korvaan ja kohta lähti Kolkkalaa kiertämään juoru:
Riennon toimitus on ollut täynnä juopuneita, siellä on verissä päin
tapeltu ja säretty huonekaluja.

Suutari ja räätäli saavat suorittaa Riennolle ilmotusvelkansa

luonnossa.

Ainoat kenkäni alkoivat keskellä kesää olla siinä kunnossa, että

pöly ja hiekka pääsi ulkona liikkuessa esteettömästi tunkemaan
sisälle. Puhumattakaan kosteudesta, kun sattui sateiset ilmat.
Korjauttaakaan niitä ei juuri enää kannattanut, sillä niiden
hajaantumistila alkoi olla jo niin pitkällä, että uusia pohjia olisi ollut
hieman vaikea niihin kiinnittää. Ja jos olisikin, niin milläpä minä olisin
korjauksen aikana jalkapöytiäni suojannut. Tosinhan Kolkkalan
kaduilla siihen aikaan vuodesta sai vaeltaa tietänsä jotensakin
rauhassa uteliasten lähimmäistensä katseilta, joten minä hyvin olisin
voinut ottaa oppia kirjansitoja Tarkista, mutta siihen tunsin minä
itseltäni puuttuvan tarpeellista rohkeutta.

Täytyi siis kaikin mokomin saada uudet jalkineet.

 Sellainen toivomus oli kuitenkin paljon helpompi lausua kuin
toteuttaa. Palkkaani oli kyllä hyvä joukko saamatta, mutta kassan
sisällys ei koskaan ehtinyt nousta niin korkealle, että sillä olisi voinut
kengät lunastaa, kun Tarkki tai joku muu minua paljon suuremmilla
vaatimuksilla esiintyvä tuli ja korjasi sen haltuunsa. Itse sain vain
parin markan tai korkeintaan viitosen eriä, niin että juuri ja juuri
tupakissa pysyin.

Eräänä päivänä, kun Silander oli toimistossa, esitin hänelle

jalkineitteni huolestuttavan tilan, näyttäen samalla suuremmaksi
vakuudeksi niiden pohjia toimituspöydän yli.

— Kyllä sinun, näenmä, pitää välttämättä saada uudet kengät, —

lausui hän lohduttavasti ja rupesi miettimään.

Hetken kuluttua kirkastui hänelle asia. Hän selaili ilmotuskirjaa ja

virkkoi:

— Kuulehan, Riku, kyllä me saamme sinulle kengät. Suutari

Kuosmanen on meille vielä hyvän joukon ilmotusvelkaa. Ei siis
muuta kuin menet hänen kenkäkauppaansa ja valitset itsellesi hyvät
jalkineet, joiden hinta sitten kuitataan Kuosmasen ilmotusvelkaan.

Tietysti minusta olisi ollut paljon mieluisempaa ostaa itselleni

kengät käteisellä, mutta kun näytti mahdottomalta saada sitä tähän
tarpeeseen, niin oli viisainta tyytyä Silanderin ehdotukseen. Niinpä
meninkin illalla työstä päästyäni Kuosmasen puotiin ja rupesin
valikoimaan kenkiä. Varasto oli sangen vähissä ja minä en löytänyt
mieleisiä. Mutta muuallekaan ei ollut meneminen ja katupölyn
tuhrimissa sukissakin tuntui kovin epämieluisalta edelleen kävellä.
Niin valitsin joukosta hienoimmat ja samalla vähimmän
sopimattomat. Ne olivat boxnahkaiset — ensi kerran taisin muuten
kuulla suutarin vakuutuksen, että ne ovat "ehta box-nahkaa", mikä
vaikutti minuun hyvin lumoavasti — englantilaismalliset
nauhakengät. Kun ne oli kääritty pakettiin, selitin minä hiukan
levotonna:

— Minä olen Riento-lehden aputoimittajia ja herra Silander käski

minun ottaa kengät teidän ilmotustiliinne.

