Materials Technology Book.

[ PERUVIAN WINGS UNIVERSITY ]I MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER I
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
1.1. GENERALITIES
The word material comes from the Latin term “materialis”

and refers to that belonging to or relating to matter, which is
opposite to the spiritual. In any case, the concept has different uses
depending on the context. For science, a material is any
conglomerate of matter or mass. In engineering, a material is a
substance (chemical compound) with some useful property,
whether mechanical, electrical, optical, thermal or magnetic.
a. Raw Material : Raw material is defined as all the elements that

are involved in the production of a product, it is all that element that is transformed and
incorporated into a final product. A finished product includes a series of elements and by-
products that, through a transformation process, allowed the creation of a final product.
The raw material that has already been manufactured but does not yet constitute a
consumer good is called a semi-finished product, semi-finished product or product in
process.
b. Material : From a technological point of view, material is transformed matter, in its form
or essence with the purpose of fulfilling some function. They can be of natural origin
(found as such in nature) or of artificial origin (the result of some manufacturing process).
In general, they come from the natural environment as raw material, from where they are
obtained by different methods.
c. Materials Technology : It is the study and implementation of analysis techniques, physical
studies and development of materials. It is focused on the essential aspects of materials, to
understand the way in which they are used or should be used, to predict the behavior they
may present in different circumstances and in different environments.
1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
To study materials, different classifications can be made based on different

characteristics.
1.2.1. According to its origin:

a. Natural materials: Found in nature. They constitute the basic materials to
manufacture other products. Sometimes these resources are limited and can be
used up, other times they can be recycled or reused. Recycling or recycling is a
good solution to preserve the natural environment and save natural resources,
while reducing costs. Wood, wool, esparto grass, clay, gold, etc. are natural.
1 | Eng. Jean Edison Palma Vañez

b. Artificial materials: They are obtained from other materials found in

nature and have not undergone prior transformation. Products made with
various materials that are mostly of natural origin also receive this name.
Concrete and concrete blocks are artificial, which are artificial products,
made from sand (50%; natural material), gravel (30%; natural material),
cement (20%; artificial material ) and water (natural material).
c. Synthetic materials: They are manufactured by man from artificial
materials. They are not found in nature nor are the materials that make
them up. The most characteristic example is plastics, such as Bakelite,
which is obtained from two artificial materials: formaldehyde and phenol.
During the last hundred years, a multitude of materials have been
discovered, as well as new manufacturing methods (eg vulcanization).
1.2.2. According to internal structure
Materials are generally classified into five groups: metals, ceramics,

polymers, semiconductors and composite materials. The materials in each of these groups
have different structures and properties.
a. Metals: They have good electrical and thermal conductivity, high resistance, rigidity, and
ductility. They are particularly useful in structural or load-bearing applications. Alloys
(combinations of metals) grant some particularly desirable property in greater proportion
or allow a better combination of properties.
b. Ceramics : They have low electrical and thermal conductivity and are often used as
insulators. They are strong and hard, although fragile and brittle. New processing
techniques make ceramics sufficiently resistant to fracture so that they can be used in
load-bearing applications. Within this group of materials are: brick, glass, porcelain,
refractories and abrasives.
c. Polymers: They are large molecular structures created from organic molecules. They have
low electrical and thermal conductivity, reduced resistance and their use at elevated
temperatures should be avoided. Thermoplastic polymers, in which the molecular chains
are not rigidly connected, have good ductility and formability; On the other hand,
thermostable polymers are more resistant, although their tightly linked molecular chains
make them more fragile. They have multiple applications, including in electronic devices.
d. Semiconductors: Their electrical conductivity can be controlled for use in electronic
devices. They are very fragile.
e. Composite materials: As their name indicates, they are formed from two or more
materials from different groups, producing properties that are not found in any of the
materials individually.

[ PERUVIAN WINGS UNIVERSITY ] MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
1.3. MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Each material has properties that differentiate it from the others and determine what
can be done with it. We can classify the main properties as follows:
PROPERTIES
OF THE
PHYSIC MECHANIC
S AL
1.3.1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Physical properties are those in which the original properties of the substance are
maintained since its molecules are not modified.
a. Shapes and Dimensions : It is the external appearance that a material presents. In the
case of aggregates, the shapes depend on the mode of transport, since the sub-rounded
and rounded ones depend on the shock they suffered when being transported by rivers
and the angular shapes of stones and gravel have not suffered transport. Dimensions :
They vary according to the use to which they are going to be given. Ex. : When the stones
are large and you want them for reinforced concrete, the stones are crushed.
b. Specific weight : It is the ratio between the weight of a
body and its volume. It is calculated by dividing the weight
BULK BODIES
of a body or portion of matter by the volume it occupies.
Weight
Material designation Specific
(Kg/m3)
P mg dry uncompacted soil 1300
Moist uncompacted soil 1800
Saturated uncompacted soil 2100
dry sand 1600
and. specific weight wet sand 1800
P: weight of the substance saturated sand 2100
V: volume that the substance occupies p : density of the Lime 1000
substance 9- acceleration of gravity Brick shells 1300
loose cement 1400
Quartzite split stone 1400
granite split stone 1600
Boulder 1700
And so 1250
3I Eng. Jean Edison Palma Vañez
Depending on the volume you can consider:
• real: it is that of the compact material

• apparent: of the material with pores
• bulk: loose or compact
c. Porosity : It is the ability of a material to absorb liquids or gases.
• The water absorption capacity or mass porosity can be measured with the following
mathematical formula:
Where:
m s : Mass of any portion of the material (dry).
m 0 . Mass of the portion after a fluid has been immersed
• This last equation can be used to estimate the proportion of voids or volumetric
porosity:
p _ V _ Pm
Where:
Pm : It is the density of the material (dry).

Pf : It is the density of water.
Pv : It is the proportion of holes (expressed in terms of one)
Like density, porosity admits certain nuances and different types are established, the main
ones being: "total porosity" and "open porosity". According to the characteristics of the empty
spaces contemplated, other types of porosity can be considered: "closed", "accessible" to a
certain fluid, "communicated", "effective" for a certain behavior, etc.
Total porosity (n): It is defined as the total volume of voids per unit of total volume of
material. In this case, all empty spaces present must be accounted for: open and closed,
accessible and non-accessible. Its value cannot be obtained experimentally, since it
includes among the empty spaces those not communicated with the outside (non-
accessible pores). Its determination is carried out indirectly from the value of both
densities. Knowing the density of the solid particles (
Ps ) and the density of
the dry sample (
Pd ), the total porosity (n) is calculated from the expression:
Open porosity (n ο ) : It is also known as accessible or communicated porosity , and is

defined in the same way as the volume of open pores (Va) or communications between

yes and with the exterior (normally accessible to water) per unit of total volume of rock (V T ):
Goes
n 0 = — x 100
VT
This porosity is normally determined
through experimental techniques, based on Density and porosity of building rocks
introduce a fluid into the pores and quantify its volume. The most common procedure is the
hydrostatic weighing method, in which the pores are saturated with water (normally under vacuum) in
accordance with the specifications of the
standard followed and the open porosity Density of the Density of the Porosity Porosity
“accessible to water” is obtained. Another mineral grains dry rock Total open
method used is by injection of mercury, in (Kg/m*) (Kg/m) (%) (%)
this case mercury is introduced under Folgueroles sandstone 2460 7
pressure into the pores and from the Villamayor sandstone

Arrisca de Villaviciosa
>2600
>2640
1790 - 1680
2140- 2070
33- 36
18- 22
injected volume the open porosity Gray sandstone / g. thick >2610 2250 - 2240 14-15
"accessible to mercury" is determined. In Monjule red/fine g. >2540 1950- 1900 26-28
most rocks, the values obtained in both tests Salas Sandstone 2180-2170 17-18
are similar, with the porosity accessible to Quintanar sandstone 2130 19
water being slightly greater, since the Santillana sandstone > 2650 2050 - 2060 20-21
mercury does not get into the very small Igueldo Sandstone 2110 21
pores (< 0.003 μm), and this test does not Hornería Limestone >2700 2160- 2000 21-26
consider the pores either. with very large Yellow limestone/ g- gr. >2710 2240- 2140 17-20
Red springstone / g. fine >2700 1990 26
accesses (> 100 μm). Table No. 1.1 shows Briviesca Limestone > 2670 2120- 2000 23-25
the density and porosity values of different Páramo Limestone 2712 2450 - 2360 10 - 13 9 - 12,5
types of rocks used as building materials. Santanyí Limestone >2510 1900 - 1760 24-30
Uncastillo sandy limestone 2250 17
Laspra Dolomite >2680 2050- 1870 30-34
d. Permeability : It is the ability of a
>2810 2500- 2450 8-10
material for a fluid to pass through it Boar Dolomite
Silos Dolomite 1910 31
without altering its internal structure. It Vinaixa Dolomite 2370 13
is said that a material is permeable if it San Vicen Limestone 2680 0,5

Girona Limestone 2640 2
allows an appreciable amount of fluid to Macad Marble 2720- 2710 0,2 - 0,5
pass through it in a given time, and Porrino Pink Granite >2620 2620 1
impermeable if the amount of fluid is Legal A Granite >2600 2590 2
Rosavel Granite 2630 2
negligible. The speed with which the Vilanova granite > 2630 2610 1
fluid passes through the material Forges Granite 2510 5
depends on three basic factors:
- The porosity of the material
- The density of the fluid considered, affected by its temperature
- The pressure to which the fluid is subjected.

To be permeable, a material must be porous, that is, it must contain empty spaces or pores that
allow it to absorb fluid. In turn, such spaces must be interconnected so that the fluid has paths to pass
through the material.
A French hydraulic engineer named Henry Darcy was the first to conduct studies related to the flow of
fluids through porous media. In 1856 Darcy published his work, which described experimental studies
of water flow through unconsolidated sand filters, which had the objective of processing the daily
drinking water requirements of the town of Dijon (France). The equipment used by Darcy (figure 1.1)
consisted of a large cylinder containing a meter-long package of unconsolidated sand, which was
supported between two screens of permeable gauze. At each end was a pressure gauge connected,
which measured the pressure at the inlet and outlet of the filter when water was allowed to flow
through the unconsolidated sand pack.
Figure No. 1.1
Darcy's Experimental Equipment
Where:
v = Apparent flow velocity (cm/s).
L = Length of the sand pack (cm).
Δh = Difference in manometric levels (cm).
K = Proportionality constant (permeability).
The velocity, v, from Darcy's equation is an apparent velocity of flow. The actual flow rate is
determined by dividing the apparent velocity by the porosity.
Permeability in SMD is measured in cm om . The unit derived from Darcy's Law is the darcy, and the
2 2
milidarcy is usually used: 1 Darcy = 9.86923x10 m -23 2

NOTE: Permeability in concrete
Permeability refers to the amount of water migration through concrete when the water is under
pressure, or the ability of concrete to resist the penetration of water or other substances (liquid, gas,
ions, etc.). Generally the same properties that make concrete less permeable also make it more airtight.
The total permeability of concrete to water is a function of the permeability of the paste, the
permeability and grading of the aggregate, and the relative proportion of the paste to the aggregate.
The decrease in permeability improves the concrete's resistance to restoration, attack by sulfates and
other chemicals, and penetration by chloride ions. Permeability also affects freeze-kill capacity under
saturated conditions. Here the permeability of the paste is of particular importance because the paste
coats all the constituents of the concrete. The permeability of the paste depends on the Water – Cement
ratio and the added hydration of the cement or duration of wet curing. A low permeability concrete
requires a low Water-Cement ratio and an adequate moist curing period. Inclusion of air helps with
airtightness although it has a minimal effect on permeability and increases with drying. The
permeability of a mature hardened paste continuously maintained humidity ranges of 0.1x10 cm/s -12
for Water – Cement ratios that varied from 0.3 to 0.7
e. CAPILARITY : It is the ability of a liquid to

spontaneously rise through a tiny channel. Due to
surface tension, water rises through a capillary. This is
due to cohesive forces, that is, forces that bind the liquid;
and adhesive forces, which unite the liquid with the
surface of the capillary. When a liquid rises through a
capillary tube, it is because the intermolecular force (or
intermolecular cohesion) between its molecules is less
than the adhesion of the liquid with the material of the
tube (that is, it is a liquid that
wet). The liquid continues to rise until the surface
tension is balanced by the weight of the liquid filling the tube. This is the case of water, and this
property is what partially regulates its rise within plants, without spending energy to overcome
gravity. However, when the cohesion between the molecules of a liquid is more powerful than the
adhesion to the capillary (as in the case of mercury), the surface tension causes the liquid to
descend to a lower level, and its surface is convex.
f. HYGROSCOPY : It is the ability of some substances to absorb

or give up moisture to the environment. It is also
synonymous with hygrometry, this being the study of
humidity, its causes and variations (particularly atmospheric
humidity). All are hygroscopic.

compounds that attract water in vapor or liquid form from their environment, which is why they
are often used as desiccants.
Some of the hygroscopic compounds react chemically with water such as hydrides or alkali metals.
Others trap it as water of hydration in their crystalline structure, as is the case with sodium sulfate.
Water can also be physically adsorbed. In these last two cases, the retention is reversible and the water
can be desorbed. In the first case, having reacted, it cannot be recovered in a simple way. Some
examples
of the best known hygroscopic compounds are:
• Calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ) • Copper sulfate (CuSO 4 )
• Sodium Chloride (Halite)(NaCl) • Phosphorus pentoxide (P 4 O

10 )
• Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) • Silica gel

• Sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) • Honey
For each substance there is a humidity that is called equilibrium humidity, that is, such a humidity
content of the atmosphere at which the material captures humidity from the environment at the same
rate as it releases it. If the ambient humidity is less than this equilibrium value, the material will dry
out, if the ambient humidity is higher, it will become moist. Thus, certain minerals such as calcium
chloride are capable of capturing water from the atmosphere in almost any condition, because their
equilibrium humidity is very high. Substances like these are used as desiccators. Other examples are
sulfuric acid, silica gel, etc.
1.3.2. THERMAL PROPERTIES This property is described as the reaction or behavior of materials to
heat.
a. SPECIFIC HEAT : Amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance
by one degree. In the International System of units, specific heat is expressed in J/kg.K, sometimes
it is also expressed in cal/g.ºC. The specific heat of water is one calorie per gram per degree Celsius,
that is, one calorie must be supplied to one gram of water to raise its temperature by one degree
Celsius. According to the law formulated by French chemists Pierre Louis Dulong and Alexis
Thérèse Petit, for most solid elements, the product of their specific heat times their atomic mass is
an approximately constant quantity.
_Q
m . AT

PERUVIAN WINGS UNIVERSITY ] ] MATERIALS ECNOLOGY
Table No. 2 1.3.
Heat
r Specific to some substances (J/kg 3 . K)
Hydrogen 14.212 ice 2.090

Air 1.000 aluminum 878
steam 1.920 iron 460
carbon dioxide 836 copper 2 375
Water 4.180 zinc 376
1
Benzene 1.881 tin 210
Glycerin 2.420 lead
1
b. DILATION : Dilation is called Dilatation meeting
1 change of dimensions that

solids, liquids and gases experience when the
1 temperature,
remaining the
i pressure
1 constant. The
i majority
1 of the systems increase
its dimensions when increased
1 the
i temperature. When a body receives
2 heat, its particles
2 move faster, so
2 need
1
more space to move 1
2 and, for
I' so much, the
1 volume of
1 body increases.
To this
2 increase
2 volume
1 HE
2 you
3 calls
i dilation
Types of Dilation
® Linear Dilation : Beyond1 than

2 dilation
1 of
2 a solid happen
1 in all
dimensions, can
2 predominate
r the
1 dilation of just one
9
) I Eng. Jean Edison Palma 2
Vañez Z
i of
2 its dimensions on the
the rest. Or still, we can be
r interested in a
i only i dimension of the
1 solid. In
i this
2 case,
we have the
i linear dilation
1 (DL)
)
Where: either. n.
TO. L : L D o i n la g t i a t c u i d ón in l i i
, AL = L 0 .a . AT
c n i e al al il
It -
C o o n e g fit c u ient n e c of dilation
M: Expansion coefficient
AT: Temperature variation
Superficial Dilation : The

1 superficial dilation
1 corresponds
2nd to the
1
v
ar
ia
ti
o
n
of
1
area: i of
a
1 plate, when submitted
1st one
1 variation of
2 temperature. The figures to
Yo ,
represent a
1 plate
1 rectangular
ra temperature
1 T or at temperature
i T >To.
Where:
: Official initial surface
1
or:
AS = S or . 2a. AT Co p efficientide dilation
a : Coefficient
temperature r
10 | Eng. Jean Edison Palma

Vañez
PERUVIAN WINGS UNIVERSITY ] ] MATERIALS ECNOLOGY
Volumetric Dilation : In this type of dilation, we are going to consider the variation of the
volume, that is, the expansion in the three dimensions of the solid (length, width and height).
Where:
AV=V. 3a. L.T. A V : Volumetric dilation
V Initial volume
a : Expansion coefficient
Values of the linear expansion coefficients ( a)
Material α (°C -1 ) Material α (°C -1 )

Concrete 2.0 x 10 -5
Aluminum 2.4 x 10 -5
Steel 1.0 x 10 -5
Brass 1.8 x 10 -5
Iron 1.2 x 10 -5
Copper 1.7 x 10 -5
Silver 2.0 x 10 -5
Glass 0.7 to 0.9 x 10 -5
Gold 1.5 x 10 -5
Quartz 0.04 x 10 -5
Invar 0.04 x 10 -5
Ice 5.1 x 10 -5
Lead 3.0 x 10 -5
Diamond 0.12 x 10 -5
Zinc 2.6 x 10 -5
Graphite 0.79 x 10 -5
c. HEAT TRANSMISSION : It is the transfer of thermal energy

from a body of higher temperature to another of lower
temperature. When a body, for example a solid object or a
fluid, is at a different temperature than its surroundings or
another body, the transfer of thermal energy, also known as
heat transfer or heat exchange,
It occurs in such a way that the body and its environment
reach thermal equilibrium. Heat transfer always occurs from a hotter body to a colder body, as a
result of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. When there is a temperature difference between two
objects in proximity to each other, the heat transfer cannot be stopped; It can only be made slower.
Heat is transmitted from one place to another in three different ways:
" By conduction between solid bodies in contact
® By convection in fluids (liquids or gases)
^ By radiation through the medium in which radiation can propagate
) I Eng. Jean Edison Palma

11
2
Vañez Z
1.3.3. ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES: Transmission and Reflection of Sound: Sound is any phenomenon
that involves the propagation in the form of elastic waves (whether audible or not), generally
through a fluid (or other elastic medium) that is generating the vibratory movement of a body.
Humanly audible sound consists of sound waves consisting of oscillations of air pressure,
which are converted into mechanical waves in the human ear and perceived by the brain.
Sound propagation is similar in fluids, where sound takes the form of pressure fluctuations. In
solid bodies, sound propagation involves variations in the tension state of the medium. Sound
propagation involves energy transport without matter transport, in the form of mechanical
waves that propagate through solid, liquid or gaseous matter. Since the vibrations occur in the
same direction in which sound propagates, it is a longitudinal wave. Sound is a vibratory
phenomenon transmitted in the form of waves. For a sound to be generated, some source must
vibrate. Vibrations can be transmitted through various elastic means, among the most common
are
Air and water. Acoustic phonetics focuses its interest especially on the sounds of the
speaks: how they are generated, how they
are
perceive, and how they can be described graphically and/or quantitatively. From the physical point of
Amplitude view, sound: frequency and amplitude
The amplitude refers to the height of the wave and means the intensity or volume of the sound. Low
amplitude is equivalent to silence, small amplitudes are equivalent to light sounds, and large amplitude is
equivalent to strong or intense sounds.
Wave of smaller
amplitude.
Softer sound.
Wave of greater
amplitude.
Louder sound.
Amplitude is usually measured in decibels (dB). The auditory scale varies between 0 dB ( hearing
threshold) and 130 dB. Sounds greater than I 10 dB produce a painful sensation and permanent exposure
to these levels causes a decrease in hearing capacity (brown deafness).

Vañez
1.3.4. OPTICAL PROPERTIES : Refers to the behavior of MATERIALS with respect to the absorption
of light (which defines their color) and the transmission of light (in transparent and translucent
materials), for example: Optical Fibers, Solar cells, optical coatings, microscopy applications,
etc. OPTICAL Materials can be PASSIVE and ACTIVE.
ASSETS show special optical properties in response to electrical, mechanical, magnetic, optical, etc.
stimuli. E.g.: Lasers, emitting diodes, photodiodes, luminescent materials, liquid crystal displays,
etc.
LIABILITIES, everything else including inactive applications of active materials. For example:
Metals, Ceramics, Polymers. Among the characteristics of the Optical Properties are:
• OPAQUE: Prevents the passage of light
• TRANSLUCENT: Allows light to pass through, but does not allow objects to
be seen clearly.
• TRANSPARENT: Said of a body through which objects can be seen clearly.
The reflection of light is the change in direction that a light ray

experiences when it hits the surface of bodies. The reflection of light is
represented by two rays: the one that reaches a surface, the incident ray, and
the one that bounces off after being reflected, the reflected ray. If a straight line is drawn
perpendicular to the surface (called normal), the incident ray forms an angle with said line, which
is called the angle of incidence. The reflected ray also forms an angle with the normal, which is
called the angle of reflection. There are many theories that man has proposed to explain the nature
of light. It is currently accepted that there is a duality in the behavior of light, when it acts on
matter its nature is considered corpuscular, and when it propagates it is wave-like -
electromagnetic. When a body produces light, it is said to be a luminous body, for example, the Sun,
a light bulb, a lit candle, etc. If the body receives light, it is said to be an illuminated body, since it
reflects the light it receives. An example could be any body on Earth during the day, or in front of a
light bulb. There are non-luminous bodies that are divided into transparent, translucent and
opaque, the former allow the passage of light and image; That is, they reveal the bodies that are
placed behind them. An example of these are air, glass and water. The latter allow the passage of
light, but not the image, such is the case of frosted glass, marcolite and albanene paper. The third
ones, called opaque bodies, prevent the passage of light and image; for example, metal bodies,
wooden bodies, etc. It is considered that light propagates in a straight line, which explains why
shadows and penumbras occur when interfered with by some objects. When this phenomenon
occurs between celestial bodies, it gives rise to what are called eclipses. For example, when the
Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun it causes a total solar eclipse, and when the Earth
comes between the Sun and the Moon it causes a total lunar eclipse.

Vañez
1.3.5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

a. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION : A fundamental law of chemistry states that in any chemical
compound that is made up of two or more different elements, they are present in said
compound in a certain amount or percentage composition. Which means, for example, that the
aluminum hydroxide Al(OH) 3 obtained in Spain will have the same percentage of aluminum,
oxygen and hydrogen as that which can be obtained anywhere else in the world. The
percentage composition through the chemical formula
b. CHEMICAL STABILITY : The term chemical stability when used in the technical sense in
chemistry refers to the thermodynamic stability of a chemical system. Thermodynamic stability
occurs when a system is in its lowest energy state or chemical equilibrium with its
environment. This may be a dynamic equilibrium, where individual molecules or atoms change
shape, but their total number in a particular shape or state is conserved. This type of
thermodynamic chemical equilibrium will be maintained indefinitely unless the system is
modified. Chemical systems can include changes in the state of matter or a group of chemical
reactions. Thermodynamic stability applies to a particular system. The reactivity of a chemical
substance is a description of how it might react across a variety of potential chemical systems.
Chemical substances or states can persist indefinitely even if they are not the lowest energy
state if they experience metastability - a stable state only if it is not greatly disturbed. A
substance can be kinetically persistent if it is changing to another substance or state relatively
slowly, and therefore is not a thermodynamic equilibrium. "State A" is more
thermodynamically stable than "state B" if the Gibbs Free Energy of the change from "A" to "B"
is positive.
1.3.5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES :
Many materials when in service are subject to forces or loads. In such conditions it is
necessary to know the characteristics of the material to design the instrument where it will be
used in such a way that the stresses to which it will be subjected are not excessive and the
material does not fracture. The mechanical behavior of a material is the reflection of the
relationship between its response or deformation to an applied force or load.
a. RESISTANCE : The resistance of an element is defined as its ability to resist applied stresses
and forces without breaking, acquiring permanent deformation or deteriorating in any way.
A material resistance model establishes a relationship between the applied forces, also called
loads or actions, and the stresses and displacements induced by them. Typically geometric
simplifications and restrictions imposed on the mode of load application make the strain and
stress field simple to calculate. For the mechanical design of elements with complicated
geometries, the resistance of materials is usually insufficient and it is necessary to use
techniques based on the theory of

Vañez
elasticity or the mechanics of more general deformable solids. These problems posed in terms
of stresses and deformations can then be solved in a very approximate way with numerical
methods such as finite element analysis.
b. TENACITY : Tenacity is the amount of energy (expressed in Joules)

that a material absorbs before breaking and is represented by the
area under the stress-strain curve of the material. The value of the
toughness of a material is not unique since it depends, like other
characteristics of materials, on the speed of application of the load,
temperature, etc. Experimentally, it can also be measured through
impact tests since although these provide a measure of resilience (it
is the elastic energy that a material is capable of absorbing,
energy that is returned when the load that deforms the material
is removed and it recovers its shape. ) of the material, in
high speed tests the numerical value of both characteristics is
similar as no plastic deformations occur. In real conditions and depending on the speed of load
application, the toughness value can vary between the value obtained in the traction test (low
speed) and the resilience test (high speed) since both tests emulate the extreme conditions of a
static charge and an impact respectively. Regarding the influence of temperature, decreasing
temperature generally increases resistance (higher breaking stress) but decreases ductility
(less deformation), decreasing the toughness of the material. Although toughness is a valid
concept to describe the behavior of a material and make comparisons between different
materials, it has no practical value, as does the fragility or ductility of the material, these
characteristics with which it is closely related. To correct this deficiency, fracture toughness is
used, the value of which allows predicting the behavior of the material and therefore its
collapse (brittle fracture).
c. ELASTICITY : Designates the mechanical property of certain materials

to undergo reversible deformations when subject to the action
of external forces and to recover the original shape if these external
forces are eliminated. Elasticity is studied by the theory of elasticity,
which in turn is part of the mechanics of deformable solids. Elasticity
theory (ET) as the mechanics of deformable solids (MS) describes how a
solid (or fully confined fluid) moves and deforms in response to
external forces. The difference between TE and MS is that the former
only treats solids in which the deformations are thermodynamically
reversible. The elastic property of materials is related, as has been
mentioned, with the capacity of a solid to undergo thermodynamic
transformations
reversible. When external forces act on a deformable solid and it
deforms, it is

Vañez
It produces work from these forces that is stored in the body in the form of elastic potential
energy and therefore an increase in internal energy will occur. The solid will behave elastically
if this increase in energy can be carried out reversibly, in this case we say that the solid is
elastic.
d. PLASTICITY : One of the mechanical properties of a material where its

permanent and irreversible deformity is involved is known as
plasticity. Generally this occurs in biological materials. For this to
happen, the material must be above its elastic limit. Sometimes small
increases in stress cause small increases in deformation. In case the
charge is 0, the object takes its original shape. According to
experiments carried out, there is a limit, known as the elastic limit,
when the stresses exceed this limit and the loads disappear, the body
does not return to its shape, because it shows non-reversible
deformations. This is present in metals. When plastic behavior occurs
perfectly in a material, although it involves irreversible deformations.
The materials that present this condition the most are modeling clay and plasticine. There are
materials that require greater effort to increase their plastic deformation. Sometimes viscous
effects occur, this is what makes the stresses greater if the speed occurs in the deformation
process, this is known as visco plasticity. Plasticity depends greatly on the irreversible changes
that occur in materials. When a body is plastically deformed it experiences what is known as
entropy. The mechanical energy in this case is dissipated internally. Microscopically, plasticity
in metals is a consequence of imperfections in the lattice called dislocations (they are lattice
defects
crystalline of dimension one, that is, they affect a row of points in the Bravai lattice).
a MALLEABILITY : Malleability is the property that some materials have of

n being able to be decomposed into: sheets without the material in
question breaking, or failing that, extending. For example, the metals
known as malleable metals are those that precisely comply with this
property that we mentioned, tin, copper, aluminum, among others, are
basically characterized by their ductility, with this we mean that they can
be bent, cut,
exerting strong pressure if necessary and the material does not break, something that
Of course, this does not happen with all materials, so this quality is what determines their
malleability or not. Mainly these types of metals are often widely used for purposes
technological, especially when it comes to welding. On the other hand, malleable metals
They have another advantage, which is that they have little reaction, therefore, they are very
unlikely to be affected by issues such as corrosion or rust.

Vañez
f. DUCTILITY : It is a property that some materials have, such as metal

alloys or asphalt materials, which under the action of a force, can be
sustainably deformed without breaking, allowing wires or threads to
be obtained from said material. Materials that have this property are
called ductile. Non-ductile materials are classified as brittle. Although
ductile materials can also break under adequate stress, this breakage
only occurs after large deformations occur. In other words, a material
is ductile when the ratio between the longitudinal elongation
produced by traction and the decrease in cross section is very high. In
the field of metallurgy, ductile metal is understood to be that which undergoes large
deformations before breaking, being the opposite of brittle metal, which breaks with hardly
any deformation. Ductile should not be confused with soft, since ductility is a property that as
such manifests itself once the material is supporting a considerable force; That is, as long as the
load is small, the deformation will also be small, but at a certain point the material gives way,
deforming to a much greater extent than it had done until then but without breaking.
g. CREEP : Creep is the loss of dimensional stability that occurs in some materials when the
applied stresses grow above a certain value, called the creep limit. When yielding is reached,
the material initially deforms increasingly and rapidly with little change in the applied stresses
and part of the deformation produced will always remain even if the forces that caused its
yielding cease. A tensile test on the material allows establishing its yield limit.
h. RIGIDITY : It is the ability of a solid object or structural element to withstand forces without
acquiring large deformations or displacements. Stiffness coefficients are physical quantities
that quantify the stiffness of a resistant element under various load configurations. Normally
stiffnesses are calculated as the ratio between an applied force and the displacement obtained
by applying that force.
i. HARDNESS : It is the property that materials have to resist scratching and cutting their surface.
For example: wood can be scratched easily, this means that it does not have much hardness,
while glass is much more difficult to scratch. In mineralogy, the Mohs scale is used, created by
the Austrian Friedrich Mohs, which measures resistance to scratching of materials.
17 , I Eng. Jean Edison Palma

Vañez
Table Nº1.5.
Hardness of some materials
Hardne Mineral Chemical composition
ss
1 Talc, (can be easily scratched with a fingernail) Mg 3 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 2
2 Plaster, (it can be scratched with a fingernail with CASO 4 ·2H 2 O
more difficulty)
3 Calcite, (can be scratched with a copper coin) CaCO 3
4 Fluorite, (can be scratched with a knife) CaF 2
5 Apatite, (can be difficult to scratch with a knife) Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3 (OH ,Cl -
-
,F ) -
6 Feldspar, (can be scratched with a steel blade) KAlSi 3 Or 8

7 Quartz, (scratches steel) SiO 2
8 Topaz, Al 2 SiO 4 (OH ,F ) 2
- -
9 Corundum, (only scratched with diamond) At 2 or 3

10 Diamond, (the hardest natural mineral) c
j. ISOTROPY : A material is isotropic when it has the same elasticity conditions in

any direction you want to deform it. Molten metals are isotropic. The opposite is anisotropy.
k. TRACTION : Traction is the effort to which a body is subjected by the

application of two forces that act in opposite directions and tend to stretch
it.
l. COMPRESSION: It is the result of the tensions or pressures that exist

within a deformable solid or continuous medium, characterized by the fact
that it tends to reduce volume or shorten in a certain direction.
m. FLEXION: The type of deformation presented by an elongated structural

element in a direction perpendicular to its longitudinal axis is called
bending.
n. TORSION : In engineering, torsion is the stress that occurs when a

moment is applied to the longitudinal axis of a construction element
or mechanical prism, such as axes or, in general, elements where one
dimension predominates over the other two, although it is possible to
find it in various situations.

Vañez
ei SHEAR: It is the internal force or resulting from the tensions

th parallel to the cross section of a mechanical prism such as a
beam or a pillar.
COMPLEMENTARY ACTIVITIES
SPECIFIC WEIGHT
1. Investigate the experimental way to determine the specific weight of materials.
2. Determine the mass of a cube with an edge of 5 cm if the material it is made of is: aluminum,
copper, bronze and gold.
3. An empty drum weighs 1.31 kg f ; filled with seawater, of ρ= 1.03 g f /cm , weighs 2.855 kg f ; filled
3
with olive oil it weighs 2.69 kg f . What is the specific weight of the oil? A: 0.92 g f /cm
3
4. A barrel weighs 18.4 kg empty; full of oil, 224 kg. We want to know its capacity in liters R: 223,478
liters
5. An empty container weighs 380 g; With oil up to half it weighs 1208 g. What is the capacity of the
container in liters? A: 1.8 liters
6. An empty container weighs 3 kg f . Full of water it weighs 53 kg f and full of glycerin, 66 kg f . Find
the density of glycerin. A: 1260 kg/m 3
7. In an industrial tin electro-deposition process, a layer 75x10 cm thick is produced. Find the
-6
surface that can be covered with a mass of 1 kg of tin whose density is 7.3 g/cm . A: 182.6 m
3 2
POROSITY
8. We want to determine some of its properties from a sample of wet sand. The sample occupies a
volume of 540 cm , and its weight is 1015 g. After drying it for 12 hours in an oven at 105º C, its
3
weight is 910 g and its density of solid particles is 2.68 g/cm (26.8 kN/m ). Determine: Natural
3 3
density (wet density) or natural specific gravity. Void index (or void index). Porosity. Natural
humidity. Degree of saturation.
9. A soil sample with a volume of 16.88 cm has been taken. In its natural state its mass was 35.45 g
3
and once completely dried in an oven, it decreased to 29.63 g. Furthermore, the relative density of
the solid particles was determined to be 2.68. It is requested to calculate: a) apparent specific
weight of the sample. b) specific weight of the dry sample. c) Natural humidity. d) Porosity and
void index.
10. A dry soil sample is mixed uniformly with 16.2% water, kneaded, and compacted in a cylindrical
mold. The volume of the already compacted sample is 0.987 liters and its mass is 1605 g. Knowing
that the relative density of its solid particles is 2.6, determine: a) Apparent specific weight of the
sample. b) Specific weight of the dry soil sample. c) Porosity and void index.
11. A certain amount of dry soil whose solid particles have a relative density of 2.7 is mixed with
10.5% water by weight. This mixture is introduced into a cylinder of 150 mm diameter and 125
mm height and compacted until the volume of air inside the soil is 5% of the total volume.
Assuming that the mixture has completely filled the cylinder, we ask: a) Determine the mass of the
dry soil used. b) Get the weight
specific to dry compacted soil. c) Calculate the gap index.

Vañez
DILATATION
12. A concrete beam, of the type that is least affected by heat, has a length of 12 m - 5°C on a winter
day. How tall will it be on a summer day at 35°C?
13. A steel rule is calibrated with a standard ruler at 22°C, so that the distance between the numbered
divisions is 10 mm. a) What is the distance between these divisions when the ruler is at -5°C?, b) if
a known length of 1 m is measured with the ruler at this low temperature, what percentage of
error is made?, c ) What error is made when measuring a length of 100 m with the same ruler?
14. An electrical installer, not knowing the effects of heat on objects, stretches a 100 m long copper
wire tautly on a day when the temperature is 30°C. Obviously, lowering the temperature to 0°C will
cut it off. How many millimeters should the wire have been longer so that it would not be cut?
15. In a 100 kilometer power line, two parallel cables are laid, one made of aluminum and the other
made of copper, the temperature at which they are placed is -5°C. a) without doing calculations,
which one will be longer at 20°C? b) How many centimeters longer will it be?
16. To lay a railway line, 60 meter long rails are used at 0°C, it is known that the thermal oscillation in
the place is between 0°C and 35°C. What distance should be left between rail and rail so that they
do not break?
17. A steel plate has dimensions 4x6 at 10°C. If heated to 68°C. What will be its increase in surface
area?
18. There is a copper circle of radius 1 m with a hole, in its center, of radius 20 cm. What will be the
surface area of the ring that is formed if: a) it is heated from 0°C to 50°C?, b) if it is cooled from
50°C to 0°C? Consider initial data for initial temperatures.
19. A window frame is made of aluminum, measuring 60x100 cm. On a day at 20°C, a glass that is most
affected by heat is installed. How many millimeters less than the frame measurements, per side,
should the glass be? If the daily thermal oscillation can range from –2°C to 40°C.
20. An aluminum plate has a circular shape with a radius of 100 cm at 50°C. At what temperature will
its surface decrease by 1%?
21. A glass bulb is filled with 50 cm of mercury at 18 °C. Calculate the volume (measured at 38 °C) that
3
leaves the bulb if its temperature is raised to 38 °C. The linear expansion coefficient of glass is 9x10
-6
°C and the corresponding cubic coefficient of mercury is 18x10 °C . Note: the bulb (type of
-1 -6 -1
glass or container) and the mercury dilate simultaneously. Rpta 0.15 cm 3
22. The density of mercury at 0 °C is 13.6 g/cm . Find the density of mercury at 50 °C. Rpta 13.48
3
g/cm 3
23. Find the increase in volume experienced by 100 cm of mercury when its temperature is raised
3
from 10 to 35 °C. Rpta 0.45 cm 3
20 I Eng. Jean Edison Palma

Vañez
CHAPTER II
STANDARDIZATION
Standardization is a discipline that deals with the establishment and adaptation of rules aimed at
achieving and maintaining an order within a given field, in order to provide a benefit to society, in
accordance with its social economic development.
1. DEFINITION: Standardization is the activity that consists of the development, dissemination and
application of technical standards, aimed at establishing the quality characteristics that a product,
process or service must meet.
2. OBJECTIVES AND ADVANTAGES:

• Simplification of the increasing variety • Elimination of trade barriers.
of production and procedure in human
life.
• Examines data and groups of data in a
way that best can
• Communication. accommodate future changes in it
• Total economy. business and to minimize the impact of
• Health, safety and security these changes on application systems.
life.
• Protection of the consumer
the
and
community.
3. TYPES: There are two types of normalization:
A. Technical Standards: These are documents that establish the quality specifications of products,
processes and services; Its application is voluntary. The preparation is developed by the technical
standardization committees, which guarantees the pluralistic participation of the parties involved
in the topic to be normalized.
B. Metrological Standards: These are mandatory documents that establish the technical and
metrological characteristics of the measurement means (scales, water meters, gasoline pumps,
etc.) used in commercial transactions, which directly affect final consumers.
4. APPLICATION OF STANDARDS: The advantages derived from standardization are achieved,

above all, as a result of the application of standards, so that at a given moment, they constitute a
reflection of the technological and socioeconomic reality.
5. STANDARDIZATION IN PERU:
TO. History: With the passing of Law No. 3270 on Industrial Promotion (November 1959). The
National Institute of Industrial Technical Standards and Certification (INANTIC) was created as the
technical body in charge of promoting, studying, reviewing, verifying and certifying technical
standards.

