Sensor Evaluation and

Heavy Equipment Actuators

Unit I
Basics
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SYLLABUS
1. Ohm's law
2. Kirchhoff's Laws
3. Pull Up – Pull Down Resistors
4. Wheatstone Bridge
5. Transmitters and transducers
6. Structure of a Controller (ECM, ECU, PLC, etc.)

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1. Ohm's law
1.1. Basic Electrical Circuit
All standardized electrical circuits necessarily have the following elements and
at least one of each type.

Fig. 1. Structure of an electrical circuit.

1.2. Ohm's law

OHM's law establishes a linear dependence behavior between the parameters of the
electron flow ( Current Intensity ), the Impedance (Resistance ) and the voltage
difference ( Voltage ) in a DC electrical circuit, the mathematical relationship is as
follows:

Where

■ Voltage ( Volts(V ))
■ Current intensity ( Ampere (A), Milliampere (mA) )
■ Resistance ( Ohms (Ω) )

Fig. 2. Ohm's Law – Voltage.

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Fig. 3. Ohm's Law – Resistance.

Fig. 4. Ohm's Law – Current.

1.3. Series consumers circuit

These circuits have consumers in series, which is why they will consume the same
current and divide the source voltage proportionally to the resistance of each
consumer.

Fig. 5. Series consumers circuit.

■ Total Voltage = 12V
■ Total resistance = 4 + 2 = 6Ω
■ Single Current = 12 V /6 Ω = 2A

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1.4. Parallel consumer circuit
These circuits have consumers in parallel, which is why they will be supplied
by the same voltage as the source.

Fig. 6. Parallel consumer circuit.

■ Total Voltage (single) = 1 2 V

■ Total resistance = 1/(1/4 + 1/2) = 4/3Ω
■ Total current = 12 V /(4/3) Ω = 9A
■ Total resistance of consumers in series: sum of resistances.
■ Total resistance of consumers in parallel : the inverse of the sum of
the inverses of the resistance values.

2. Kirchhoff's Laws
For a better understanding and analysis of a DC electrical circuit, it is very
important to know Kirchhoff's laws, which will be shown below:

2.1. 1st Kirchhoff's Law

Circuits with consumers in parallel generate a current divider circuit, whose
sum in a node is zero, and the consumer current is inversely proportional to its
resistance.

(∑ currents in a node = 0)

• Analysis of a circuit

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Fig. 7. Parallel consumer circuit.

Since they are in parallel, it is known that the voltage difference of R1 and R2 are
equal to that of the source. Proportionality will be applied to calculate the currents
in the resistors.

■
I (Rn) = IT x RT/Rn
SYLLABUS........................................................................................................................2
1. Ohm's law....................................................................................................................3
1.1. Basic Electrical Circuit............................................................................................3
1.3. Series consumers circuit...........................................................................................4
1.4. Parallel consumer circuit..........................................................................................5
2. Kirchhoff's Laws..........................................................................................................5
2.1. 1st Kirchhoff's Law..................................................................................................5
(∑ currents in a node = 0).......................................................................................................5
2.2. Kirchhoff's 2nd Law.................................................................................................7
(∑ of voltages in a mesh = 0)..................................................................................................7
2.3. Exercises................................................................................................................10
3. Pull up – Pull Down resistors....................................................................................11
3.1. Pull Up Resistance.................................................................................................11
3.2. Pull Down Resistance............................................................................................12
3.3. Reference Voltage..................................................................................................13
4. Wheatstone Bridge.....................................................................................................13
4.1. Circuit Fundamentals.............................................................................................13
5. Transducers and transmitters.....................................................................................15
5.1. Transducers............................................................................................................15
5.2. Transmitters............................................................................................................15
6. Controller structure....................................................................................................16
6.1. Electronic Controllers............................................................................................16

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• ECU (Electronic Control Unit).......................................................................................17
• PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)..........................................................................17
6.2. Structure of a controller.........................................................................................18
6.3. Controller...............................................................................................................18
6.4. Supply Source........................................................................................................19
6.5. input module...........................................................................................................19
6.6. Output modules......................................................................................................20
■
■ V = 3 Ω x 8A = 6Ω x 4A = 24V

From what was calculated, we observe that a current flows through the
consumer that has twice the resistance (R2) that is half the current of the
other consumer (R1), achieving the current divider that is inversely
proportional to the resistances of said consumers.