Kunnianarvoisan suutarimestarin naama sai tämän kuultuaan

hyvin happaman ilmeen. Mitään protestia ei hän kuitenkaan tehnyt,
vaan antoi mahdollisimman niukalla päännyökäyksellä
suostumuksensa kauppaan. Arvatenkin lohdutti hän sittemmin
itseään sillä, että minä en ollut tinkinyt penniäkään kenkien
korkeasta hinnasta.

Heti kotiin tultua muutin uudet kenkäni jalkaan ja lähdin

iltakävelylle. Ne olivat siron kapeat, mutta tavattoman pitkäkärkiset,
niin että minusta alkoi väkisinkin tuntua, että jaloissani on kenkien
asemesta sukset. Ja melkein kaikkien vastaantulijain katseet
näyttivät vastustamattomasti kääntyvän niihin. Mutta minun täytyi nyt
kerta kaikkiaan tyytyä niihin sellaisina kuin ne olivat sekä lohduttaa
itseäni sillä, että yksi Kolkkalan kolmesta kauppaneuvoksesta käytti
juuri samanlaisia kenkiä.

*****

Syyspuoleen alkoi pukuni kaivata samanlaista uudistusta. Tosin

siinä ei vielä näkynyt ilmireikiä, mutta erinäiset kohdat olivat jo
käyneet niin kiiltäviksi, että niillä hätätilassa olisi voinut korvata peilin
puutteen. Sitäpaitsi ne olivat jo ammoin käytännöstä pois joutunutta
kuosia.
 Kun sen nautinnon kaipuu, minkä uuden uutukaisessa ja
kuosikkaassa puvussa käyminen synnyttää, kävi päivä päivältä yhä
voimakkaammaksi, päätin minä astua Rubiconin yli — ja tilata
itselleni puvun. Kun onnen sanotaan suosivan rohkeita, niin arvelin
Riennon kassaan asianomaiseksi päiväksi kertyvän siksi paljon
rahaa, että saisin sillä pukuni lunastetuksi.

Olosuhteisiin katsoen päätin valita räätälin laitakaupungilta —

tyhmästi kylläkin, sillä sellaiset eläjäthän etupäässä karhuamisillaan
muuttavat lähimmäisensä elämän maalliseksi helvetiksi, elleivät heti
saa täyttä käteistä maksua. Koska räätälit — vaatturinimi ei ollut
Kolkkalassa vielä vakiintunut, joten rohkenen käyttää tuota vanhaa
kunnianarvoisaa räätäli-nimitystä — Kolkkalassakin olivat
pääasiallisesti kahdensukuisia: Leinoja ja Kanervia, kantoi räätäli,
johon minun vaalini sattui, ensinmainittua nimeä. Muutoin oli hän
tyypillinen laitakaupungin räätäli: laiha ja synkkäkatseinen. Oliko hän
lisäksi, kuten asiaan olisi kuulunut, keuhkotautinen, siitä en ehtinyt
päästä täyteen varmuuteen. Arvatenkaan hänen luonaan ei ollut
pistäytynyt ostajia viikkokausiin, sillä hänen ilonsa minun
ilmestymiseni johdosta oli suuri ja vilpitön.

No niin, kangas valittiin — vaikka, totta puhuen, valikoimisen varaa

ei sanottavasti ollut —, mitat otettiin ja hinnasta sovittiin. Puvun piti
olla viikon kuluttua valmiina.

Ilmotin kassaneidille, mikä tärkeä ja suurenpuoleinen menoerä

minulla oli edessäni ja hän lupasi tehdä voitavansa asiassa. Mutta
siitä huolimatta ei minun varalleni määräpäiväksi kertynyt viittä
markkaa enempää.

Toivoin jo, että puvun valmistuminen olisi tavallisuuden mukaan

myöhästynyt ja että sillä aikaa joku onnenpotku toisi kassaan