Vañez
[ PERUVIAN WINGS UNIVERSITY MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
] MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
B Peruvian system of 1\I orín 31 j 7,í^ ci (Su * to what
Constituted by e
gp
normalization and
a set of technical committees ,
of the
approval and
elaboration of the respective Peruvian technical standards .
been formulated based on: been formulated based on:
•{ The directives of the code of Good Practices for
standardization organization for
standardization - 150.
normalization -150.
{ The agreement on technical obstacles to the congress of the g
WTO.
• Decision 419 of the Community ,
CHAPTER I...................................................................................................................................1
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS..............................................................................1
1.1. GENERALITIES............................................................................................................1
1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS..........................................................................1
1.2.1. According to its origin:................................................................................................2
1.2.2. According to internal structure....................................................................................3
1.3. MATERIAL PROPERTIES............................................................................................5
1.3.1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.........................................................................................5
Figure No. 1.1.............................................................................................................................8
Darcy's Experimental Equipment...............................................................................................8
Superficial Dilation : The.........................................................................................................14
1 variation of 1.........................................................................................................................14
Values of the linear expansion coefficients ( a).......................................................................16
1.3.5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES......................................................................................21
1.3.5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES :..............................................................................21
COMPLEMENTARY ACTIVITIES.......................................................................................30
SPECIFIC WEIGHT................................................................................................................30
POROSITY..............................................................................................................................30
DILATATION.........................................................................................................................32
CHAPTER II................................................................................................................................33
STANDARDIZATION................................................................................................................33
2. OBJECTIVES AND ADVANTAGES:............................................................................33
5. STANDARDIZATION IN PERU:...................................................................................33
D. Methodology:................................................................................................................40
E. CREATION OF INDECOPI :..........................................................................................40
CHAPTER III..............................................................................................................................42
MATERIALS SELECTION........................................................................................................42
Table No. 3.1............................................................................................................................42
Design-Limiting Material Properties........................................................................................42
TO. CLASSIFICATION OF ESSAYS :..................................................................................45
A.1. Depending on the rigor of the test ...................................................................................45
A.2. According to the nature of the essay ...............................................................................45
A.3. According to the usefulness of the piece after being subjected to the test ......................45
A.4. Depending on the speed of application of forces ............................................................45
CHAPTER IV..............................................................................................................................47
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS..........................................................................................47
Heat Transfer Equations............................................................................................................53
DRIVING (plane coordinates)....................................................................................................53
Remember................................................................................................................................53
CONVECTION - CONDUCTION - CONVECTION (plane coordinates)......................................54
h2..................................................................................................................................................55
DRIVING (cylindrical coordinates)...........................................................................................55
MULTIPLE LAYERS (cylindrical coordinates)..........................................................................56
HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS............................................................................................59
.
and.....................................................................................................................................64
16..............................................................................................................................................66
CHAPTER V...............................................................................................................................68
NATURAL STONE MATERIALS: ROCKS.............................................................................68
3. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS :.............................................................................................70
CHAPTER VI..............................................................................................................................75
AGGREGATE.............................................................................................................................75
4. PROPERTIES...................................................................................................................83
CONTINUOUS GRANULOMETRY AGGREGATES – MINIMUM VOIDS : For this the 88
4.4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES :.........................................................................................92
4.5. RESISTANT PROPERTIES :.......................................................................................94
4.6. THERMAL PROPERTIES :.........................................................................................95
4.7. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES :.......................................................................................96
4.9. PERCENTAGE PASS 200...........................................................................................99
4.10.1. UNIT WEIGHT.........................................................................................................99
4.10.2. SPECIFIC WEIGHT............................................................................................100
a) Specific weight – Fine aggregate:.......................................................................................102
a.1. Specific weight of mass (Pem):........................................................................................102
a.2. Specific gravity of mass saturated with dry surface (PeSSS)...........................................102
a.3. Apparent specific weight (Pea).......................................................................................102
b) Specific Weight – Coarse Aggregate.................................................................................102
CHAPTER VII...........................................................................................................................104
BINDERS..................................................................................................................................104
c®P Primary...........................................................................................................................104
c®P Secondary.......................................................................................................................104
8 Bituminous materials...........................................................................................................104
Types of binders.....................................................................................................................104
1. CLAYS...........................................................................................................................104
®” Another type of classification is according to its commercialization :............................106
c. Physical and mechanical properties of clays..................................................................107
2. AND SO............................................................................................................................108
2. AND SO............................................................................................................................108
.
and...................................................................................................................................110
Obtained by firing the gypsum stone temperature.................................................................110
ai less than 2002C:.................................................................................................................110
1
firing of the plaster stone at a temperature above 200ºC:...............................................110
c. Plaster forge........................................................................................................................110
.p.............................................................................................................................................112
e. Resistances......................................................................................................................116
3. CAL....................................................................................................................................117
b.
Lime manufacturing process:..........................................................................................124
,, Yo.....................................................................................................................................124
4. Pozzolans:.......................................................................................................................126
CHAPTER VIII.........................................................................................................................127
CEMENT...................................................................................................................................127
3. CEMENT MANUFACTURING:...................................................................................133
Raw . or I larina......................................................................................................................134
b. PROCESS :.....................................................................................................................134
c. PROCESS:.........................................................................................................................134
d. PHASES:.........................................................................................................................134
4 . CEMENT MODULES.......................................................................................................134
6. CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENTS..............................................................................144
b. PORTLAND CEMENT ADDITIONS..............................................................................147
b. PORTLAND CEMENT ADDITIONS........................................................................................147
Yo Yo either c...................................................................................................................147
■ Type I(PM): Modified Pozzola Portland Cement...........................................................147
5” TypeICo :...........................................................................................................................147
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PERUVIAN CEMENTS.......................................147
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PERUVIAN CEMENTS........................................................147
7. MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION OF CEMENT...................................................148
................................................................................................................................................152
Issues......................................................................................................................................154
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS..............................................................................................158
M) ANSWER IF I IS TRUE OR FALSE..............................................................................160
CHAPTER IX............................................................................................................................162
WATER FOR CONCRETE AND MORTAR...........................................................................162
1. MIXING WATER:.........................................................................................................163
2. CURING WATER:.........................................................................................................169
3. WASHING WATER......................................................................................................169
4. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE USE OF WATER IN CONCRETE...........................169
b. FORBIDDEN WATERS................................................................................................171
6 Concretes put aluminum elements 00 fier......................................................................173
8 Lime paste: Lime............................................................................................................179
obtained from PORTLAND CEMENT. Cement mortar is a construction material ...................180
Excess water exerts the following influences :......................................................................182
CHAPTER XI............................................................................................................................193
CONCRETE..............................................................................................................................193
1. CHARACTERISTICS....................................................................................................193
2. TYPES OF CONCRETE................................................................................................193
3.1. ITS T...........................................................................................................................199
4.1. PR................................................................................................................................199
Properties of fresh concrete....................................................................................................199
4.1.3. Workability: and The r............................................................................................200
5. TESTING FRESH CONCRETE....................................................................................207
6. TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE.........................................................................207
6..............................................................................................................................................207
6..............................................................................................................................................207
CHAPTER XII...........................................................................................................................208
MASONRY UNITS...................................................................................................................208
5..............................................................................................................................................212
1. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURES OF WOOD:....................................................224
c. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF WOOD............................................................................229
d. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF WOOD............................................................................229
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD.........................................................................232
4. PHYSICAL – CHEMICAL QUALITIES OF WOOD...................................................236
5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD..................................................................236
a. Forest exploitation:.........................................................................................................238
A. By manufacturing method or metallurgical process:..................................................242
B. By use of steel ............................................................................................................242
C. Due to the chemical composition of steel:..................................................................242
68 Steel aI q l...........................................................................................................................244
2. CHEMICAL ELEMENTS THAT GIVE CERTAIN PROPERTIES TO STEEL.........244
3. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS........................................................................246
Table Nº01..............................................................................................................................251
Minimum Mechanical Characteristics of Steel......................................................................251
4. MECHANICAL TESTING OF STEEL.........................................................................251
Figure Nº07............................................................................................................................254
Diagram of the specimen for the Flexion adhesion test.........................................................254
Figure Nº07............................................................................................................................256
Brinell apparatus....................................................................................................................256
Figure Nº08 Rockwell apparatus...........................................................................................257
{ Technical Standards ,
are approved by INDECOPI
,
Regulations
Technicians and .,
{ The unique rules
They are made by .
6. METHODOLOGY FOR PREPARATION OF THE STANDARD:
6.1. From start ne space to nor

dominant, the exact material to be normalized must be chosen
Subject: Within the dominant field, the exact subject to be normalized must be chosen, for
example: In the field
of furniture you have a great
a variety of home furnishings,
furniture ,
furniture ,
if we choose
school furniture inside
we have these',, ,
teacher desks,
furniture for
an oratory. Then we start a product that can be
, secondary, technical and
different we have different levels of education,, ,
technique and
different materials for
construction as 1 metal, ,
fiberglass, plastics, etc. Then we

define our subject as: " WOODEN CHAIRS AND TABLE FOR EDUCATION we define our
subject as: WOODEN CHAIRS AND TABLE FOR INITIAL EDUCATION "
b. Aspects: To ensure
The product quality,
We must specify your requirements
and to check it
we need the test
.
methods and
aspects
to normalize are* . rehearsal.
.
.
for
a country will be at the level ,
if it is for
an entity will be at the
company level.
21g.
D. Methodology:
8 Information Search: The following information will be required:
• Foreign standards.
• Bibliography, studies carried out in this regard.
• Determine the sciences related to the topic, such as: agronomy, anthropometry and wood
technology.
C® Preparation of the document: To develop the requirements standard we must

consider the following points:
a. Rules to consult. h. Requirements.

b. Object. i. Inspection and reception.
c. Scope. j. Test methods.
d. Definitions. k. Labeling container and
e. Symbols and packaging.
abbreviations. l. Appendices.
f. Classification. m. Background.
g. General conditions. n. Index
E. CREATION OF INDECOPI :
In the logic of achieving effective protection
of the principles that a market economy implies,
in November 1992, through Decree Law No.
25868, the National Institute for the Defense of
Competition and the Protection of Intellectual
Property (Indecopi) was created. , as the entity
in charge of supervising and promoting the
correct functioning of the market economy in
Peru. The primary objective of Indecopi is to
promote improvements in the levels of
competitiveness of Peruvian companies and
products.
Indecopi functions :
• Promote and spread free competition.
Promote the adequate participation of economic agents in the market.
Promote fair, loyal and honest competition between suppliers of goods and
services.
• Ensure respect for free competition in Commerce International.
• Reduce market access and exit costs.
• Approve technical and metrological standards.
• Protect all forms of intellectual property from thesigns distinctive and
copyright to patents and biotechnology.

Vañez
CHAPTER III
MATERIALS SELECTION
Construction materials constitute a very important area in the formation of
civil Engineers. The great diversity of civil works in which the engineer can participate requires firmly
consolidated basic knowledge, which allows him, with professional practice, to delve into the technology of
the materials used in the construction industry. For the civil engineer, it is very important to optimize the
economic resources available to build the works; this can be achieved, among other things, by making good
use of both cheap and expensive materials. Aside from the search for a well-understood economy, the
engineer has the obligation to build works that, in addition to being safe, reflect the best quality of life for
their occupants or users, always adhering to current construction specifications and regulations.
The selection of construction materials depends on many factors, and it is difficult to be very specific about
it. As an example, consider that the selection of the material can depend on everything from its availability
in a certain location to the taste of the owner of the work, who You can decide on one or some of the
materials that are the dimensions of the starting material and thus avoid additional production costs.
Likewise, supply confidence as well as demand affects the cost; Most countries import numerous raw
materials essential for production. Regarding materials processing, different methods imply different costs.
will use in the same
1. SELECTION CRITERIA: In general, the Table No. 3.1
methods for selecting materials are Design-Limiting Material Properties
They are based on a series of physical, MATERIAL Well Poor
mechanical, thermal, electrical and Rigidity

Yield strength — alloy
manufacturing parameters that determine the Ductility

Hardness — alloy
Fatigue resistance
technical usefulness of a material. The following Metals Conformability
Corrosion resistance — coatings
table [Table 3.1] includes these main properties, Tenacity
High melting point
along with others that the designer should
consider when choosing a material. High elastic limit
2. COST AND AVAILABILITY: The economic Ceramics

High melting point Corrosion
Very low tenacity
resistance
aspects of material selection are as important as Formability — powder metallurgy
Moderate density
technological considerations. If there are no raw Ductility and formability Low rigidity
materials available or components Corrosion resistance Low Elastic limit
manufactured in the desired shape, dimensions Polymers
density Low tenacity
and quantity, it will be necessary to resort to

substitutes and/or additional processing, which Rigidity
Yield strength and toughness Conformability
can have a significant impact on the price of the
Fatigue resistance Corrosion Cost
product. However, a product design can often Compounds
resistance Creep
be modified to take advantage of Low density

Vañez
3. APPEARANCE, SERVICE LIFE AND RECYCLING: The appearance of materials once manufactured
influences the consumer. Color or surface texture are characteristics that we all consider when making a
decision about purchasing a product. There are important phenomena that depend on time and service,
such as wear, fatigue or dimensional stability, which can significantly affect the operation of a product and,
if not controlled, can lead to its total failure. The recycling of materials, or the proper disposal of their
components, at the end of the useful service life of the product, has become an increasingly important
issue, due to the current need to conserve resources and maintain a clean environment. and healthy. This is
the case of biodegradable packaging, glass bottles or recyclable aluminum cans. The proper treatment and
disposal of waste and toxic materials is also a primary issue.
4. MATERIAL SELECTION METHODS: Due to the high number of factors that affect the selection of materials,
the designer determines which properties are most relevant to the application and, based on them, makes
the selection. In general, methods for selecting materials make a more or less extensive refinement of these
parameters.
T TRADITIONAL METHOD: With this method, the material that is believed to be most suitable is chosen,
O. based on the experience of elements that have a similar function and that have
shown good results. The advantages of this method lie in the fact that the
engineer feels safe with a used and tested material. A typical case would be
that of steel; The process characteristics of the steel are well known, its
availability is assured and generally in a large percentage of parts cheap steels
are used, without heat treatment, avoiding loss of time in testing and
processes. However, the use of this method sometimes leads to serious
problems, since a real study of the working environment of the component
or equipment is not carried out, which can be decisive when choosing the
material.
B. GRAPHIC METHOD: This method is based on graphics known as material maps, in which certain material
properties are related in pairs. The method was designed exclusively to be used during the conceptual
stage of materials selection. In these maps, an approximation of the most suitable material (belonging to a
certain family of materials) can be made, based on the list of the most important properties that the
component must possess. As expected, the behavior of a component rarely depends on only one property.
Likewise, these diagrams show that the properties of different classes of materials can vary in wide
intervals (depending on their state), generating a field or zone on the maps. These maps relate, among
others, properties such as resistance, modulus of elasticity, density, toughness, thermal conductivity, and
costs. Starting from the objective

Vañez
desired and applying the work criteria, the most important combinations of properties for a given
component are determined.
Busty ether pollster

100-
(PEEK)
Titanium alloys ; V m-nt aluminum ntrude
Rigid polymer foam (id) and : Tie nickel acones

GFRP, epoxy matrix(sotropko)
, A tungsten carbide --------------------------< '— _
....................... o-- SUCO carbur -
10-
i Poltetrafluoroethylene (Teflon, PIFE) cs N
Paper and
paperboard
dice glass
Boroslicate glass
Epoxies
i
Lime and soda
adr
glass
Potanium chloride (PVC)
Low carbon steel Stone
0.1-
1000 3X
Maximum temperature in service
(°C)
By locating the diagram that presents this combination, you enter a field that corresponds to a specific
family of materials. Of the materials that belong to this family, a preselection can be made, and
subsequently a selection, taking into account other criteria such as costs, availability, durability,
environmental effect, etc. The strategic advantage of using maps is that it allows you to easily replace one
material with another that performs the same function.
C. DATABASE METHOD : On the Internet there is a wide range of databases on materials that have been built
for free marketing or are distributed by materials sellers. These databases are the result of research in
materials testing. Databases are basically divided into two categories, numerical and literary or
bibliographical references. Among the most important databases are the ASTM data bank, NASA, etc. The
selection of materials with the help of these databases is based on knowledge of the main properties that
must be had for a specific purpose. The program then asks for the approximate value of the properties that
the component must have and lists one or more materials that can be used .

Vañez
5. MATERIALS TESTING : Examination or verification of one or more properties or characteristics of a

material, product, set of observations, etc., which serve to form a judgment about said characteristics or
properties. In this way, an attempt is made to simulate the conditions to which a material1 will be exposed
when it comes into operation or service.
There are many ways to classify the types of tests carried out on materials, here are some of the most
important ones:
TO. CLASSIFICATION OF ESSAYS :
A.1. Depending on the rigor of the test .
® Scientific tests Results are obtained that refer to the numerical values of certain physical
quantities.
c Technological tests: They are used to check whether the properties of a certain material1 are suitable
for a certain use. Example: Bending, folding, forging, drawing, welding, lamination, etc.
A.2. According to the nature of the essay .
^' Chemical tests They allow us to know the composition, both qualitative and
quantitative of the material.
'8 ■ Metallographic tests They consist of analyzing the internal structure of the material using a microscope.
®P Physical tests: For example, density, melting point, and electrical conductivity are quantified.
C ■ Mechanical tests By which the resistance of the I is determined material1
when subjected to different stresses.
A.3. According to the usefulness of the piece after being subjected to the test .
"® Destructive tests Breakage or substantial damage occurs in the structure of the material.
® Non-destructive tests The internal cracks or defects of a given piece are analyzed without damaging its
structure.
A.4. Depending on the speed of application of forces .
® Static tests The speed of application of the forces to the material does not influence
in the test result.
Hardness Compression Flexion Creep
Traction Shear Bucklin
® Dynamic tests The speed of g
application of forces to the material plays a
decisive role in the1result of the trial.
Shock resistance Wear Fatigu
e

Vañez
CHAPTER IV
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Heat ( Q ) is a form of energy that appears as a flow that is transmitted between two points that are at
different temperatures. Thus, heat transfer studies temperatures and heat flows in thermal transfer
processes.
0 [W] (heat transfer rate) q=2 [W/m?] (heat flow )
This energy transmission occurs from high temperature regions to low temperature regions through one of
the known mechanisms: conduction , convection or radiation .
1. CONDUCTION: It is produced through the mass of the bodies, which is characterized by a characteristic of
the material known as thermal conductivity. The atoms are together in the solid state,
and although they cannot move from one side to the other, they have vibrational
movement that, depending on its magnitude, can produce collisions between them. It is
through these collisions that there is a transfer of energy from the energetically superior
atoms to those that have less. Hence, when we talk about conduction, we talk about
energy transfer in solid bodies. In a liquid it is somewhat negligible, and rather the
transfer is governed by other mechanisms. In gases, it is definitely not considered. The
difference between the three heat transfer mechanisms is understood, then: the system
on which they act.
8 At the beginning: T 1 ≫ T 2 (Heat Transfer)
(8 After a certain time: T 1 > T 2 (Heat Transfer)

2 And when equilibrium has finally been reached: T 1 = T 2 (Equilibrium)
In order to calculate the amount of energy that is transferred from one place to another, in the case of
conduction, Fourier's Law is applied, which will be explained below using an example, in which we have
the one-dimensional transfer of conduction of heat in a
flat wall.
Transfer Area
The direction of heat depends

greatly on temperature, and not on
pressure (as in the case of fluids) or
concentration (as in the case of mass
transfer) .
—> Flat wall thickness

Vañez
The direction of heat transfer is a function of the variation in temperatures, although it will always
be perpendicular to the transfer area, that is, the heat is perpendicular to the isotherms. By saying
one-dimensional, it means that said transfer follows a single direction. If you take an infinitesimal
volume of the plane wall being analyzed, you can calculate the amount of energy that is transferred from one
place to another.
On the other hand, through experiments it has been ———• The minus is due to the fact that the heat transfer
goes from the hot temperature to dT the cold temperature,
determined that the heat flow is directly proportional
therefore: AT < 0 dx
to the variation in temperatures and inversely
proportional to the
body thickness:
Where k is the thermal conductivity constant. This is

a function of the materials involved in conduction
and, in some cases, the temperature.
Therefore, the conditions that will apply are:

2 Unidirectional heat transfer
®® Constant thermal conductivity
® Constant transfer area
® Steady State: A T + ft
®r No energy generation or consumption: Qv = 0
8 No energy accumulation: Q x = Q a +2
34I Eng . Jean Edison Palma Vañez

. dT
Q = A • q A q = —kg TO
dx
(Tc-Tf)
'~L
Ak
Q Q 1 (Tc - Tf)
—dx = —kdT A AA L
Ak
Q cl fTf
4 dx = -k dT (Tc - Tf) AT
AJ or J Tc q=
LSR
k
= -k(Tf -Tc)
TO Thus, R is equal to the expression L/k for one-dimensional conduction in a plane
wall.
=k(Te-Tf)
in the contact of a solid and a fluid, due to the existence of two
transmission mechanisms, conduction and advent. Conduction is due
to contact between particles, while advent is the transfer of heat due
2. CONVECTION : It occurs to the movement of fluid particles. This movement can be caused
either by the difference in densities produced by a temperature
gradient (natural convection), which causes hot air to rise and cold
air to fall, or due to a mechanical drive (forced convection), such as
with a fan. The convention is the transfer of energy in which, in
addition
of atomic and molecular movements, is generated by the formation
of convective currents given by the difference in densities
microscopically or macroscopically. A difference in temperatures
implies a difference in densities, differences that in turn generate
convective currents. Thus, it will be noted that this heat transfer mechanism also occurs due to a
variation in temperature.
In the case of fluids, we speak of a boundary layer. Boundary layer is the layer that forms between the
solid (container or vessel) and the liquid (fluid). It constitutes an interference in the transfer of heat,
and goes from the hot temperature (T c ) to the ambient temperature (T ∞ ), whether the hot
temperature is higher than the ambient
* Solid Part
temperature or vice versa. The caloric flow,
for its part, always goes from the hot
temperature to the cold temperature (T f ).
Solid
temperature
(Ts)
Fluent
• Boundary
Layer
35I Eng . Jean Edison Palma Vañez

There are two types of convection: natural convection and forced convection. In natural
convection, the transfer of energy occurs due to the variation in densities in the fluid due to
the difference in temperatures at different points. Forced convection, on the other hand, is that
which results from the presence of devices (agitators, atmospheric winds, pumps, fans,
dispersers, etc.) that help convection to take place.
This energy transfer mechanism also obeys the general law of flow,
although instead of using Fourier's Law, Newton's Law is used.
For the application of Newton's law it is

necessary to understand a very
important term: coefficient of
heat transfer (hc), whose value depends
on the characteristics and properties of
the fluid, the type of fluid being worked
with, and the geometry of the system.
3. RADIATION : It is produced by the emission of electromagnetic radiation that every body

experiences because it is at a certain temperature. And it depends on a material characteristic
known as emissivity and a geometric characteristic defined by the problem and known as
shape factor.
At low pressures, almost in a vacuum,

we do not speak of conduction but rather of
radiation that occurs through
electromagnetic waves. This energy transfer
mechanism is generated due to
electromagnetic waves, whether or not
there is a fluid in its medium. All bodies
above absolute 0 emit this kind of radiation
energy. However, the value of the heat flow
in this energy transfer mechanism is
appreciable at temperatures greater than
300 ℃ , and 400 ℃ for water vapor and
carbon dioxide. Within a thermal circuit, heat transfer by radiation is normally considered for
fluids such as water or air rather than for solids, since fluids act like white substances while
radiation through a solid is not common.

Vañez
Heat Transfer Equations
DRIVING (plane coordinates)
Remember
If: Tf - Tc or Ti - T2: the minus
sign (-) is considered in the
equation.
where:
T f : cold temperature

Vañez
Composite flat wall
CONVECTION - CONDUCTION - CONVECTION (plane coordinates)

Vañez
Parallel Flat Wall :
T^ 2
h2
Composite flat wall
TC1
h.
DRIVING (cylindrical coordinates)

Vañez
CONVECTION - CONDUCTION - CONVECTION (cylindrical coordinates)
MULTIPLE LAYERS (cylindrical coordinates)
Below is the table containing the thermal conductivities of the different materials
used in construction.

Vañez
Material Density (kg/m 3 Thermal Material Thermal

) conductivity(W/(mK) Density (kg/m 3 ) conductivity(W/(mK))
Steel 7850 )
47-58 sponge rubber 224 0,055
Water 1000 0,58 Granite 2750 3
Air 1,2 0,026 Iron 7870 72
Alpaca 8,72 29,1 Concrete 2200 1,4
Aluminum 2700 209-232 rubble concrete 1600-1800 0,75-0,93
Asbestos 383-400 0,078-0,113 Wood fiber sheets 200 0,047
Fireclay 2000 0,46 Chrome brick 3000 2,32
wet sand 1640 1,13 common brick 1800 0,8

dry sand 1400 0,33-0,58 zirconium brick 3600 2,44
Asphalt 2120 0,74-0,76 magnesite 2000 2,68

brick
Ceramic tiles 1750 0,81 masonry brick 1700 0,658
Bakelite 1270 0,233 silica brick 1900 1,070

Asphalt 1000 0,198 Glass wool 100-200 0,036-0,040
bitumen
ceramic blocks 730 0,37 Brass 8550 81-116
Bronze 8000 116-186 Linoleum 535 0,081

Coal (anthracite) 1370 0,238 Lithium 530 301,2
Cardboard - 0,14-0,35 Wood 840 0,13

Cement (hard) 1,047 Birch 650 0,142
-
Zinc 7140 106-140 larch wood 650 0,116
Copper 8900 372-385 maple wood 750 0,349

Cork (expanded) 120 0,036 poplar wood 650 0,152
Cork (boards) 120 0,042 Ash wood 750 0,349
Polyurethane 40 0,029 beech wood 800 0,143

foam

Vañez
glass foam 100 0,047 white beech wood 700 0,143
Tin 7400 64 Pinewood 650 0,163

Fiberglass 220 0,035 white pine wood 550 0,116
Foundry 7500 55,8 oak wood 850 0,209

Glycerin 1270 0,29 Marble 2400 2,09
hard rubber 1150 0,163 Mica 2900 0,523
Lime and cement 1900 0,7
mortar

Vañez
Material Density (kg/m 3 Thermal Material Thermal

) conductivity(W/(mK) Density (kg/m 3 ) conductivity(W/(mK))
Cement mortar 2100 )
1,4 Lead 11340 35
vermiculite 300-650 0,14-0,26 Polystyrene 1050 0,157

mortar
1000 0,76 Porcelain 2350 0,81
plaster mortar
1800-2000 1,16 Sawdust 215 0,071
Plaster mortar
Nickel 8800 52,3 Diatomaceous 466 0,126
earth
Gold 19330 308,2 ceramic tiles 1650 0,76
Board 2650 0,42 Expanded 100 0,07
vermiculite
Plasterboard 600-1200 0,29-0,58 loose vermiculite 150 0,08
Silver 10500 418 Glass 2700 0,81

Plexiglass 1180 0,195 And so 1800 0,81
HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS
1. Consider a thick wall 3m high, 5m wide and 0.3m thick, whose thermal conductivity is k
= 0.9 W/m.ºC. On a certain day, the temperatures of the interior and exterior surfaces of
that wall are measured and they turn out to be 16ºC and 2ºC, respectively.
Determine the rate of heat loss through the wall on that day.
2. It is determined that the heat flow through a 50 mm thick wooden board is 40 W/m
2
whose temperatures on the internal and external surface are 40 and 20ºC respectively.
What is the thermal conductivity of the wood?
A room at a temperature of 19ºC is separated from the outside at 4ºC by a wall 15 cm
3.
thick, 2.5x3.5 m in area, and k = 1 ha) What power in kW passes through
2
the wall?
b) What must be the thickness of an insulating layer of conductivity k =
0.035 — to reduce flux by a factor of 5?
mK ℎ
c) Comment your answer
4. Consider a brick wall 3 m x 6 m and 0.3 m thick, whose thermal conductivity is k = 0.8
W/m.ºC. On a certain day, the temperatures of the interior and exterior surfaces of that
5.

Vañez
wall are measured and they turn out to be 14ºC and 2ºC, respectively. Determine the rate of
heat loss through the wall on that day.
Two large rooms A and B are separated by a 12 cm thick brick wall k=1.2 W/m.ºC. The
external temperature of the brick in room B is 120ºC and the temperature of the air and its
surroundings is 120ºC. environment is 30ºC, the heat transfer by free convection of
environment B is 20 W/m ºC, find the temperature of the internal surface of the brick in
2
environment A.

Vañez
6. A carpenter builds a wall. Towards the outside, place a sheet of wood (k=0.08 W/m. K) 2 cm thick and
towards the inside a layer of insulating foam (k=0.01 W/mK) 3.5 cm thick. The temperature of the
interior surface is 19ºC, and the exterior is –10ºC. Calculate: a) the temperature at the junction
between the wood and the foam, b) the heat flow rate per m through this wall.
2
7. One of the vertical seals separating the exterior of a certain building has the following composition:
Density thickness
Composition
(kg/ m3) (mm) K (W/(m.ºC)
Interior plaster trim and plastering 20 0.30
Hollow brick partition metric format 90 0.49
Rigid expanded polyethylene panel 15 50 0.039
Water-repellent cement screed 15 1.40
One-foot brick wall perforated exposed face 240 0.76
The interior design temperature is 19ºC and the exterior temperature is -3.4ºC, with the exterior and
interior surface transmission coefficients being 9.1 and 6.9 W/(m ºC) respectively. Determine the
2
distribution of temperatures and heat losses per unit area.
6. Calculate the amount of heat transmitted through a window with a surface area of 2 m and a 2
thickness of 0.5 cm. Interior temperature of the house 20 ºC, the exterior temperature (environment)
is 5 °C, the convection heat transfer coefficients for the interior and exterior of the house are: h=9
W/m .ºC and h= 15 W/m .ºC respectively. (conductivity of glass: k = 0.2 W/ m. °C)
2 2
7. Consider a glass window 0.8m high and 1.5m wide, with a thickness of 8 mm and a thermal
conductivity of k = 0.78 W/m.ºC. Determine the heat rate through this glass window and the
temperature of its interior surface for a day during which the room remains at 20°C while the outside
temperature is -10°C. Take the convective heat transfer coefficients of the inside and outside of the
room as h=10 W/m . ºC and h=40 W/m . ºC.
2 2
8. Consider a double-hung window 0.8m high and 1.5m wide consisting of two layers of 4mm thick glass
(k = 0.78 W/m. ºC) separated by a stagnant air space 10 mm wide (k = 0.026 W/m. ºC). Determine the
rate of heat transfer through the double-hung window and the temperature at the interior surface for
a day during which the room is maintained at 20°C while the outside temperature is -10°C. Take the
convective heat transfer coefficients of the inside and outside of the room as h=10 W/m . ºC and
2
h=40 W/m . ºC.

2
9. Consider a wall composed of two layers whose characteristics are the following: □ Layer 1: thickness
0.4 m, conductivity: k1 = 0.9(1 + 0.006 T) [W /m·K] □ Layer 2: thickness 0.05 m, conductivity: k2 =
0.04 W /m K

Vañez
And subjected to a solar flux on the outer face of 300 W/m², this face is in contact with air at 40°C
(Exterior convective coefficient 10 W/m²K). The interior face is in contact with air at 20°C (Interior
convective coefficient 5 W/m²K).Calculate:
a) Heat flow per unit area passing through the wall.
b) Temperature at the two extreme surfaces and at the interface between the two layers
10. The glass in a window has a thickness of 8 mm and an area of 1.5 m . 2
If the temperature inside the house is 22ºC and outside the house is
6ºC, the following is requested:
a) Determine the heat flow lost through the glass.
b) If this window is replaced with another 4 mm double glass
window and a 6 mm air chamber between them (5 W/m²K), what is
the new heat flow and energy savings that would result?
11. The wall of a cold room for preserving frozen products consists of: 2
cm thick cement plaster (k = 0.93 W/m.°C)
• 1 foot solid brick (k = 0.7 W/m°C)
• Expanded cork (k = 0.058 W/m.°C)
• Hollow brick 7 cm thick (k = 1.28 W/m.°C)
• 2 cm thick cement plaster (k = 0.93 W/m.°C)
The temperature of the air inside the chamber is – 25°C and that of the outside air is 30°C. If the heat
losses of the chamber wall must be less than 11 W/m , determine:
2
a) The thickness of insulation (cork) that must be placed.

b) The distribution of temperatures in the wall.
The coefficients of heat transmission by exterior and interior convection will be taken as 23.26 and
13.96 W/m .°C, respectively.
2
12. Consider an electrically heated brick house (K=0.35 Btu/h. ft. ºF) whose walls are 9 ft high and 1 ft
thick. Two of the walls are 50 feet long and the others are 35 feet long. The house is kept at 70ºF at all
times, while the outside temperature varies. On a certain day the temperature of the interior surface
of the walls is measured and it is found to be 55ºF, while it is observed that the average temperature
of the exterior surface remains at 45ºF during the day for 10 hours, and at 35ºF at night for 2 p.m.
Determine the amount of heat lost through the house that day. Also determine the cost of that heat
loss to the homeowner if the price of electricity is $0.09/kWh.
13. The air in a conditioned room is at a temperature of 20°C. The interior face of the wall has a film
coefficient of h int = 3 W/m²K and on its exterior face it exchanges heat by convection with the
ambient air at 10° C (the outer film coefficient can be considered h ext = 10 W/m²K). Calculate the heat
loss throughout the

Vañez
.¿
you, for
decrease the p heat by 80%? The
composition of the exterior wall is:
composition of the exterior wall is:
.
and
6m wide consists of
hoops with a horizontal cross section of 18 cm
x 30 cm (k=0.72W/m.ºC) know
layered fords
of mixing
(k=0.22W/m. C) 3cm thick. There are also layers of 2 cm thick mixture.
esor on each side of the
wall and a rigid foam (k=0.026W/m.ºC)
2 cm
thickness
.
temperatures
' inside and
the outside are 22 9C and –
4 Cy
the convection heat transfer coefficients on the inner and
outer sides
outside are h 1 =
22
/m. and 2 = /m
2 . C, respectively. If it is assumed
a one-way transfer and
escarta a ra ac n,
Determine the rate of heat transfer through lap.
. na
Composite wall is made up of layers of different materials as indicated in the figure . The
Its extreme profiles are
2 ntran bathed by fluids at 800 C and 20 C,
with convective coefficients of 17.4 W/m .K and 11.6 W/m 2 .K, respectively,
a) The heat transmitted per unit of time through the wall.

a) The heat transmitted p
47 Eng. Jean
Yo Palma
Vañez
time through lap.
c b ) ) L C a al d o i r temperature distribution .
c) Heat transmitted in the p unit
1
through materials B, C and D.
= thermal properties of the different materials are the following:
k A = 1.37 W/mK ; kB = 0.69 W/mK; k C = 0.8 W/mK ;k D = 0.93 W/mK; k E = 0.067 W/mK
48 Ing.Jean Edison Palma Vañez

16.
a) 1 How much does it lose from 20 convection to the lized environment p of length p d if the g surface 1 ex .
anterior a) Cu: nto per e per º c
nvection to the environment, by me = ongtu , s 2
to
outer surface
of the tube is at 80ºC, the outside environment at 20ºC and h=6W/(m .K). 2
b) If the tube
>or is insulated and the thickness is 1 mm, which
it must be the temperature on the face
17. A steam tube is covered with insulating material 0.5 cm thick and 0.2 cal/(s cm ºC) thermal conductivity.
«Initially, how much heat? yes
loses per second if the tube is
at 120º C and at rm ca. never mind
The tube t ca or s
perimeter of 20 cm and s u e na tu lon o g e it s u t d
of 50 cyea re
losses due to ext t r u e m and o
o t sune d n
e e l u tu n b p o e . r A m na e l t i r c o e la cm
ie n ci a ongtu
..
use the given relation for Xplanar surfaces. Strictly, you should use the differential equation for the t a as p a ar
c a on s d u u p c e c r io c n ed s e p c a a n lo a r s. es in r te c g a r m ar en pa er , au e n er co a nj u u s na tro a de eccu a a p c itan s
differential tap s a , r each a a a sa cylindrical shape a or e
de n lg e a g d r i a t r a. for a set oe cap as
18. Inside r c
de au un n a at e ub o er r m ía a d c enr ca y
d m e u 1 y 7 c e m ga de a d . outer diameter and 15 cm
inner diameter (thermal conductivity 15 kcal/h m°C), outer meter
s r at y urado c m a 60 e
kg f /cm ro of2
1t
p e r r e o s r ion (co ( n T u = ct 2 v 74° a C) t at r r m ave ca sando cu a n / loc m al q ), c rcu a
saturated steam at 60
co e f ic ient
g / c
f
m e sp
d e p el ícu la e xterior ei n t e r i o r son 1 0 y o 2 c .0 a 00 qu k e ca s l/
r e s n ( = ) a t r a v e s an o u
e
h· m c
e n
2
° u C en re r s a pe a ctivam . ent or es . coe

icien es e pe cu a exter or en inter or son y. ca / m respectively.
a) Heat flow per unit length.

b) Thickness c d a e
31
a p is o l r an u t n e id
( a lana e d o e ng ro u ca . thermal conductivity 0.048 kcal/hmºC)

b) Thickness of ais ante (ana e roca e con uct vat rm ca, ca / .m )
19. A need for p
eaa a
c r e e ro u d c e re 36 uc j m oc d e e
a
dio o á r m a et a ro er e c x e t r e a ri p o a r r , 3 e. 4 cm inner diameter and
thermal conductivity 40 kcal/hmºC, transports fuel oil r a , 50 ºC through a local e q r u o e r s and e thermal
conductivity 4 obje c t a o / de .m man , t The temperature of the fuel oil depends on the pipe .
ais o l n an o tee je de o 1 e cm m d ans e 1n e
material d e co nd a uc e tim vi p d e a r d a t u é r r a mic e a 2 u 0 e 0 o kc
,
a l /h . mº C .
s e r o e a
Calculate the temperature distribution in the pipe and in the a rm ca

co c e a fi / cie .m ntes .
Calculate the distribution of emper ure in a er a and in a res s enc a. The coe c en es of film on the outside and
inside of the pipe are 15 and 45kcal/hm ºC respectively.2
20. A normalized bare tube of 25 pipes are 15 and 45kcal/hm 2Q C respectively.

Place in air at 30ºC. a The coefficient of p , e c l o íc n ul u aa e
n e r m e p la er s a u u p r e a rf s ic u i p e e and r e c l a air e is 4 s
.9 e W/m at 2 ºC in . If you want to reduce the costs e d pe e c c a u lo ar e a n l 5 r 0 e % 1 m su e p d e i a r nt c e e la y c e olo a c r
a e ci e ó s n d e eu , n insulator . of K=0.15 W/mºC. If s the p te r mp a er s atu e ra c of the pipe and the film
coefficient e =.
in c / o mnsta . nt i es a at l e a m ñ pa ed r ir at e u l r a a is s l u an p t e e ric ca i la cula e r 1 el tu er aye
coefficient ee p s e te cu es a p pe e s r o m r a un n ec see what is c rracceptable from the ap s u a n to e, d c e cu ar
ec e o s n p ó e m so ir con ? e cease or. ¿ ene c e os n e
du e c st piv e i s d o a r d u d n el v tu a b o o r K a = ce 4 p 8 a W/ e mºC e . ee
economic point of view? Coefficient of con uc vaeuo /m.