2.2. Kirchhoff's 2nd Law

Circuits with consumers in series generate a voltage divider circuit, whose
polarized sum is zero, and the voltage of the consumer is directly proportional to its
resistance.

(∑ of voltages in a mesh = 0)

• Analysis of a circuit

Fig. 8. Series consumers circuit.

Since they are in series, it is known that the circuit current is the same for all
consumers. Proportionality will be applied to determine the voltages of each
consumer.

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■ V(Rn) = Vf x Rn/RT
SYLLABUS........................................................................................................................2
1. Ohm's law....................................................................................................................3
1.1. Basic Electrical Circuit............................................................................................3
1.3. Series consumers circuit...........................................................................................4
1.4. Parallel consumer circuit..........................................................................................5
2. Kirchhoff's Laws..........................................................................................................5
2.1. 1st Kirchhoff's Law..................................................................................................5
(∑ currents in a node = 0).......................................................................................................5
2.2. Kirchhoff's 2nd Law.................................................................................................7
(∑ of voltages in a mesh = 0)..................................................................................................7
2.3. Exercises................................................................................................................10
3. Pull up – Pull Down resistors....................................................................................11
3.1. Pull Up Resistance.................................................................................................11
3.2. Pull Down Resistance............................................................................................12
3.3. Reference Voltage..................................................................................................13
4. Wheatstone Bridge.....................................................................................................13
4.1. Circuit Fundamentals.............................................................................................13
5. Transducers and transmitters.....................................................................................15
5.1. Transducers............................................................................................................15
5.2. Transmitters............................................................................................................15
6. Controller structure....................................................................................................16
6.1. Electronic Controllers............................................................................................16
• ECU (Electronic Control Unit).......................................................................................17
• PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)..........................................................................17
6.2. Structure of a controller.........................................................................................18
6.3. Controller...............................................................................................................18
6.4. Supply Source........................................................................................................19
6.5. input module...........................................................................................................19
6.6. Output modules......................................................................................................20
■
■ I = 6V/30 = 6V/30 = 12V/60 = 2A
■ V(R1) + V (R2) + V (R3) = 24V (source)

o A voltage divider is produced, the voltage of each consumer being

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directly proportional to its resistance.

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 2.3. Exercises
• Calculate the source voltage and consumer currents.

Fig. 9. Exercise 1.
• Calculate the source current and consumer voltages.

Fig. 10. Exercise 2.

• Calculate the currents and voltages in the consumers.

Fig. 11. Exercise 3.

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3. Pull up – Pull Down resistors
The controller inputs have certain electronic configurations between the device that
generates the input signal and the device that measures said signal, with the aim
of facilitating fault diagnosis and avoiding failures when disconnecting the input
device from the controller.

Fig. 12. Input devices.

The controllers have binary or discrete and analog inputs, that is, they need them
to be in one of the two states or within a certain range of values at all times. The
graph below has a difficulty, the controller input is in neither of them. these states,
that is, it is connected to the air, to the electrical noise of the medium, therefore the
controller will receive a fluctuating non-normalized signal that will generate a
failure, this is the essence of these types of configurations, that of avoiding
electrical noise and facilitate fault identification using the reference voltage.

Fig. 13. Unprotected controller input.

ECM: Electronic Control Module (Controller).

3.1. Pull Up Resistance

This resistor (10K) bears that name because of the function it performs, Pull Up
which means raised, or high level, this refers to the fact that this resistor is
connected to a supply voltage at one end and the other to the input of the

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controller. At first the controller registers a high voltage, when the switch is closed,
the controller will register a low voltage value GND, thus in the two states of the
switch, the controller did not register a value different from the two mentioned
states.

Fig. 14. Pull-up resistance.

3.2. Pull Down Resistance

In the same way, Pull Down means low level, this refers to the fact that the
resistor (10K) will be connected at one end to ground or “GND” and the other
end to the input of the controller. At first the controller registers a low voltage
value GND, then when the switch closes, the controller will register a high
voltage value, in this way it is also not possible for the controller to register a
value other than the states mentioned.