CHAPTER V
NATURAL STONE MATERIALS: ROCKS
1. ORIGIN. CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION : The origin of rocks dates back
millions of years, as many as the Earth's crust has. The formation of rocks is explained through
different geological phenomena that occur, which generate modifications of the Earth's crust.
These phenomena range from those that are generated at certain depths inside the Earth's
crust, to others that are caused by atmospheric environmental agents. The earth's crust and
rocks are primarily made up of chemical elements. Among them, oxygen stands out (47%),
which is the majority element in the Earth's crust. Silicon (28%) also stands out and the rest
have lower percentages. The chemical elements are combined with oxygen, giving rise to
chemical compounds called oxides. The composition of the Earth's crust can also be expressed
considering the participation of these oxides. Among them, silicic anhydride (60%) and
aluminum oxide (16%) stand out. Only a small group of chemical elements are the majority
components of the Earth's crust and ultimately of rocks. Chemical elements combine to form
more complex associations, which give rise to compounds that in turn constitute minerals.
"MINERALS : Solid natural substances, almost always of inorganic nature, physically
homogeneous, with characteristic chemical composition. They are formed from physical-
chemical processes that occur between the chemical elements that make up the Earth's
crust.
Ce- ROCK : Natural mineral aggregate of more or less determined composition and structure,
which is a product of geological processes and which forms independent bodies in the
Earth's crust.
2. GEOLOGICAL CYCLE IN THE EARTH'S CRUST : The matter that constitutes the Earth's crust
is subject to continuous transformation processes of an exogenous or/and endogenous nature.
These processes determine significant changes in the composition, constitution and properties
of the rocks. Through endogenous processes, the magma contained inside the Earth's crust
cools and consolidates to form igneous rocks. Magma cooling is not carried out for all rocks
under the same conditions, which is why we can distinguish three types of igneous rocks:
plutonic, vein-like and eruptive. Igneous rocks alter and deteriorate by fragmenting,
disintegrating and pulverizing due to the action of atmospheric environmental agents (rain,
wind, ice, extreme temperatures, etc.). Environmental transport phenomena such as air or
river water transport rock fragments or particles to places where geographically their
sedimentation or settlement is suitable. This is how sedimentary rocks are formed. This
settlement is carried out through different routes, distinguishing four types of sedimentary
rocks: rocks of mechanical origin, rocks of chemical origin, rocks of organic origin and rocks of
volcanic origin. Sedimentary rocks, inside the Earth's crust at high temperatures and high
pressures, transform into metamorphic rocks. It produces a

Vañez
transformation of already existing rocks, there is an evolution later composition

mineralogical and a change in the structure of the rocks.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS :
The properties of rocks can be distinguished in the following scheme :

. Carbonates Oxides Sulphurs
CHEMISTRY Silicates Sulfates. Chlorides
COMPOSITION
I Crystalline: ordered AND amorphous geometric
networks
CHEMISTR MINERALOGICAL
Y
AG RESISTANCE CHEMICALS I Essential: majority
Accessory: minority
COLOR: according Constitution

GLOW: " cnstalinity.
TEXTURE: " treatment
PHYSIC Aggregate / Disaggregate (cohesion)

MACRO
S STRUCTURE: Massive / Non-massive (homogeneity)
Mineral order and
distribution.
Holocrystalline: crystalline grains of similar size
Hypocrystalline: crystalline grains with amorphous matter
MICRO Vitreous O amorphous (volcanic igneous - basalt) Clastic:
fragments (sedimentary)
Granuda (plutonic igneous)
Porphyry (filonean igneous)
Laminar (stratified sedimentary) Lamellar-leafy

(metamorphic, slate)
Fibrous (atypical igneous, serpentine)
Crystalline (metamorphic, marbles)
I Cracks discontinuities
Very fine fissures (limestone). NOdules: mineralogical.
Strata
Cokes: large holes ( sedimentary)
GRANULOMETRY: _ ______________ Gravel: >4mm

= sieves =
Sand: <4mm
APPARENT: Vwith pores
DENSITY: REAL Vsinporos
m/V
I TOTAL: Vporos/Vap .... . .
RELATIVE: Vap. Open/vap POROSYMMETRY
COMPACITY: Dap/ Dreal (%)
ABSORPTION: (Psat - Pseco)/Pseco
PHYSICAL - HYDRIC
FROST MODULE : By open/By total
VAPOR PERMEABILITY: quantity plus

Vañez
A. IGNEOUS OR ERUPTIVE OR MAGMATIC ROCKS : They are the original ones, because they
were once found in a state of molten magma, and when the melting temperature fell they came
to consolidate and crystallize.
PLUTONICS: Slow and deep consolidation. Granuda
INTRUSIVE Granite, Diorite , Syenites , Serpentines , Gabbros
CLASSIFICATION FILONEANAS: shallow depth. porphyry porphyry

EFFUSIVE — VOLCANIC: outside. Vitrea
basalts, pumice
COMPOSITION
QUARTZ Main component MICA Poor resistance FEYMG
FELDSPAT Lower resistance Low hardness -2 SILICATES
Very Resistant Lower hardness - 6
Easy decomposition
Very Hard -7 Acid Lower chemical stability
Light color Exfoliable
resistant
Exfoliable
Transparent
VARIETIES
<5grams/cm2
Í Coarse grain medium
6-20 grams/cm2
grain
Quartzose Yo >21 grams/cm2
feldspathics Yo _fine-grained impossible to count
Micaceans | Microgranites | very fine grain
Good frost behavior

PROPERTIES Low porosity (0.4%-1.5%) Good acoustic Good compression resistance
insulation Low flexural resistance
BARGAIN DEFECTS : accumulations of constituent mineral grains, the quality of the rock is altered.
STRUCTURE DENS PORE COMPO COM PAC DUR ABS. DURB ASPECT APPLY. VARIABLES
Granite Holocrystalline high low high 7 low good black, transparent and
quartz, feldspar,
granitoid white pavements, masonry,
mica and
furniture, roofs...
silicates
Simile Without quartz Similar granite similar

syenite
Granitoid
Greenstone Idem Without mica Similar granite paving
Gabbro idem Without quartz dark similar

a lot of mica
Fibrous (grainless) high Magnesium high 3-4 bad bad Green with veins (good Inside. COMMON
Serpentine a
silicates polish) ABESTRE /
(green marble)
ASBESTRON
porphyritic with similar high According to varieties Pavements. GRANITES

Porphyries SYENITIC
ferrocrystal.
DIORITICS
Vitrea high low No quartz or mica high 5-6 low Good Dark Pavements.
Basalts
(bad R
flex)

Vañez
B. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS : Their origin is in the decomposition of the products of the pre-
existing lithosphere, that is, igneous and metamorphic rocks and also other predecessor
sedimentary rocks, which are reworked.
Not very durable,
FORMATION 1st stage destruction of previous rocks by physical and chemical agents unstable to acid,
22 stage transportation by water or wind porous, Soluble, low
3rd stage deposit of the fragments in valleys, basins or seas
GENERALITIES hardness, high
4th stage compaction + cementation + lithification absorption.
COMPOSITION I CHEMISTRY: oxides, silicates, carbonates, sulfates, phosphates.

I MINERALOGICAL: I Detrital: deposit
I Chemical: precipitation.
I Biological: presence of living beings.
I burned
DISGREGATE: i Classification Colloid
the
Dust Sand Garban Gravel Gravel Singing block
Fragments without 104-6 10n-4 0.002 0.2 4 15 30 0 500mm

consistency.
1 Application: concrete, mortars, glass, silicone, ceramics, roofs, pac. Ext.
(sandstones, clays)
sands clays
Gravel pebbles sandstone blackboar
Pudding gaps s ds
EITHER.
MECHANIC CONGLOMERATES (60mm-2mm): breccia, puddings, sandstones
SANDSTONE (<2mm): quartz + feldspar + mica + calcite
AGGREGATE:
cemented fragments QUARTZS Durability d
(Classical) AAR Cementing density Porosity Hardness R.mec. Use
Cl LIOSA-
SIUCEA silica Low high high high Durable int/ext
CALCARE Limestone Med-low Med-low Low Low Attackable inside
compos® mohs color Structure R.H2O durab use
SALINAS: plasters
CaS04 +salt 2 Pure=no It varies Low Revest
0. CHEMICAL:
Salt precipitation LITOGRA- CaCo3 +fossil + 3
CLASSIFICATION CARBON- callias FICA plants
revest
Compact +
TIED Yellow
uniform
Low Med-low
TRAVERT/TOBA Raw material

Loams
CALCARE 75% CaCo3 Dark Compact + Block
earthy
CLAY 80% clay Yellow low cement
Dolomites
Compact +
CaCo3 + Mg Gray yellow low low
cavernous
I SILIICE ANIMAL: 1 ,
OR ORGANIC- । CALCARE: limestone | fossiliferous
Accumulation I compact
animals and plants. veEA. . VEGETABLE: coals
CONGLOMERATE: coverings
EITHER. VOLCANIC:
Accumulation of eruption
GAPS: pavements
products + cementing
agents
TOBAS: factories / raw materials

Vañez
c. METAMORPHIC ROCKS : These are those that have suffered a series of effects on their original
structure until they are destroyed, or have undergone changes in their mineralogical character
to acquire a new textural appearance.
FORMATION : pressure and temperature -> changes in composi® and
structure.
COMPOSITION! SEDIMENTARY ROCKS ■ 90%

IGNEOUS ROCKS 10%
PROPERTIES: large crystals Great compactness

Absence of fossils Schistosity
Absence of porosity and cavities
Great compactness
Recrystallizations
TRANSFORMATION
ORIGINAL ROCK METAMORPHIC ROCK
CLAYS -> SLATES

GRANITE, PORPHYFIED, SYENITE -> GNEISS
GABROS, BASALTS -> SORRY NITAS
SANDSTONE -> QUARTZITES
CARBONATED ROCKS -> MARBLES
COMPARISON
CALCARE MARMOREUS METAMORPHIC MARBLES
small grain Coarse crystal grain
Presence of fossils Absence of fossils
Presence of cavities Absence of cavities
Porosity Absence of porosity
Opacity Translucent in thin sheets
Composition Structure Hardness Compactness Absorption Color Durability Applications Pr. mechanics
BOARD Carbonates Leafy with high <3% black gray high Roofs, pavements Flexion >290
<10% Clays schistosity
Carbonaceous 1% is
MARBLE Calcite Crystalline 3 high low White and Compression 400-

(saccharoid translucent 800 Wear 20-40
fracture )
QUARTZITE Quartz, mica, Granuda (small) high high Low Clear, yellowish, high Coatings, floors, hello good
garnets, and massive greenish, reddish roofs
tourmaline
GNEISS Quartz, feldspar, Leafy, allows high high Low White gray high Floor coverings Compression ->
mica, minerals lapping. high

Vañez
CHAPTER VI
AGGREGATE
1. DEFINITION : Generally, "aggregate" is understood as the
mixture of sand and stone of variable granulometry.
Concrete is a material basically composed of aggregates
and cementitious paste, elements with very different
behaviors: It is defined as aggregate to the set of inorganic
particles of natural or artificial origin whose dimensions
are within the limits set in NTP 400.011. Aggregates are
the discontinuous phase of concrete and are materials that
are embedded in the paste and occupying
approximately 75% of the volume of the cubic unit of
concrete. Aggregates are natural or artificial inorganic materials that are embedded in
agglomerates (cement, lime, and with water they form concrete and mortar). Aggregates are
generally divided into two groups: fine and coarse. Fine aggregates consist of natural or
manufactured sands with particle sizes that can reach up to 10mm; Coarse aggregates are
those whose particles are retained in the No. mesh. 16 and can vary up to 152 mm. The
maximum aggregate size commonly used is 19 mm or 25 mm. Aggregates make up the
granular skeleton of concrete and are the majority element since they represent 80-90% of the
total weight of concrete, which is why they are responsible for a large part of its
characteristics. Aggregates are generally inert and dimensionally stable. The cementitious
paste (mixture of cement and water) is the active material within the concrete mass and as
such is largely responsible for the strength, volumetric variations and durability of concrete. It
is the matrix that unites the elements of the granular skeleton together. Each element has its
role within the concrete mass and its proportion in the mixture is key to achieving the desired
properties, that is: workability, resistance, durability and economy.
2. CLASSIFICATION : There are several ways to classify aggregates, some of which are:
2.1. BY ITS NATURE : Aggregates can be natural or artificial, with natural ones being frequently
used. In addition, the aggregates used in concrete can be classified into: coarse, fine aggregate
and concrete (global aggregate).
a. Fine aggregate: It is defined as that which passes the 3/8" sieve and is retained in the No. 200
mesh. The most common is sand resulting from the disintegration of rocks.
b. Coarse aggregate: It is that which is retained on the No. 4 sieve and comes from the
disintegration of the rocks; It can in turn be classified into crushed stone and gravel.
c. Concrete : It is the material made up of a mixture of sand and gravel, this material mixed in
arbitrary proportions is found naturally in the Earth's crust and is used as it is extracted in the
quarry.

Vañez
2.2. BY ITS DENSITY : They can be classified into aggregates with a normal specific weight
between 2.50 to 2.75, light aggregates with specific weights less than 2.5, and heavy
aggregates whose specific weights are greater than 2.75.
2.3. BY ORIGIN, FORM AND SURFACE TEXTURE : By nature, the aggregates have an irregularly
geometric shape, randomly composed of rounded faces and angularities. In descriptive terms,
the shape of the aggregates can be:
a. Angular: Little evidence of wear on faces and edges.
b. Angle Sub: Evidence of some wear on faces and edges.
c. Sub rounded: Considerable wear on faces and edges.
d. Rounded: Edges almost eliminated.
e. Very Rounded: No faces or edges
2.4. BY THE SIZE OF THE AGGREGATE : According to their size, aggregates for concrete are
classified into: Fine aggregates (sands), Coarse aggregates (stones).
The sieve that separates a coarse aggregate from a fine one is the 4.75 mm one. That is, any
aggregate smaller than 4.75 mm is fine aggregate (sand). Sand or fine aggregate is the material
that results from the natural disintegration of rocks or is obtained from their crushing, and
whose size is less than 5mm. For use, sand is classified by size. To this end, they are passed
through sieves that retain the coarsest grains and allow the finer ones to pass through.
c® Fine sand: its grains pass through a 1mm diameter mesh sieve and are retained by another
0.25mm diameter one.
ceP Medium sand: is that whose grains pass through a 2.5mm diameter sieve and are retained
by another 1mm one.
8 Coarse sand: its grains pass through a 5mm diameter sieve and are retained by another
2.5mm sieve.
Coarse-grained sands generally produce more resistant mortars than fine ones, although they
have the disadvantage of requiring a lot of binder paste to fill their gaps and it will be
adherent. On the other hand, the mortar is plastic, making it very porous and poorly adherent.
Concrete is a material made up of cement, aggregates of different granulometries, water and
additives that, mixed in different proportions, allow us to obtain concrete that is distributed in
concrete mixer trucks. It is a living material, not storable, since its use time is limited to 90
minutes; from which the concrete loses its properties. The special characteristics of this
material require it to be manufactured to order, adapting production to the geographical
location, schedule and pace of each work, having to optimize resources to offer not only a
quality product but also

Vañez
good customer service. Whatever the type of material used, its particles must be hard and
resistant, since concrete, like any other material, will break due to its weakest element. If the
aggregate is of poor quality, its particles will break before the cement paste or mortar.
a. Fine Aggregate : A fine aggregate with round-shaped particles and smooth texture has been
shown to require less mixing water, and is therefore preferable in HADs. It is commonly
accepted that fine aggregate causes a greater effect on the mixture proportions than coarse
aggregate. - The former have a greater specific surface area and since the paste has to cover all
the surfaces of the aggregates, the paste requirement in The mixture will be affected by the
proportion in which these are included. An optimal granulometry of the fine aggregate is
decisive for its water requirement in the HAD, rather than for the physical accommodation.
Experience indicates that sands with a fineness modulus (MF) less than 2.5 give concrete with
a sticky consistency, making it difficult to compact. Sands with a fineness modulus of 3.0 have
given the best results in terms of workability and resistance to compression.
b. Coarse Aggregate : Numerous studies have shown that for high compressive strength with
high cement content and low water-cement ratio the maximum aggregate size should be kept
as low as possible (12.7 to 9.5). In principle, the increase in resistance as the maximum
aggregate size decreases is due to a reduction in adhesion stress due to the increase in the
specific surface area of the particles. It has been found that adhesion to a 76 mm particle. It is
barely 10% of that corresponding to a 12.5 mm., and that except for extremely good or bad
aggregates, the adhesion is approximately between 50 to 60% of the resistance of the paste at
7 days. The bond strengths depend on the shape and surface texture of the coarse aggregate,
the chemical reaction between the components of the cement paste and the aggregates.
Another aspect that has to do with the maximum size of the aggregate is the fact that there is a
greater probability of finding cracks or failures in a larger particle caused by the quarrying
processes (dynamiting) and due to the reduction of size (shredding), which will make it an
undesirable material for use in concrete. It is also considered that the high resistance
produced by smaller aggregates is due to a decrease in the stress concentration around the
particles, which is caused by the difference in the elastic moduli of the paste and the aggregate.
It has been shown that the Crushed gravel produces greater resistance than rounded gravel.
This is due to the mechanical interlocking that develops in the angular particles. However,
excessive angularity must be avoided due to the increase in water requirement and decrease
in workability that this entails. The ideal aggregate should be clean, cubic, angular, 100%
crushed, with a minimum of flat and elongated particles.
3. FUNCTIONS OF THE AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE : The aggregate within concrete mainly

fulfills the following functions:

Vañez
a. As a skeleton or filler suitable for paste (cement and water), reducing the paste content in the
cubic meter.
b. It provides a mass of particles capable of resisting the mechanical actions of wear or

weathering that may act on the concrete.
c. Reduce volume changes resulting from the setting and hardening processes, wetting and
drying or heating of the paste.
Fine aggregates are commonly identified by a number called the Fineness Modulus, which is
generally smaller as the aggregate is finer. The function of aggregates in concrete is to create a
rigid and stable skeleton, which is achieved by joining them with cement and water (paste).
When the concrete is fresh, the paste also lubricates the aggregate particles, giving the mixture
cohesion and workability. To satisfactorily fulfill these functions, the paste must completely
cover the surface of the aggregates. If a stone fractures, as seen in the figure, its size will be
reduced and new surfaces will appear without having modified the total weight of the stone.
For the same reason, smaller aggregates have a
greater surface for lubricate and
They will demand a greater amount of pasta. In
consequently, for make concrete is
It is advisable to use the largest aggregate size
compatible with the characteristics of the
structure.
The texture of the material, says how smooth or

rough the surface of the material is, is a characteristic linked to absorption since very rough
aggregates have greater absorption than smooth ones and also produce less plastic concrete.
Fine and coarse aggregates commonly occupy 60% to 75% of the volume of concrete (70% to
85% by weight), and significantly influence the properties of freshly mixed and hardened
concrete, mix proportions, and economy. Fine aggregates commonly consist of natural sand or
crushed stone with the majority of particles smaller than 5mm. Coarse aggregates consist of
gravel or a combination of gravel or crushed aggregate whose particles are predominantly
larger than 5mm and generally between 9.5mm and 38mm. Some natural deposits of
aggregate, sometimes called mine, river, lake, or seabed gravels. Crushed aggregate is
produced by crushing quarry rock, ball stone, pebbles, or large gravel. Air-cooled and crushed
blast furnace slag is also used as coarse or fine aggregate. The granular skeleton is formed by
aggregates that are inert elements, generally more resistant than cementitious paste and also
economical. Therefore, it is advisable to place as many aggregates as possible to achieve a
resistant concrete that does not present large dimensional variations and is economical. But
there is a limit on the coarse aggregate content given by the workability of the concrete. If the
amount of coarse aggregate is excessive, the mixture will become difficult to work with and
there will be a tendency for the coarse aggregate to separate from the

Vañez
mortar (segregation). In this case, it is usually said that the concrete is "rough", "stony" and
"not very docile". In fresh concrete, that is, just made and until it begins to set, the cement
paste has the function of lubricating the aggregate particles, allowing the mobility of the
mixture. The fine aggregate (sand) also collaborates in this aspect.
Sand should be present in a minimum amount that allows good workability and provides
cohesion to the mixture. But it should not be in excess because it will damage the resistances.
The proportion of each material must be optimized so that the desired properties are achieved
at the same cost. Recycled concrete, or crushed waste concrete, is a feasible source of
aggregates and an economic reality where quality aggregates are scarce. Quality aggregates
must meet certain rules to give them optimal engineering use: they must consist of durable,
clean, hard, resistant particles and free of absorbed chemicals, clay coatings and other fine
materials that could affect the hydration and adhesion of the paste. of cement. Aggregate
particles that are friable or susceptible to cracking are undesirable. Aggregates containing
appreciable amounts of shale or other schistose rocks, soft, porous materials, and certain
types of horstene should be especially avoided since they have low weathering resistance and
may cause surface defects such as rashing.
4. PROPERTIES
4.1. GRANULOMETRY : Granulometry is the particle size

distribution of an aggregate as determined by sieve
analysis (ASTM C 136). The particle size of the aggregate
is determined by means of square-opening wire mesh
sieves. The seven ASTM C 33 standard sieves for fine
aggregate have openings ranging from No. 100(150
microns) up to 9.52 mm. Size numbers (grade sizes) for
coarse aggregate are applied to the quantities of
aggregate (by weight) in percentages passed through a
mesh arrangement. For road construction
terrestrial, ASTM D 448 lists the thirteen size numbers
of ASTM C 33, plus
another six size numbers for coarse aggregate. Sand or fine aggregate only has a range of
particle sizes. Grading and maximum aggregate size affect the relative proportions of
aggregates as well as water and cement requirements, workability, pumpability, economy,
porosity, shrinkage.
a. GRANULOMETRY OF FINE AGGREGATES : It depends on the type of work, the richness of the
mixture, and the maximum size of the coarse aggregate. In leaner mixtures, or when small
coarse aggregates are used, the granulometry that most closely approximates the

Vañez
b. The maximum percentage that passes through each sieve is the most convenient to achieve
good workability. In general, if the water ± cement ratio is kept constant and the ratio of fine
to coarse aggregate is chosen correctly, a wide range of grading can be used without having an
appreciable effect on strength. The more uniform the granulometry, the greater the economy.
These specifications allow the minimum percentages (by weight) of the material that passes
the 0.30mm meshes (No. 50) and 15mm (No. 100) are reduced to 15% and 0%, respectively,
as long as:
® The aggregate used in concrete that contains more than 296 kg of cement per cubic meter
when the concrete does not include air.
® That the fineness modulus is not less than 2.3 nor more than 3.1, the fine aggregate must be
rejected unless appropriate adjustments are made in the proportions of the fine and
coarse aggregate.
The amounts of fine aggregate that pass the 0.30 mm mesh (No. 50) and 1.15 mm (No. 100),
affect the workability, surface texture, and bleeding of concrete. The fineness modulus (FM) of
coarse aggregate or fine aggregate is obtained, in accordance with ASTM C 125, by adding the
cumulative percentages by weight of the aggregates retained in a specified series of sieves and
dividing the sum by 100.
The fineness modulus is an index of the fineness of the aggregate. The higher the fineness
mode, the coarser the aggregate. The fine aggregate fineness modulus is useful for estimating
the proportions of fine and coarse aggregates in concrete mixtures.
c. GRANULOMETRY OF COARSE AGGREGATES: The maximum size of the coarse aggregate used
in concrete is based on economics. More water and cement are commonly needed for small-
size aggregates than for larger sizes, for slump of approximately 7.5 cm for a wide range of
coarse aggregate sizes. The granulometry size number (or granulometry size). The size
number applies to the collective amount of aggregate that passes through a mesh
arrangement. The nominal maximum size of an aggregate is the smallest mesh size through
which the majority of the aggregate must pass. The nominal maximum size mesh can retain
5% to 15% of the aggregate depending on the size number. For example, size number
aggregate 67 has a maximum size of 25 mm and a nominal maximum size of 19 mm. Ninety to
one hundred percent of this aggregate must pass the 19 mm mesh and all its particles must
pass the 25 mm mesh. Typically the maximum aggregate particle size should not exceed:
c One fifth of the smallest dimension of the concrete member.
c Three-quarters of the free spacing between reinforcing bars.
» One third of the superelevation of the slabs.

Vañez
c. AGGREGATE WITH DISCONTINUOUS GRANULOMETRY : Consist of only one size of coarse

aggregate with all fine aggregate particles capable of passing through the voids in the
compacted coarse aggregate. Mixtures with discontinuous grading are used to obtain uniform
textures in concrete with exposed aggregates. They are also used in normal structural concrete,
due to the possible improvements in density, permeability, shrinkage, creep, strength,
consolidation, and to allow the use of local aggregate grading. For an aggregate of 19.0 mm
maximum size, particles from 4.75 mm to 9.52 mm can be omitted without making the concrete
excessively rough or prone to segregation. In the case of the 38.1 mm aggregate, sizes 4.75 mm to
19.0 mm are normally omitted. An incorrect choice can result in concrete susceptible to
segregation or caking due to an excess of coarse aggregate or in concrete with low density and
high water demand caused by an excess of fine aggregate. Normally the fine aggregate occupies
25% to 35% of the volume of the total aggregate. For a smooth finish upon removal of formwork, a
slightly higher percentage of fine aggregate to total aggregate may be used than for an exposed
aggregate finish, but both use a lower fine aggregate content than continuous grading mixes. The
fine aggregate content depends on the cement content, the type of aggregate, and workability. To
maintain workability, air inclusion is normally required since mixtures with discontinuous
granulometry with low slump make use of a low percentage of fine aggregate and in the absence of
included air they produce rough mixtures. Segregation of mixtures with discontinuous
granulometry must be avoided, restricting slump to the minimum value consistent with good
consolidation. This can vary from zero to 7.5 cm depending on the thickness of the section, the
amount of reinforcement, and the casting height. If a rough mix is required, aggregates with
discontinuous grading could produce higher strengths than normal aggregates used with similar
cement contents. However, when properly proportioned, these concretes are easily consolidated
by vibration.
CONTINUOUS GRANULOMETRY AGGREGATES – MINIMUM VOIDS : For this the
() Q d By dividing it in two,
4
• •
By dividing again into
aggregate particle
new surfaces appear to halves the surfaces
be covered increase
with pasta to cover
Granulometries must be "continuous", that is, no intermediate particle size must be missing.
The cementitious paste must coat all aggregate particles to "lubricate" them when the concrete
is fresh and to bind them together when the concrete is hardened. Therefore, the larger the
surface area of the aggregates, the greater the amount of paste needed (Figure).

Vañez
[PERUVIAN WINGS UNIVERSITY] MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
It is seen that the maximum size must be the largest possible, this is the maximum compatible
with the structure. For example: for a partition it will be 19mm, for a floor 50mm, for the
structure. For example: for a partition; It will be 19mm, for a pavement 50mm, for concrete or
mass and a dam mm.
4.2. END IURA MODULE : Criterion Established in 1925 by Duff Abrams, from the granulometries
of the material , an average fineness of the material can be intuited using the granulometries of the
material, an average fineness of the material can be intuited using the gp
2 % A cum m, two fills (11 .1 4 3⁄

8", N-8, N916, N^30, N950 and N9100)
”
“MF
100
4.3. GRANULOMETRY LABORATORY: The procedures are detailed below:
4.3. GRANULOMETRY LABORATORY: The procedures are detailed below:
to. For coarse aggregate (stone and gravel):
to. For coarse aggregate (stone and gravel):
d, , Yo gave diid
and from the bottom, pick up three large trays C (approximately the amount you need) and
mix well then separate the mixture into four equal parts Vm ce e s zcl a e two of the opposite
parts sy e d c es e car e te , la us e o g t o ra s s e d p o a s e caecae cua
the p s a igu is ien g t u e a
fi g ra. ce os e as pa es opposi as and esca e as o as os co o se ues aeas gu ee gu a.
e su ,
a large tray). This should epita the procedure before i ioi Y ul

aggregate.
a large tray)
froma sgba erese ge r ae al so r eer
. r
d u ed no a r m d u e e 2 s 5 r la b r s. epr esentat y v 10
lbs . d e g ra v . illa.
e
8- Weigh your sample, it should be around 25 lbs. of pear and s. and gravel. or beef
vibrator in the following order, 1½", 1", ¾", ½", 3/8", #4, #8 and tray. Secure them.
. vibra er l e a
11
c e a l n s t i i g d u a i e d n d te e o a r g d r e e n g , a 1 d ½ op , 1 es , a ¾ c , e ½ n , the 3 / p 8 ar ,
t e 4 s , u # p 8 e and rib o a r n d d e eja lo . s Ast e a g m ú i r c e e l s os p . recently
#
G Place the quantity c Request g the g auto p rization e from your pai te or the technician of the tices
neatly, cover them.
for approximately one minute. p
Turn on the vibrator for a maximum of one minute.

neither Q either b ih
S§ Weigh the material retained on each sieve and the material left in the tray. Record this on the
data sheet. The sum of these quantities must have a difference of no more than 1%; if it is
greater, the procedure must be repeated. Save the excess material.1Note: Use the same scale
and repeat the aggregate procedure. g
after passing them through the sieves so that they
1 Yo I,I Yo Yo Yo
reduce instrumentation errors. s of passing them through the sieves so that instrumentation
errors are reduced.
. . .d id d

sieve as shown in the following table. Record your results on the data sheet. sieve as shown in
the following table. Record these results on the data sheet.
64 \ Ing.Jean Edison Palma Vañez

Sieve # Retained Weight Percent* Accumulated

Detained Percent Passing
Withheld
4 TO J. 100 - J
— x 100 = J
Yo
8 b — x 100= K J+K=R 100-R

Yo
16 c c R+L=S 100 - s
— x 100= L
Yo
30 d S+M=T 100-T
— x 100 = M /
50 AND — x 100= N T+N=U 100-U

Yo
100 F F u+o=v 100-V

—x 100 = 0
Yo
200 g g V+P=w 100-w

— x 100 = P
Tray h h W+Q=X 100-X

— x 100 = Q
Yo
S=I 2= 100
b. Rare a added fine large filled p a 1 ( and four and three rena d
the amount you need for the test,
® Pick up a large b sides
from the bottom of the stack), pass it through the separator d p e sands p two v , eces (ask for
instructions “ above the bottom ° technical p o), e , s p to pass it through the separator c two 1
each
time the ( Ask your instructor or technician for instructions , this will divide the sample in two
each time you pass it through the separator, discard one half each time you pass it through the
separator and use the pass through the separator, discard one half each time you pass it through
the separator. go through the separator and use the
.
tray. sample, arrange the sieves in the following order: #4, #8, #16, #30, #50, #100, #200,
band away from L.
l
fineness to proceed 1 breath qu £ fine in iaggregate gru 8el) fine aggregate calculate the
fineness modulus of the following ) of fine aggregate under study. For fine aggregate, calculate
the modulus of g.
, . X % Accumulated Retained (up to sieve # 100)
Fineness modulus =--------------------------------------------------------
100
_J + R + S + T + U + V
100
In order to compare the results of both a coarse and fine aggregate, it must be graphed and
compared with both a coarse and fine aggregate as required. e must graph pp g, yp p
q g.
65 \ Ing.Jean Edison Palma Vañez

Granulometric Curve
4.4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES :
a. Density : It depends on the specific gravity of its solid constituents as well as the porosity of
the material itself. The density of the aggregates is especially important for cases in which low
or high unit weight concrete is intended. Low densities also indicate that the material is
porous and weak and highly absorbent.
b. Porosity : The word porosity comes from pore, which means space not occupied by solid
matter in the aggregate particle. It is one of the most important properties of the aggregate due
to its influence on its other properties. It can influence chemical stability, resistance to
abrasion, mechanical resistance, elastic properties, specific gravity, absorption and
permeability.
c. Unit Weight : It is the result of dividing the weight of the particles by the total volume
including voids. By including the spaces between particles, the way they are arranged
influences; the procedure for their determination is standardized in ASTM C 29 and NTP
400.017. It is a useful value especially for making transformations from weights to volumes
and vice versa.
d. Void Percentage : It is the measure of volume expressed as a percentage of the spaces

between the aggregate particles. It depends on the arrangement of the particles, so its value is
relative as in the case of unit weight. It is evaluated using the following expression
recommended by ASTM C 29

Vañez
(S. W - PUC)
%empty =---------—---------x 100
S. W
Where:
: Specific weight of mass
W : density of water
PUC: Dry Compacted Unit Weight of Aggregate
e. Humidity : It is the amount of surface water retained by the particle, its influence is on the
greater or lesser amount of water necessary in the mixture and is expressed as follows:
Natural weight — Dry weight % moisture = x 100
Dry weight
4.5. RESISTANT PROPERTIES :
a. Strength : The strength of concrete cannot be greater than that of the aggregates; The texture,
structure and composition of the aggregate particles influence the resistance. If the grains of
the aggregates are not well cemented to each other, they will consequently be weak. The
resistance to crushing or compression of the aggregate must be such that it allows the total
resistance of the cementitious matrix.
b. Tenacity : This characteristic is associated with the impact resistance of the material. It is
directly related to the bending, angularity and texture of the material.
c. Hardness : The hardness of an aggregate is defined as its resistance to erosion, abrasion or

general to wear. The hardness of the particles depends on their constituents. Among the rocks
to be used in concrete, these must be resistant to abrasion or erosion processes and can be
quartz, quartzite, dense rocks of volcanic origin and silica rocks.
d. Modulus of elasticity : It is defined as the change of stress with respect to elastic deformation,
considered as a measure of the material's resistance to deformation. The elastic modulus is
determined in a very unusual way in the aggregates; however, the concrete will experience
deformations, so it is reasonable to intuit that the aggregates must also have elasticities
according to the type of concrete. The value of the elastic modulus also influences plastic
leakage and contractions that may occur.
4.6. THERMAL PROPERTIES :
a. Expansion coefficient : Quantifies the ability to increase the dimensions of the aggregates as a
function of temperature, it depends greatly on the composition and structure.

Vañez
b. internal of rocks and varies significantly between the various types of rock. In dry aggregates
it is around 10% higher than in the partially saturated state. Values typically range between
0.9 x 10 to 8.9 x 10 / °C.
-6 -6
c. Specific heat : It is the amount of heat necessary to increase the temperature by one degree
Celsius. It does not vary much in the various types of rock except in the case of very light and
porous aggregates.
d. Thermal conductivity : It is the greater or lesser ease of conducting heat. It is basically

influenced by porosity, its range of variation being relatively narrow. The usual values for
aggregates are 1.1 to 2.7 BTU/ft.hr.°F
e. Diffusivity : Represents the speed with which thermal changes can occur within a mass, it is
expressed as the quotient of dividing the conductivity by the product of specific heat times the
density.
4.7. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES :
a. Alkali-Silica Reaction : The alkalis in cement are made up of sodium and potassium oxide,
which under conditions of temperature and humidity can react with certain minerals,
producing an expansive gel. Normally, for this reaction to occur, alkali content is necessary. of
the order of 0.6% ambient temperatures of 30°C and relative humidities of 80% and a time of
5 years for the reaction to become evident. There are laboratory tests to evaluate these
reactions that are defined in ASTM C227, ASTM C289, ASTM C-295 and that allow obtaining
information to qualify the reactivity of the aggregate.
b. Alkali-carbonate reaction: It is produced by the reaction of the carbonates present in the

aggregates, generating expansive substances. In Peru there is no evidence of this type of
reaction. The procedures for evaluating this characteristic are standardized in ASTM C-586.
4.8. POROSITY: It is the volume of spaces within the

aggregate particles. It has a great influence on all other
properties of the aggregates, as it is representative of
the internal structure of the particles. There is no ASTM
standard method to evaluate it, however there are
several forms of determination that are generally
complex and whose validity is relative. An indirect way
of estimating it is by determining the absorption, which
gives an order of magnitude of the porosity, normally
10% less than the real one, since, as we have indicated,
in the previous paragraph, all the pores of the cells
never become completely saturated.

Vañez
particles. Usual values in common aggregates can range from 0 to 15%, although generally the
common range is 1 to 5%. In light aggregates, porosities of the order of 15 to 50% can be present.
Typically, concrete is a mixture of four basic ingredients: sand, gravel, cement, and water. In the
mixing process, a certain amount of air is mixed into the concrete. Water and air take up space
within the concrete even after the concrete is poured in place and during the early stages of
setting. When concrete is worked into place and begins to "set" or harden, the heavier ingredients
tend to settle to the bottom while the lighter ingredients float on top. Water being the lightest of
the four basic ingredients, it floats upward where it evaporates or is squeezed out the sides or
bottom. As it is squeezed, it moves in all directions. Water, by occupying space, leaves millions of
intersecting holes in all directions. As the air escapes, it has the same effect. These hollow spaces
tie together creating what we call pores. Often the pores create very fine cracks within the
concrete, weakening the concrete. Depending on the capillary action of the concrete drawing
water into the concrete, or rain hitting the sides of the concrete wall, or the hydrology of water
going against a basement wall, the water travels through the pores through the concrete. The
pores are interwoven and interconnected, thus allowing the slow passage of water through the
concrete. The denser the concrete, the tighter the pores and the less water can pass through.
a) IMPORTANCE OF POROSITY : The porosity of the aggregate has an influence on the chemical
stability, abrasion resistance, mechanical resistance, elastic properties, specific gravity,
absorption and permeability of the particles, all of these properties being lower as the
porosity of the aggregate increases. Likewise, the characteristics of the pores determine the
absorption capacity and speed, the ease of drainage, the internal surface area of the particles,
and the portion of their mass volume occupied by solid matter.
b) INFLUENCE ON PROPERTIES : The speed of the chemical reaction of the aggregates in
concrete, as well as its chemical stability, are influenced by the characteristics of its porosity.
Aggregates that have a high percentage of pores, especially if they are small, have a greater
specific surface area susceptible to chemical attack than aggregates in which there is a smaller
pore surface area or those that are large in size. The thermal characteristics of the aggregate
are influenced by porosity. Important changes in the expansion coefficient, diffusibility and
conductivity of the aggregate can occur due to changes in its moisture content. It is now
considered that the characteristics of the pores probably influence the thermal properties of
the dry aggregate. The adhesion of the paste to the aggregate particles is determined by some
properties of the aggregate surface, including the roughness and pore characteristics of the
surface zone, which can affect the surface texture and adhesion goodness of the paste.

Vañez
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
4.9. PERCENTAGE PASS 200.
It is represented by silt, clay and organic matter, this in turn is harmful to the concrete and in conventional
works up to five percent of this material is accepted and in demanding works up to three percent, but if there
is less than the the mixture passes 200 better
, c. Do you want to wash— Wafter washing

%fines =---------------—----------------------------
''“before washing
4.10. UNIT WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC WEIGHT

4.10.1. UNIT WEIGHT
It is the relationship between the weight of a material and the volume occupied by it, expressed in kilograms
per cubic meter. It will invariably be used for the conversion of weight to volume; that is, to know the
consumption of aggregates per cubic meter (Kg/m ). Although the test can be carried out on fine aggregate and
3
coarse aggregate; The value that is used in practice as a parameter for concrete dosage is the compacted unit
weight of the coarse aggregate.
p U r+mr ” v
Where:
^r+m : Weight of the container plus the weight of the sample (Kg)
W, : Weight of container (Kg)

V : Container volume
a) LOOSE UNIT WEIGHT (PUS): It is called PUS when to determine it, the dry material is gently placed in the
container to the point of spillage and then a veneer is leveled flush. The PUS concept is important when it
comes to handling, transportation and storage of aggregates because they are made in a loose state. It will
invariably be used for the conversion of weight to volume, that is, to know the consumption of aggregates per
cubic meter of concrete.
b) COMPACTED UNIT WEIGHT (PUC): It is called PUC when the grains have been subjected to compaction, thus
increasing the degree of accommodation of the aggregate particles and therefore the value of the unit mass.
The PUC is important from a mix design point of view since it determines the absolute volume of the
aggregates since they will be subjected to compaction during the concrete placement process. This value will
be used to know the volumes of stacked materials that are subject to accommodation or settlement caused by
it, transit over them or by the action of time. The value of the compacted unit weight is also extremely useful
for calculating the void percentage of materials.
60 1 1 Eng. Jean Edison Palma

Vañez
PUC = (Weight of sand (compacted) + mold) - Weight of mold Mold

Example:
volume
Data
PUC = 7808 - 3091 = 1.52014 gr/cm 3 = 1520.142 kg/m 3
V olume of the mo Ide V = 3 103 cm3 3103
Mold weight P = 3091 gr
PUS = ( Weight of sand (loose) + mold) - Weight of mold
Weight of sand + mold = 7808 gr (compacted) Mold volume
Weight of sand + mold = 7250 gr (loose)
PUS = 7250-3091 = 1.3403 gr/cm3 = 1340.315 kg/m 3

3103
4.10.2. SPECIFIC WEIGHT
Knowing the concept of unit weight, it is clear that any type of matter that occupies a volume in space has
this property. Water as a fluid matter, in its natural state and given its physical characteristics, has a known
quantified unit weight. The natural presence of water within the different phases of the soil forces us to
establish a universal relationship between the unit weights contained within a material. and the water that is
part of it, in this way the concept of Specific Weight (G) is accommodated. Consequently, the specific weight
of an aggregate corresponds to the relationship between its unit weight and the unit weight of water. Since
the specific weight is a quotient (dimensionless quantity), it is nothing other than the ratio of two unit
weights, then the foundation of this property depends on its unit weight; It is necessary to identify certain
characteristics related to the unit weight that show indications of the behavior of the aggregate as part of a
structure; The unit weight is related to the total amount of grains or particles present in a sample (depending
on porosity) and the amount of water present in the voids (depending on humidity). The methods for
measuring specific weight are based on Archimedes' principle, in this way the weight of the mineral in the
water will be equal to the weight of the material minus the push exerted by the water. The specific weight of
the aggregate is the result of dividing the weight of the aggregate by the weight of the volume of water it
displaces. To calculate this last value, the weight of the material in the air and the weight of the material in
the water are measured, since the thrust will be equal to the weight of the material minus the weight exerted
by the water. The thrust provided by the fluid will be greater the greater the density of the fluid. Other types
of methods of no less importance, which use dense liquids, are based on this clarity. The higher the density of
the fluid used, the greater the weight of the displaced volume.

Vañez
a) Specific weight – Fine aggregate:
a.1. Specific weight of mass (Pem):
Wo
Pem
=(-va)100
Where:
Pem: Specific weight of mass
Wo: Weight in air of the oven-dried sample, grams.
V : Volume of the bottle in cm3
Goes : Weight in grams or volume in cm3 of water added to the bottle
a.2. Specific gravity of mass saturated with dry surface (PeSSS)

500
PeSSS =--------— xlOO
V - Goes
a.3. Apparent specific weight (Pea)

(Whoa)
Pea = -- - ----------------------------xlOO
(V — Va) — (500 — Wo)
a.4. Absorption (Ab)
500 - Wo
Ab =--------------xlOO
Wo
b) Specific Weight – Coarse Aggregate
b.1. Specific Weight: It is the ratio, at a stable temperature, of the mass (or weight in air) of a unit volume of the
material, to the mass of the same volume of water at the indicated temperatures. Values are dimensionless.
b.2. Apparent Specific Weight: It is the ratio, at a stable temperature, of the mass in air of a unit volume of the
aggregate (including the permeable and impermeable pores in the particles, but not including the pores between
particles); to the mass in air of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water.
b.3. Specific Weight of Mass Saturated Surface Dry (SSS): It is the ratio, at a stable temperature, of the mass in air
of a unit volume of aggregate including the mass of water of the pores filled until filled by immersion in water for
24 hours. approximately (but not including the pores between particles), compared to the mass in air of an equal
volume of gas-free distilled water.
b.4. Absorption: It is the amount of water absorbed by the aggregate after being immersed in it for 24 hours,
expressed as a percentage of the dry weight. The aggregate is considered “dry” when it has been maintained at a
temperature of 110ºC ± 5ºC for sufficient time to remove all the uncombined water.
60 1 1 Eng. Jean Edison Palma

Vañez
Specific weight and specific weight of mass (Pem):
TO
Pem = (B-05100
Where:
A: Weight of dry sample in air, grams;
B: Weight of saturated surface-dry sample in air, grams;
C: Weight in water of the saturated sample.
Specific gravity of mass saturated with dry surface (PeSSS)

b
PeSSS =--------x100
B-C
Apparent specific weight (Pea)
TO
Pea = -----------x100
A-C
Absorption (Ab)
B-A
Ab(%) =—A X100

Vañez
CHAPTER VII
BINDERS
Binding materials are those materials that, in a pasty state and with variable consistency, have the
property of being able to be molded, of easily adhering to other materials, of joining them together, of
protecting them, of hardening and of achieving considerable mechanical resistance.
They are all those generally soft stone materials, which when mixed with water become plastic, forming
paste and which when dried reach mechanical resistance, the typical binders being clay, gypsum, lime and
cement.
The most used binders are gypsum, lime, and cement. They are classified according to their
composition, in:
c®P Primary
or that
or Lime
or Cement
c®P Secondary
or Mortar
or concrete
8 Bituminous materials
or Bitumen
or Asphalt
or Tar
Types of binders
8 Aerial binders : those that harden in contact with air.

^ Hydraulic binders: those that can harden in contact with air and immersed in water.
1. CLAYS
They are those substances, coming from the decomposition of rocks, that have plasticity when they are
moistened and that when thus moistened if they are molded, after being dry, they retain the shape they have
received, but also, subjected to fire, after being molded, to the temperature of red or even higher, they
acquire hardness and resistance comparable to those of natural rocks.
a. Composition: The basic mineral of clays is called kaolin , which is a hydrated silicate of complex
composition and whose chemical formula (Al 2 O 3 .2SiO 2 .H 2 O) or (H 4 Al 2 Si 2 O 9 ). It is white or almost
white in color, with an earthy structure, fine grain, and

Vañez
in sedimentary deposits. Kaolin with characteristic impurities forms the various clays. Among these
impurities are: silica, ferric oxide, magnesia, carbon dioxide, carbonates of lime and iron, sometimes sodium
chloride and alum; and in a less perfect mixture, pieces of quartz, feldspar, mica, humus, etc.
b. Classification: Clays are classified into several branches, which we will see below:
^- According to their greater or lesser plasticity : clays are classified as fat and lean. Plasticity is the
property according to which clay soaked with water transforms into a modelable mass. Fatty clays are
the plastic ones par excellence. They are unctuous to the touch, rubbing them with your fingernail, when
they are wet, they present a united and shiny surface and when wetting them they exhale the
characteristic smell of the fermenting earth.
Lean clays, which have very little or no plasticity, are also called arid clays.
e Due to their origin, clays are classified as residual and transported : Residual clays are those that
have been formed by the decomposition of rocks, remaining on the floor of origin. Among these, kaolin is
very important, which has been derived from the alteration of feldspathic rocks such as granite,
pegmatite, etc. It is whitish in color, with a chemical composition defined as an almost pure hydrated
alumina silicate.
Transported or sedimentary clays are those that have been carried by an agent such as water, wind,
glacial action, etc.; For this reason they are called transported, and since they later lie in layers, they have
also been called sedimentary.
®” Another type of classification is according to its commercialization :

Kaolin clays : These are residual clays, the purest, with a high percentage of kaolinite. They are high
grade, fine grain. Cooking in white. They are used in the manufacture of earthenware, porcelain and
paper.
Refractory clays : These are clays that contain little metal oxide and alkalis, and can withstand high
temperatures without disaggregating, which is why they are used in the construction of ovens, crucibles,
stoves and similar works.
Pottery clays : They are semi-refractory clays with strong action and very similar to refractory clays.
They are used in pottery and ceramics.
Clays for bricks and tiles : They are the most common type. They are of low value. They are used
everywhere for these products. When subjected to the action of fire they acquire a red color.
c. Physical and mechanical properties of clays

® Plasticity : It is one of the most important. It is produced by wetting the clays. It is greater when the
dimension of the clay grains is smaller (0.005mm). The amount of water to obtain a good ceramic
product varies with the type of clay and can range between 15 and 35% by weight. Although plasticity is
such an important quality to know, there are no methods to determine it a priori and whose results are
satisfactory, the most

Vañez
Personal experience is 3 vital 1 importance. given is to appreciate it by touch, with your fingers, the
experience
to tension: It is important because the pieces must withstand the forces developed in them: It
is manipulation in molding and drying operations. developed forces and
The
texture of the clays is determined by granulometric analysis. ado
Grinding :
1
It depends on the final dimension of the pieces. It is usual to distinguish the contraction
of the modeled clay from the one produced by the evaporation of the paste and that the clay performs the
firing in the 3 oven. by the evaporation of the water from the pasta, and here
1
It influences the amount of cooking 1 needed to prepare the pasta.
8 Porosity:. Go
It is the eproperty to characteristic 3 of the al
clays for the a
which subjected to
At elevated
temperatures it softens gently and melts after a while
. which subjected to temperature
The r gone clays turn white
when they are exempt
iron oxide and carbonaceous matter clays
The
are colored in pale yellow , red and even green, due to the iron oxides and gray they appear with the
carbonaceous matter. red and even green, for iron oxides and gray or black, for carbonaceous materials.
2. AND SO
2. AND SO
It is a product prepared from a natural stone called aljez (calcium sulfate 5 dihydrate: C CaSO · 2H 1 O) by
means of dehydration, to which certain additions of other chemical substances can be added in the factory, by
modifying its setting characteristics and resistance. adhesion 5 film retention F density ficar its face kneaded
with forge can be used directly. Also, the creation of prefabricated materials is used. r
The direct use of the product
industrial, it is sulphate
from 01
calcium d semihydrate (CaSO ·½H
O), also commonly called "cooked gypsum
." It is sold ground, in its powder form. FA variety 11 of alabaster called
alabaster, is used
profusely, for ease of carving, i.e. to make small vessels, figurines 3 and other utensils . lens, due
to its ease of carving, to make small vessels, statuettes and other utensils.
to. Characteristic of gypsum stone : a. Gypsum stone feature:
It is a sedimentary rock, formed mainly by calcium sulfate and crystallized by two molecules ade
dimentari chemical formula ipaln CaSO .2H O, Iphate of lime hydrated calcium.a This mineral 1 can be
scratched with the 1 nail, it has a lamellar-granular structure , 1 and of color c white, reddish gray.a There are
impurities consisting of clay, sandstone, limestone, sulfur, sodium chloride and lignite, mainly. 3 A 3 measure
tuidas P more impure, the color turns into dark gray, brown or yellow. 1 In nature 31 are also found in IS sulfate
calcium 8crystallized, anhydrous
and is then called anhydrite (CaSO 3 ). It also includes crystallized, anhydrous calcium sulfate, and is then
called anhydrite (CaSO4).
Another variety of gypsum is selenite, in which gypsum is found in large, individually discernible crystals of
lamellar structure.
discernible, individually separated, lamellar structure.
Alabaster is a gypsum stone similar to white marble and with crystalline granulation. Statuary Edra was
mainly praised. It differs from marble in that it can be crystallined on the nail. Our stone of Huamanga ria. It was
alabaster. i of marble that can be scratched with a fingernail. Our Huamanga stone is an alabaster.

[ • PERUVIAN WINGS]
.
and
The main ones, used in the industry, are the following, classified into groups of
The main ones used in the industry are the nLcs Classified into groups according to the cooking
temperature.
Obtained by firing the gypsum stone temperature

ai less than 2002C:
white. e Es u a s r a d s : op s are e am mod s e plo us r do ee os manu a es u c r u a l t o u s r , ae o ni m d e o d s ic e i n na p o o
s lv te o o i ló m g pica a alp e a t b c l . and. Very
white. E s e u s s c a ay o ol p a a : r E a mo e os
de e P a a q rí u sm e ol uid r
o ay m escu f u in r a a, me
e en
n m te. c na os eo g
ca, e c.
3. Stucco
°e e m sc p a a y so taanda d
he saos
:
e do:au Erns
s
e n the constructions. It has some natural impurities, mainly clays are
used in constructions. jan a
ra g r u e n t a a s rd m a r p l u a r f e r z a a g s u a n
. It is mainly clays and sometimes certain substances are added to slow down the setting.
Get gone by
1
firing of the plaster stone at a temperature above 200ºC:
- Plasters for floors Manufactured by completely dehydrating plaster stone.
Are from
slow forge. ... Sb ... . .
gives the name. A es a a class p etc : eo
the n p e a
l ct a o rt q if u ice e ia e l” s
sat garu
gives the name. To this class o pe P r a t r e o n s e ” ce e n t

c. Industrial pastes called "artificial marble, Keene cement, Paros cement,
etc.
c. Plaster forge.
propo a rc r i a ó g n ua co en s se a n pier no t pe e d a ea q g u u e a, t form them, you bind them by water, you knead them
with r p e r lo a p ti o v r a c me n nt c e onven ente e
sa ag s u o a li , da o d rm ot a and , a ed n ecu u on he t re en mcipa
o
su m fic sien o te less va a r pa rov e e , ch p a e d ro a
for certain purposes. The forge of the ota ae co erenc as u co c me e p n le te jo p q a u r eas s e er i n a i pcir a o d ve e c sd
a
ee a l
with certain purposes and water and plaster live in a complex process that is
starts from
de d is
c m
l u c ion ,
e on t o e n q utr eas n e
sf o
v er r
m aa i ó q
te a g una p ua í r
m i c a,
a a m as s
a a t r u o r , a y ci q ó un e ,
and p f a i s na al s m u c e e n s te v , a c m ri e s n t t a e lip z o a r tio n s in less , . ,, ,
—2 d Item
- Dissolution, when pouring water to knead it. s components with water.
Trans orm 3 c c ua n nd q o us me m e a z , c c c l u a a t n ota o lm re e an c t c e o en la p n ol s v u o with water (paste).
water. ,.
- Saturation, when the hardening is complete -1 water (paste).
CP sta 117.a ci on When hardening occurs
[ • PERUVIAN WINGS]
then all of it r c o o s m s p e r by m o etu id ce an so re racc ones parc a es
attention is first place, and
fe n ó m e no saea
e s p u s o
r c r o e m nt p e r s o m co en t la a f e r n a g e u a as d e e t l a p y a e s s .
either; The first is that this is produced with
increase in attendance with water and plaster; e 2
0 p ºC rmo e s r e o a ed s es q p u r e en ed s it m a ies n e to pr do
ecu a c le or c ( o en l
increase in temperature, which can reach up to ,
that is, amazement and joy (and
forging time plaster is more or minus 16 minutes); and the
second, that the plaster increases
forging time plaster is more or minus 16 minutesS); and the
second, that the plaster increases dc
when setting. The forge of plaster can be challenged Added some products
i n d u str i a a es co
o r g n c o s
m o
r eta g rd c a ed r o n r a a , b a a r se de , , hairs, r s , od a aoo, blood yv c ivo a a la e c c a a l r a p ct n
ú a er c o o . na
p, ,and and
In the industry, a hair retarder is used, caustic soda and quicklime. And the lime acts as a n.tc. As a forge
accelerator, it is used.
and the alum and r
kitchen salt
g.
[ MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
r
.p.
The majority of Lima plasters have the following characteristics:

The majority of Lima plasters have the following characteristics:
100 mesh. n (L o a g r r e a s d is o e nur
al :
a p t a r s a a c n cio a n m d a el eso . N a o um m e e n o ta s p e rop 0 or % ci , on n ia m lm s
ent e e 7 as % u , they pass to
mesh 1 . and tensile strength ,
CHAPTER I.............................................................................................................................................................1
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS.........................................................................................................1
1.1. GENERALITIES.......................................................................................................................................1
1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS.....................................................................................................1
1.2.1. According to its origin:..........................................................................................................................2
1.2.2. According to internal structure..............................................................................................................3
1.3. MATERIAL PROPERTIES......................................................................................................................5
1.3.1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES...................................................................................................................5
Figure No. 1.1.......................................................................................................................................................8
Darcy's Experimental Equipment.........................................................................................................................8
Superficial Dilation : The...................................................................................................................................14
1 variation of 1....................................................................................................................................................14
Values of the linear expansion coefficients ( a).................................................................................................16
1.3.5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES................................................................................................................21
1.3.5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES :........................................................................................................21
COMPLEMENTARY ACTIVITIES.................................................................................................................30
SPECIFIC WEIGHT..........................................................................................................................................30
POROSITY.........................................................................................................................................................30
DILATATION....................................................................................................................................................32
CHAPTER II..........................................................................................................................................................33
STANDARDIZATION..........................................................................................................................................33
2. OBJECTIVES AND ADVANTAGES:......................................................................................................33
5. STANDARDIZATION IN PERU:.............................................................................................................33
D. Methodology:...........................................................................................................................................40
E. CREATION OF INDECOPI :.....................................................................................................................40
CHAPTER III.........................................................................................................................................................42
MATERIALS SELECTION..................................................................................................................................42
Table No. 3.1.......................................................................................................................................................42
Design-Limiting Material Properties...................................................................................................................42
79 ng. Jean son a ma a ez

TO. CLASSIFICATION OF ESSAYS :............................................................................................................45
A.1. Depending on the rigor of the test .............................................................................................................45
A.2. According to the nature of the essay ..........................................................................................................45
A.3. According to the usefulness of the piece after being subjected to the test ................................................45
A.4. Depending on the speed of application of forces .......................................................................................45
CHAPTER IV........................................................................................................................................................47
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS....................................................................................................................47
Heat Transfer Equations......................................................................................................................................53
DRIVING (plane coordinates)..............................................................................................................................53
Remember..........................................................................................................................................................53
CONVECTION - CONDUCTION - CONVECTION (plane coordinates)................................................................54
h2............................................................................................................................................................................55
DRIVING (cylindrical coordinates)......................................................................................................................55
MULTIPLE LAYERS (cylindrical coordinates)....................................................................................................56
HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS......................................................................................................................59
.
and...............................................................................................................................................................64
16........................................................................................................................................................................66
CHAPTER V..........................................................................................................................................................68
NATURAL STONE MATERIALS: ROCKS........................................................................................................68
3. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS :.......................................................................................................................70
CHAPTER VI........................................................................................................................................................75
AGGREGATE.......................................................................................................................................................75
4. PROPERTIES.............................................................................................................................................83
CONTINUOUS GRANULOMETRY AGGREGATES – MINIMUM VOIDS : For this the..........................88
4.4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES :...................................................................................................................92
4.5. RESISTANT PROPERTIES :.................................................................................................................94
4.6. THERMAL PROPERTIES :...................................................................................................................95
4.7. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES :..................................................................................................................96
4.9. PERCENTAGE PASS 200......................................................................................................................99
4.10.1. UNIT WEIGHT...................................................................................................................................99
4.10.2. SPECIFIC WEIGHT......................................................................................................................100
a) Specific weight – Fine aggregate:.................................................................................................................102
a.1. Specific weight of mass (Pem):..................................................................................................................102
a.2. Specific gravity of mass saturated with dry surface (PeSSS).....................................................................102
80 Eng. Jean Edison Palma Vañez

68 I Engineer Jean Edison Palma
Vañez
a.3. Apparent specific weight (Pea)..................................................................................................................102
b) Specific Weight – Coarse Aggregate...........................................................................................................102
CHAPTER VII.....................................................................................................................................................104
BINDERS.............................................................................................................................................................104
c®P Primary.....................................................................................................................................................104
c®P Secondary.................................................................................................................................................104
8 Bituminous materials.....................................................................................................................................104
Types of binders...............................................................................................................................................104
1. CLAYS......................................................................................................................................................104
®” Another type of classification is according to its commercialization :.......................................................106
c. Physical and mechanical properties of clays.............................................................................................107
2. AND SO......................................................................................................................................................108
2. AND SO......................................................................................................................................................108
.
and.............................................................................................................................................................110
Obtained by firing the gypsum stone temperature............................................................................................110
ai less than 2002C:............................................................................................................................................110
1
firing of the plaster stone at a temperature above 200ºC:.........................................................................110
c. Plaster forge..................................................................................................................................................110
.p.......................................................................................................................................................................112
e. Resistances................................................................................................................................................116
3. CAL..............................................................................................................................................................117
b.
Lime manufacturing process:....................................................................................................................124
,, Yo...............................................................................................................................................................124
4. Pozzolans:..................................................................................................................................................126
CHAPTER VIII....................................................................................................................................................127
CEMENT.............................................................................................................................................................127
3. CEMENT MANUFACTURING:.............................................................................................................133
Raw . or I larina................................................................................................................................................134
b. PROCESS :...............................................................................................................................................134
c. PROCESS:...................................................................................................................................................134
d. PHASES:...................................................................................................................................................134
4 . CEMENT MODULES..................................................................................................................................134
6. CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENTS.........................................................................................................144
b. PORTLAND CEMENT ADDITIONS.........................................................................................................147

Vañez
b. PORTLAND CEMENT ADDITIONS..................................................................................................................147
Yo Yo either c.............................................................................................................................................147
■ Type I(PM): Modified Pozzola Portland Cement.....................................................................................147
5” TypeICo :.....................................................................................................................................................147
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PERUVIAN CEMENTS.................................................................147
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PERUVIAN CEMENTS...................................................................................147
7. MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION OF CEMENT..............................................................................148
..........................................................................................................................................................................152
Issues................................................................................................................................................................154
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.........................................................................................................................158
M) ANSWER IF I IS TRUE OR FALSE.........................................................................................................160
CHAPTER IX......................................................................................................................................................162
WATER FOR CONCRETE AND MORTAR.....................................................................................................162
1. MIXING WATER:....................................................................................................................................163
2. CURING WATER:...................................................................................................................................169
3. WASHING WATER.................................................................................................................................169
4. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE USE OF WATER IN CONCRETE.....................................................169
b. FORBIDDEN WATERS...........................................................................................................................171
6 Concretes put aluminum elements 00 fier.................................................................................................173
8 Lime paste: Lime.......................................................................................................................................179
obtained from PORTLAND CEMENT. Cement mortar is a construction material ..............................................180
Excess water exerts the following influences :.................................................................................................182
CHAPTER XI......................................................................................................................................................193
CONCRETE.........................................................................................................................................................193
1. CHARACTERISTICS..............................................................................................................................193
2. TYPES OF CONCRETE..........................................................................................................................193
3.1. ITS T......................................................................................................................................................199
4.1. PR..........................................................................................................................................................199
Properties of fresh concrete..............................................................................................................................199
4.1.3. Workability: and The r.......................................................................................................................200
5. TESTING FRESH CONCRETE...............................................................................................................207
6. TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE...................................................................................................207
6........................................................................................................................................................................207
6........................................................................................................................................................................207

Vañez
CHAPTER XII.....................................................................................................................................................208
MASONRY UNITS.............................................................................................................................................208
5........................................................................................................................................................................212
1. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURES OF WOOD:...............................................................................224
c. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF WOOD......................................................................................................229
d. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF WOOD......................................................................................................229
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD...................................................................................................232
4. PHYSICAL – CHEMICAL QUALITIES OF WOOD.............................................................................236
5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD............................................................................................236
a. Forest exploitation:....................................................................................................................................238
A. By manufacturing method or metallurgical process:.............................................................................242
B. By use of steel .......................................................................................................................................242
C. Due to the chemical composition of steel:.............................................................................................242
68 Steel aI q l.....................................................................................................................................................244
2. CHEMICAL ELEMENTS THAT GIVE CERTAIN PROPERTIES TO STEEL....................................244
3. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS...................................................................................................246
Table Nº01........................................................................................................................................................251
Minimum Mechanical Characteristics of Steel................................................................................................251
4. MECHANICAL TESTING OF STEEL...................................................................................................251
Figure Nº07.......................................................................................................................................................254
Diagram of the specimen for the Flexion adhesion test...................................................................................254
Figure Nº07.......................................................................................................................................................256
Brinell apparatus...............................................................................................................................................256
Figure Nº08 Rockwell apparatus.....................................................................................................................257
8- Paste volume: 95% of the volume of live plaster.
e. Resistances.
be L la a a d g e en 8 er K a g li / d c a m d 2 de a l
or
the s t p e l n ie s g io o n sd a e specification, prescribe that at l
seven days, for plasters
cooked
in ca g ld / e c r m as , . a Co a m t o n re s sis n t , e a n c a s to the 1 o c r o a m s; p y resi e ó n se s g u / e c l me co ans o i s
de s r eat r e la d a e s, for plasters for the y e en so c d a e
cons . truction; and 180 K a g/ a cm co 2 m for p r r a is the d n e that is usually conserved ae g/cm,
for construction plaster 1 and 180 gc pa ae ep sos.

Vañez
f. Manufacture of raw material The
:
is extracted
material
the quarries, then crushing is carried out.
from
in crushers or mills, choosing the model of the machine due to the hardness of the rock, the ca vol o umas en o de o pro o d s u , c
e
c s i c ó o n g , e e tc. o eo eo ea
machine of rd to the hardness of the
_ rock, the volume of production ' dehydration of the plaster stone and can be carried out using huayronas,
boilers or kilos or a
rotary kilns
plaster stone and can be executed using huayronas,
calderas or ki
After firing, the plaster is reduced to powder, the way it is sold to the public, the
powder is given to the West.
m n e e dio yed s e o m es or li e no us c de olta ip po o b v a o
r , ra r ot a am en bi q é un e ps o e r e m xp o e li n no e d a
e
public to pu ver zac n se a
by means of bar type mills or also mills .
3. CAL
It is the product resulting from the decomposition, due to heat, of limestone rocks, which are calcium
carbonates or calcium carbonates. If the limestones 1 heat, of the r
heated to 900ºC, the following reaction is verified: a os e ca c o. that's how hunting they are
pure and heated to 900°C s c
see the following in the reaction:
CaCaO 3
, +heat —> CC 2 + CaO
That is, calcium carbonate decomposes, giving rise to carbon dioxide and calcium oxide or quicklime. Carbon
dioxide is gaseous and is car anhydride
losn fumes
XI of the
combustion, leaving, therefore, as a residue of es la g c a os m eo b s u o sti y ó n 5e el ó es xc id a o pa of C calcium.
combustion, leaving, therefore, calcium oxide as a residue of combustion.
Lime stones or natural limestones are almost never found pure, that is, in the form of calcium carbonate, but
accompanied by foreign bodies, mainly clay, calcium carbonate, but accompanied by other foreign bodies,
mainly clay.

Vañez
magnesi a determi nothings €c aracterís sticas.
, , , y Carbonates ,
calcium nicking lime , the p nature in
multitude of forms, being very abundant, it is known by the following names:
multitude of forms, being very abundant, it is known by the following names:
Aragó nLit spar of I and estal , agmites marble as and is agmas, li stone ,
o, topographic etc. etc lithographic stone, etc., etc.
Limestone,
,
Crete, , following : as sn as cases ases e ca can be grouped
Crete,
' in the following way.
By the action of water :
C. Yo l bl fa Item.. .d
" Cal vpaaged ai
It is the product of the reaction of quicklime with water at the temperature at which it gives
place this reaction is from ue
160 °C nea ca v va con e water, a
The temperature at which this
reaction takes place is about 160 C.
Because of its thickness :

Because of its thickness:
CHAPTER I.............................................................................................................................................................1
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS.........................................................................................................1
1.1. GENERALITIES.......................................................................................................................................1
1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS.....................................................................................................1
1.2.1. According to its origin:..........................................................................................................................2
1.2.2. According to internal structure..............................................................................................................3
1.3. MATERIAL PROPERTIES......................................................................................................................5
1.3.1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES...................................................................................................................5
Figure No. 1.1.......................................................................................................................................................8
Darcy's Experimental Equipment.........................................................................................................................8
Superficial Dilation : The...................................................................................................................................14
1 variation of 1....................................................................................................................................................14
Values of the linear expansion coefficients ( a).................................................................................................16
1.3.5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES................................................................................................................21
1.3.5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES :........................................................................................................21
COMPLEMENTARY ACTIVITIES.................................................................................................................30
SPECIFIC WEIGHT..........................................................................................................................................30
POROSITY.........................................................................................................................................................30
DILATATION....................................................................................................................................................32
CHAPTER II..........................................................................................................................................................33
STANDARDIZATION..........................................................................................................................................33
2. OBJECTIVES AND ADVANTAGES:......................................................................................................33

Vañez
5. STANDARDIZATION IN PERU:.............................................................................................................33
D. Methodology:...........................................................................................................................................40
E. CREATION OF INDECOPI :.....................................................................................................................40
CHAPTER III.........................................................................................................................................................42
MATERIALS SELECTION..................................................................................................................................42
Table No. 3.1.......................................................................................................................................................42
Design-Limiting Material Properties...................................................................................................................42
TO. CLASSIFICATION OF ESSAYS :............................................................................................................45
A.1. Depending on the rigor of the test .............................................................................................................45
A.2. According to the nature of the essay ..........................................................................................................45
A.3. According to the usefulness of the piece after being subjected to the test ................................................45
A.4. Depending on the speed of application of forces .......................................................................................45
CHAPTER IV........................................................................................................................................................47
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS....................................................................................................................47
Heat Transfer Equations......................................................................................................................................53
DRIVING (plane coordinates)..............................................................................................................................53
Remember..........................................................................................................................................................53
CONVECTION - CONDUCTION - CONVECTION (plane coordinates)................................................................54
h2............................................................................................................................................................................55
DRIVING (cylindrical coordinates)......................................................................................................................55
MULTIPLE LAYERS (cylindrical coordinates)....................................................................................................56
HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS......................................................................................................................59
.
and...............................................................................................................................................................64
16........................................................................................................................................................................66
CHAPTER V..........................................................................................................................................................68
NATURAL STONE MATERIALS: ROCKS........................................................................................................68
3. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS :.......................................................................................................................70
CHAPTER VI........................................................................................................................................................75
AGGREGATE.......................................................................................................................................................75
4. PROPERTIES.............................................................................................................................................83
CONTINUOUS GRANULOMETRY AGGREGATES – MINIMUM VOIDS : For this the..........................88
4.4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES :...................................................................................................................92
4.5. RESISTANT PROPERTIES :.................................................................................................................94
4.6. THERMAL PROPERTIES :...................................................................................................................95

Vañez
4.7. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES :..................................................................................................................96
4.9. PERCENTAGE PASS 200......................................................................................................................99
4.10.1. UNIT WEIGHT...................................................................................................................................99
4.10.2. SPECIFIC WEIGHT......................................................................................................................100
a) Specific weight – Fine aggregate:.................................................................................................................102
a.1. Specific weight of mass (Pem):..................................................................................................................102
a.2. Specific gravity of mass saturated with dry surface (PeSSS).....................................................................102
a.3. Apparent specific weight (Pea)..................................................................................................................102
b) Specific Weight – Coarse Aggregate...........................................................................................................102
CHAPTER VII.....................................................................................................................................................104
BINDERS.............................................................................................................................................................104
c®P Primary.....................................................................................................................................................104
c®P Secondary.................................................................................................................................................104
8 Bituminous materials.....................................................................................................................................104
Types of binders...............................................................................................................................................104
1. CLAYS......................................................................................................................................................104
®” Another type of classification is according to its commercialization :.......................................................106
c. Physical and mechanical properties of clays.............................................................................................107
2. AND SO......................................................................................................................................................108
2. AND SO......................................................................................................................................................108
.
and.............................................................................................................................................................110
Obtained by firing the gypsum stone temperature............................................................................................110
ai less than 2002C:............................................................................................................................................110
1
firing of the plaster stone at a temperature above 200ºC:.........................................................................110
c. Plaster forge..................................................................................................................................................110
.p.......................................................................................................................................................................112
e. Resistances................................................................................................................................................116
3. CAL..............................................................................................................................................................117
b.
Lime manufacturing process:....................................................................................................................124
,, Yo...............................................................................................................................................................124
4. Pozzolans:..................................................................................................................................................126
CHAPTER VIII....................................................................................................................................................127
CEMENT.............................................................................................................................................................127
3. CEMENT MANUFACTURING:.............................................................................................................133

Vañez
Raw . or I larina................................................................................................................................................134
b. PROCESS :...............................................................................................................................................134
c. PROCESS:...................................................................................................................................................134
d. PHASES:...................................................................................................................................................134
4 . CEMENT MODULES..................................................................................................................................134
6. CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENTS.........................................................................................................144
b. PORTLAND CEMENT ADDITIONS.........................................................................................................147
Yo Yo either c.............................................................................................................................................147
■ Type I(PM): Modified Pozzola Portland Cement.....................................................................................147
5” TypeICo :.....................................................................................................................................................147
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PERUVIAN CEMENTS.................................................................147
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PERUVIAN CEMENTS...................................................................................147
7. MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION OF CEMENT..............................................................................148
..........................................................................................................................................................................152
Issues................................................................................................................................................................154
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS.........................................................................................................................158
M) ANSWER IF I IS TRUE OR FALSE.........................................................................................................160
CHAPTER IX......................................................................................................................................................162
WATER FOR CONCRETE AND MORTAR.....................................................................................................162
1. MIXING WATER:....................................................................................................................................163
2. CURING WATER:...................................................................................................................................169
3. WASHING WATER.................................................................................................................................169
4. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE USE OF WATER IN CONCRETE.....................................................169
b. FORBIDDEN WATERS...........................................................................................................................171
6 Concretes put aluminum elements 00 fier.................................................................................................173
8 Lime paste: Lime.......................................................................................................................................179
obtained from PORTLAND CEMENT. Cement mortar is a construction material ..............................................180
Excess water exerts the following influences :.................................................................................................182
CHAPTER XI......................................................................................................................................................193
CONCRETE.........................................................................................................................................................193
1. CHARACTERISTICS..............................................................................................................................193
2. TYPES OF CONCRETE..........................................................................................................................193
3.1. ITS T......................................................................................................................................................199

Vañez
4.1. PR..........................................................................................................................................................199
Properties of fresh concrete..............................................................................................................................199
4.1.3. Workability: and The r.......................................................................................................................200
5. TESTING FRESH CONCRETE...............................................................................................................207
6. TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE...................................................................................................207
6........................................................................................................................................................................207
6........................................................................................................................................................................207
CHAPTER XII.....................................................................................................................................................208
MASONRY UNITS.............................................................................................................................................208
5........................................................................................................................................................................212
1. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURES OF WOOD:...............................................................................224
c. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF WOOD......................................................................................................229
d. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF WOOD......................................................................................................229
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD...................................................................................................232
4. PHYSICAL – CHEMICAL QUALITIES OF WOOD.............................................................................236
5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD............................................................................................236
a. Forest exploitation:....................................................................................................................................238
A. By manufacturing method or metallurgical process:.............................................................................242
B. By use of steel .......................................................................................................................................242
C. Due to the chemical composition of steel:.............................................................................................242
68 Steel aI q l.....................................................................................................................................................244
2. CHEMICAL ELEMENTS THAT GIVE CERTAIN PROPERTIES TO STEEL....................................244
3. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS...................................................................................................246
Table Nº01........................................................................................................................................................251
Minimum Mechanical Characteristics of Steel................................................................................................251
4. MECHANICAL TESTING OF STEEL...................................................................................................251
Figure Nº07.......................................................................................................................................................254
Diagram of the specimen for the Flexion adhesion test...................................................................................254
Figure Nº07.......................................................................................................................................................256
Brinell apparatus...............................................................................................................................................256
Figure Nº08 Rockwell apparatus.....................................................................................................................257
and that gives a product that ininaddition to the limestone nation has fatty limes, can g,
And what gives a product that, addition to the characteristics that fatty limes have, can be cured and
seasoned with garlic and water.
By industrial refinement :

Vañez
By industrial refinement: . . . he .
of hydraulic lime, which are ground, constituting a cementing material thanks to the lime silicate that c u a e ,
contain, e on n degree o m s a c y o o n r s o m u e y n in or . or a greater or lesser degree of ecemenacs due to the lime
silicate they contain.
.
Lafarge Cement: Used in the US, being a similar product to the previous one.
The following types of lime are found in the Lima market:
The following types of lime are found in the Lima market:
Construction - the cheapest one contains impurities and is not white in color.
( Fine.- white in color, due to the absence of impurities.
and
Sieve, e-enta from lumps or coarse 8ranos.
6 Hydraulics.- prepared to ara end U r e ce rs eenp r e S e nce of I 3 8 U 3 • . pp .
.

Vañez
b.
Lime manufacturing process:
,, Yo
Obtaining limestone, the exploitation of quarries can be done by open pit cutting.
. h
Calcination of limestone is carried out using huayronas, intermittent kilns and continuous kilns.
c.
Lime manufacturing process:
c. Ca manufacturing process
i or dl d. Yo
open ion of limestone, the exploitation of quarries can be done by open cuts. , Yo h ,
. h
Calcination of limestone is carried out using intermittent kilns and continuous kilns.
d.
Lime Slaking: In Civil Engineering, lime is used slaked, this process is carried out with a d.
strong release of heat theoretically the slaking of quicklime only requires a volume of water equivalent to o l ,
35 e % d c e a l e that e d e d e a a pa ca g l a ; s o however in the p o rá c e t q ic u a e u sa volume q u a n t e id a g d ua of eq ag
u
u va a q e u e as indicated, the p s is a o lbañ e ile a s ca; yes
e
un v a ol g u o m e en d a e p cal c co c n a 1 se 5 u as
s
2 volumes of
a e a
. E l a p a g ado de la cal s e can do e es s r a p p o a r ga the u mét v o o d u os s e igui e
g u a q u e o ,
in c t a is c : o . to
volumes of water. turn off oea ca you can ace po os o os follow this:
i, i
humidity or water vapor in the atmosphere. aliza by the natural contact of IB lime with Id humidity or vape
ASPE g RSION: The lime is moistened with a watering can or with a sprayer, previously
spreading it a um u e na ec s e up a er c f a ici c in a
: on
r
p e a g s a d e e ra or with a pu ver za or, watered
successively
. lens on a surface in thin layers that are spread successively v O a B m R e A n : t
It consists of forming a pile or cone of sand on whose axis is practiced
a kind of crater, into which the pieces of quicklime are thrown, then a kind of crater is poured over it, in
which I CUdl sei di i oj ani The pieces of lime vi,g
pour over the
sand a volume of water equal to 3 times that of lime, this is done when a
(water, lime, sand).
mortar (water, lime, sand).
Another very common system is to pour the quicklime with a sufficient amount of water into impermeable
buckets or basins, and after slaking it, pass it through atomic meshes, in order to separate the hard pieces ,
and then t In pot g ros p p
usually put out , the lime seven days epar di
use it ros or impurities.
30 days S CdSOS when v pg
tarrageos).gy q ,
tarrageos).
e.
Characteristics and applications: The fundamental characteristic of fatty lime is the absence
f.
setting and hydraulic hardening. Hardening in air takes place at a period of about 6 g and ' hardens. Hardening
occurs from the outside to the inside of the mass of the mortar. The amount of hardening can cause cracking or drying
too quickly while decreasing the hardening . go cracking or drying too much p pq and .
The use of fatty or aerial lime is essential in mortars for plastering and plastering, as well as
as in masonry work. When lime mortar is applied to finishes or plasters on the exterior , cracks may
occur . g
and
absolve her. gp
q and, p .

Lime mortars are transformed into mixed mortars by adding Portland cement in order to set them and
increase their resistance, while reducing the tendency to crack.
The most common proportions of these mixed mortars in cement, lime and sand are 1:2:8 and when there
are chances of frost it is preferable to use a dosage close to 1:1:5.
4. Pozzolans:
They are the substances, natural or artificial, that, reduced to powder and kneaded with lime, provide these
hydraulic properties. Natural pozzolans are all volcanic, that is, ash powders or ashes or mud of eruptive
origin, which have taken on the consistency of crumbly rocks. Regarding their chemical composition, they are
hydrated aluminum silicates of a yellowish gray, reddish or greenish color.
To use it, the original rocks are simply pulverized and added to the lime in proportions, determined mainly
by experience. Artificial pozzolans are prepared by calcining clays or slates at temperatures ranging from
600 °C to 900 ° C. The calcination product is pulverized and used in a similar way to natural pozzolans.
The main use given to it in Civil Engineering is to give hydraulic properties to lime. It is also used in the
manufacture of the so-called pozzolanic portland cement.
The properties of pozzolans depend on the chemical composition and internal structure. Pozzolans with a
chemical composition such that the presence of the three main oxides (SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 ) is greater than
70% are preferred. The pozzolana is intended to have an amorphous structure.
In the case of pozzolans obtained as agricultural waste (ashes from sugar cane and rice) , the most viable way
to improve their properties is to carry out controlled burning in rustic incinerators, where the combustion
temperature is controlled, and the residence time of the material.
If the combustion temperature is in the range between 400-760 °C, there is a guarantee that silica is formed
in highly reactive amorphous phases. At higher temperatures, crystalline silica phases begin to form, which
are not very reactive at room temperature.