Fig. 15. Pull-down resistance

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3.3. Reference Voltage
The reference voltage is widely used by manufacturers to identify the failure of
input devices, the pull up voltage is from the pull up resistor. These normally use
the pull up, but you can also use the pull down as a reference, the graphs shown
represent the pull up resistance.

Fig. 16. Application of pull-up resistor.

The graphics below show an example with a switch as the input device.

Fig. 17. Reference voltage principle.

4. Wheatstone Bridge
4.1. Circuit Fundamentals
The Wheatstone bridge is a circuit widely applied in the instrumentation industry,
specifically in sensors (Transmitters) to generate the output signal proportional to
the physical parameter being measured.

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Fig. 18. Wheatstone Bridge.

B
The circuit will be in balance if R1/R2 = Rg/R3, for the application in sensors,
Rg will be the variable resistance (transducer) that will vary together with the
physical parameter that is being measured.

B
If the equality mentioned above is maintained, the voltage Vs will be zero,
therefore the voltmeter will not record any voltage value, if Rg, Vout is altered.
will no longer be null, therefore the voltmeter will register a voltage value,
which will be amplified to become the output signal of the active sensor.
B
Vout's sign. It will indicate the direction of the current by its sign, in the sensors
it will always be unidirectional.

B
The reason why this type of electronic configuration (Weatstone Bridge) is
applied in mostly resistive transducers is to eliminate electrical noises and thus
obtain a cleaner signal, see the mathematical explanation using the following
equation.

■ VB = VB + Vnoise / VD = VD + Vnoise

■ Vout. = VB-VD Vout. = VB + Vnoise - (VD +

Vnoise)

■ Vout. = VB + Vnoise – VD – Vnoise

Vout. = VB – VD.

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5. Transducers and transmitters
5.1. Transducers
A transducer is a system that captures a non-electrical physical variable and
transforms it or intervenes in the generation of a non-standardized proportional
electrical signal.

Fig. 19. Temperature sensor.

5.2. Transmitters
Transmitters are devices composed of a transducer at its input, followed by a
system that amplifies and standardizes the proportional signal which can be
measured by a controller.

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Fig. 20. Electrical diagram of a sensor.

6. Controller structure
The controller is the most important unit of an electronic system, it is the one that
gives instructions to the actuators to perform actions, but all with good information
that is received from the sensors.
6.1. Electronic Controllers
• ECM (Electronic Control Module)

Fig. 21. Application controller in heavy machinery

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• ECU (Electronic Control Unit)

Fig. 22. Application controller in heavy machinery – dump trucks.

• PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)

Fig. 23. PLC programmable controller – Industrial

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6.2. Structure of a controller

• General structure of a controller (ECM, ECU, PLC, etc.)
A controller will achieve good performance only if its main parts fulfill their
function, that is, if the supply source achieves good quality of current and
voltage, the input module manages to standardize and suppress the
disturbances of the signals from the control devices. input, and if the output
module achieves stability and proportionally amplify the output signal.

Fig. 24. General structure of a controller.

6.3. Controller
Controller Structure (ECM, ECU, PLC, etc)

Fig. 25. Controller structure.

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6.4. Supply Source

Supply source (ECM, ECU, PLC, etc)

Fig. 25. Structure of the supply source of a controller.

6.5. input module

Input module (ECM, ECU, PLC, etc.)
This module is responsible for receiving the signals from the sensors,
standardizing and sending said signal to the control module for measurement.

Fig. 26. Structure of the input module.

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6.6. Output modules

Output Module (ECM, ECU, PLC, etc.)
This module is responsible for amplifying and sending the signal to activate the
actuators.

Fig. 27. Structure of the output module.

• Diagram of an electronic control system (ECM - ECU)

Fig. 28. Controller input and output devices.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
• FINNING CAT. (2010). Student book electronic devices.

• CREUS S. (2005). Industrial instrumentation .

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• Torrent A. (2013). Practical Arduino training course . Madrid: RCLibros.

• RMJ Electronics. (2017). PLC structure .

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