Vañez
CHAPTER VIII
CEMENT
Cement is called a binder formed from a mixture of calcined and subsequently ground limestone and clay,
which has the property of hardening upon contact with water. Mixed with stone aggregates (gravel and sand)
and water, it creates a uniform, malleable and plastic mixture that sets and hardens, acquiring a stone
consistency, called concrete (in Spain and the Hispanic Caribbean) or concrete (in Mexico and South
America). Its use is very widespread in construction and civil engineering.
1. PORTLAND CEMENT: Portland cement is a binder or hydraulic cement that when mixed with aggregates,
water and discontinuous and discrete steel fibers has the property of forming a resistant and durable stone
mass called concrete. It is the most common in construction used as a binder for the preparation of concrete.
As a hydraulic cement, it has the property of setting and hardening in the presence of water, by chemically
reacting with it to form a material with good binding properties. It was invented in 1824 in England by
the builder Joseph Aspdin. He
The name is due to the similarity in appearance with the rocks found on the island of Portland, in the county
of Dorset. Contrary to how many believe, its origin is not related to Portland, Oregon, USA.
2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: The cement obtained has a composition of the type:

®P 64% calcium oxide
3- 21% silicon oxide
®- 5,5% oxide ofaluminum

c® 4,5% oxideof iron
c® 2,4% oxideofmagnesium
c 1,6% sulfates
® 1% other materials, among which mainly water.
The raw materials used for the manufacture of clinker provide 4 fundamental
oxides: SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 and CaO, while MgO, Na 2 O, and K 2 O can be
considered as accidental due to their small percentage. Consequently, the
chemical composition of clinker is presented through the quaternary system:
CaO – SiO 2 – Al 2 O3 – Fe 2 O 3
The oxides are briefly described below as follows:
8- CALCIUM OXIDE : It has been described when studying lime.
8 SILICON DIOXIDE : It is found in abundance in nature, forming part of silicates, in the crystallized varieties ß
quartz, r tridymite, ß cristobalite and in glassy form in fused silica. Pure silica or ß quartz, sets at the
temperature

Vañez
ordinary, is transformed at 573 °C into α quartz, crystallizing in hexagonal

prisms (density: 2.65 and hardness: 2.7); At 870 °C, α tridymite is obtained,
of which the variety α, β and r exist (density: 2.28) and at 1 470 °C, α
cristobalite is formed (density: 2.33), it melts at 1 710 °C (density: 2.20), this
vitreous quartz occupying a larger volume than β-quartz. For quartz to
transform into tridymite and cristobalite, it must be heated very slowly,
usually at 1,600 °C. Forms a glassy mass
pasty that does not crystallize when cooled. Although Silica is
chemically inert at ordinary temperatures, it reacts energetically with
bases at elevated temperatures, forming silicates. Silicon dioxide, despite not joining directly with water, is
considered an anhydride, forming silicic acid gases that, although they have not been isolated, can be
considered as SiO 2 .H 2 O or SiO 3 H 2 hydrates (metasilicic acid), and SiO 2 , 2H 2 O or SiO 4 H 4 (orthosilicic
acid), even with more molecules of water and silicon dioxide, very complex compounds are formed.
ALUMINUM OXIDE
: Also called alumina, it is found in nature in the form of colorless corundum, it melts at 2,505 °C,
crystallizing in numerous forms upon cooling. It has a density of 4 and a hardness of 9 on the Mohs scale. The
alumina is combined in the clay (2SiO 2 Al 2 O 3 .2H 2 O) and the elimination of the silica gives rise to the
formation of two hydrated oxides, the diaspore (Al 2 O 3 . H 2 O), and hydrargyrite or gibbsite (Al 2 O 3 . 3H 2
O), bauxite being
® FERRIC OXIDE : It is very abundant in nature, constituting the iron mineral called oligistum and red hematite.
In Portland cement it is found in small doses, as it comes from clay impurities, but in aluminous cements it
reaches important proportions coming from bauxite. This oxide gives the cement its color. It resembles
alumina, changing mainly with lime. There are two amorphous hydrated ferric oxides, one yellow and the
other reddish with the formula: Fe(OH) 3 .H 2 O.
The minor components of cement also have a significant importance in the manufacturing process as well as
in the physicochemical properties of cement. Some of them are detailed below:
A
The content of MgO (magnesium oxide): When it is greater than 5% in the clinker, the cement may already
be expansive. This phenomenon is due to the fact that MgO in a small proportion within the SiO 2 CaO Al – –
2 O 3 system does not react during clinkerization, leaving MgO as such. This magnesium oxide reacts with
water with a significant delay, even months, with respect to setting and hardening. Since this reaction is
similar to that of the hydrolysis of CaO, that is, it is exothermic, it gives rise to a significant increase in volume
and generation of heat, producing the expansion or breakage of the binder.
® The content of Na20 and K2O: Sodium oxide (Na2O) and potassium oxide (K20) are known as alkalis
(although other alkalis also exist in cement). It has been

found that these compounds react with some aggregates with chemical affinity. As the amount of alkali depends
only on the cement, its concentration on the reactive surface of the aggregate will depend on the magnitude
of these surfaces. The minimum alkali content of cement with which there can be an expansive reaction is
0.6% expressed in sodium oxide. This percentage is calculated by stoichiometry as the actual Na 2 O content
plus 0.658 times the K 2 O content of the clinker. However, in exceptional cases, cements with lower alkali
content have been observed that cause expansion of a concrete made with a given reactive aggregate to be
greater as the alkaline content of the cement increases and, for the same cement composition, as its fineness
increases.
c®P The SO3 content: The sulfuric anhydride content decides the quality of Portland cement for several
reasons: when its value in percentage is outside a narrow range (between 2 and 4%) it affects the setting
time. When it is less, setting can be very rapid, as a consequence of the limited retarding effect. When its
value is 6 to 10%, it inhibits setting, and there is no expansive effect that occurs when the SO 3 content
exceeds 4 to 4.5%, depending on the fineness of the cement.
®P The content of Free Lime (CL): It must be less than 2%, given the volume expansion produced by its
hydrolysis, which would cause a destructive effect.
^ The insoluble residue (RI) : The insoluble residue is the amount of material that does not dissolve in 10%
hydrochloric acid (HCl). Even gypsum is, so a cement, without additions of other materials other than
limestone, such as basic rocks, pozzolans, quartz, feldspars, etc., gives an R value. I of around 0.5%. By
increasing the R. I resistances decrease, unless this decrease is simultaneously counteracted by the
improvement of other variables, for example, by increasing the fineness of the cement. Special types of
cement, such as pozzolanic or fly ash, have high insoluble residues.
cP Loss to fire (PF): This analytical determination is normally verified at the temperature of 950 °C ± 10 °C and
it is at this temperature that the decarbonation of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) has been achieved, which can
eventually be present in the cement and, consequently, measures the amount of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) of the
carbonates present or that absorbed by weathering, as well as the amount of hydration water incorporated
into the binder for the same reason. The value of the loss to fire gives us the idea of the state of weathering of
a cement, the gyroscopic water present in the atmosphere, added to the cement, can previously hydrolyze the
silicates and therefore, it is so necessary to check this value in the cements. stored before putting into work.
8 The content of manganese oxide (Mn303) and titanium oxide (TiO2): The first has no special significance
in the properties of the cement, except in its color, which tends to be brown if it has contents greater than
3%. It has been observed that in cases where the

Vañez
contents exceed 5%, a long-term decrease in resistance is obtained. Titanium oxide influences the resistance,
reducing it for contents greater than 5%. For minor content it has no major significance.
A
The P205 content: It influences as a disturbing factor the crystallization of the phases in quantities that exceed
0.5%.
3. CEMENT MANUFACTURING:
The main materials with which cement is made are: a calcareous material (limestone, clay or loam), and a
clay material (clay, slate), materials that contain silica. The finely ground and intimately mixed raw materials
are heated until melting (around 1500 °C), usually in rotating kilns. The partially molten material that comes
out of the kiln is called clinker. The clinker cooled and ground to a very fine powder is what constitutes
Portland cement. During grinding a small amount of gypsum is added to control setting properties.

a- RAW MATERIALS:
- Limestone (CaCo3)
c®- Fundamentals
Raw . or I larina
Clays - Marls (Silica). .
b. PROCESS :
c. PROCESS:
QUARRY extraction: crushing, screening.
8 Mill C
Clinker: cooling.
3 Clinker kiln
additions.
Centenary mill: additions.
For air-entrained cements the material necessary to impart the air-entrained properties is
added during grinding of the clinker. to impart the properties of the entrained air is added
during grinding of the clinker.
d. PHASES:
C Desiccation (preheating) <900ºC. Calcite decomposes. Dehydration of clays. Iron oxides are
formed. )-C. Calcite decomposes. Dehydration of clays. Be faith
<º5 er o•s of iron.
(dicalcium silicate). )0-C. 1st Stage, sintering: Formation: AF4C; A3C; F2C; Start: S2C
(dicca silicate
I<150 . 0ºC. 2nd Stage . sintering: Formation: S 2 C + CaO = S 3 C (Silicate
tricalcium), which is what gives the cement its initial strength. on: S2C + CaO — S3C
(Tricalcium silicate
)(Cooling: 1 Sudden cooling is carried out, thus avoiding decomposition, since
6 Tricalcium silicate rea or: It is unstable rea. sudden cooling thus avoiding decomposition,
since the tri silicate
c
s á e lc l i e co pu es ed m e u l and la im ne a s r t c a e b m le e . nto, and goes through
grinding or kneading where the additions are added. It can be called cement, and it goes
through grinding or kneading where the additions are added.
4 . CEMENT MODULES
qualitative or quantitative composition of the 1 molten phase. node or parameter that sets the
qualitative and quantitative composition of the molten phase.
%Al203
MF = -.63 = 1. 5 - 2 . 5
%Fe 2 O 3
It only affects the initial resistances when it is high. It influences the long-term ias, ease of 5
°
clinkerization ci
97I Ingjean Edison Palma Vañez
pornsu lal
action 1 on €la V
viscosity/ from 0 to e
nliquid phase a1€high
ease of clinkerization due to its action on the viscosity of the liquid phase at high
98I Ingjean Edison Palma Vañez

[ ) PERUVIAN WINGS MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
p.
of Fe 2 O 3 , l decreases , as is considered the combinability p of the clinker; in equality and to and
e 2 3 , sm nuye a
clinker combinability temperature; in equal composition leaves more CaO
available by increasing the silicate content and decreasing the tricalcium
aluminate content (C 3 A).
This is the basis for
and the elaboration.
of special cements resistant to action ,
f d o e rm C 3 at A, e enl
1 fe re rr 3 o % alu y m 5 i % na . t C o u t a en tr d a o c á , l e c l ic M o . ( F C ., A e F s ) e in gu c a u l .y a oc 0 a . s 6 or 4, or C 3 A
practically crystallizes. forms tetracalcium ferroaluminate
This type of clinker constitutes the basis of sulfate-resistant cements.
(G Hydraulic Module" It is the relationship between calcium oxide and

, the other components
; oxides
cement primaries.
cement primaries.
%CaO
MH =-------;--------------------------------= 1.8 - 2.2
%YES02 + %Fe203 + %Al203
comp r e n dido e nt re o 1.8 and e 2.2 m . When this value is less than
v a o r p t m
the s
binder t e i s in e e
between 1 8 and 2 2 When this value is less than ., and
binder has very low resistance and
r when the value is greater than 2.2, the binder, once put into use, suffers after a few days or
weeks a freak of cracking by
expansion, forming centrifugal cracks. you emanate a freak of cracking by
expans n, orman or gr e as ce r rugas.
88 Silicate Module: The approximate limit value is:
%Fe203 + %Al203
greater total content ic alc i c o o ( s C , S en )
of milicat u os o thr e s c a t
and dicalcium silicate ( n C o 2 r S m ) a se te e nd . ra a in the

greatest content tes catos tr cc co ( 3
) and dicalcium silicate ( 2
) will be had in the clinker or cement,
as well as a greater potential for resistance to any pl
.
re .
.
high, for example, 3
up to 5 and even more ,
cements with high silica richness and
between 2 and 1.5 m.o. Duo of 1 orle general,
r o c s ie v n a t l e or i e m s p q l u ice a se e present e s n o t no
m lower
, for example between 2 .
implies worsening of the cooking conditions of the clmic r due to
• descent of the liquid and low phase .
more than that,
cements with high silicate modulus represent
7 g.
[PERUVIAN WINGS UNIVERSITY] ,
i slow setting and hardening
MATERIALS cements. Due to a
TECHNOLOGY
decrease in the silicate module, the amount of liquid phase increases; This determines the good aptitude for clinker
firing and crust formation. This determines the good firing ability of the clinker. .
Silicon Module - Mussgung
; He called the ratio SiO, /Al2O3, silicic modulus. In the firing of rotary kiln clinker, good
crust formation conditions are obtained in the rotary kiln clinker zone, good crust formation conditions are obtained
in the zone. .
and 3.5 and
,
the muoeam na is added
between the m tes e. to .

p MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
100 CaO
MS =----------------------------------------------------=88-97
2. 8 SiO 2 + 0. 65 Fe 2 O 3 + 1.18 Al 2 O 3
normal, it ranges between 88 e – e 97 gr s a ie o ndoe the limit ne os compounds os c
ilcicos. Its variation
- ___- - - - - -
CHAPTER I......................................................................................................................................................................1
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS..................................................................................................................1
1.1. GENERALITIES................................................................................................................................................1
1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS..............................................................................................................1
1.2.1. According to its origin:...................................................................................................................................2
1.2.2. According to internal structure.......................................................................................................................3
1.3. MATERIAL PROPERTIES...............................................................................................................................5
1.3.1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES............................................................................................................................5
Figure No. 1.1................................................................................................................................................................8
Darcy's Experimental Equipment..................................................................................................................................8
Superficial Dilation : The............................................................................................................................................14
1 variation of 1.............................................................................................................................................................14
Values of the linear expansion coefficients ( a)..........................................................................................................16
1.3.5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES.........................................................................................................................21
1.3.5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES :.................................................................................................................21
COMPLEMENTARY ACTIVITIES..........................................................................................................................30
SPECIFIC WEIGHT...................................................................................................................................................30
POROSITY..................................................................................................................................................................30
DILATATION.............................................................................................................................................................32
CHAPTER II...................................................................................................................................................................33
STANDARDIZATION...................................................................................................................................................33
2. OBJECTIVES AND ADVANTAGES:...............................................................................................................33
5. STANDARDIZATION IN PERU:......................................................................................................................33
D. Methodology:....................................................................................................................................................40
E. CREATION OF INDECOPI :..............................................................................................................................40
CHAPTER III..................................................................................................................................................................42
MATERIALS SELECTION...........................................................................................................................................42
Table No. 3.1................................................................................................................................................................42
Design-Limiting Material Properties............................................................................................................................42
TO. CLASSIFICATION OF ESSAYS :.....................................................................................................................45

A.1. Depending on the rigor of the test MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
......................................................................................................................45
A.2. According to the nature of the essay ...................................................................................................................45
A.3. According to the usefulness of the piece after being subjected to the test .........................................................45
A.4. Depending on the speed of application of forces ................................................................................................45
CHAPTER IV.................................................................................................................................................................47
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS.............................................................................................................................47
Heat Transfer Equations...............................................................................................................................................53
DRIVING (plane coordinates).......................................................................................................................................53
Remember...................................................................................................................................................................53
CONVECTION - CONDUCTION - CONVECTION (plane coordinates).........................................................................54
h2.....................................................................................................................................................................................55
DRIVING (cylindrical coordinates)...............................................................................................................................55
MULTIPLE LAYERS (cylindrical coordinates).............................................................................................................56
HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS...............................................................................................................................59
.
and........................................................................................................................................................................64
16.................................................................................................................................................................................66
CHAPTER V...................................................................................................................................................................68
NATURAL STONE MATERIALS: ROCKS.................................................................................................................68
3. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS :................................................................................................................................70
CHAPTER VI.................................................................................................................................................................75
AGGREGATE................................................................................................................................................................75
4. PROPERTIES......................................................................................................................................................83
CONTINUOUS GRANULOMETRY AGGREGATES – MINIMUM VOIDS : For this the...................................88
4.4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES :............................................................................................................................92
4.5. RESISTANT PROPERTIES :..........................................................................................................................94
4.6. THERMAL PROPERTIES :............................................................................................................................95
4.7. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES :...........................................................................................................................96
4.9. PERCENTAGE PASS 200...............................................................................................................................99
4.10.1. UNIT WEIGHT............................................................................................................................................99
4.10.2. SPECIFIC WEIGHT...............................................................................................................................100
a) Specific weight – Fine aggregate:..........................................................................................................................102
a.1. Specific weight of mass (Pem):...........................................................................................................................102
a.2. Specific gravity of mass saturated with dry surface (PeSSS)..............................................................................102
a.3. Apparent specific weight (Pea)...........................................................................................................................102

b) Specific Weight – Coarse MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
Aggregate....................................................................................................................102
CHAPTER VII..............................................................................................................................................................104
BINDERS......................................................................................................................................................................104
c®P Primary..............................................................................................................................................................104
c®P Secondary..........................................................................................................................................................104
8 Bituminous materials..............................................................................................................................................104
Types of binders........................................................................................................................................................104
1. CLAYS...............................................................................................................................................................104
®” Another type of classification is according to its commercialization :................................................................106
c. Physical and mechanical properties of clays......................................................................................................107
2. AND SO...............................................................................................................................................................108
2. AND SO...............................................................................................................................................................108
.
and......................................................................................................................................................................110
Obtained by firing the gypsum stone temperature.....................................................................................................110
ai less than 2002C:.....................................................................................................................................................110
1
firing of the plaster stone at a temperature above 200ºC:..................................................................................110
c. Plaster forge...........................................................................................................................................................110
.p................................................................................................................................................................................112
e. Resistances.........................................................................................................................................................116
3. CAL.......................................................................................................................................................................117
b.
Lime manufacturing process:.............................................................................................................................124
,, Yo........................................................................................................................................................................124
4. Pozzolans:...........................................................................................................................................................126
CHAPTER VIII.............................................................................................................................................................127
CEMENT......................................................................................................................................................................127
3. CEMENT MANUFACTURING:......................................................................................................................133
Raw . or I larina.........................................................................................................................................................134
b. PROCESS :........................................................................................................................................................134
c. PROCESS:............................................................................................................................................................134
d. PHASES:............................................................................................................................................................134
4 . CEMENT MODULES..........................................................................................................................................134
6. CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENTS..................................................................................................................144
b. PORTLAND CEMENT ADDITIONS...........................................................................................................................147

Yo Yo either MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
c......................................................................................................................................................147
■ Type I(PM): Modified Pozzola Portland Cement..............................................................................................147
5” TypeICo :..............................................................................................................................................................147
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PERUVIAN CEMENTS..........................................................................147
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PERUVIAN CEMENTS............................................................................................147
7. MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION OF CEMENT.......................................................................................148
...................................................................................................................................................................................152
Issues.........................................................................................................................................................................154
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS..................................................................................................................................158
M) ANSWER IF I IS TRUE OR FALSE..................................................................................................................160
CHAPTER IX...............................................................................................................................................................162
WATER FOR CONCRETE AND MORTAR..............................................................................................................162
1. MIXING WATER:.............................................................................................................................................163
2. CURING WATER:............................................................................................................................................169
3. WASHING WATER..........................................................................................................................................169
4. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE USE OF WATER IN CONCRETE..............................................................169
b. FORBIDDEN WATERS....................................................................................................................................171
6 Concretes put aluminum elements 00 fier..........................................................................................................173
8 Lime paste: Lime................................................................................................................................................179
obtained from PORTLAND CEMENT. Cement mortar is a construction material .......................................................180
Excess water exerts the following influences :..........................................................................................................182
CHAPTER XI...............................................................................................................................................................193
CONCRETE..................................................................................................................................................................193
1. CHARACTERISTICS.......................................................................................................................................193
2. TYPES OF CONCRETE...................................................................................................................................193
3.1. ITS T...............................................................................................................................................................199
4.1. PR...................................................................................................................................................................199
Properties of fresh concrete.......................................................................................................................................199
4.1.3. Workability: and The r................................................................................................................................200
5. TESTING FRESH CONCRETE........................................................................................................................207
6. TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE............................................................................................................207
6.................................................................................................................................................................................207
6.................................................................................................................................................................................207
CHAPTER XII..............................................................................................................................................................208

MASONRY MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
UNITS......................................................................................................................................................208
5.................................................................................................................................................................................212
1. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURES OF WOOD:........................................................................................224
c. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF WOOD...............................................................................................................229
d. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF WOOD...............................................................................................................229
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD............................................................................................................232
4. PHYSICAL – CHEMICAL QUALITIES OF WOOD......................................................................................236
5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD.....................................................................................................236
a. Forest exploitation:.............................................................................................................................................238
A. By manufacturing method or metallurgical process:......................................................................................242
B. By use of steel ................................................................................................................................................242
C. Due to the chemical composition of steel:......................................................................................................242
68 Steel aI q l..............................................................................................................................................................244
2. CHEMICAL ELEMENTS THAT GIVE CERTAIN PROPERTIES TO STEEL.............................................244
3. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS............................................................................................................246
Table Nº01.................................................................................................................................................................251
Minimum Mechanical Characteristics of Steel.........................................................................................................251
4. MECHANICAL TESTING OF STEEL............................................................................................................251
Figure Nº07................................................................................................................................................................254
Diagram of the specimen for the Flexion adhesion test............................................................................................254
Figure Nº07................................................................................................................................................................256
Brinell apparatus........................................................................................................................................................256
Figure Nº08 Rockwell apparatus..............................................................................................................................257
hydration. The greater the fineness of the cement, the faster the hydration rate. rd m es a a y r o ro r llon u de e
cemen or,
o m s a e y f o e r c tro o as p que e e z e ra ac ne cemen o
on
.
Resistance manifests mainly during the first seven days. Fineness is measured by the an es
d n e p l r tu n r c b p idas a ím m e e t n ro ed u e ran e os p ( r AS m T e M ros C
115), the Blaine essay of
permeability1a e l n a s i a r y e o (AS e TM t 11 r C
20 m 4) ),e , roerase e ns a and o
la ag m n a e l r la ( No.325 ((45 m ie ) ( A S TM31 a C
n
4 e 30) e .
air permeability (ASTM C 204), or with mesh No.325 (45 microns) (ASTM C 430). Approximately 85% to 95% of
cement particles are smaller than 45 microns.
dh
changes from a plastic state to a solid state. is different from setting and hardening: 51 In hardening the process is ad c q o
It
ui a er s eÓ res o i . ste s ncia, er e e en n e el e frag r u a a g d u o a n o a .

Setting is defined

through the €f ra gua do i ni cia ly e l fr a gu
n o a pa s a a q u e r e
f in
reas do s
l.e na c a,
LMATERIALS
e TECHNOLOGY
a n s d e fin i c g io un a es o d n e o f .
r a
raguad r o a i g n u i a cia o ly s final are arbitrary 51 yb ag a u sa a do o s en c el y e p

ra a t g o ua de o Vica a t . o las a e guja c s o de es Gil e lmo a r g e u . a S o i el c ce ay ento a es s o
tá arbitrary h y uma es d a ados cu e a n n e do a e p s a t rá a a o lma e cena c d a or, o pu a es de a g o u c ju a r s rir a false setting, in
which the cement stiffens within a few minutes of a em o p , ep z u a e r la e m o c e u z r c r la r . one to so
("IO J which J
Cement is mixed a few minutes later and begins to mix.
he said __ . either . c. .
Many reactions element: It is the reaction that the ce i between has many; chemical cement. The chas i eaccic n are e e s
h q i u dr m a ta c n as m o á c su ur r r á e p n id i o a q u u e e l e os silicates. La e re m ac u c t io n s d ce o l m a p lu um es in o as to qu trim
m
ca c lco is o . With water it is immediate and releases a lot of heat. 1 The cast is used to slow the speed of this
.
reaction producing sulfate ions. The balance between elaaluminate and sulfate determines the setting speed. The c e
3
e s me e nts o u d a e
normal setting hase toel um
c n
o a
n o
ce y
nt r
s u
aci a
on o
de a agr um
min n
n a ato a e
and sulfate. Pe rm a n e ce m ane j a bl ep or 45 m in ye norma s on li ed p if o ic c a a rs c en a
: e ra g u a o . c e m e o r ua o
2-4 hours. Excess aluminate e y

s u lf a to la
m a n e ce m an
a en j e a
jab ile pido ard 4 durana y per m
ox p imez
a a da a m so ente 1 c 0 arm se in a and as s e solid o
ir
fi c a e n t re 1-2 hours.
a s . x c e so e
(
r A highrapid increase n 10 y -4 s
5 m in) or instantaneous setting (<10 min). 1 B a a j j o o
e so
salu a mo
in t o y a l
p ar o u ce u n toras
s g u ulf a ato or p pr odo uc ( e a m bién n ) o u a n fr r a a g g u u a
a
do o instantaneous. The tricalcium silicate s a e u h m idr n a a ta o má y sr a á p o gone su qu a e o el s pil r i o catuo ce dica al mcio 1 c
n
ont u r n ibuy ra e g n u d a oa o l final setting time and gain of ms
e r n p cia o in q ic u i e al. s ca o ca co, with r uyen o final setting time and
initial strength gain.

Water-cement ratio : In 1918 Abrams found that the ratio of the weight of water to cement (w/c ratio) influenced
all the good properties of concrete. Abrams Law: For a fully compacted
concrete made with good, clean aggregates, strength and other good
characteristics are improved by decreasing the amount of water per unit
weight of cement. Why does this happen? Hydration requires only 0.22-
0.25 kg of water per kilo of cement. More water should be used to make the
mixture workable. When this excess water evaporates, it creates capillary
voids. Capillary voids increase the porosity and permeability of the
concrete and reduce its strength. A low water-cement ratio also increases
environmental resistance, provides good adhesion between concrete
layers, provides good adhesion between concrete and steel, and limits
volume changes due to drying and wetting.
Heat of hydration : Heat of hydration is defined as the amount of heat in

calories per gram of dehydrated cement, generated after complete
hydration at a given temperature. For a cement to harden when water is
spread on it, a chemical reaction is needed. This chemical reaction releases
heat and will continue to release heat (and therefore gain strength) until
each single particle of cement is hydrated.
Participation of each compound
Property AC CAF cs c,s

Reaction degree Fast Slow Medium Slow
Heat released Big Little Medium Little
6. CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENTS
According to the Peruvian Technical Standards (NTP 334.009:2011) and the international ASTM, cements are
classified into two large groups:
to. COMMON PORTLAND CEMENTS : The ASTM C-150 standard classifies common Portland cement into five different
types, according to the relative proportions of the four main mineralogical components and the conditions of use,
which are:

Vañez
[ • PERUVIAN TEA DE M TER E
normal p requires p iere p n the 1 pro gity . WINGS
It is special from what p
s other instructions
q q pp p p.
where the concrete will not be exposed to the special properties of 10s; other types. It is used from the ground c o o d
n e c l eo no va
a a le e a s cia or n e e x s p p u e e r s ju o d a ici a ale a s qu d e ee specific ac ores, com
generated in diesel or water, or
• Alloys are detrimental ,
generates or in
the hidi attack n. ne er, se arcanos
nLcs type I cements: Pacasmayo, Sol, Andino, Yura and Rumi.
odd E d . Yo l
2 Cement r I *1 II o Moderate: this type of cement is manufactured to be used in sulfates (sulfate soluble in the soil is an e
es ar
sleep or as 4 – 0.2% or sulfates in mo era or por os atos (su ato so ue in e
m 2 0 o . d 1st – a 0 d . o 2% cal o ors d u e lfa h t i o d s ra e t n ac a ió g n u . a S : e 15 ca 0 ra – ct 1 e , r 5 i 0 z 0 a
-
ppm ) or in those cases where moderation is required 5

for its content c
the initial setting period uma e C
ed 3S ad and is C p 2 or S ensures an ad
of the
resistance, 1 ant in e but or never e
forged as in later ages. em
as, of the p of p volume q me n c o a
r ra
tendency to em la in e t x o u t da p co io , n s moderate n r to es s present less
of sulfates and
men v o o r u g m e e n n e , ra m ce ion n or heat of hydration. In the P e e r r a ú a it is ref s ab s r te ic n a c ú a n a ia a t maq en ue te the
su atos and lesser generation
i heat of hydration In j , Andean Type II.
speedt or Type III oe

er
n á c p ia id s o u It is n u d al um m r e e n ci te ent : This type of cement allows o
you every day, usually in a week or
less. as, to
difference of Strength with Type I cement, tends to disappear. High initial strength can be achieved by low c o r n m e o d
1
c
if e ic m a e c n io t n o es p e n
la , d t o es n ific e ac a ion es d a e pa r r e u c d e or r. sd a e a la ta co r m es post s e
ic i ó n chemistry, in order to obtain a mo cac
n c a
higher a de os cac ne cru os ea compos cnc q e u m m en c t a o , a da n do eo tene or

r bt uien n pe o ur rc n e ant m aj a e o m r
á s r a ea to sup e er 3 fic ; ia o l, p l o a r c u a n al n ec x r p e u m e e s n ta a t a in the
action of the cement, since a greater surface area is obtained, aqua exposed aa acc ne water will result in faster
hydration and hardening. Although, with a higher initial, it is mainly hydration and further hardening due to drying
contraction. high, it is mainly exposed to processes
and
thanks for con
you ) n for dry
c o.
guamene, d
Due to the high percentages of 3 and 3 , or to a higher degree of inura, the g m e o n l e d r e as c o e n nc e of c r
a
a d o o r s e l s o more s a pro a that in os
p ce o m si e b n le os o cu pa o nd . o E la e e
,
st p ru o ctu e perm ee rar os
108 g.
[ • PERUVIAN TEA DE M TER E
WINGS must be put
service quickly 1 It can also be used in cold climates, or the structure in p . p ,p, ,p
service quickly. You can also use and
' IS cold, since its use allows reducing the
Controlled curing period Peru does not manufacture s te .
em empl e en ad to o do pno de el c gra e do a y jo la ca a an ot rida e d de calor c ge nn : eras d te o t se po be e e c r e e m d e un ci t r o la se

mi a nim rc o a , e p s a r d a ec s i e r r , employed where ^1 grade andthe amount of heat generated or ee re
uc RAM n mo, isec r,
in those casesin what is required a low heat of hydration. Their characteristics
in those casesin what is required a low heat of hydra
main are:to cough percentagesof C 2 S and
• C 4 AF* slow generation of
heat; good res s encaaa acc ne os su
aos; in o ester oe res s encaaa understand although at advanced ages it reaches the same values as other types of
cement; good resistance to advanced es; reaches the same values; especially recommended; good beef
,
especially recommended to be used in circumstances that

require large
,
big dams
serious,
where the rise produced in temperature by
• the heat generated
i during hardening is a critical
factor. Given its slow hydration rate, it is generally unsuitable for the construction of normal structures, given that it
requires a curing of
109 g.
[PERUVIAN WINGS UNIVERSITY]MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY z
a pl
0
interoperability. It does not exist in the national market. 'roll of resistance to competition and p. .
® Type V or Sulfate Resistant Cement: This type of cement is manufactured to be used in those cases in which high
resistance to the action of sulfates is required. sulfates (water-soluble sulfates present in the soil as: SO 4 = 0.2 – 2% or
sulfate in water: 1,500 – (sulfat ppm. ), which is obtained in the
high C 3 A content (less than 5%). The content
of silicates ' c . Al , cicos makes this p type 1 high in C3A (lower to buy . sion although its development of resistance that
increases more
slowly than in the cement mpi esi E , l
u
inque
Its resistance development increases more slowly than in 7"type I cement. The heat generated during hydration does
not differ fundamentally from that of type IV cements. Due to its characteristics, it is the cement that is closest to the
ideal cement. In type IV. Due to its characteristics, it is the cement that most apioximates the ideal cement. In Peru,
there is Pacasmayo cement and Andean Cement, corresponding to this type.
Peru, there is Pacasmayo cement and Andean Cement, corresponding to this type.
b. PORTLAND CEMENT ADDITIONS
b. PORTLAND CEMENT ADDITIONS
Yo ii d
® Binary Additive Cement: A hydraulic additive cement that consists of Portland cement with slag cement or Portland
cement with a pozzolana.
Portland (with slag cement or Poitland cement with a pozzolan.
Yo Yo either c
8 Ternary Additive Cement: A hydraulic additive cement consisting of Portland cement with a combination of two
different pozzolans, or Portland cement with slag cement with one pozzolan. ation of two different pozzolans, or Poitland
cement with cement ■ . ।
of slag and a pozzolana.
designed for the indicated use: 11 Portland Cements added s that g

construction S of
concrete for the indicated use: Portland cement added for construction of g.
^
■ IP Type . Portland cement with blast furnace slag.
% IP Type: Men nento Portland pu:
modified pozzolanic
■ Type I(PM): Modified Pozzola Portland Cement
5” TypeICo :
Portland cement composite.
Type ICo: Portland cement composite.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PERUVIAN CEMENTS
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PERUVIAN CEMENTS
SUN TYPE ANDEA ANDEA ANDEA YURA YURA YURA PACASM PACASM RUMI
ELEMENT TYP ATLA N N N TYPE TYPE TYPE . . TYPE TYPE
E S TYPE TYPE TYPE Yo IP IPM TYPE 1 V I
CaO 1
63.20 IP
53.65 64.18 63.83 64.60 65.90 46.30 5308. 63.02 62.92 44.19
YesO, 19.79 26.28 21.86 22.58 22.51 22.66 43.51 33.34 19.50 20.50 21.67
Hello, 6.15 6.44 4.81 4.21 3.04 4.15 3.36 4.80 6.20 4.07 1.56
Ugly, 2.82 4.84 3.23 3.11 4.28 2.41 1.98 2.04 3.30 5.14 5.01
K:O 0.96 1.07 0.65 0.54 0.56 0.70 0.68 0.72
- - -
Na 2 O 0.28 0.37 0.15 0.12 0.13 0.26 0.22 1.69
- - -
SW, 2.58 2.84 2.41 2.38 2.36 1.66 1.42 2.04 2.50 1.83 1.09
MgO 3.16 2.76 0.96 0.97 0.92 1.24 1.30 1.37 2.13 2.10 1.06
c. l 0.52 0.29 0.59 0.40 0.55 - - - 1.20 1.10 -
Q. Ign. 0.80 1.63 1.24 1.46 1.08 0.96 1.60 1.87 2.30 1.93 2.85
R1 0.62 10.21 0.42 0.59 0.57 0.58 26.70 15.69 0.50 0.68 2.99

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PERUVIAN CEMENTS
SUN YURA
CHARACTERISTICS TYPE IP TYPE ANDEAN TYPE ANDEAN ANDEAN YURA YURA TYPE BALES. BALES.
1 ATLAS Yo TYPE II TYPE V TYPE 1 TYPE IP IPM TYPE I TYPE V
3.11 3.03 3.11 3.11 3.18 3.11 2.86 2.95 ■ ■
Specific Weight (gr/cm 3 )
Fineness: No. 100 mesh (%) 0.04 0.03 0.34 0.10 0.20 - - - - -
Fineness: Mesh No. 200 (%) 4.14 0.38 5.66 4.71 2.58 - - - - -
His p. Specify BLAINE (cm'/gr. ) 3477 4472 3300 3400 3400 3597 4086 3848 3400 3300
9.99 9.82 6.50 5.35 5.22 10.50 10.10
Air content (%) - - ■
0.18 0.15 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.20 0.11 0.26 0.22 0.14
Expans. Autoclave (%)
Starting Forge 1:49 1:59 2:50 3:15 2:15 2:00 2:00 2:10 2:29 2:40
(Vicat) (hrs:min)
3:29 3:41 3:45 4:30 3:45 4:00 4:10 4:10 5:10 5:20
Final Forge (Vicat) (Hrs:min)
COMPREHENSIVE STRENGTH (Kg/cm 3 )

F'c = 3 days 254 235 204 160 184 242 140 240 168 154
F'c = 7 days 301 229 289 205 243 335 222 299 210 196
F'c = 28 days 357 349 392 320 362 386 316 367 273 258
7. MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION OF CEMENT
The chemical analysis of cement, in terms of percentage of oxides, has little meaning with regard to its properties,
since they are the compounds formed during the manufacturing process by interaction of the four fundamental
oxides mentioned above, which are those responsible for the setting and resistance of hydrated cement.
Of the four fundamental oxides: CaO, SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 and Fe 2 O 3 , only one has a basic character: calcium oxide (CaO).
The other three behave like anhydrides, that is, with acidic character. Due to this, it is easy to understand that in the
clinker formation process, the raw materials that contain the four fundamental oxides will form lime compounds,
such compounds will be: calcium silicate, calcium aluminates and calcium ferro-aluminates. Calcium oxide, therefore,
saturates the acid components up to a certain limit and for this saturation to take place, the quantities of the four
main components must comply with a series of reactions called modules. That is, the mixture of limestone, clay and
other components must have a suitable proportion of these.
During the cooking process and at different temperatures, certain mineralogical compounds are formed, some first,
others later, within a wide range of temperatures: between 1000 and 1450°C, approximately. It can be considered
that the cement is in a FROZEN EQUILIBRIUM, assuming that the cooled products produce the equilibrium existing at
the clinkerization temperature.
111 Eng. Jean Edison Palma

Vañez
NOMENCLATURE IN THE
NAME CHEMICAL CLINKER
FORMULA COMMON COMMERCIAL
Tricalcium Silicate 3CaO.SiOz C,S Alita
Bicalcium Silicate 2CaO.SiO: C,S Balita
Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO.Al2O; CaA Celita
Tetracalcium ferro-aluminate 4CaO.Al,OFez0, C.AF Felita
a. Tricalcium Silicate (C 3 S): It is the most important material in the clinker and determines the speed of setting, the
mechanical resistance and other properties of Portland cement, its amount in the clinker is 40 to 60%. It becomes
gelatinous in a few hours, generating an appreciable amount of heat of hydration, which reaches 380J/g, after 28
days. Its initial and final setting takes place a few hours after mixing and ends in a period of less than 7 days, which is
why it is attributed to the rapid development of initial resistance. Commercially it is called Alite and represents a
solid solution of tricalcium silicate with a small amount (2 to 4%) of MgO, Al 2 O3, P 2 O 5 , Cr 2 O 3 and other
impurities that can considerably influence the structure. and properties. According to Regours and Guinier, in the
range between normal temperature and 1100 °C, C 3 S crystallizes into six polyforms. The wing is fixed in the clinker
in the form of a trigonal modification. Looking at a photomicrograph of a polished and stripped clinker plate, the alite
crystals are generally hexagonal or rectangular in shape. Crystals with a regular elongated shape with a size of 0.003
to 0.02 mm are preferable, which favor the mechanical resistance of the cement. Mixtures of C 3 S and water are less
plastic than those of Portland cement, however, workability can be improved with the addition of gypsum.
b. Bicalcium Silicate (C 2 S): It is the second siliceous mineral due to its importance and content (10 to 30%) that
constitutes the clinker, and which determines the characteristics of the behavior of the compressive strengths. It has
an uncertain setting time, since the mixture sets slowly over a period of a few days. Unlike tricalcium silicate, its
resistance development is slow in the initial ages, but increases over time to a resistance equal to that of C 3 S, and
therefore, its heat of hydration is lower, which reaches up to 105 J/ g, at 28 days. The addition of gypsum does not
produce a noticeable change. In the interval between normal temperature and 1500 °C there are five crystalline
forms of C 2 S. Commercially it is called belite and in clinker it represents a solid solution of the bibaltic silicate β (C 2
S – β) and a small amount (1 to 3%) of Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 . MgO, Cr 2 O 3 and others. When the hot clinker that came out
of the kiln is gradually cooled, to a temperature below 525 °C, the C 2 S – β can be transformed into C 2 S – r, with the
particularity that this transition is accompanied by an increase in the base distance, that is, the molecular structure of
belite becomes softer. In fact, the density of C 2 S – β is equal to 3.28 g I cm 3 , while that of C 2 S – r is 2.97 g/cm 3 ,
therefore, the polyform transition causes an increase in the absolute volume of the belita approximately 10%; as a
result, the clinker grains crumble into powder. It might seem that spontaneous dispersion would facilitate the
grinding of the clinker, but, unfortunately, the C 2 S – powder at temperatures up to 100 °C practically does not react
with water, that is, it has no binding properties. Therefore,

Vañez
c. It is necessary to prevent the belita from going into r form. C 2 S – β favors the stabilization of the phase by some
impurities: Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 , MgO, Cr 2 O 3 and others, which are introduced into the crystalline network in an amount
of 1 to 3% . As an original “tempering”, belite serves to cool the clinker quite quickly in cooling devices that are
located at the exit of the clinker from the kiln. By regulating the cooling speed of the clinker, belite is obtained in the
form of compact round crystals with a size of 0.02 to 0.05 mm.
The sum between tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate is around 70 to 75% of the total clinker composition,
which is why the hydration of alite and belite usually defines the technical properties of Portland cement. The
remaining 25% is made up of the intermediate substance that fills the space between the alite and belite crystals.
The intermediate substance consists of crystals of tricalcium aluminate (C 3 A), tetracalcium ferro-aluminate (C 4 AF),
glass and secondary minerals (12CaO.7Al 2 O 3 and others). Its content can vary between 4 and 12% and under
favorable cooking conditions it is obtained in the form of cubic crystals with dimensions of up to 0.01 to 0.015 mm,
forming solid solutions of complex composition. The density of C 3 A is equal to 3.04 g/cm 3 ; It hydrates and sets very
quickly, almost instantaneous when kneaded with water, accompanied by the development of very high heat of
hydration, reaching up to 1380 J/g, after 28 days. It has good plasticity and workability with continuous kneading;
Under water it disintegrates and crumbles. A normal setting time is obtained when adding gypsum and can lead to
the formation of an expansive compound called Etringite, which is harmful to the concrete (sulfoalumina corrosion).
In the absence of gypsum, the reaction of C 3 A with water is very violent and leads to the immediate hardening of the
pastes. Its effect on compression resistance is to increase it at the initial age of 24 hours (small mechanical
resistance), without developing more resistance later.
Tetracalcium Ferro Aluminate (C 4 AF): Its presence is of minor importance compared to that of the previous
compounds mentioned, it constitutes an amount of 4 to 15% in the clinker. C 4 AF is the intermediate substance of
clinker and represents a solid solution of calcium ferroaluminates of different composition. Their densities of 3.77
g/cm 3 . It presents an uncertain contribution to mechanical resistance; It hydrates quickly, so it sets in a few minutes,
not as long as C 3 A; Setting is accompanied by the development of heat of hydration, reaching 495 J/ga for 28 days.
TEMPERATURE EARLY ENDURANCE RESISTANCE

COMPOUND C LINKE CURLY TEMPERATURE FINAL DEVELOPMENT
C.S. HIGH HIGH HIGH FAST

C,S HALF LOW HIGH SLOW
AC REDUCED LOW LOW VERY SLOW
CiAF REDUCED VERY LOW VERY LOW FAST

Vañez
Calculated Typical Composition and Fineness of Portland Cements

Type of Portland Cement * Composition Percentage Fineness cm?
lgr
ASTM CSA CAS C2S CJA C4AF **
1 Normal 50 24 11 8 1800
II Moderate 42 33 5 13 1800
III From Rapid Endurec. 60 13 9 8 2600
IV 26 50 5 12 1900
Low heat Hydrat.
V Suit Resistant 40 40 4 9 1900
* The compositions given in the previous table are the most general. Differences regarding these values do not indicate defective behavior. The
limits on these specifications can be consulted in ATSM C - 150 to CSA A5
"The fineness has been determined in the Wagner Turbidimeter test.
R. H. Bogue developed a calculation process according to which, from chemical analysis, the mineral content can be
calculated, including C 3 S, C f S, rCIA and C 4 AF. Bogue's method of calculation is very widespread, since it uses the clear
table 2 qu , e 3 ofre and ce 4 of the clinker composition and d g e 1 las is very widespread, because of the quack
of the properties of the composition and p ppp .
In the derivation of the equations the following is assumed:

In the derivation of the equations the following is assumed:
682 Noh
8the SO trios present (non-crystalline material).
ooe 3 is combined like 4 .
All SO3S 6 and Al 2 O 3 combine with . or C 4 AF and C 3 A.
2 All FeY 203
S
the free lime and 'mo Ca 4 combined as CaSO 4 , and C 3 A), combines with the
SiO to form a mixture of C2S and C9S. e combined as CasO4, and C3A), combines with 2p 2 and 3.
From all this, Bogue's Calculation Potential is summarized in the following formula:
From all this, Bogue's Calculation Potential is summarized in the following formula:
(3 4,071 CaO — 7,600 SiO 2 — 6,718 Al 2 C 3 — 1,430 Fe 2 C 3
C2S = 8.602 SiO 2 + 5,068 Al20 3 — 3,071 CaO + 1,078 Fe 2 C 3

3
= 2,650 Al20 3 — 1 692 Fe 2 C 3
(4AF = 3 043 Fe 2 C 3

The previous formula may be modified depending on the following cases:
a. When the percentage ratio of aluminum oxides to ferric oxide is 0.64 or more, the percentages of C 3 S, C 2 S, C 3 A and
C 4 AF should be calculated from the chemical analyzes as indicated below :
C3 S = 4. O 7 1 CaO 7.6 OOS iO 2 - 6.718 A L2 03 - 1.430 Fe 2 03 S S . 8 5 S S03

S
Yo C2s = S .8 67 S'10 2 - 0.7544 03

Yes
C,A = 2,650 AI 03 - 1,692 Fe 2 03
C4 AF = 3.043 Fe 2 03
b. When the aluminum/iron oxide ratio is less than 0.664, a solid solution of calcium ferroaluminate is formed,
expressed as ss(C 4 AF+ C 2 F). Tricalcium aluminate will not be present in cements with this composition. The
dicalcium silicate will be calculated as indicated in the previous formula. The contents of this solid solution and the
tricalcium silicate must be calculated using the following formulas:
03 S = 4. O 7 1 CaO S 7.6 OO S'iO 2 - 4.479 A2 03 - 2.859 Fe 2 03 S 2.8 5 S S03
C 2 S = 2.8 67 S'iO 2 - 0.7544 03

Yes
ss (C4AF +C 2 F ) = 2,100 AI 2 03 + 1,702 Fe 2 03
Issues
1. The chemical analysis of a cement is as follows:
yes TO F c MgO SW: Not determined (SD) free lime PF

22.9 4.5 3.11 64.1 0.79 2.37 1.42 0.9 0.81
Interpret said analysis

2. For the construction of a dam, a batch of artificial cement arrives on site, the chemical analysis of which is as follows:
Yes TO F c MgO SO: S.D. R.J. PF
32.1 9.55 3.48 46.40 1.37 1.47 4.68 0.2 0.75
It is requested:
- Interpret the analysis
- Indicate if this cement is appropriate to build a dam.
3. The following chemical analysis of a
Portland cement: Yes
TO F c
MgO SOj S.D. free lime Rl PF
22.1 6.3 2.3 63.2 0.7 2.3 1.3 1.1 0.6 1.2
(Included in C)
We want to know: What is the lime saturation index? Is it usable in dams?

Vañez
4. The chemical analysis of a portland cement clinker is as follows:
SiO 2 At 2 or 3 Fe2O3 i CaO) MgO1

OTHERS RI11 pc
S
1 C1
22,3 4,6 3,1 66,44 2,55 0,6 6 0,3 3 0,2,2
Calculate the potential composition of clinker and study its characteristics
5. The chemical analysis of Portland cement clinker is as follows:
SiO 2 2 Al2O3 3 Fe2O3 *3 aO 0 go TROSOS RI R1 p c

opc |
21,7 x YY 5,6,6 0 ,8 ,830 0 ,3),3 00,0 0, 0 0,0
♦ Calculate X>e Y), knowing that in the clinker only C AF exists as a flux.
4
♦ Also calculate the composition5potentialofJclinker<and study it.

rlo.
6. He
I chemical analysis of
€ clinker
E of a
J portland cement is the
J next: nte:
SiO2 l2O3 e 2 O 03C3 aO go ROS RI R1 ppc ppc

21,3 2 -X )3
F
•AND 6 7,7aO M 3 go OT 0,6 0,2 0,2 0,20,2
* fluxes. e sa en 3o que 7,7 1, 13 0,6
and a ,
4
3
of C3A as
an entity
Also calculate the potential composition of the clinker and study it.
♦ Also calculate the potential composition of the clinker and study it.
7. Analyzing a Portland cement clinker, the following result was obtained:
21,0 2 AI2O3 AND Fe203 64 .9CaO 1,1 MgO 0.5 OTHER0.4 R1 0.2 PPC
Calculate X and that in the c linker only there are 4 AF5 and a 1.6% C 2 F as
e
fluxes. knowing the C 1
X and Y Knowing that in the clinker there are only C4AF and 11.6% of C2F as also calculating the
potential composition of the clinker and studying it.
a company demanufacture mpotential position of clinker and study it.
ateriasnp primate f(Limestone,
argaemyntosand ion), whose OXIDE Yes, Al,0, Fe,0, CaO MgO Alkalis+SD PC.
three chemical composition C aliza 4.5 2.5 1.0 50.0 0.7 2.0 39.3
is[( the
liza, next: Loam 53.0 11.0 5.0 25.0 1.5 3.5 21.0
and sand), whose n they
85.0 2.5 5.0 3.5 1.0 1.0 2.0
end it have
in what
Determine in what proportion they should
YesOi AhOs Fe20: CaO Rest
determine if it is : OXIDE |
to possible Clinker 22.4 7.8 3.5 61.1 5.2
t obtain a composition clinker
9. Determine whether it is possible to obtain a composition clinker:
and
loam of followin compos ion: C4AF (%) Rest (%)
the g
CLINKER 38 31 15 11 5.2
from only limestone and marl[of the following composition: MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
PERUVIAN WINGS UNIVERSITY ]
86 Eng.Jean Edison Palma Vañez

Vañez
OXIDE Yes, Al203 Fez0, Cao Rest PC.

Limestone (*) 3.5 1.3 0.6 94.6 2.7 39.3
Marga (*) 75 18.2 6.2 0.6 5.0 12.0
(*) Calcined raw materials and without rest

10. A cement company has three raw materials: limestone, clay and sand, already calcined, whose chemical
composition is the following:
OXIDE Yes, A1203 Fez0; CaO
LIMESTONE 3.6 3.5 2.7 90.2
CLAY 592 28.1 11.6 1.3
SAND 96.6 2.1 1.3 —
The losses to calcination of limestone and clay are 40.1% and 7.5% respectively. The one in the sand is supposed
to be despicable. It is requested:
a) Calculate the proportion in which they must be mixed to obtain a clinker with a potential composition in which
50% is C 3 S and 25% is C 2 S.
b) Calculate the chemical composition of the mixture, as well as the chemical composition and potential of the
clinker.
c) Calculate the modulus values of silicates and alumina.
d) Can a sulfate-resistant cement be manufactured with this clinker?
11. There are four raw materials whose chemical analyzes are as follows:
OXIDE Yes, Al,0, Fe,0, CaO M gO S.D. PF
TO 5 0.5 0.5 51 1 2 40
b 63 19 4 1 0 9 4
c 93 0 0 0 0 1 0
d 9 4 75 0 0 2 11
We want to know in what proportion they should be mixed to obtain a clinker whose hydraulic modulus is
equal to 2.2, silicate modulus equal to 1.9 and that does not contain C 3 A or C 2 F.
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS
A) Define clinker.
B) Differences between corrective product and auxiliary product in Portland crude oil.
C) Define lime standard or degree of lime saturation. What objectives does it pursue?
D) What do we understand by Portland clinker silicates? Which are?.
E) What do we understand by Portland clinker fluxes? Which are?
F) State the characteristics of dicalcium silicate.
G) What is portland clinker free lime? How many types of free lime are there?
H) What do we understand as insoluble waste from Portland clinker? What is the reason for its presence?
I) What is the setting of Portland cement? What properties does the setting reaction have?
PERUVIAN WINGS UNIVERSITY ]1 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
)) What compound is used as a setting regulator in Portland cement? How does it act?
K) ) Study the contribution of each mineralogical component of the clinker to the final mechanical resistance of
the set Portland Cement.
L) ) What disadvantages does the use of Portland cement present?
M) ANSWER IF I IS TRUE OR FALSE strengths of Portland cement.
1 (C 2 S) ) contributes 3 much 3 more than 1 (C 3 S))a3 to the total
2 Crude 1 ) is a1 suitable3 mixture of limestone and /® ' clay rocks.
mechanical resistance of Portland cement.
In crude oil, apart from limestone and/■ clay, no other components
A cement with a high content of (C 3 S) ) reaches mechanical
are involved.
strength at very early ages.
and The raw3 of Portland cement is obtained at high
The 1 (C 2 F)) is the I that causes the initial mechanical resistance.
temperatures, close to sintering.
Tricalcium silicate is the most energetic component of Portland
2- In ■ 3cooking of the 1raw5no3 a3partial fusion1 of the ,® •
cement clinker.
components is achieved.
1 dicalcium silicate is more energetic than 1 tricalcium silicate.
- Amorphous limestones rich in calcium carbonate5 provide 1® •
Tricalcium silicate is the most energetic component of 1 clinker
few impurities to Portland cement clinker.
silicates.
5 • Clay products provide acidic oxides to the clinker. . ^ •
1 Tricalcium aluminate 3 is the 1 most energetic component of
® • Auxiliary products correct Zss deficiencies in: ® • raw materials.
Portland clinker r.
® Marls can replace limestone rocks and 59 • clays in Portland cement
Tetracalcium aluminate ferrite is the most energetic component
crude oil.
of the fluxes in Portland cement clinker.
® • 1 Bauxite is a corrective product for silica in crude 9 • Portland
The setting regulator t accelerates the hydration of (C 3 A).
cement. The 1 setting regulator r increases the setting speed 3 of the
- • ] (MgO)) is the main basic oxide in the crude oil of Portland cement.
clinker r
5 (SiO 2 ), , (Al 2 O 3 )) and 7 (Fe 2 O 3 ), , are the main oxides of r- acidic
The 1 setting r regulator used by the 3 industry 3 is natural 3
character - • in the raw portland cement. gypsum.
- • The 1) silicic module) characterizes1 the1 composition of the1 phase
The rapid hydration of the] (C 3 S) requires the use of a setting
9 • molten. regulator.
—
The 1 module) of fluxes characterizes 1 the1 composition of the 19 • The 3 existence 3 of 3 a large concentration of (C 2 S) ) can
molten phase. prevent the use of setting regulator in Portland cement.
- ' The 1 standard " of lime 1 fixes3 the 1 optimal content) of lime 1 to 19
' form the hydraulic components without leaving free lime.
— (C 3 S) only exists in cements derived from 9 ' Portland clinker.
— Calcium oxide3 is a main component1 of 1 clinkerr
die Portland. 9•
—
The I (C 2 S)) exists in the3 hydraulic cal I3y/ in the 1 clinkerr of 0 •
Portland.
2 ' 1 (C 2 F) and 7 I (C 3 A)) can coexist " in the 1 clinker " of —' ' Portland.
— EI (C 3 S))is responsible for the resistance of cement to — •
short term.
2' (CS) is more chemically stable than (CS). —•
— E1 (C3A)) is the most energetic component) of 1 clinkerr of
portland cement.
—: 1 (C 3 A)) presents good chemical stability to
sulfates and seawater.
The ](C 2 F) appears in Portland clinker when the modulus ) of fluxes is
lower (0.638).
1 magnesium oxide 1 clinkerr can3 produce
differentiated expansions in set cements.
Free 1 oxide of lime I is a major component I of Portland clinker r.
The 3 fire loss of 1 Portland cement clinker is considered a 3measure of
its weathering.
Residues insoluble in hydrochloric acid, sulfur trioxide and alkalis are
secondary compounds that impurify the clinker.
The I (C 2 S) ] develops 3 the initial mechanical resistances.
1 (C 3 A) ) and 1 (C 4 AF) not 3 contribute to 3 the final mechanical

z
CHAPTER IX
WATER FOR CONCRETE AND MORTAR
It is obvious to say that without water you cannot make concrete or mortars, even more so, you
cannot make a cement paste. Thus, water becomes important in the manufacture of concrete as:
mixing water, curing water and washing water. The effects that it may produce as contact water
must also be taken into account. Although water is the lowest cost component for the production
of concrete, it is an element as important as cement, since the variation of its content in a mixture
allows the dosage of concrete by varying its resistance, consistency and permeability. .
Furthermore, when the quality of the water used, its origin and chemical composition is unknown,
there is a great risk, because even if the “w/c” ratio is the desired one, it is not known if the water
inside the concrete will cause a benefit. or an inconvenience.
Impurities in water can be dissolved or in the form of a suspension and can be: carbonates or
bicarbonates, chlorides, sulfates, iron salts, inorganic salts, acids, organic matter, oils, or sediments
and can interfere with the hydration of the cement, produce modifications in the setting time,
reduce the mechanical resistance, cause stains on the concrete surface and increase the risk of
corrosion of the reinforcement.
In general, it is established that if the water is drinkable, it is suitable for mixing water, and a large
part of the concrete is made with drinkable water. However, many waters not suitable for drinking
are satisfactory for mixing. In any case, the specifications establish the maximum quantities of
impurities that can be accepted, depending on the type of concrete to be produced. When there are
doubts about the quality of the mixing water, samples must be taken for laboratory testing.
The water for washing aggregates or equipment should not have such quantities of impurities as
to cause damage to the concrete surface, the surface of the aggregate particles or the concrete
mixture.
Finally, as contact water, when it contains aggressive substances its effects are more decisive,
potentially leading to the destruction of the concrete if appropriate precautions are not taken.
Seawater becomes important especially in works carried out in coastal areas and in all port civil
works.
1. MIXING WATER:
The mixing water is composed of the water added when making a paste plus that from the surface
moisture of the aggregates, its main functions being:
:
<- React with cement, producing its hydration.
Act as a lubricant, contributing to the workability of the fresh mixture.

Vañez
P Ensure the necessary space in the paste for the development of hydration products.
Permissible limits for mixing and curing water according to NTP 339.088
Description Permissible limit
Suspended solids 5,000 ppm Maximum
Organic material 3 ppm Maximum
Alkalinity (NaCHCO,) 1,000 ppm Maximum
Sulfate s (SO ion) 600 ppm Maximum
Chlorides (CL- ion) 1,000 ppm Maximum
PH 5 to8 ppm Maximum
A simple rule concerning the acceptability of mixing water is that it be potable. In other words, if
the water does not have any particular taste, odor, or color, and is not fizzy or foamy when stirred,
there is no reason to assume that it will harm the concrete when used as mixing water. On the
other hand, many waters that are unacceptable for drinking are satisfactory for manufacturing
concrete and allow the strength required in the project to be achieved without unfavorably
influencing the hardening and setting process. Waters that can be considered harmful are those
that contain excessive amounts of sugar, acids, organic matter, oils, sulfates, alkaline salts, sewage
effluents, suspended solids and gases. Some of these impurities are natural, others are in seawater
or water from industrial activities. In general, water should not contain substances that could
produce unfavorable effects on concrete or reinforcement. The effects of certain impurities in the
mixing water on the quality of concrete are summarized below:
a. Alkaline carbonate and bicarbonate: Sodium and potassium carbonates and bicarbonates have
different effects on the setting time of different cements. Sodium carbonate can cause rapid
setting, baking soda can both accelerate and retard setting. These salts, when found in high
concentrations, can reduce the strength of concrete. When the sum of dissolved salts exceeds 1000
ppm, tests are necessary to study their influence on resistance and setting time. The possibility of
the occurrence of alkali-aggregate reactions must also be considered.
b. Chlorides: The adverse effect of chloride ions on reinforcement corrosion is the main reason for
concern regarding the chloride content in the water used for concrete preparation. Chloride ions
attack the protective oxide layer that forms on the steel resulting from the high alkalinity (pH
greater than 12.5) present in the concrete. The level of acid-soluble chloride ions, at which
corrosion begins in concrete, is approximately 0.2 to 0.4% by weight of cement (0.15% to 0.3%
water-soluble).

Vañez
c. Sulfates: Concern regarding the high sulfate content in the water used for concrete preparation is
due to potential expansive reactions and deterioration due to sulfate attack, primarily in areas
where the concrete will be exposed to soils or water with high sulfate content. of sulfates.
d. Iron salts: Natural groundwater rarely contains more than 20 to 30 ppm iron, however acidic
mine waters can contain large amounts of iron. Iron salts in concentrations of up to 40,000 ppm
normally do not affect the strength of concrete, but do affect its aesthetic appearance.
e. Various inorganic salts: Salts of manganese, tin, zinc, copper and lead in the mixing water can
cause a significant reduction in strength and large variations in setting time. Of these, zinc, copper
and lead salts are the most active. The salts sodium iodate, sodium phosphate, sodium arsenate
and sodium borate are especially active as retarders. All of them can greatly delay both the setting
time and the development of resistance, as long as they are in low concentrations with respect to
the cement content. Sodium sulfide is another salt that can be harmful to concrete.
f. Organic impurities: The effect of organic substances on the setting time of Portland cement and
on the ultimate strength of concrete is a very complex problem. Such substances can be found in
natural waters. Waters that are very colorful, have a noticeable odor, or have visible green or
brown algae should be considered suspicious and should therefore be analyzed. Algae may also be
present in aggregates, reducing the adhesion between the aggregate and the paste. 1000 ppm is
recommended as the maximum algae content.
g. Sugar: A small amount of sucrose, 0.03 to 0.15% by weight of cement, is usually sufficient to
retard the setting of cement. The upper limit of this range varies according to different cements.
The 7-day resistance can be reduced while the 28-day resistance can be increased. Sugar in
amounts equal to or greater than 0.25% by weight of cement can cause rapid setting and a large
reduction in strength after 28 days. Each type of sugar influences setting time and resistance
differently. Sugar in the mixing water in concentrations lower than 500 ppm normally does not
have a harmful effect on the strength, but if the concentration exceeds this value, setting time and
strength tests must be carried out. Sediment or Suspended Particles Approximately 2000 ppm of
suspended clay or fine rock particles can be tolerated in the mixing water. Higher quantities may
not affect the resistance but may influence other properties of some concretes such as drying
shrinkage, setting times, durability or the appearance of efflorescence. Before using muddy or
muddy water, it must be passed through sedimentation ponds or clarified by some other means to
reduce the amount of sediment or clay introduced into the mixture.

Vañez
h. through the mixing water. These sediments could be tolerated in higher quantities when cement
fines are returned to the concrete through the use of recycled wash water.
i. Oils: Many types of oils are occasionally present in water. Mineral oil (petroleum) without
admixture of vegetable or animal oils probably has less effect on the development of resistance
than other oils. However, mineral oil in concentrations greater than 2.5% by weight of cement can
reduce strength by more than 20%.
j. Sea water: Sea water, with a dissolved salt concentration of up to 35,000 ppm, is normally
suitable for use as mixing water for concrete not containing steel reinforcement. Approximately
78% of the salt is sodium chloride and 15% is magnesium chloride and sulfate. Although the early
strength of concrete prepared with seawater may be higher than the strength of normal concrete,
the strength at older ages (after 28 days) may be lower. This reduction in strength can be
compensated for by reducing the water/cement ratio. Seawater is not appropriate for the
preparation of steel-reinforced concrete and should not be used in prestressed concrete, due to
the risk of corrosion of the reinforcement, mainly in hot and humid environments. The sodium and
potassium salts present in seawater, used in the preparation of concrete, can aggravate the alkali-
aggregate reactivity. Therefore, seawater should not be used in the concrete mix where potentially
reactive aggregates are present. #284959
k. Acid waters: The acceptance of acid waters in the concrete mix should be based on the
concentration of the acids in the water. Occasionally, acceptance is based on pH, which is a
measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions on a logarithmic scale. The pH value is an index of
intensity and is not the best measure of the potential reactivity of an acid or a base. The pH of
neutral water is 7.0; Values less than 7.0 indicate acidity and values greater than 7.0 indicate
alkalinity. Normally, mixing water containing hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and other common
inorganic acids in concentrations up to 10,000 ppm has no detrimental effect on strength. Acidic
waters with pH less than 3.0 can create management problems and should be avoided if possible.
Organic acids, such as tannic acid, in high concentrations can have a strong effect on resistance.
l. Alkaline waters: Waters with sodium hydroxide concentrations greater than 0.5% by weight of
cement can reduce the strength of concrete. Calcium hydroxide in concentrations up to 1.2% by
weight of cement has little effect on the strength of concrete with some types of cement, but this
must be evaluated in each case. The possibility of increased alkali-aggregate reactivity should be
considered.

Vañez
m. Industrial waste waters: Most waters carrying industrial waste have less than 4000 ppm total
solids. When this type of water is used to prepare concrete, the reduction in compressive strength
does not exceed 10 to 15%. Water from industrial waste such as tanneries, paint factories, coking
plants, chemical and galvanizing plants may contain dangerous impurities. It is best to check any
wastewater that contains a few hundred parts per million of rare solids.
n. Sanitary wastewater (blackwater): A typical wastewater may contain approximately 400 ppm
of organic matter. After the wastewater is diluted in a good treatment system, the concentration is
reduced to approximately 20 ppm or less. This concentration is too low to considerably affect the
strength of the concrete.
2. CURING WATER:
The requirements for curing water are established in the NTP, with the same requirements
applied to mixing water. The curing water should not contain substances that are aggressive to the
hardened concrete or reinforcement, since during the first ages the concrete is extremely
permeable. It must be taken into account, consequently, not to use water with high chloride
content in the case of reinforced structures, to avoid substances that may cause discoloration or
surface stains and to keep the temperature difference between the curing water and the concrete
reduced to avoid the appearance of fissures.
3. WASHING WATER
Aggregate washing water should not contain materials in such quantities as to produce a harmful
film or coating on the aggregate particles. When used to wash the concrete mixer or other
equipment, the washing water must not contain impurities in sufficient quantities to cause
deterioration of the equipment or the mixture. For the reuse of washing water, compliance with
the requirements established in the NTP standard must be ensured and water used to wash
equipment that has contained additives such that they could affect the characteristics of the new
concrete produced will be avoided. In some countries such as the USA, the discharge into
waterways of any untreated rinse or wash water, which has been used in washing sand, gravel or
mixers, is prohibited. Wash rinse water is normally used in ready-mix concrete.
4. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE USE OF WATER IN CONCRETE
a. USE OF NON-POTABLE WATER : When the water used does not meet one or more of the already
known requirements, comparative tests must be carried out using the water under study and
distilled or drinking water, with similar materials and procedures. These essays

Vañez
b. They will include the determination of the setting time of the pastes and the compressive strength
of mortars at ages of 7 and 28 days.
The NTP Standard 339.084 considers that the initial and final setting times of the paste prepared
with the water under study may be up to 25% greater or less, respectively, than those
corresponding to the pastes containing the reference water. When the concentration of salts
exceeds the established limits, compression tests will be carried out at ages of 180 and 365 days.
Non-potable water may be used if, in addition to meeting the established requirements, it complies
with:
® Impurities do not alter the properties of the concrete or the reinforcing steel.
? The water must be clean and free of harmful amounts of acids, oils, etc.
^ Mixture proportions will be based on results of strength tests of concrete, which has been
prepared with water from the chosen source.
c. FORBIDDEN WATERS
^ acidic waters
® calcareous waters; minerals; carbonated; or natural.
^ Water from mines or tailings.
® Water containing industrial waste
c Waters with NaCl content > 3%; or SO4 > 1%.
C®P Waters containing algae; organic material; humus; carbon particles; peat; sulfur; or drain discharges.
®' Waters containing humic acid or other organic acids.
®' Waters containing sugars or their derivatives.
®' Waters with significant percentages of dissolved sodium or potassium salts, especially in
all those cases in which the alkali-aggregate reaction is possible.
d. LIMITATIONS: The harmful substances that the mixing water may contribute must be added to
those that may be present in the aggregates and/or additives; in order to evaluate the total
number of harmful substances that can damage concrete, steel or embedded metal elements. The
amounts of chloride ion in water, to prepare concrete that has embedded aluminum or galvanized
iron elements; They will not be greater than 0.6% by weight of cement. The total chloride ion
present in the water, aggregates and additives must never exceed the percentages indicated
below:
Limitations for the chloride ion

Concrete type Percentage
prestressed concrete 0.06 %
Concrete reinforced with aluminum or galvanized iron elements 0.06%
Reinforced concrete exposed to the action of chlorides 0.10%
Reinforced concrete subjected to a humid environment but not exposed to
0.15 %
chlorides
Reinforced concrete dry or protected from humidity during its life by means
of a waterproof coating 0.80%

Vañez
.
soluble. The designer andalready
the supervisorforwill give the authorization to use seawater in the mixing; It is
there the viewer in the Works File . Its use is to be used: guide the
sea in the mixed; This must appear in the Works Notebook. Its use is prohibited in the g
Seawater bans
Seawater bans
c
5 Reinforced concrete.
or
58 Concretes
with embedded aluminum or galvanized iron elements. 175kg/cm
6 Concretes put aluminum elements 00 fiercontent .
with al oxide umina.
- Concretes with important surface finish.
Concretes are not superficially important.
88 exposed concrete
.
cp Massive concrete.
- .
99 Concretes placed in hot climates.
-
■ Concretes with reactive aggregates. ina.
■ Concretes in the gregadc
uses aluminous cements.
® Concretes in which aluminous cements are used.
When using seawater as mixing water, remember that:
When using seawater as mixing water, remember that:
■ Nohayevi prepared with seawater does not produce any variation in settling. to sea
6 The prepal concrete
an acceleration in the setting and initial hardening of the cm . mix.
- You can present
t of the mortars tion in the frag the first and first days, in relation to the mortars
6 They resist it with drinking water. os is greater in the first days, in relation to the mortars - prepared
sconas¡uspo■
1
aablla
ecompression at 28 days by approximately 12%.
- Decreased
and 7 days the resistance of 1 the concrete tends to decrease. amente by 12%.
8 Li.lego cle 7 days the resistance of concrete tends to decrease.
5
coating must cause code-70 )n in the embedded metal elements, so its .
r
The concrete must be efflorescence. boasted, seeking maximum density and least porosity.
and. TEST STANDARDS FOR WATER
and. ENS AYO PAR RULES
TO THE WATER
. either
Portland cement concrete. Water level for the preparation and curing of Portland cement
mortars and connections.
. . either . .
organic 9.071: Test to determine the solid residue and matter content - org n 339.072: Test
method to determine the content of oxidizable
organic matter of the test ) to determine by oxidability the mat content
€339.0 g 73: ' Equals method.
I to determine the pH of the water.
- NTP 339.073: Test method

Vañez
p p a a r ra a de e t e e r r m min na a r r e the c p onte e nia d so ad g e ua s su u . smells of the waters.

o NTP 339.074: Test method to determine sulfate content <
las a s g a u g a u s a . s.
- NTP 339.075: Test method to determine the iron content of waters.
c NTP 339.076: Test method to determine the chloride content of water.

Vañez
r
CHAPTER X
MORTARS
When a chipboard is
added and if the mixture is mixed , the mortar is the mixture . r a en ga e do m f u in y or re u aliz o a , d a a
per way is called grouting. Mortar is the mixture of a g ygg , p .or
pp
more than one binder is called the
bastard ontero. The application of the paste on a surface a
eg llo
a m a e m
m e r a n pe
a s t ado
, s e
plastering or plastering, the . deau a n p m c o a r c ter n o. E e lt a ar p r

a
a je ad
s a so o
p u e the surface is called lam pas aoy arrajea o
r e un
or
plaster, a morero. arajea or perhaps it is a primary
oe nfo scado c nlucido or fine scalloping, etc.
PHASES COMPONENTS
PHASES COMPONENTS
BINDER
• PASTA BINDER
WATER
and
MORTAR
MORTAR • FINE AGGREGATE SAND
air
— Intentionally entrained air

• AIR
1. Gene case pp
q
€cal, it is simply mechanical, since it serves to repair the
® In the c a d s e o l a g e we lo moer m an t
o r
eea y r
es s
vita r
e c
d e , ee e ns sonee m e c
m sm od po el pm as c t ra c cio n c eos ,
qu e ue se s p s r r o v d e uc p e a n r e a n r e e l p m a r o a r r te or s
as a consequence of the ev eva a p r or e ac e i s ó in 11 d o el o ag a usa co d n elr a cm m c a os n a ed s o q y ue a
se
la pr q o ue uc se e en a e b n so e rb m e o en r l o a
hydration€d cu el e c n a c lc a area e o. to evaporate ne
J of the kneading
that is absorbed with the
hydrates
c
i s ó e n e d m e p l l c e a a lc n
to
hydraulic binders, contractions no longer arise, and then the
When it serves to
v reduce pa the dose ofmos binders ror causes contractions, a and thenm the
resistanceto dmasses
o s, or las itos c r ea aa ssos,
o sl s ea sg reg
e m ado side sea m e ñ emasses,
n an the or
en a s r e n u a os e g po ar function of giving
to the was saidg
“ cu er p o ” . pe an
a unc n a res enca a a las as, p.
to grains of sand, which can be g p

cover with a film
g , p p g ;p
If you want
to obtain sand , which is almost always waterproof , you will have to fill the voids or with water in the sand . o
a
m y ate ca ri s al s d e m p p r e e cio m m pá e s rm ce e o a nó e m , is c e o. Read sddos that are empty with e
a a r g p o o mesrlr e aa ra r n ela e
ci u
on ro m
lo v olum e n r e e es c d o the m agl s om ec e or n an m te
e p
and of the aggregates. Thus the

expression (1:3) means c a n volume o of m a e g n lo e m s e e ran ag te om po er r ant tre e s and d e e 1 as g a e g
g r a e d ga o o fi s n . either. s The dosage of water depends on volume
place
a g r o d m e e l r a c l a e c o d e r e ar g e the some e ran a g te
,
r eg by spun é os .
of atmospheric state, the desired plasticity, and the application to be given to the
the
mortar
. As a rule s gen r e c r o a , lc e on a vi p en a e s a c ma a sar el ea a, MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
e y ro e co a n a l p am caí c nim na q cu a en ste id v a a d a de a ar g a ua m , p our e e es ro el .
excess delays the forge v and e
n let
the dough be kneaded as it evaporates. Comfortable advice e cu ag e a ci , a p d ue e s it is s
voids re level to
n r t a a g n u to a l y os e a j g a lo p m o e r r o a s n e ten sa mas
losIIa g r e ga d o r s se e . lv o o m lu o m ce on resulting from the mixtures is lower than o su o m s
e v a p o ra
a ad g e o l m o er va on lú e m s e cno e m s o de os lo a s gr c e o g m a po on s, e e nte v s o . Yes the weights are

known
yr j is less than the sum the volumes the components Yes the bears are known 9 g.
specifics and densities of the components of a mortar, the resulting volume can be theoretically
determined, according to the dosage; but in practice it is preferred to work with experimental
data.
2. GYPSUM MORTAR: It is not widely used because the gypsum paste admits little sand as a result of
the weakness of that material in its setting. The maximum proportions that can be used are 1:2 to
1:3. Furthermore, since the plaster sets quickly, there is no time to knead it. The kneading is done
by pouring the plaster over the water placed in a "batter", mixing quickly and making sure that
bubbles do not form. It is prepared as it is needed, since the plaster begins to set after three or four
minutes and finishes after three or four minutes. fifteen or twenty. The set or hardened paste
cannot be used by adding more water, and must be discarded. Masons call this plaster “frid”.
Plaster mortars acquire in one day half the resistance that they can have in a month, which is
considered the time in which they have practically reached the limit of their resistance. Gypsum
grout is only suitable for whitewashing, due to its low resistance.
3. LIME MORTAR: Lime mortars are those mortars that are made with calcium oxide (lime), sand
and water. Lime can be aerial or hydraulic, differing because hydraulic has a small percentage of
silicates, which makes it more recommended for use in humid environments . They are generally
used to join stones and bricks better than cement due to their properties. The proportions used, in
volume, vary from 1 part of lime paste to 2 to 4 of sand; the most used being 1:3 and 1:3-1/2.
Lime and Sand Mortar

Lime and sand mortars
Volume ratio Preferred
employment
lime paste Sand
1 1 Plastering
1 2 Plasters
1 3 brick walls
1 4 Masonry walls
a. Preparation: On a layer of pasta, of uniform thickness, sand is also poured into the layers of equal
thickness. And everything is stirred until the whole has a uniform color; If necessary, add more
water.
b. Characteristics: The setting of the mortar is carried out slowly, especially if it has been used in
thick layers. It has been observed that sometimes it has taken years for complete hardening, that
is, for the complete transformation of the hydrated lime into calcium carbonate. . In these mortars,
excess paste sets it, increases contracting, and the consequent cracks. On the other hand, excess
sand speeds up the setting and provides a mortar that is difficult to work with mason's tools. The
best sand for lime mortars is fine grain, angular and clean.

Vañez
• PERUVIAN
[ AND DE M TER E
WINGS
also the c : uid e a p d e on ce e on n p q r un e ch pa as m ide on p e rep pe ara as do c1 the mortar. The c e a xce
and
so e a sand n uyen the resistance of the year with which the
k so prepare the mortar. excess e ca sm nuye
st a a
resistance of the mortar to compression. The following are causes, in addition to the decrease
in this resistance:
8 The 1 clay silt and ma . similar materials.
® What:
8 r a c ceit a e , s m á c o id i o m s a á l e c r a l a isy s m s mater a i r a el s.
such that it could contain water.
s i s t e r n e c a a g u d a e . l lime mortar,
The following : e n e
The following cries ,, ,

pp .
1 month 6m
3.0 e ses----------1
Tensile strength Kg. /cm 2 10.0 to 28.00 3.0
12.0toto5.0
35.0
Compression resistance kg. /cm 2 \
d. I fell
in stone: Must.
ase period: It must be in the well 'used to complete if resulting from hydration: 7 days to
walls 30 days ntam ent in e
(these terms are variable according to the dist r in a t ta as c n: ace for
walls, ace
e p la c r o a nn r caes e v potsq ot u d e e s n ( eo s u to ti s liz pa a r z la o i s n s m o e n d v ia a t r a a me e n s te se a g lap
ag two e sntasp cio and
-----------
I
powder: It is a hydrated caldaérea. The homogeneity of the
particles without s a c a
de a g r r e á a null ra d t e a a. ee
ancec m o aa m ñ pore ro 1ya ars q e ue a es o t mos og a el
om pleta r la
particles, if they present larger and larger grains, since they are the ones to compare to
hydration and its larger size causes plastering and m
various
disintegration processes
days of ear s m ent n a m c i o en n e to s. of the mixtures. 1 p this mixture should be used with at least
days I didn't settle
fat up to 5% magnesium oxide greater arid or lean lime.
8 Lime paste: Lime
ue ma a g l r pa r .
eg
youth of the
calcination dea pie drag s
: s g ua cam
li z as q u un e co
e n e m ante e ir
en en yes li e y en alo ú m e
a pu v e cr u
ina, ra a fo q rm ue arael pr ó o x v id en o r cá lc e ico a

produces 1 s n ilica e top s e ya ra lu s m c i a na z ta os s s q d ue e ca c lo c n io e d n es e h n id s ra c ta e d and
os m
le , to form exocc co
pro uce s caos
and dehydrated calcium aluminates that provide their hydraulic properties
and greater resistance.
obtained from PORTLAND CEMENT. Cement mortar is a construction material .

dosage of sand and cement in this mortar can be adjusted. The and ,p p
sand dosage and the cement with this mortar is c to do by methods
following:
d Porpeso ddi d _ ) or
• PERUVIAN
measurements of known quantities of cementWINGS
containers (barrels or bags) and volumes
.
and.
“ By measured volumes of cement and sand.
p The re m fe e r j e o n r ci s a i s e t n e
the laboratories. ion is
the , and it is used, of
preference in laboratories.
9 g.
The objection that is made is that the humidity of the sand can falsify the theoretical dosage,
but since the humidity never exceeds 5% by weight, this is the error that can be made. It is not
used in construction sites because it is not practical enough.
The second method is the most used in work and almost universal. To use it, take advantage of
the known volume of the barrels or bags of cement. Sand differs in filling the measuring boxes,
and variations of up to 25% in volume can be obtained. It is therefore important that the sand
measuring boxes are always filled in the same way.
The most used dosage in masonry work is 1:2 to 1:6, richer mortars are used only in hardened
ones and on rare occasions, poorer mortars are only used rarely.
a. Mixing: The sand and cement can be mixed by hand, by means of lamps, or using machines
called mixers, concrete or organic, it is advisable to first mix the cement and sand and then add
the water, the mixing should be continued until the set offers a uniform color. The mortar must
be used before setting has begun; mortar whose initial setting has finished should not be used.
b. Characteristics: The resistance of the mortar depends on:

c®P Of the proportion of cement used.
c® The size of the aereñ a grains and their graduation.
c® Of the amount of water used.
c® Of the degree of compactness obtained in handling.
In general terms, it can be said that the resistance of the mortar depends, 1 on the cement
quality per unit of volume, and 2 on its density.
Regarding the influence of sand, the following can be noted.
®” When the sand is properly graded, that is, when its grains are of different dimensions. It
offers the smallest volume of voids and will provide the densest mortar, a condition that is
obtained with the presence of a quantity of coarse grains in the sand.
^ With the minimum percentage of voids, a more resistant mortar will be produced using sand
with grains with an angular surface and coarse grains, than if the sand were with rounded
and fine grains.
® Lastly, of the sands, which have the same percentage of voids, coarse sand will provide
mortar in terms of density and resistance because for a certain volume of mixture, there
will be fewer voids.
Water produces the following action:
Excess water exerts the following influences :
^' Increases forging time.

®® Decreases resistance, tremendously greater influence in short-term tests than in long-
term ones.

Vañez
E Increase the amounta of pitch 1
e r to super cer 6old and new.
8 Increase ari icu la P' ón' d n e l n at a r e e un n a m de o l rteroy.
- It tends to causen the separation of sand from cement.
- Shortening toeel a e p l o t r i o em sid pa o d e y f p r o ar gu c a o ; nfollowing decrease in
impermeability.
- Increase in porosity, and consequently decrease in lap. Decrease in resistance.
.
very
during losp
p
,p lapp oops
also conp.At 7 days, the resistance is almost half or two thirds of occurs
maximum resistance, which occurs after three months. resistance .
In laboratories this resistance is tested by special machines that

are defined as
dosp scales.The p are made with qu or p in the shape of an eight, and
of regulatory dimensions, for testing, according to American AS or OE, the p in its most part
g.
The indices gp oe os are given below: co aeae awa aoe

the Standards ,
co o os oe os co e ce eo so e ose a ve
that
the resistances indicated p .
that
in the p that on the first day,
p
will be preserved in air
humid and
the rest g
or drinking water for
current hours and in water
and
sea,
for the
maritime jobs
Standard 2 Sol Cement

es stenc aaa tens n en ace g
19 kg. / cm
2
es stenc aaa tens n en ace 21kg/ cm 26kg/ cm
. p
that
resistance to understanding, it is also
resistance to understanding, but , the relationship between one resistance and another is not
also resistance to understanding.
and other resistance is not
constant for
.
for
lay bricks are:
« For resistant or load-bearing walls 1:5
( For infill walls or for
fences 1'6
Regarding finishes with cement mortars________________sand have g the following
thicknesses, the same ones used in budget preparation:
Plating:
CHAPTER I...................................................................................................................................1
134 Eng. Jean

i £0 Pnltnci
Vañez
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS..............................................................................1

1.1. GENERALITIES............................................................................................................1
1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS..........................................................................1
1.2.1. According to its origin:................................................................................................2
1.2.2. According to internal structure....................................................................................3
1.3. MATERIAL PROPERTIES............................................................................................5
1.3.1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.........................................................................................5
Figure No. 1.1............................................................................................................................8
Darcy's Experimental Equipment...............................................................................................8
Superficial Dilation : The.........................................................................................................14
1 variation of 1.........................................................................................................................14
Values of the linear expansion coefficients ( a).......................................................................16
1.3.5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES......................................................................................21
1.3.5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES :..............................................................................21
COMPLEMENTARY ACTIVITIES.......................................................................................30
SPECIFIC WEIGHT................................................................................................................30
POROSITY..............................................................................................................................30
DILATATION.........................................................................................................................32
CHAPTER II................................................................................................................................33
STANDARDIZATION...............................................................................................................33
2. OBJECTIVES AND ADVANTAGES:............................................................................33
5. STANDARDIZATION IN PERU:...................................................................................33
D. Methodology:................................................................................................................40
E. CREATION OF INDECOPI :..........................................................................................40
CHAPTER III..............................................................................................................................42
MATERIALS SELECTION........................................................................................................42
Table No. 3.1............................................................................................................................42
Design-Limiting Material Properties........................................................................................42
TO. CLASSIFICATION OF ESSAYS :..................................................................................45
A.1. Depending on the rigor of the test ...................................................................................45
A.2. According to the nature of the essay ...............................................................................45
A.3. According to the usefulness of the piece after being subjected to the test ......................45
A.4. Depending on the speed of application of forces ............................................................45
CHAPTER IV..............................................................................................................................47

Vañez
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS..........................................................................................47

Heat Transfer Equations............................................................................................................53
DRIVING (plane coordinates)....................................................................................................53
Remember................................................................................................................................53
CONVECTION - CONDUCTION - CONVECTION (plane coordinates)......................................54
h2.................................................................................................................................................55
DRIVING (cylindrical coordinates)...........................................................................................55
MULTIPLE LAYERS (cylindrical coordinates)..........................................................................56
HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS............................................................................................59
.
and.....................................................................................................................................64
16..............................................................................................................................................66
CHAPTER V...............................................................................................................................68
NATURAL STONE MATERIALS: ROCKS.............................................................................68
3. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS :.............................................................................................70
CHAPTER VI..............................................................................................................................75
AGGREGATE.............................................................................................................................75
4. PROPERTIES...................................................................................................................83
CONTINUOUS GRANULOMETRY AGGREGATES – MINIMUM VOIDS : For this the 88
4.4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES :.........................................................................................92
4.5. RESISTANT PROPERTIES :.......................................................................................94
4.6. THERMAL PROPERTIES :.........................................................................................95
4.7. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES :.......................................................................................96
4.9. PERCENTAGE PASS 200...........................................................................................99
4.10.1. UNIT WEIGHT.........................................................................................................99
4.10.2. SPECIFIC WEIGHT............................................................................................100
a) Specific weight – Fine aggregate:.......................................................................................102
a.1. Specific weight of mass (Pem):........................................................................................102
a.2. Specific gravity of mass saturated with dry surface (PeSSS)...........................................102
a.3. Apparent specific weight (Pea).......................................................................................102
b) Specific Weight – Coarse Aggregate.................................................................................102
CHAPTER VII...........................................................................................................................104
BINDERS..................................................................................................................................104
c®P Primary...........................................................................................................................104
c®P Secondary.......................................................................................................................104
136 Eng. Jean

i £0 Pnltnci
Vañez
8 Bituminous materials..........................................................................................................104
Types of binders.....................................................................................................................104
1. CLAYS...........................................................................................................................104
®” Another type of classification is according to its commercialization :............................106
c. Physical and mechanical properties of clays..................................................................107
2. AND SO............................................................................................................................108
2. AND SO............................................................................................................................108
.
and...................................................................................................................................110
Obtained by firing the gypsum stone temperature.................................................................110
ai less than 2002C:.................................................................................................................110
1
firing of the plaster stone at a temperature above 200ºC:...............................................110
c. Plaster forge........................................................................................................................110
.p.............................................................................................................................................112
e. Resistances......................................................................................................................116
3. CAL....................................................................................................................................117
b.
Lime manufacturing process:..........................................................................................124
,, Yo....................................................................................................................................124
4. Pozzolans:.......................................................................................................................126
CHAPTER VIII.........................................................................................................................127
CEMENT...................................................................................................................................127
3. CEMENT MANUFACTURING:...................................................................................133
Raw . or I larina......................................................................................................................134
b. PROCESS :.....................................................................................................................134
c. PROCESS:.........................................................................................................................134
d. PHASES:........................................................................................................................134
4 . CEMENT MODULES.......................................................................................................134
6. CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENTS..............................................................................144
b. PORTLAND CEMENT ADDITIONS..............................................................................147
b. PORTLAND CEMENT ADDITIONS........................................................................................147
Yo Yo either c...................................................................................................................147
■ Type I(PM): Modified Pozzola Portland Cement...........................................................147
5” TypeICo :...........................................................................................................................147
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PERUVIAN CEMENTS......................................147
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PERUVIAN CEMENTS........................................................147

Vañez
7. MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION OF CEMENT...................................................148

................................................................................................................................................152
Issues......................................................................................................................................154
THEORETICAL PROBLEMS..............................................................................................158
M) ANSWER IF I IS TRUE OR FALSE..............................................................................160
CHAPTER IX............................................................................................................................162
WATER FOR CONCRETE AND MORTAR...........................................................................162
1. MIXING WATER:.........................................................................................................163
2. CURING WATER:.........................................................................................................169
3. WASHING WATER......................................................................................................169
4. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE USE OF WATER IN CONCRETE...........................169
b. FORBIDDEN WATERS................................................................................................171
6 Concretes put aluminum elements 00 fier......................................................................173
8 Lime paste: Lime............................................................................................................179
obtained from PORTLAND CEMENT. Cement mortar is a construction material ...................180
Excess water exerts the following influences :......................................................................182
CHAPTER XI............................................................................................................................193
CONCRETE..............................................................................................................................193
1. CHARACTERISTICS....................................................................................................193
2. TYPES OF CONCRETE................................................................................................193
3.1. ITS T...........................................................................................................................199
4.1. PR................................................................................................................................199
Properties of fresh concrete....................................................................................................199
4.1.3. Workability: and The r............................................................................................200
5. TESTING FRESH CONCRETE....................................................................................207
6. TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE.........................................................................207
6..............................................................................................................................................207
6..............................................................................................................................................207
CHAPTER XII...........................................................................................................................208
MASONRY UNITS...................................................................................................................208
5..............................................................................................................................................212
1. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURES OF WOOD:....................................................224
c. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF WOOD...........................................................................229
d. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF WOOD...........................................................................229
138 Eng. Jean

i £0 Pnltnci
Vañez
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD.........................................................................232

4. PHYSICAL – CHEMICAL QUALITIES OF WOOD...................................................236
5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD..................................................................236
a. Forest exploitation:.........................................................................................................238
A. By manufacturing method or metallurgical process:..................................................242
B. By use of steel ............................................................................................................242
C. Due to the chemical composition of steel:..................................................................242
68 Steel aI q l..........................................................................................................................244
2. CHEMICAL ELEMENTS THAT GIVE CERTAIN PROPERTIES TO STEEL.........244
3. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS........................................................................246
Table Nº01..............................................................................................................................251
Minimum Mechanical Characteristics of Steel......................................................................251
4. MECHANICAL TESTING OF STEEL.........................................................................251
Figure Nº07............................................................................................................................254
Diagram of the specimen for the Flexion adhesion test.........................................................254
Figure Nº07............................................................................................................................256
Brinell apparatus....................................................................................................................256
Figure Nº08 Rockwell apparatus...........................................................................................257
5. BASTARD MORTARS: When more than one binder is used in the mortar, it is called bastard
mortar, a name that originates from the fact that the addition of the second binder almost
always aims to save money on the holder, which is more expensive, or to provide it with other
properties. physical.
a. Bastard mortars with plaster: They are obtained by mixing the plaster with lime and sand.
They are used only in plastering and plastering. A paste that, according to the definitions
given, should be classified as rough, is obtained using the following proportions.
And so lime sand

For walls 1 3 1
For ceilings 2 3 1
In plastering the following proportion is used: Plaster (1), lime (3), sand (4-1/2). In all cases fine
sand is used.
b. Bastard Portland Cement Mortars: Contains cement and lime as a binder. Lime added in
small proportions makes the mortar denser and also softer and more workable with mason's
tools. The bastard mortar is more resistant than the normal one of lime alone and compared to
normal cement alone, it is weaker but as we have already pointed out, more plastic and

Vañez
waterproof.
The proportions used vary between one part of cement, ½ to 2 parts of lime, and 5 to 6 parts of
sand. Between these proportions, experience shows that the most resistant to compression is
1:1:6, 6 representing the volume of sand. In Lima, the following proportions have been used with
good results to lay bricks.
On non-overloaded walls 1:1:6 (lime-cement-sand)

On overloaded walls 1/5:1:3 (lime-cement-sand)
We will mention, so that a comparison can be made, that the most popular proportion in lime for
the indicated use in cement and sand mortar is 1:5. These recommendations refer to ordinary
construction lime, but there is currently hydraulic lime on the market that does not need to be
“rotted”, soaked or hydrated to be used and is sold in 2 cubic foot hulls or weighing 30 kg. This
product is recommended using. In the following proportions in volumes (cement, lime, sand)
For mortar or “mixture” to set bricks or stones:
® 1:1:10 with 3.7 volumes of water, a total of 10.5 volumes is obtained.

® 1:2:2 with 4 volumes of water, a total of 12.9 volumes is obtained.
For plastering:
® 1:2::15 with 5.5 volumes of water a total of 15.75 volumes are obtained
140 Eng. Jean

i £0 Pnltnci
Vañez
MORTAR TABLE
TABLE I
FAT LIME MORTARS
Dosage in
Slaked lime paste
Class Class volumes Lime Sand m 3 Water liters
m3
sand
335 kg 1:1 0,555 0,555 110
240 kg 1:2 0,400 0,800 120
190 kg 1:3 0,315 0,125 125
160 Kg 1:4 0,260 1,050 100
135 kg E8—
NOTE: 1:5 0.220 1,100 100
1
N OTE :hours for everyone
Labor ____._________or
= 3.52________________n/,
– loss in % of the:___________.
amount =_ 8either
Hours
TABLE II
____ __—---- HYDRAULIC LIME MORTAR
_________-——
Hydraulic lime Kg Sand m 3 Water liters
Dosage in Lime
Class
Class Sand Volumes
1:1 540 0,780 320

540 kg
1:2 335 0,960 290
335 kg
1:3 240 1,050 275
240 kg
1:4 190 1,140 270
190 kg
1:5 160 1,140 265
160 Kg
From 160D-- - -
NOTE: Labor hours = 3.5 – Loss in % of the amount = 8
___—'
TABLE III
________________- ARTIFICIAL PORTLAND CEMENT MORTARS
Dosage in Cement
volumes of Portland Kg
Class Sand m 3 Water Liters
Class Cement Sand
920 Kg 1:1 920 0,680 270

600 kg 1:2 600 0,880 265
440 kg 1:3 440 0,975 260
350 kg 1:4 350 1,030 260
290 kg 1:5 290 1,070 255
250 kg 1:6 250 1,100 255
------De2505— 1:7 215 1,130 255
190 kg 1:8 190 1,140 250
------De190E- 1:9 175 1,145 250
160 Kg 1:10 160 1,150 250
_______From loll —
NOTE: Labor hours = 3.5 – Loss in % of the amount = 8

_________________—'
Eng. Jean Edison Palma Vañez inS'J

TABLE IV
FAST SETTING CEMENT MORTARS
Dosage in
Class volumes of Water
Cement Sand Fast cement Kg Sand m 3 Liters
750 Kg 1:1 750 0,710 310
475 kg 1:2 475 0,900 295
350 kg 1:3 350 0,980 290
275 kg 1:4 275 1,030 285
NOTE: Labor hours = 3.5 – Loss in % of the amount = 8.

TABLE V
_________________- SLOW SETTING NATURAL CEMENT MORTAR

___________________ Dosage in
volumes of Water
Class
Cement Sand Slow cement Kg Sand m 3 Liters
---------------— 1:1 770 0,740 295
770 Kg
485 kg 1:2 485 0,930 280
350 kg 1:3 350 1,020 270
280 kg 1:4 280 1,070 265
230 kg 1:5 230 1,100 260
195 kg 1:6 195 1,120 260
170 kg 1:7 170 1,140 260
____________ NOTE: Labor hours = 3.5 – Loss in % of the amount = 8 —
TABLE VI
____________— __
BASTARD FAT LIME AND PORTLAND CEMENT MORTARS
Dosage in
Cement Lime Fat in
Class volumes Cto., Sand m 3 Water Liters
Portland Kg M3 Paste
Lime, Sand
1:1:4 1:1:4 290 0,215 0,800 168
1:1:6 1:1:6 220 0,165 0,980 170
1:1:8 1:1:8 180 0,135 1,060 170
1:2:6 1:2:6 185 0,275 0,830 160
1:2:8 1:2:8 155 0,230 0,920 185
1:2:10 1:2:10 133 0,197 0,990 157
NOTE: Labor hours = 4 – Loss in % of the amount = 8

Vañez
VALUES OF THE CONTRIBUTION COEFFICIENTS FOR
EACH MATERIAL
Coarse sand (naturally moist) 0.63
Medium Sand (naturally moist) 0.60
dry coarse sand 0.67
dry fine sand 0.54
Lime paste 1.00
powdered lime 0.45
Boulder or gravel 0.66
brick shell 0.60
Portland Cement 0.47
White Cement 0.37
granulated marble 0.52
Broken stone (stone) 0.51
pure brick powder 0.56
Demolition brick dust 0.53
Plaster Paris 1.40
SPECIFIC WEIGHTS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS (Kg./m 3 )
dry sand 1450 Machine Bricks 1580
Naturally moist sand 1650 Stone Masonry 2250
very wet sand 2000 Marble 2700-2800
Quicklime in lumps 900-1100 Set Lime and Sand Mortar 1650
Quick hydraulic lime, powder 850-1150 1700-1900

Set Cement, Lime and Sand Mortar
Lime paste 1300 loose snow 150
Portland Cement 1200-1400 frozen snow 500
White cement 1100 Paper in books 1000
set cement 2700-3000 Demolition brick dust 1000
Coke Slag 600 Porcelain 2400
Boulder (Gravel) 1750 dry clay soil 1600
Reinforced concrete 2400 Wet land 1850
Cascotes Concrete 1800 Whiteboard 1000
Common Bricks 1350-1600 powder plaster 1200

Vañez
CHAPTER XI
CONCRETE
Concrete is a fairly resistant construction material, which is worked in its liquid form, so it can
take almost any shape. This material is basically made up of water, cement and other additives,
to which a fourth ingredient called additive is later added.
Concrete is basically a mixture of three components: Portland Cement, aggregates and water.
When mixing these three components, a fourth component appears simultaneously, which is
air. One more component can eventually be added to these four components and is generically
designated as an additive. There are other concepts that define concrete as the mixture of two
components, aggregate and paste.
1. CHARACTERISTICS
a. Density: This can be the main criterion for the types of concrete that you want to achieve.
As we know, density is closely linked to the amount of voids that the concrete may have, for
this reason the space occupied by the concrete should be filled as much as possible within
the formwork.
b. Strength: It must be guaranteed that the concrete will always have sufficient strength and
internal resistance against the various types of
failure.
c. Water-cement ratio: The water-cement ratio
(W/C) is the most important factor in the
strength of concrete. A certain water-cement
ratio produces different resistances according
to the type of aggregate used and the type of
cement.
Water 20 liters
A/C
= - that is to say---- = 0.50
Cement 40 kg .
d. Texture: Exposed concrete surfaces should have a dense, hard texture so that they can
withstand adverse weather conditions.
2. TYPES OF CONCRETE.
2.1. Simple concrete : Simple concrete is made with sand and gravel (coarse aggregate)
that constitute between 60 and 75 percent of the volume and a hardened cementitious
paste formed by hydraulic cement with water, which with the voids forms the rest.
2.2. Reinforced concrete : Simple concrete is called this when it has steel reinforcement as
reinforcement and is designed under the hypothesis that the

two materials work together, the reinforcement acting to withstand tensile stresses or
increase the compressive strength of the concrete.
Structural concrete : Simple concrete is called this when it is dosed, mixed,
2.3.
transported and placed, according to technical specifications, which guarantee a
minimum resistance pre-established in the design and adequate durability.
Cyclopean concrete: This is the name given to simple concrete that is completely
made of displacing stones with a maximum size of 10”, covering up to a maximum of
2.4.
30% of the total volume. The stones must be introduced after selection and washing,
with the essential requirement that each stone, in its final location, must be
surrounded by simple concrete.
Light concrete: Light concrete is that which is made with dense stone aggregates, to
reach a dry volumetric mass of 400 to 1700 Kg/m 3 , once compacted.
2.5.
Heavy Concrete: This concrete is produced with heavy aggregates such as barites,
iron minerals such as magnetite, limonite and hematite. Its density exceeds 6400
Kg/m 3 .
2.6.
Ready-mixed concrete: Ready-mixed concrete is that which is delivered to the client
as a mixture in a non-hardened state (mix in a fresh state). Ready-mixed concrete is
one of the most popular and versatile construction
2.7.
materials, due to the possibility that its properties are
adequate to the needs of different applications, as well as its
strength and durability to withstand a wide variety of
environmental conditions.
Precast concrete: Concrete that is made in a place other
than its final position in the structure.
Pumped concrete: Concrete that is pumped through pipes
to its final location.
2.10. Self-compacted concrete: There are many
2.8.
definitions of this material, but the most widespread
states that it is a very highly fluid concrete, which can be placed under its own
2.9.
weight and is capable of filling the formwork without vibration, achieving
good consolidation. , without producing exudation or segregation. The
fundamental differences that define a Self-Compacted Concrete (SCC) compared to a
conventional Concrete are the following:
• Materials must be studied for each mix design.

• The consistency should be completely liquid. The measurement of consistency
and viscosity should not be measured exclusively with traditional methods such
as the Abrahams cone, but due to the characteristics of the concrete, special
methods such as: SLUMP-FLOW, V_FUNNEL, L-SHAPED BOX, etc. should be
used. .

PERUVIAN WINGS UNIVERSITY] MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
2.11. Prestressed concrete: To build a prestressed element, it is necessary that the
tendons or wires between external anchors be kept tensioned before placing the
concrete. When the concrete has achieved sufficient strength, the tendons are released
from the external anchors and thus transfer the stress to the concrete, inducing a
compressive stress in it. Prestress tendons usually run in straight lines.
2.12. Post-tensioned concrete: Post-tensioning is a technique of
preload the concrete in such a way as to eliminate, or reduce,
the tensile stresses that are induced by dead loads. The
tendons are placed in ducts or sleeves, which prevents
bonding, and the concrete is set so that the duct is bonded but
the tendon inside is free to move. When the concrete has
gained sufficient strength the tendons are forced directly
against the concrete and are mechanically secured in anchors
embedded in the forge at each end. After this state, the tendons
are tensioned and from now on the compression induced in the concrete is maintained
by the anchors.
2.13. High-Strength Concrete: It is a type of high-performance concrete, which commonly
has a specified compressive strength of 400kg/cm 2 (40 MPa) or more. Compressive
strength is measured in 6" X 12" (150 X 300 mm) or 4" X 8" (100 specified age
depending on your application. The production of high-strength concrete requires
greater study as well as more demanding quality control compared to conventional
concrete.
2.14. Rheoplastic Concrete: It is that concrete whose rheological characteristics are
controlled by additives that increase plasticity above conventional limits, without
producing exudation, segregation, or altering the water/cement ratio, whatever we
want.
to. General properties of rheoplastic concrete:
® Plasticity range: 6'' to 12'', an extremely fluid and workable concrete is obtained.
® Cohesive mixtures without segregation, unlike laminating only with water, which
reduces cohesiveness. This rheoplastic concrete is extremely cohesive, that is, the
coarse aggregate does not separate from the fine aggregate.
^ It maintains the slump for a longer time, unlike conventional concrete dosed only with
water, which maintains a workability life time of 90 minutes, in some cases a little
more, but with these rheoplastic concretes you can obtain 2 to 3 hours.
B Temperature control in hot weather, by allowing enough temperature in hot weather.
or Improved waterproofing, it helps us to have a fairly low w/c ratio, the pore structure is
very fine and this greatly improves waterproofing.

Vañez
5
water additives
produce if
a tea
dispersion and additional is
of
the
cement and makes
the hydration process greater than
normal - Reduction c by drying ' and 1 plastic flow
which are 11 2 1 of R the big problems we have in €els
concrete 1 from the point of view5 of figuration. n Flowable concrete with segregation Rheoplástjc Concrete or
concrete, from the point of view of figuration.
3.1. ITS T
Fresh state: At first the concrete looks like a mass. It is soft 3.1.
and E can f be c worked c o omolded r
in° different from
shapes. E And h so 1 se
conserves
during ad
the 0 placement in
and life
the ent
compaction. ace
The
characteristics ra
plus 1 important
dely concrete 11 fresh io
L
are
workability and cohesiveness. nts of fresh concrete are workability and
cohesiveness.
3.2. Set state: Afterwards the concrete begins to become rigid. 3.2.
When it is no longer soft, it is known as concrete setting. c The setting /a takes
place m after the :o compaction d and (during the
finish. Concrete that looks watery when very wet can be easily placed, but it will be more
difficult to finish. It can be easily placed, but it will be more difficult to finish.
3.3. Hardened state: After the concrete has set, 3.3 begins.
earn it
resistance
yDsep hardens,e the:o
g properties of lo
concrete
5
hardened concrete are the 3 strength and durability or properties of hardened
concrete are strength and durability
4. PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
4.1. PR
Properties of fresh concrete
4.1.1. Docility: Esdla 1 concrete ability to become a mass
4.1.2. It has the ability to “close”, °that is, it must lock without leaving empty spaces. Depending on
the ratio of sand/aggregate (sand/ sand + stone) and the roundness of the aggregate.
Consistency should not be confused with docility , as concrete can be very consistent and

Vañez
easily. tenancy with docility, since the concrete can be
close
4.1.3. Workability: and The r

concrete ci
fresh must be appropriate to the characteristics
4.1.4. particularities of each work r its workability must allow it to be received, transported,
placed in the formworks, compacted and finished correctly with 3 available means 3
without segregation of the component materials. In this way, the prepared concrete will
completely fill the formwork, without leaving any gaps or bee nests, and will completely
cover the
laser
reinforcement of d reinforcement j both 11 ena pro c of
structural resistancet and €for the passivation of the iron achieved with the cement
slurry and will remain with the planned completion for the€work. Workability is c
affected 1 by: o, and will remain with the planned completion of the work. Workability is
affected by:

Vañez
® The amount of cement paste: cement paste is the soft or liquid part of the
concrete mixture. The more paste mixed with the coarse and fine
aggregates, the more workable the mixture will be.
" The granulometry of the aggregate: well-graded, smooth and round
aggregates improve the workability of the mixture.
To make a workable mixture:
• Add more cement paste

• Use well graded aggregates
• Use a good additive
4.1.5. Consistency or fluidity: Consistency refers to the fluidity of mixtures. It covers various
degrees of fluidity: from dry or rigid mixtures, to very fluid or loose ones. The
consistency depends mainly on the amount of water added to the mixture; also, the
amount of cement incorporated in the mixture; Likewise, the shape and size of the
aggregates. The consistency is chosen taking into account the concrete element or
component to be constructed and the compaction method to be used in placement. In a
plastic mixture, there is sufficient cement paste of such a consistency that the
aggregates virtually float in the paste. This allows the homogeneous incorporation of
the aggregates and eliminates the potential risk of segregation and the formation of
“crabs”. The consistency of a mixture can be appreciated with the naked eye; However,
this empirical way is not indicative of the regularity or uniformity of consistency. To
more appropriately evaluate and control the consistency of the mixtures, the slump
method is used, which consists of filling a 30 cm truncated conical mold. high, 20 cm. in
diameter at the largest base and 10 cm. in diameter at the smaller base.
4.1.6. Consolidation: Vibration sets the particles in the freshly mixed concrete in
motion, reducing friction between them and giving the mixture the mobile
qualities of a dense fluid. The vibrating action allows the use of hard mix
containing a higher proportion of coarse aggregate and a lower proportion
of fine aggregate. Using a well-graded aggregate, the larger the maximum
size of the aggregate in the concrete, the smaller volume will have to be
filled with paste and there will be a smaller surface area of aggregate to be
covered with paste, resulting in a smaller amount of water and cement. is
necessary, with adequate consolidation the hardest and roughest mixtures
can be used, resulting in greater quality and economy. If a concrete mixture
is workable enough to be adequately consolidated by hand rodding, there
may be no advantage to vibrating it. In fact, such mixtures can be segregated by
vibrating them. Only by using harder and rougher mixtures are all the benefits of
vibrating achieved.

Vañez
4.1.7. cement mixture. Among the main factors that produce segregation are
the difference in the sizes of the particles and the poor granulometric
distribution of the aggregates. Other causes refer to the inadequate OR
inadequate
concrete adelg processes:is
Mixing,
transportation, placement and compaction. s Segregation occurs in
two ways: Coarse particles tend to separate from the others due to the
action of gravity, a gesture that generally occurs with dry and poorly
plastic mixtures . The other s form is the 3separationt of the 1 paste (ce
What happens with very fluid mixtures. a is the separation of the paste (cement and
water) which
4.1.8. Homogeneity: It is believed that the concrete components are in the 4.1.6.
samegproportion in anyLpart of the massato srddifferent masses of the same concrete.i'
Considering1 that the concrete 1is m
a mixture whose components have different
specific weights, these will tend to segregate. Homogeneity depends on the type and time
of mixing, transportation, compaction, etc. For concrete sampling, masses must be
taken that correspond to the central third of a standard mixer. Masses must be taken
that correspond to the central third. from a batch of
4.1.9. Exudation: It is also known as bleeding and consists of
part of the water in
4.1.10. mixed tends to rise to the surface 1 of the newly placed
concrete €o c during the
s defragmented process. Exudation can create problems in concrete; when
the rate of evaporation is lower than the rate of exudation , a film of
water is formed that increases as the ratio of water increases to
cement on the surface and subsequently this area becomes porous.
low wear resistance; but if the evaporation rate is greater than the Ide rate or exudation 1C,
cracks may occur.
udationcan be controlled with 3 air-entraining additives,
finer cements AND a fine aggregate control. i with air-entraining additives, 4.1.8. Unit
Weight: fIt refers to (the weight of the concrete in a certain volume,
4.1.11. It helps us to be able to compare it with other concrete items and verify that the
proportions of the material are correct. It will be achieved (in the following way: r that the PSe
1fill 3 a cylindrical container with concrete 1 in c three layers and €each 1 layer with 25 blows by
means of a 0.60 m rod. of length and 5 1 8” of diameter.a with 25 blows z or half the weight of
the concrete and the volume of the/container, and a simple 3 division will be enough to be able
to find the unit weight 1 of the fresh concrete., a simple division will be enough to be able to find
the unit weight of fresh concrete.
4.2.1. Density: The density of concrete is defined as the weight per unit volume.
4.2.1. It depends on the concrete density and the proportion in which each of the different
constituent materials of the concrete participate. For me, conventional concretes,
formed by granular materials coming from non-mineralized rocks of the earth's crust, their
no I Ing.Jean Edison Palma Vañez

value ranges between 2.35 and 2.55. Kg/dm 3 . mineralized from the Earth's crust its
value ranges between 2.35 and 2.55 Kg/dm 3 .
ill I Ing, Jean Edison Palma Vañez

4.2.2. Resistance: Resistance is one of the properties
4.2.3. concrete, mainly when it is used for structural purposes. Concrete, in its quality, is a
constituent 11 of a structural element, and is subjected to the stresses derived from the
stresses that act on it. If they exceed their resistant capacity,
fractures will occur,
first is
of S
ep origin
local
and
later widespread, which may affect the safety of the structure.al and pWell-made
concrete is a naturally resistant and durable material. ture.
« It is dense, reasonably impervious to water, and capable of resisting changes in temperature,
as well as resisting temperature wear.z of resisting changes in strength and durability
are affected by the density of concrete. The denser concrete is the more impervious (to
water) due to the density of the concrete. The STRENGTH of concrete increases with
strength.
® Li 1 well-made concrete is important to 1protect the a.
steel in reinforced
concrete. Well done is important to protect the steel in the concrete : the strength of
concrete in the hardened state is usually measured by the compressive strength using
the compressive strength test. of for the
4.2.3. Variations in volume and cracking: a
The concrete experiences variations of
4.2.4. volume, dilations or contractions, or throughout its useful life due to physical and
chemical causes. The type and magnitude of these variations are significantly affected
by the existing environmental conditions of humidity and temperature and also by the
components present in the atmosphere. of humidity and temperature and also by
4.2.5. Durability: Express ite the erbehavior of the material to
4.2.6. oppose the aggressive action of the environment or other factors
as the wear, ensuring its integrity and the reinforcement of the reinforcement during
the construction period and afterwards, throughout the entire service life of the structure.
ction and then, throughout the entire service life of the structure.
4.2.7. Impermeability: It is a characteristic closely linked to the

4.2.8. durabilityt and1the one that collaborates the most with it.aImpermeability 1 is the
resulta of having aun oconcretoitcompact r
and uniform, and with

quantity of2 cement, aggregatesn det
good quality and continuous granulometry, rational dosage, or water/cement ratio

as low as possible within the construction conditions to allow excellent filling if
of 5 formworks
and
armor coating, 1eliminating any possibility of leaving air pockets or bee nests in the
mass , preventing aggressive elements from entering the mass of the concrete.
Without the
impermeabilityzr that condition Be very
Importantly, for correct functioning and durability of the structure, the
manufactured concrete producer (may add a chemical additive to the user's order or
to intentionally incorporate the amount of 1 air ai- measured in
is
percentageaover c the total ital mass-i let n be te

necessary. da It will be possible to increase the
impermeability of the concrete when attended to is
the following Go
It aspects of its

c
Use dry mixes, with a low water-to-water ratio.
cement. The concrete
The most resistant are the least permeable. 8
Achieve a granulometry with the minimum possible
voids. 8
Cast the concrete with the discreet use of vibrators
that compact the
mix and expel some of the air bubbles.
5. TESTING FRESH CONCRETE
For any type of concrete testing in the fresh state, the ASTM C143-00 Sampling Freshly Mixed
Concrete Standard must be taken into account.
CP
Settlement, consistency or slump.
CP
Unit weight, unit mass or density.
cg Workability
cBP Fluency
CP
Setting time ^ Air content ^
Temperature
^ Others
6. TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE.
g Elasticity
6
Compressive strength
6
Diametral traction
cBP Flexion

Vañez
CHAPTER XII
MASONRY UNITS
Within the masonry units or ceramic products, various products can be mentioned such as:
adobe, stone, different types of bricks.
1. ADOBE: Adobe is a raw brick, made of clay mixed with water and some substance such as
lime, straw, sand , manure, etc. To give it consistency and drying in the heat of the sun.
They are put into work with clay paste.
It is a low-cost material and very easy to prepare, which is why it has been used extensively on
the coast of our country, where rainfall is scarce; but since it has the drawbacks that we will
indicate shortly, today there is a tendency to replace it with ceramic bricks.
The main advantages of adobe, in addition to those explained, are in providing soundproof
walls that are very poor conductors of heat, so the rooms built with them are cool in summer
and warm in winter.
Its use is recommended for the construction of magazines and explosives depots, because
apart from its good climacteric characteristics already exposed, in the event of an accident it is
easily transformed into soil.
The drawbacks of adobe are mainly its low resistance to compression, its weak connection
between one piece and another, and the ease with which rodents and other vermin develop in
its mass. It is contra-indicated to build walls with adobes on the second floor. Furthermore,
humidity mistreats them quite a bit but their duration is appreciable.
a. Manufacturing: 4 stages are considered:
c®P Preparation of the land : Those that are quite clayey and devoid of stones are chosen;
The so-called crumbs are the favorites; presenting a slightly reddish color. When the land
is sandy, a proportion greater than 20%, the adobe is fragile.
®®P Kneading the clay : It is also called tempering, which consists of adding the amount of
water necessary to make molding possible.
^ Molding : It is carried out on previously leveled ground and on which a light layer of sand,
guano, straw, etc. is sprinkled. The gravel pit or wooden mold is placed on the tendal,
which is filled with the already prepared clay, smoothing the free surface with the hand or
with a wooden ruler or trowel. To prevent the mud from sticking to the mold, when the
profiled adobe dries, it is also sprinkled with sand, guano, etc., having previously wetted it.
Drying is done by simply leaving the adobe in the open air.
b. Technical Characteristics: As a general rule, it should be noted that in masonry, so that

the tying of the pieces is done easily and harmoniously, it is customary to make the length
of

Vañez
c. each unit equal1 to twice the width, plus the thickness of a joint. And the width equal to
twice the thickness or height plus a joint. Taking into account the previous rule, the
following are good dimensions for adobes: 46x22x10cm, adopting 2cm thick joints which
are convenient. Other usual dimensions, although they deviate from the rule, are
40x22x8cm.
Adobe walls are generally constructed of a single unit thickness, with either adobe across,
adobe, or head adobe; or with adobe lengthwise, or rope adobe, so there is no problem in
using the dimensions noted.
Walls or partitions built with edge adobe or tambourine walls, widely used in brick
partitions, are never used.
Due to the rusticity with which adobes are manufactured, a variation in their dimensions
of up to 1/2cm will be accepted, more or less, the density of the adobe is approximately
1.6. The compressive strength is 33 to 47Kg/cm 2 , this variation being due to the diversity
of materials used in manufacturing.
2. STONE: All materials used are considered as they are found in nature, that is, without any
manipulation other than the operations related to their extraction, cutting and sometimes
polishing their surface. They are also defined by saying that they are those rocks that are
used in masonry work.
The qualities that construction stones must possess are: durability, resistance, ornamental
appearance1 and cheapness. From a structural1 point of view, the best ones are the hardest,
dense, compact and with a uniform texture.
The qualities of a building stone can be predicted, as a first information, by examining the
texture of the fracture of a recently detached piece. According to this review the most
important qualities are given below.
BP Crystalline structure: Provides a uniform fracture with well-marked fracture surfaces.

6P Granular Structure: Gives an uneven fracture, with protruding elements or points.
6. Slate Structure: It causes a fracture along planes parallel to those of the lamination, very
uniform and very unequal edges in the other directions.
6P Hard and Compact Structure: It gives a fracture called conoidal or curved that offers
cavities and convexities with a very uniform surface similar to the exterior and interior of
shells.
® Soft and brittle structures: Provides a fracture with an earthy and rough appearance.

to. Stone s Large and dec river: rThis is how pebbles or stones of dimensions ® are called
appreciable silicon constitution that is found in the channels of present-day or past rivers.
Sonopus, ageologically speaking, material1 of (haulage1 of itrá nsito.a) Cyclopean masonry
is used in foundations and in masonry fills. They are also used in stone construction called
dry stone walls, which are made up of stones simply stacked or juxtaposed without mortar.
tdefensaito channeling of the rivers, in javas of vegetable fibers or fences; and in fences, in
general.nsa or channeling of rivers, in javas of vegetable fibers or fences; and in fences, in
general.
5
indica comes from €quarries. It is used in the same way as the large river stone. re
indicates it comes from quarries. It is used in the same way as large river stone.
8” artificial to some masonry coverings used for decorative purposes3.artificial hedras to

some masonry coverings used for decorative purposes.
forms such as premolded sheet metals that (very often only carry the ornamental material
on the visible surface.) that very often only carry the ornamental material on the visible
surface.
3. Bricks are usually simple blocks of fire-hardened clay or mud, often made of artificial stones.
CLAY or mud hardened by fire are often called artificial stones.
to. Classes: The main types used among us are the following:
to. Classes: The main types used among us are the following:
6 various dimensions,5as will be seen later.a class of walls. In the market there are several
types of i Used for walls on 5 -high floors in order to reduce the weights also used in them
(reinforced concrete roofs of the type 3 called 3lightweight roof3 and which in other
countries is called slabs1 of reinforced brick. of the type called lightened roof and which in
other countries is called brick forging, also bomb, King Kong, etc. Used in fill walls or in
those €that will support : appreciable loads.3, etc. Used in filler walls FOR those used as rock
coatings to waterproof roofs and floors
GP rustic and low traffic. or coatings or to waterproof roofs and for rustic and low traffic floors.
P Tambourines: With holes used to lighten the weight of the walls.
According to the way in which the firing has been conducted, the bricks are called pintones
when they have been burned raw and rechos if the burning has been excessive. They are called
pintones when they have been burned raw and rechos if the burning has been excessive.

Vañez
b, They must have a strong compact grain, that is, they do not
8
m o al p a e c a al o id s a ed n . C e ua and re o this test is done with the m d e rillosJhollows and smoror
must be used
cracked the characteristic sound s
of•callana indicates that r
e o
d s
ebe s
un c o
er r ec q h u a e
s y
z n ado
os. in
rdo are dc
bad C the rule has exceptions the l a and a ril n the c r a o that e in being rec az
the yellowish ones.
_ cracked the characteristic sound deban r o r t o a j r z t o r s oz so on s
m ble
a j no
q re
us i
ec q un e
os
raw the entire fracture must be of a gra r no piles 1c n reddishnbricks are i*cs than the yellowish
ones In the fracture the bricks 7 % o d r e m s e u . weight in water. .
fracture should be uniform grain.
They should not absorb more than 7% of their weight in water.
c. Dimensions and weights of the Bricks:

XP 3,100
GUYS CurrentMENSIONE24x11x11.5x6 c/u.
solid bricks Brick-------------- 2
25x16 x12 xó - - -
. 4,300
Tambourine 25x12x109------- ,
solid bricks brick 30x20x82-------- 3,8003
2 spaces at \ 40x20x12) -
25x14x63 ,
3 holes \ - 10,200
3 holes 40x30x12 2
40x20x20
4 spaces 40x30x202 12,-000
hollow bricks
45x40x12) 14,0003
hollow bricks 4 spaces \ 33,,180000
25x12x10) 0
6 spaces 40x30x12) \ 3,100

40x30x202 \ -
6 spaces 4 2x0x2x0 12
\ 20,500
Pastry bricks
4
2205xx2205 12,,650000
20-------- 0
20x20 1,600
Pastry bricks 25x25 2,500
which must reach double in pressed solid bricks much larger than that of
c a oe c f u ic a ient e ed e et e r g a a b r aj a o either
zos brick masonry
p
a r c e e n p s t a a d o o s ey in
s q o u t e r m o a es os e . ld n e,
10Kg/cm 2 . The d e
e e r
i d ad d e the bricks vary
ns a j o pa r a3
m
1 u . y 6 a a ce 2 p .5 a ge one e r n al r m e e n not o t s es r e prescribe
density . to in
s
lad a rillos e q o us es a ev r an os a v u a s r a e en n b tr u e ena . a a lbañ ile g r saí ed
e n
a e . r L a a m de en n s te id
a d p d r e e l sp c o r lvo e3
of ; Kg/cm
varies between re r 2.5 and s that are going to be used in a year. a ens ae po vo
earo var a entre . to . .
of brick varies between 2.5 to 2.9.
. Manufacturing: As a general rule of manufacturing hollow bricks, it should be more
what year

fa q b u rie e ca a ció n e d o es lo m s a l cad z r o i s llo y s a co c m a pr a ende las arro am n

a
m
pa e s jo : r uecos must be more
careful than that of the 7<os and the quality of the clay also better in those that use these.
The manufacture of bricks includes the following stages:

® Kneading: After having removed all the foreign matter such as stones, garbage, etc., the
earth is removed, pulverized and mixed with water, moving it repeatedly so that the
entire mass has the same consistency, and all the grains of it They appear sufficiently
moist. The kneading can be done by hand and then the workers who carry it out use the
pick and the shovel to loosen the soil, the rake to remove the stones, and the lampas or
paddles to stir the dough.
In important facilities, kneading is done with machines that generally do it in two stages:
first, ones that break the clods and pulverize them; and then, others in which the real
kneading is done. The main part of the kneading machines consists of a horizontal or
slightly inclined, rotating cylinder; with paddles on its axis, also rotating, which beat the
dough until it takes on the desired plasticity. Kneading machines of this type, and in general
any container with rotating paddles, are called malaxators.
cBP Molding: Hand molding is carried out in a similar way to that used to make adobes,
with the only difference that since the bricks are smaller in size, the gravel pits are built
to mold 4 bricks at a time. Brick molding can also be done by machine. The machines
used are of three types:
In the first classes, the machines are designed to work with wet mud, with which a hopper
is filled, from where the mass passes into molds previously sprinkled with sand and in
which the mud is put under pressure by mandrels, thus remaining formed the brick. The
molds are capable of producing 4 to 8 pieces at a time.
The second type of machine operates with a clay with a smaller amount of water than the
previous ones and for this reason it is called hard clay or semi-wet dough. In these
machines, a piece of indefinite length is obtained, which they produce by forcing the mud to
pass through a nozzle. This continuous piece will be deposited on a table that carries the
cutter, formed by wires supported with appropriate frames, which at the appropriate time,
crossing the mass, cut it to the size of the bricks. The manufacture of bricks and their
cutting can also be done along the length and also along the edge.
Finally, in the third type of machine, almost dry clay is used, which, placed in the molds,
receives considerable pressure, thus forming the pieces.
cP Drying: This operation consists of allowing the molded pieces to lose the water from the
paste through evaporation.
160; I Eng. Jean Edison Palma

Vañez
Drying can simply be done in the open air, leaving the pieces on courts or clotheslines in
types of shelves and finally on racks. In this last system, the bricks are placed on top of each
other, but in such a way that there are spaces between them in order to allow free air
circulation and activate drying. This arrangement is obtained by crossing the bricks of a
row with respect to those of the row. lower.
Drying is also activated by placing the bricks in chambers in which the ambient
temperature is raised by injections of hot air or steam. Hot gases are sometimes used in
cooking ovens.
It must be established that the drying operation is of more or less duration as is natural
depending on the procedure that has been followed in the molding, but whatever the way
in which the pieces are manufactured, it is of capital importance that they are not subjected
to firing. but after they are completely dry, otherwise there is a risk that they will lose their
shape in the fire, or suffer significant alterations in their dimensions.
c” Baking: It is practiced by many methods, among which we have:

• By heap or Pira: It is similar to that of the huayronas that has been described in the
preparation of lime. In other countries it is called anthills. The excavation that will
serve as a stove is made in the floor and on top of it, vaulted rows of bricks to be
fired are arranged and on top of them the layers of bricks leaving spaces for the
passage of gases and flames. Every two or three layers of bricks, one layer of
charcoal is added. The whole is covered with a layer of wet clay. A fire is lit with
straw or firewood at the bottom, in which it spreads to the charcoal, producing the
firing of the bricks. The procedure is very rustic and low performance.
• Huayronas.- The method is a little less primitive than the previous one and has
higher performance. It is built with adobes or chosen bricks, a cylinder of about 4.00
to 6.00 meters in diameter and 6.00 to 8.00 meters high, this cylinder is made up of
two parts: the lower one, which is the home; and the upper one that constitutes the
body of the oven or chamber. The hearth has a height of 1.50 to 2.00 m and is
separated from the chamber by the grill formed by refractory brick vaults supported
by iron joists or rails lined with bricks or refracted earth. These vaults have holes to
allow the passage of flames and combustion gases. The hearth is provided with a
door for feeding the fuel and extracting the ashes and also with loopholes for the
entry of air that invigorates the draft. The body of the furnace also has posterns to
load and unload it. The bricks are filled with raw bricks placed on edge and spaced
and in turn placed, the posterns are covered with adobe or raw bricks, and the fuel is
lit. The firing lasts 24 to 36 hours and it takes a couple of days after the kiln is turned
off, so that the bricks can be removed.

Vañez
Intermittent ovens: They are the most used in the country, they are the huayronas
with some variants. In plan they are rectangular in section and are always operated
with oil as fuel. On the floor of the oven, small longitudinal vaults are raised only
with the same raw bricks that cross the oven from one side to the other and along
which the oil burners operate, one at each end of each vault. The other bricks are
placed on these vaults.
In these kilns, 100 to 200,000 bricks can be burned in each operation and since the
installation of the oil burner requires that of a steam-producing boiler, the kilns are
usually used in batteries of 2 to 4 units, which are alternatively connected to the
boiler.
Continuous kilns.- They are the most perfect in this industry and as their name
indicates, they allow the uninterrupted firing of bricks. Among the different classes
used, the best known for many years is Hoffman. With these kilns, savings of up to
70% in fuel are obtained and it is possible to bake 20 to 40,000 bricks daily.
4. LIME BRICKS: These are blocks prepared as substitutes for ordinary burnt clay bricks. The
mixing of the materials and the molding of the brick are done mechanically. Their
hardening is carried out in autoclaves where they are maintained at a steam temperature
of 200° and a pressure of 15 atmospheres. Various types of bricks are produced in white,
pink and yellow colors, etc. The dimensions are according to the application, as well as
whether they are solid or hollow. The dimensions of the most common ones are the
following, in centimeters, the last figure corresponding to the height:
^ Stream 22x10.5x6
5 king kong 25x12x10
6 king kong 25x14x10
CP Partition, 3 holes 29x9x12
CP Tambourine, 17 holes 25x14x12
cp Pastry Chef 24x24x3
Solid bricks resist compression and breakage from 100 to 150kg/cm 2 . An important
recommendation when putting them into work is that they should not be wet, that is, they
should be placed dry, since they can be put into activity and the alkaline salts it contains in a
proportion of 0.5 to 1.5%.
The mortar used to set them can be in a proportion of 1:1:10, in volume of cement, lime and
sand, it is prepared very fluid. For plastering, the facing is lightly splashed with water and the
“chicote” method is used, smoothing the surface with a ruler and filling in any voids that may
remain with a “trowel”, not being necessary to use “tapes”.
162; I Eng. Jean Edison Palma

Vañez
® Lime and Sand Bricks: These are solid blocks prepared as substitutes for ordinary burnt
clay bricks. They are made up of a mixture of lime and fine sand, 1:5 to 1:10. They are
molded in machines or presses that exert a pressure of approximately 1000kg/cm 2 . After
molding they are hardened by steam at a pressure of 9 atmospheres, which is applied in a
closed tank for about 11 hours.
5. REFRACTORY BRICKS: These are those that are specially manufactured to receive the
action of direct fire and also to avoid excessive heat radiation and are therefore used in
ovens and homes.
a. Classification and technical characteristics:
^ Acid refractory bricks: The most used types are refractory clay brick and silica brick,
the latter is also called silica brick in the industry. Clay is made up of refractory earth to
which a little sand is added to reduce shrinkage and cracking as it dries. The clays used
contain silica alumina and fluxes, the latter must be in a proportion of no more than
10%. The greatest refractory property is provided by alumina. Due to their great
expansion due to heat, these bricks are used with wide joints.
BP Basic Bricks: They are manufactured with these chemical characteristics so that they
can withstand the basic reactions of ashes and slag in certain metallurgical processes
such as Bessemer converters, copper metallurgy furnaces, etc.
^ Neutral Bricks: They are mainly manufactured with chromite or iron and chromium
oxide.
b. Manufacturing: Refractory bricks are molded and dried in a similar way to ordinary solid
bricks, but their manufacturing is much more careful, and their cost is also much higher.
Special manufacturing features are the mixing machines for the composition materials, in
which the mixtures are carefully prepared.
c. BRICKS FOR PAVEMENTS: Bricks used for paving must be hard and tenacious, compact
and non-absorbent. Their manufacture differs from that of ordinary ones in that they are
burned at a much higher temperature of 800 to 1000°C, as to vitrify the brick. The selection
of the clays used is more careful and the molding is always done under pressure. The most
used dimensions are 23x10x7.5cm. A characteristic of these bricks is that on two of their
transverse faces to the floor they have projections of a height equal to the thickness
provided for the joints so that they are uniform and the whole, once the bricks are placed,
have a harmonious appearance. In the country, these bricks have been used to cover small
areas, especially for industrial or aesthetic reasons, but they have never been manufactured
in our country.

CHAPTER XIII
Woods
Wood is a complex material, with properties and characteristics that depend not only on its
composition but also on its constitution (or the way in which the various elements that make it
up are placed or oriented). How these elements are placed or ordered will help us better
understand the sometimes (apparently) illogical behavior of this material.
First of all, it must be remembered that wood is not a construction material, manufactured on
purpose by man, but rather it is a material obtained from the trunk and branches of trees
whose purpose is to facilitate the growth and survival of this tree. plant element.
Wood is not a homogeneous material, it is made up of various types of specialized cells that
form tissues.
These tissues serve to carry out the fundamental functions of the tree; conduct the sap,
transform and store food and finally form the resistant or supporting structure of the tree.
It will be interesting to remember some concepts regarding the composition, microstructure

and especially the macrostructure of wood.
1. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURES OF WOOD:

to. COMPOSITION: It is a fibrous, organized, essentially heterogeneous substance, produced by
a living organism that is the tree. Its properties and possibilities of use are, ultimately, the
consequence of the characteristics, organization and chemical composition of the cells that
constitute it. The plant origin of wood makes it a material with peculiar characteristics that
differentiate it from others of mineral origin. Organic elements of which they are
composed:
- Cellulose: 40-50%
- Lignin: 25-30%
- Hemicellulose: 20-25% (Carbohydrates)
- Resin, tannin, fats: remaining %
These elements are composed of:
Essential elements (90%):
- Carbon: 46-50% - Other elements (10%):
- Oxygen: 38-42% - Simple bodies (Phosphorus and sulfur)
- Hydrogen: 6% - Mineral compounds (potash,
- Nitrogen: 1% calcium, sodium)

Vañez
b. MACROSCOPIC STRUCTURE: Observation of a piece of wood will allow us to see the

various characteristic elements that make it up, and also appreciate that it is not a
homogeneous material. If you look at the trunk of a tree, you see that it has an almost
cylindrical shape (trunk-conical) and that it is made up of successive superimposed layers
(rings).
Firstly, it can be seen that between the wood and the bark there is a generating layer, called
cambium, which produces wood towards the interior and bark towards the exterior. In each
vegetative period a new layer (ring) is formed that covers the previous one.
Within each layer, two well-differentiated zones are observed: the one formed at the beginning
of the vegetative period with thin-walled cells and large lumens, which is called spring wood,
and the one formed during the summer, with thick-walled cells and small lumens, called
summer wood
This difference between the two zones makes easily distinguishable in the cross section, a
series of concentric rings called growth rings, each of which
It corresponds to a vegetative period of the tree's life and in our climate, represents
annual growth, so its number indicates the age of the tree.
Let's analyze, one by one, the different parts that can be observed in a section normal to the
axis of the tree.
c® Pith : Central part of the tree. Made up of loose and porous tissue. It has a very small
diameter. Old and usually cracked wood. It is usually discarded in wood processing
processes.
e” Heartwood : Wood from the inner part of the pull. Consisting of tissues that have reached
their maximum development and resistance (due to the lignification process.) Colored,
sometimes, darker than the exterior. Adult and compact wood. It is usable. Duraminization
(transformation from sapwood to heartwood) of wood is characterized by a series of
anatomical and chemical modifications, darkening, increased density and greater
resistance to insect attacks.

Vañez
young tissuescenrperiod 1 of Pgrowth (living zone). Contains a lot of sap and organic
matter. 7 Of 3 coloration: lighter than 3 heartwood, more porous and lighter, with greater
risk of biotic attacks. i than the heartwood, more porous and lighter, with greater risk
against biotic attacks.
especially of the trunk, generating two types of cells: i, constitutes the basis of growth,
especially of the trunk, generating two types of cells:
- Inside: Wood (sapwood)
Inside: Wood (sapwood)
- Outwards: Liber Outwards: Liber
live. r: Inner part of the cortex. It is filamentous and not very resistant. Live embryonic
wood.
tree. za: Outer layer of the trunk. Waterproof fabric that covers the liber and protects the
tree.
radial direction, that is, aperpendicular • to 3 growth rings. They exert a locking function.
They store and disseminate the nutritional materials provided by descending sap ( same as
parenchyma cells). 1 They contribute to the deformation of wood in a lesser radial direction
than in the tangential direction. They are softer than the rest of the woody mass. €Therefore
this constitutes the 1st zones (broken
understanding, 11 when the effort F
is exerted parallel to the fibers. rupture to compression waves, when the stress is exerted
parallel to the fibers.
clearly differentiated: ring corresponds to annual growth, it consists of two clearly
differentiated zones:
- One formed in spring: Thick vessels predominate in it that carry raw sap to the leaves
(vascular tissue). Light color, thin-walled and soft, hollow fibers up to the leaves
(vascular tissue). Light color, thin wall and soft, hollow fibers.
- Another formed in summer: They have smaller and tighter vessels. Its fibers form the
support tissue. Dense dark color and thick 2-walled fibers. ;. Its fibers form the support
tissue. Dense dark color and thick-walled fibers.
In tropical areas (or in areas where there are practically no climatic variations with 3 seasonal
changes, and 1 vital activity and
of Tree c is continuous),1 no
differences are seen between classescdifferent zones ofannual growth rings. continuous), no
1
differences are seen between the different zones of annual growth rings.
Their sum is the years of life of the tree. Due to the trunk-conical shape of the tree, the annual
rings must be counted in the trunk, having areas closest to the roots. ica of the tree, the annual
rings must be counted on the trunk, in the area closest to the roots.
c. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF WOOD

d. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF WOOD
As has been seen, wood is not a homogeneous material, it is made up of various types of
specialized cells that form tissues. homogeneous wasteland, it is made up of various types of
specialized cells that form tissues.
These tissues serve to carry out the fundamental functions of the tree; conduct the sap,
transform and store the food and form the resistant or supporting structure of the tree . a, transform
and store the food and form the resistant or supporting structure of the tree.

The heterogeneity of wood will be, in part, the cause of its properties. Wood can be considered
as a set of elongated tube-shaped cells, parallel to the axis of the tree, highly variable, both in
length and shape, as well as in the thickness of its walls and interior dimensions.
These cells are joined together by a substance called intercellular matter or middle lamella,
and in turn linked by another type of cells, placed perpendicularly to the previous ones and in
the radial direction of the trunk, forming the so-called woody rays.
The variety of cell types and the way they join together define the infinite number of different
species of wood that exist.
The walls of the tubes are formed by a series of layers
composed of cellulose microfibrils wound helically around
the axis with a different inclination in each layer, and all of
them embedded in an amorphous material. Practically
insoluble, which is lignin.
It is very common to assimilate these cells to a hollow
reinforced concrete pillar, in which the lignin acts as
concrete and the cellulose microfibrils act as steel.
All this makes wood a resistant and light material, which can
compete favorably with other materials used in construction,
in terms of the strength-specific weight relationship.
In the axial sense we distinguish:
- Elongated, thick-walled fibers formed by cells that have elongated, tapering at the tips,
constituting the supporting tissues, that is, the structure and the resistant part of the
wood (fibrous tissue). In conifers these cells are the same ones that serve to allow fluid
circulation.
- Thin-walled vessels and pores (vascular tissue), forming the conduction organs or
vehicle of the ascending or raw sap; The pores of the wood appear in cross section
(small holes), and in longitudinal section (small striations).
- Parenchyma cells are short and not abundant. They spread and store the descending or
processed sap throughout the thickness of the tree. The parenchyma constitutes a type
of connective tissue (tegumental or defense), which links the other tissues together
and is made up of polyhedral cells with thin, spongy cellulose walls.

This specialization between structure and function only exists in leafy trees; In resinous ones,
all the fibers are of a special character, called tracheids, with more or less thick walls
depending on the time of year in which they were formed.
In the radial direction there are fewer cells, and these are arranged in thin bands or sheets
(medullary rays), sandwiched between the fibers and vessels, which they cross at right angles,
heading from the bark to the center of the tree.
In these bands of cells called cellular rays or meshes, they store and diffuse, like the
parenchyma cells, the nutritional materials carried by the descending sap.
In certain species, resin-secreting channels are found in both directions, axial and radial.
From what has been said above, it follows that wood is a heterogeneous and anisotropic
material, therefore, its properties will vary depending on the direction considered.
2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD: The normal chemical composition of wood is as

follows:
■ Cellulose 50.0% to
■ Lignin 60.0% 20.0% to
■ Protein 30.0% 0.5% to 3.0%
■ Resins and waxes 0.7% to 3.0%
■ ashes 0.2% to 2.0%
Cellulose (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) is a colorless material, insoluble in ordinary solvents such as water,

alcohol, dilute acids and alkalis; It forms cell walls, cells being the fundamental elements of
wood. Lignin is also insoluble in most ordinary solvents; but it is more or less soluble in dilute
alkalis; It constitutes the cementing material that groups the cells together, and is mixed with
cellulose in the cell walls. Cotton fibers are almost pure cellulose, containing approximately
91% cellulose. As for lignin, we will say that it constitutes the wood or inner skeleton of
vegetables and serves to support them; it is the substance that gives hardness to the nut shell.
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

a. Color: It is very varied, it is clear in soft woods, also called white for this reason; It is more
pronounced in hardwoods, and can be yellow, pinkish, red, brown, green-brown and black.
b. Hardness: Determined by the Brinell test. It consists of subjecting the wood to the
pressure exerted by a 1cm diameter steel ball for 1 minute. The test is carried out in a
specially designed machine, in which the ball receives the pressure exerted by a piston,
activated by a hydraulic or hand press. The pressure generally used is 3,000Kg. According
to the results of the tests, the woods are

They are classified as hard, semi-hard and soft. Some characteristic types are given below:
- Woods hard : Oak, beech, ash, elm
- Woods semi-hard : Pine, larch, alder
- Woods soft : Fir, birch, poplar
c. Specific weight: It is determined by testing very fine sawdust and drying at 100 and
105°C, it is practically the same for all woods, having an average value of 1.55.
d. Density: It varies with the type of wood, from 1.32 for the heavy ones, to 0.11 for the balsa
stick, which is one of the lightest. The weight of the wood decisively influences the
moisture it contains when weighing it.
e. Degree of humidity: Water is found in wood in three forms:
- It constitutes 90% of the protoplasm of living cells

- Saturates cell walls
- It more or less completely fills the pores of the wood mass. For this reason, it is
understood that only by burning it can the water be completely removed from the
wood.
In view of this difficulty, it has been agreed to express humidity as the volume of water
contained in a specimen or sample of wood, comparing it to the weight of the same specimen
dried at 100°C and under these conditions the following classification is expressed:
- Green Wood: It is wood whose moisture content is greater than 30%.

- Semi-dry wood: It is wood whose moisture content is
between 30 and 15%.
- Dry wood: It is wood whose moisture content is less than 15%.
Generally, freshly cut wood weighs about 1.8 times more than dry wood.
f. Conductivity: Woods are poor conductors of heat, especially the light ones because they
have a greater volume of pores, and consequently a greater amount of air inside. They are
poor conductors of electricity; They can be considered as insulators when dry. They are
good conductors of sound.
g. Expansion due to heat: In dry wood it is negligible, especially in the direction of the axis
of the trunk.
h. Shrinkage or swelling: When a piece of dry fibrous wood contracts, the fiber walls
become very thin, and the cavities, on the contrary, increase in volume, but in general the
length of the piece remains constant because most of the fibers They are parallel to the
length of the trunk, however in cross section they do so in a notable way.
The longitudinal shrinkage of wood in the direction of the fibers is only 1 per 1,000, while
in width it can be from 3 to 6 and up to 10 per 100, depending on the type of wood; In this
last direction, the woods that contract the least are those that belong to the order of light
conifers such as pines and cedars, and those that contract the most are those
corresponding to hardwoods, such as beech, oak, etc.

Vañez
The opposite action to contraction due to desiccation is swelling or expansion due to water
absorption. This increase in volume must be taken into account in the structural design,
since when it occurs, it develops very considerable stresses in the wood. The ancient
method of splitting rocks by drilling small drills in them is quite well known, in a line in
which wooden wedges are inserted, which are wet, the swelling of which is sufficient to
split the rock in the desired direction.
4. PHYSICAL – CHEMICAL QUALITIES OF WOOD

a. Heating power: For dry woods it is practically the same, and can be set as an approximate
average of 4,500 Cal/kg in resinous woods, such as those of the pine class, or very compact,
it can reach up to 5,000 cal/kg.
b. Volatility: When wood is used as fuel, and in gasification, volatility is a very important
characteristic, because it regulates the dimensions of the homes, which must be larger in
those volatile fuels.
5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

a. Flexibility: Young, recently felled trees have maximum flexibility, as a result of the
moisture they contain. Likewise, the wood of young trees admits greater deformation than
those of a certain age. Dry and old wood will not tolerate overloads or violent shaking,
circumstances that must be taken into account in the construction of scaffolding and so-
called false work.
b. General considerations about the resistance of wood: From the structural point of
view, the various resistances of wood that are of interest are: tension, compression, shear
stress and bending.
- Tensile strength: The resistance of the pieces to tension, when the effort is made
transversally to the fibers, is due to the position they offer when separated, which is
defeated when the piece fails, equally if the piece gives way when the stress is carried
out parallel to the direction of the fibers, breakage is almost always caused by stresses
of this kind.
- Compression resistance: When carried out in the longitudinal direction of the fibers,
they work as if they were hollow columns. In a transversal sense to the length, the
piece tends to flatten, when it undergoes stresses of this kind.
- Resistance to shear stress: Its value in relation to the direction of the fibers, in terms
of their variation, is contrary to what has been established for understanding tension;
Because in the shear stress the resistance of the wood is 4 to 6 times greater in the
direction perpendicular to the fibers, than when the stress is made in the direction of
them.

Vañez
- Flexural resistance: The behavior of wood in this resistance is a consequence of what

was expressed when dealing with resistance to tension, compression and shear stress.
Beams rarely yield due to compression stresses, although when they begin to break
they do so due to these stresses. Tensile stresses are those that reach their limit when a
beam fails.
6. WOOD EXPLOITATION AND MANUFACTURING
a. Forest exploitation:
- Felling, felling or felling of trees
- Pruning or cutting thin branches and leaves
- Cutting thick logs into appropriate dimensions to be transported to sawmills.
Trees are felled using axes and saws, the latter are commonly called corvinas, when they can
be handled by hand, there are also portable machines with which trees are felled with
mechanical saws.
The systems for transporting logs and logs are very varied:
- Letting the logs roll along planes or inclined paths, often

pavements which are called ruts.
- On sleds and low-wheeled platforms pulled by blood or with tractors
mechanics.
- Transportation by water taking advantage of natural or canalized courses, by aerial
cables
- and finally by carts, trucks, railways, etc.
b. Wood sawing: It is the operation carried out in sawmills. The logs are cut by means of
circular saws, or by band saws, the latter are also called frame or carriage saws, because
the logs are placed in a device with translational movement, which pushes them towards
the saw.
In common language the different ways of sawing a log are called:
- Transverse or head section - made in a direction perpendicular to the long axis of the
trunk, showing the bark, sapwood, heartwood, etc.
- Longitudinal, diametral or heart cut of wood. - which is one that is made by a plane
that passes through the longitudinal axis of the trunk and that allows the fibrosity of
the wood to be appreciated.
- Tangential or thread cutting of wood. - which is executed according to a rope to the
growth rings and which also shows the arrangement of the fibers.
Terminology of worked wood

Vañez
The terms most used in sawmills and industrial establishments known to us are:
- Thickness: It is the smallest dimension of the rectangular parallelepiped that
represents the cross section of a piece.
- Width: It is the largest dimension of the rectangular parallelepiped that represents
the cross section of a piece.
- Square: It is the set of numerical expressions of the thickness and width of the
cross section of a piece. It is generally expressed in English inches.
- Ribbon: Piece with a thickness less than or equal to 1-1 I 2“, and a width less than
4”
- Table: Piece with a thickness less than or equal to 1-1 I 2“, and a width equal to or
greater than 4”
- Plank: Piece with a thickness greater than or equal to 1-1 I 2“, and a width greater
than 4”
- Cuartón: Piece whose thickness and width varies between 2” and 6”
- Beam: It is a sawn or planed piece with a thickness and width equal to or greater
than 12”.
- Tincas: Trunks or logs 1.50m long, more or less straight and with
diameters at the middle base of 10 to 18cm, including the bark.
- Putales: rolls or logs 2.00 to 2.50m long and 20 to 25cm in average diameter.
- Sleepers or quarters: Logs 2.50m long with diameters of 30cm or more, so as to
provide quarters of 15x20cm square.
According to the way the wood has been manufactured, we have:

- Carved wood : That which has been worked and squared with an ax and adze.
- Sawn Wood: Wood that is presented as it came from the saw.
- Planed lumber : Sawn lumber whose faces have been smoothed by edged tools
called planes
- Molded wood : Planed wood according to a profile determined for specific
purposes.
ornamental.
- Tongue-groove wood : Planed boards with their edges provided with
slots and tongues, respectively for longitudinal assembly.
- Beaded wood : The planed panels and beams that have a longitudinal groove on
one of their wide faces towards each edge, made for ornamental purposes.
- Wood with rounded edges : Wood that has one or more rounded or beveled
edges.
- Shoveled wood : The wood that in cross section has the shape of a wedge.
173! I Eng. Jean Edison Palma

Vañez
CHAPTER XIV
STEEL
Steel is basically an alloy or combination of iron and carbon (about 0.05% to less than 2%).
Sometimes other specific alloying elements such as Cr (Chromium) or Ni (Nickel) are added for
specific purposes.
Since steel is basically highly refined iron (more than 98%), its manufacture begins with the
reduction of iron (production of pig iron) which is later converted into steel.
Pure iron is one of the elements of steel, therefore it consists of only one type of atoms. It is not
found free in nature since it chemically reacts easily with oxygen in the air to form iron oxide -
rust. Oxide is found in significant quantities in iron ore, which is a concentration of iron oxide
with impurities and earthy materials.
1. CLASSIFICATION: Steels are classified mainly from three points of view:
A. By manufacturing method or metallurgical process:
By carburizing wrought iron:
8 Crucible steel.
8 Case hardening steel.
By decarburization of pig iron:
Bessemer steel.
ee Steel Martin-Siemens.
8 Steel Electric,
^ Steel duplex, triples, etc.
B. By use of steel .
^ Rivet steel.
^ Structural steel.
® Steel for axles.
8 Steel for cables.
C. Due to the chemical composition of steel:
According to the percentage of Carbon:
3 Mild steel 0.10 to 0.20%

a Medium steel 0.20 to 0.40%
174
zero uro .
.
to
%
(- Very hard steel 0.70 to 150%
For special alloys:
-AI
68 Steel aI q l
ceP Manganese steel, etc.
2. CHEMICAL ELEMENTS THAT GIVE CERTAIN PROPERTIES TO STEEL

® Sulfur: It is found in steels as an impurity, percentages of up to 0.05% are tolerated, when
hot it produces great fragility of the steel.
I steel, its harmful effects can be partially
neutralized by the addition of
1 manganese, which is combined with it
I forming
manganese sulfide. Sometimes it is added in proportions of 0.1 to 0.3% with a minimum
manganese content of 0.6%, giving rise to steels called easy
1
machining, which have lower resistance, but can be worked with cutting speeds double
that of ordinary steel.
cy Cobalt : Used in high-speed tool steels, it increases the hardness of the hot tool. It is used for
refractory steels. Increases the magnetic properties of steels.
and Chromium : Forms very hard carbides and communicates
1 greater hardness, resistance and
toughness at any temperature. Alone or alloyed with other elements, it provides stainless
and refractory characteristics to steels.
and Manganese : It is mainly used as a deoxidizer and desulphurizer for steels. and
Molybdenum . With him
I carbon is the
I most effective element to harden the
1 steel.
Avoid rag a.
and
Nickel : Increases the resistance of steels, increases hardenability and provides great
resistance to corrosion.
and
Lead : The
I lead does not combine with
I steel, lies in it
1 in the form of tiny
gus, as if it were emulsified, which favors easy
1 mechanization per
chip removal, (turning, planing, drilling, etc.) since the
1 lead is a good
cutting lubricant, the
The percentage ranges between 0.15 and 0.30% and the
l
carbon content at values lower than
I 0.5% because it makes it difficult to
175 Eng. Jean son a ma a ez

1 tempered
and reduces hot toughness.
and
Silicon: It is used as a deoxidizer in the production of steel, and it also provides elasticity.
Yeah
If the proportion is high (1 to 5%), the steels have good
magnetic characteristics.
and Tungsten : Form with
I iron, very complex carbides that are stable and very hard,
withstanding high temperatures well. In percentages of
1 14 to 1 18%, provides high-
speed steels with which it is possible to triple the cutting speed of high-speed steels.
I carbon for
tools.
and Vanadium: It has an energetic deoxidizing action and forms complex carbides with the
1
iron, which provides
I steel good fatigue resistance, tensile and cutting power in
tool steels.

Vañez
3. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
a. Ductility: It is the elongation that the bar undergoes when it is loaded without breaking.
The specifications stipulate that the total stretch to failure be not less than a certain
minimum percentage that varies with the size and grade of the bar itself.
b. Hardness : It is defined as the property of steel to oppose the penetration of another
material.
c. Tensile strength : It is the maximum tensile force that the bar supports when breaking
begins, divided by the initial section area of the bar. It is also called, more precisely,
maximum tensile unit load.
d. Yield limit, fy : It is the tension from which the material begins to suffer permanent
deformations, that is, up to this tension value, if we interrupt the tensile of the sample, it
will return to its initial size, without presenting any type of permanent deformation, this is
called elastic deformation. The
engineer uses the yield limit of the
bar to calculate the dimension of the
structure, since the bar supports
loads and overloads up to this point
and returns to its initial condition
without deformation. Past this point,
the structure is fragile and
compromised.
In general, in the case of naturally

hard steels, the yield point coincides
with the apparent value of the stress
corresponding to the yield step. In
cases where this step does not
appear or appears poorly defined, as
is usually the case with cold-drawn
steels, it is necessary to resort to the
conventional value established in
the prescriptions, as explained
below, for steels with a resistance
greater than 4200 Kg/ cm 2
The bars with resistances up to 2800

Kg/cm 2 present an elasto-plastic
curve, as seen in figure Nº01a, then
fy is
FIGURE 01 a) Stress-Strain Diagram for Hot Rolled Natural Hardness Steels; b)

typical stress-strain curves for reinforcing bars. Note: The curves are indicated
according to their yield limit

Vañez
clearly identifies. For steels with higher strengths, up to 4200 Kg/cm 2 , the stress-strain
curve may or may not be elasto-plastic, depending on the properties of the steel and the
manufacturing processes.
For steels with strengths greater than 4200 Kg/cm 2 , where the degree of yield is not
defined, the ACI code specifies that the yield stress, fy, must be determined as the stress
that corresponds to a deformation of 0.0035 cm/cm, as as shown in figure No. 02.
FIGURE 02: Stress-Strain Diagram for Steels with resistance greater than 4200
kg/cm 2
Probably, the strength at the yield point, that is, the maximum elastic stress that the bar
can withstand, is the most important mechanical property for the designer. The tensile
strength is controlled by a limit on the yield point strength and this cannot be less than
1.25 times the actual yield point strength.
Although the current trend in reinforced concrete construction is towards the use of
reinforcing bars with a higher degree of resistance, since the use of these leads to a
significant reduction in steel tonnage and the size of structural members of concrete,
resulting in savings in labor and other materials, there is a practical limit on how strong
the reinforcing steel used in a standard reinforced concrete construction should be: All
steel strengths are approximately same elongation for the same applied tensile stress
(same modulus of elasticity Es=2.1x10 6 Kg/cm 2 ). If one steel has a yield point strength
that is twice that of another, twice as much permanent deformation can be applied, this is
called elastic deformation.

Vañez
The engineer uses the yield limit of the bar to calculate the dimension of the structure,
since the bar supports loads and overloads up to this point and returns to its initial
condition without deformation. Past this point, the structure is fragile and compromised.
In general, in the case of naturally hard steels, the yield limit coincides with the apparent
value of the stress corresponding to the yield step (figure Nº01 a). In cases where this step
does not appear or appears poorly defined, as is usually the case with cold-drawn steels, it
is necessary to resort to the conventional value established in the prescriptions, as
explained below, for steels with a resistance greater than 4200 Kg/ cm 2 .
e. Malleability: It is the ability of steel to withstand deformation, without breaking, when

subjected to a compressive stress.
f. Tenacity: It is the combination of two properties: ductility and resistance. A tough

material will be one that has good ductility and good resistance at the same time.
g. Fatigue: When a structural element is subjected to cyclic loads, it can fail due to cracks that
form and propagate, especially when stress reversals occur. This is known as fatigue
failure, which can occur with stresses lower than the remaining deformation load.
h. Fatigue limit : It is evaluated in a diagram Maximum stress (resistance to fatigue) vs. the
number of cycles until failure, these diagrams indicate that the fatigue resistance of a
structural steel decreases with an increase in the number of cycles, until a minimum value
is reached, which is the Fatigue Limit. With traction considered positive and compression
negative, tests also show that as the ratio between maximum and minimum stress
decreases, fatigue resistance is considerably reduced. Tests further indicate that steels
with similar tensile strength have almost the same fatigue strength.
These properties are determined by carrying out different tests or trials, to determine
which material we will use for the purpose we want to give it. In table Nº01, some
mechanical characteristics are given for different grades and classes of steel.

Vañez
Table Nº01
Minimum Mechanical Characteristics of Steel
Unit breaking
Elastic limit fy Mpa], Elongation at fsfy ratio in test
Designation load fs
Steel Cla SB not less break in %, not less than
[1) MPa]. No
THAT based on 5-0, qu®
less than 6
not less than
AH 400N D.N. 400 520 16 1,29
AH 400. EF 400 440 12 1,1
AH 500N D.N. HDD 600 14 1.2
AH 500. EF 5DD 550 10 1.1
AH D.N. GDD 700 12 1.16
L AH 600 EF 600 660 He 1.1
(1). AH = Concrete Steel (DN = Natural Hardness; EF = Cold Drawn)
(2). To calculate unit values, the nominal section will be used.
(3). Minimum admissible relationship between the values of the unit breaking load and the
elastic limit, obtained in each test
4. MECHANICAL TESTING OF STEEL

a. Steel Bending Test : This test measures the bar's ability to bend to a minimum bend
radius without cracking. This test serves to obtain an approximate idea about the behavior
of the steel to bending or bending stress, necessary to prevent brittle breaks during
bending and transport manipulations. The test begins by placing the piece on two
supports, whose separation is normalized. A controlled force is then applied that gradually
increases until the bar bends completely or the first cracks begin to appear (figure Nº03).
Figure Nº03

Vañez
b. Tensile Test : Due to the large amount of information that can be obtained from this test,
it is without a doubt one of the most used mechanical tests for steel. The versatility of the
tensile test lies in the fact that it allows both ductility and resistance to be measured at the
same time. The resistance value is directly used in everything related to the design. Data
relating to ductility provide a good measure of the limits up to which steel can be deformed
without breaking.
This test consists of subjecting a bar, of uniform and known section, to a traction force that
increases progressively. Simultaneously, the corresponding elongations of the bar are
measured.
Figure Nº04 shows a diagram of a tensile testing machine, in which the bar is stretched at a
constant speed. With the results of the elongation of the bar, a load versus elongation curve
can be graphed, which are generally recorded as unit stress and strain values, and are
independent of the geometry of the bar (figure Nº05)
Figure Nº05
When the test begins, the material deforms elastically; This means that if the charge is
removed, the sample regains its initial length. When the stress reaches its maximum tensile
strength value, a neck or neck is formed in the bar (figure Nº06), which is a localized reduction
in the cross-sectional area, in which all the posterior elongation is concentrated. Once this neck
is formed, the stress decreases with increasing strain and continues to decrease until the bar
breaks.
Figure Nº06

Vañez
c. Determination of elongation: Elongation is the percentage that the steel elongates when
it is subjected to a load that exceeds its Yield Limit. The determination of the Elongation is
made by comparing the distance between two marks made on the bar before the test,
called initial length L 0 , and the distance between the two marks after the bar breaks,
called final length L1 (figure Nº06 ). The initial length used is 10 times the nominal
diameter.
d. Steel Flexural Adhesion Test : The specimen for the flexural adhesion test consists of two
concrete half-joists reinforced with a bar embedded at their ends and joined by a metal
hinge in the compression zone (figure 7). The bar is provided with plastic sleeves that
leave, on each half-beam, an adherent length of 10Ø.
Figure Nº07
Diagram of the specimen for the Flexion adhesion test
With this arrangement three important advantages are obtained: the local effect of supports is
nullified; the tension in the armature is known precisely, by knowing exactly the arm of the
internal torque; and two results are obtained per test.
Comparators are placed at the ends of the bars to measure slippage. In the test, the values τ 0.01
are determined; τ 0.1 and τ 1 of the stresses in the bar that correspond to slips of 0.01; 0.1 and 1
millimeters, respectively; as well as the maximum value of the adhesion breaking stress, t bu ,
which corresponds to a slip of 3 mm, or to breaking if it occurs earlier.
The average adhesion tension t bm is called the arithmetic mean of the three values τ 0.01 ; τ 0.1
and τ 1 . It must be verified (see table Nº02).
If these relationships are satisfied simultaneously, in each diameter range, the bar is classified
as having “high adhesion” or “improved adhesion”.

Vañez
Table No. 02
Adhesion characteristics, values, minimums

Nominal diameter. Average adhesion stress,
0. imm) Thm (Mpa) Breaking stress, Thu (Mpa)
<8 27 > 11,5
8.a 32 8 - 0,12 0 13-0,2-0
>32 >4 27
e. Steel Hardness Test (The Brinell Method and The Rockwell Method): The hardness
test measures the resistance of a material to penetration by a punch or blade. This indenter
is also called a durometer. The durometer usually consists of a sphere, pyramid, or cone of
a material much harder than the steel being measured. The depth to which this material
penetrates gives us a value, which is tabulated, thus obtaining a measure of the hardness of
the steel. Since hardness testing can be done easily, the information obtained can be
evaluated immediately. There are several methods to measure hardness, below we will
name the two most common, the Brinell method and the Rockwell method.
® Brinell Hardness (ASTM E10): In it, a 10 mm diameter sphere, usually made of a hardened
steel, is pressed against the surface of the material under a static load of 3000 kg. The size
of the imprint gives us a measure of the hardness under the test conditions.
Figure Nº07
Brinell apparatus
A
Rockwell Hardness (ASTM E18): Unlike the previous one, in the Rockwell test a small load
(less than 10 kg) is first applied, which causes the indenter to penetrate to a certain depth.
The default higher load is then applied. The difference in penetration gives us a measure of
the hardness of the steel.

Vañez
Figure Nº08
Rockwell apparatus
f. Impact test: Used to measure the toughness of

steel. In this test, a special specimen of the steel
in question is subjected to a strong
instantaneous impact, as a result of which it
breaks very quickly (see Figure N° 09). This fact
provides a measure of the energy that must be
applied for its fracture, which translates into an
index of its toughness. Although the results of
impact tests are not used directly for design,
they are very useful as a production tool, since
they allow the comparison of one steel with
another that has given satisfactory results.
There are two types of tests that have achieved
great diffusion: Charpy and Izod.
g. Bending test : This test is used to obtain an

approximate idea about the behavior of the steel in bending or bending stress. The test
begins by placing the piece on two supports, whose
separation is normalized. A controlled force is then
applied that gradually increases until
that the specimen bends completely or the first
cracks begin to appear (see Figure N° 10).
Figure Nº10
Bending test scheme

Vañez

Materials Technology Book.

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Materials Technology Book.

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Materials Technology Book.

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

[ PERUVIAN WINGS UNIVERSITY ]I MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY

The word material comes from the Latin term “materialis”

a. Raw Material : Raw material is defined as all the elements that

1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

To study materials, different classifications can be made based on different

1.2.1. According to its origin:

1 | Eng. Jean Edison Palma Vañez

b. Artificial materials: They are obtained from other materials found in

1.2.2. According to internal structure

Materials are generally classified into five groups: metals, ceramics,

2 | Eng. Jean Edison Palma Vañez

1.3. MATERIAL PROPERTIES

1.3.1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Depending on the volume you can consider:

• real: it is that of the compact material

Pm : It is the density of the material (dry).

Open porosity (n ο ) : It is also known as accessible or communicated porosity , and is

4I Eng. Jean Edison Palma Vañez

this case mercury is introduced under Folgueroles sandstone 2460 7

pressure into the pores and from the Villamayor sandstone

is said that a material is permeable if it San Vicen Limestone 2680 0,5

- The porosity of the material

- The density of the fluid considered, affected by its temperature

- The pressure to which the fluid is subjected.

5 | Eng. Jean Edison Palma Vañez

Figure No. 1.1

Darcy's Experimental Equipment

v = Apparent flow velocity (cm/s).

L = Length of the sand pack (cm).

Δh = Difference in manometric levels (cm).

K = Proportionality constant (permeability).

milidarcy is usually used: 1 Darcy = 9.86923x10 m -23 2

6I Eng. Jean Edison Palma Vañez

NOTE: Permeability in concrete

for Water – Cement ratios that varied from 0.3 to 0.7

e. CAPILARITY : It is the ability of a liquid to

f. HYGROSCOPY : It is the ability of some substances to absorb

7I Eng. Jean Edison Palma Vañez

• Calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ) • Copper sulfate (CuSO 4 )

• Sodium Chloride (Halite)(NaCl) • Phosphorus pentoxide (P 4 O

• Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) • Silica gel

8 | Eng. Jean Edison Palma Vañez

Table No. 2 1.3.

Hydrogen 14.212 ice 2.090

b. DILATION : Dilation is called Dilatation meeting

1 change of dimensions that

® Linear Dilation : Beyond1 than

Superficial Dilation : The

10 | Eng. Jean Edison Palma

Values of the linear expansion coefficients ( a)

Material α (°C -1 ) Material α (°C -1 )

c. HEAT TRANSMISSION : It is the transfer of thermal energy

" By conduction between solid bodies in contact

® By convection in fluids (liquids or gases)

^ By radiation through the medium in which radiation can propagate

) I Eng. Jean Edison Palma

12 | Eng. Jean Edison Palma

• OPAQUE: Prevents the passage of light