Non-Western music…

Chinese music

Music performed in Lijiang , Yunnan .

The music of China is about the beginnings of Chinese civilization . There are documents
and instruments that provide evidence of a developed musical culture as early as the Zhou
Dynasty (1122 BC). - 256 BC C.). Today, music continues a rich heritage in one aspect,
while emerging in a more contemporary form at the same time. The music has become
more commercialized in Hong Kong and Taiwan , while in mainland China , the music has
been built more on tradition and can be considered more sophisticated.

History

The legendary creator of music according to Chinese mythology was Ling Lun , who made
bamboo reeds so that they sounded like birds.

Age of Dynasties (1122 BC) - 1911 d. C.)

According to Mencius , a powerful legislator once asked him if it was moral for him to
prefer popular music over classical music. The answer was that the only important thing
was that he love his subjects. The organ in charge of imperial music, established during the
Qin Dynasty (221 BC. - 207 BC C.), was greatly expanded under the Han Emperor Wu Di
(140 BC. - 87 BC C.), he was also tasked with supervising court music and military music
and determining which folk music would be officially recognized. In subsequent dynasties,
the development of Chinese music was strongly influenced by foreign music, especially
Central Asian music.

The oldest known music is Youlan or the Solitary Orchid , attributed to Confucius . The
first properly documented major flowering of Chinese music was for the guqin during the
Tang Dynasty , however, the guqin has been played since before the Han Dynasty .

In ancient China, the position of musicians was much lower than that of painters, yet music
has been seen as central to the harmony and longevity of the state. Almost all emperors
took folk music seriously, sending officials to collect the songs and inspect the popular will.
One of the Confucian classics, Shi Jing , contained several folk songs dating back to 800
BC. c. around 300 BC. c.

The first European to arrive in China with a musical instrument was the Jesuit priest Matteo
Ricci , who presented a harpsichord to the Ming imperial court in 1601, and taught four
eunuchs to play it. 1

Era of the Republic of China (1912 - 1949)

The New Cultural Movement of the 1910s and 1920s greatly evoked a lasting interest in
Western music . A number of Chinese musicians returned from abroad after studying to
play Western classical music, composing their work based on the Western musical notation
system. The Kuomintang ( 中國國民黨 ) attempted to subsidize the adoptions of modern
music through the Shanghai Conservatory of Music ( 上海音乐学院) despite the ongoing
crisis. Twentieth-century cultural philosophers such as Xiao Youmei , Cai Yuanpei , Feng
Zikai and Wang Guangqi wanted to see Chinese music adapted to the best possible
standard. There were several different opinions regarding the best standard 1

Symphony Orchestras were formed in major cities and played to wide audiences in halls
and on the radio . Many of the performers added influences from jazz to traditional music,
adding xylophones , saxophones and violins , among other instruments. Lü Wencheng , Li
Jinhui , Zhou Xuan , Qui Hechou , Yin Zizhong and He Dasha were among the most
popular performers and composers during this period.

Following the 1942 Yan'an Forum on Art and Literature, a large-scale campaign was
launched in communist -controlled areas to adapt folk music to create revolutionary songs
to educate the deeply illiterate rural population in the objectives of the party. Musical forms
considered superstitious or anti-revolutionary were repressed and harmonies and bass lines
were added to traditional songs. An example is The East is Red , a folk song from northern
Shanxi , which was modified into a nationalist anthem. Of particular note is the composer
Xian Xinghai , who was active during this period, and composed the Yellow River
Cantata which is the most famous of all his works.

People's Republic of China era (1949 - 1990s)

The golden era of Shidaiqu and the "Seven Great Song Stars" comes to an end when the
Communist Party denounces Chinese popular music as "yellow music" ( pornographic ). 2
The Maoists considered popular music to be a declining art form in mainland China. In
1949 the Kuomintang moved to Taiwan and the People's Republic of China was
established. Revolutionary songs would be deeply promoted by the State. The Maoists,
during the Cultural Revolution , held revolutionary music as the only acceptable genre; Due
to oppression and propaganda, this genre overshadowed all others and came to practically
define continental music. This remains, in some ways, an ongoing process, but some
schoolchildren and musicians are trying to recover what was lost and rebuild the musical
heritage.

After the Tian'anmen Square protests of 1989 , a style with a new faster tempo, the
Northwest Wind (xibeifeng, 西 北 風 ), was launched by the people to respond to the
2
government. The music would progress into Chinese Rock , which would remain popular in
the '90s . In any case, music in China is state property in the same way as TV, the media,
and major concert halls, which are controlled by the Communist Party. The government has
chosen not to support Chinese rock by limiting its exposure and broadcast times. As a
result, the genre has never fully established itself.

Present

China has a high level of piracy with intellectual property issues. 3 As a result, most albums
are released in Taiwan or Hong Kong first. This is one of the business decisions most often
made by production companies. Typically, there is some delay before products are released
on the mainland, with occasional exceptions, such as Cui Jian 's work, which was released
in Taiwan, Hong Kong and the Mainland simultaneously. 4 Consequently, this delay in
release time thus provides the greatest incentive for piracy, since individuals would prefer
to pirate from abroad. The modern market is not only hindered by legal issues, but also by
other factors such as profit margin, income, and other economic issues.

Annual events such as the "Midi Modern Music Festival" in Beijing , attract tens of
thousands of visitors. There was also the "Snow Mountain Music Festival" in Yunnan
province. The term "Chinese Woodstock" was a creation of Western media for these two
events. Both attracted considerable outdoor crowds, but the term is unofficial. The Chinese
rock movement differs from its Western counterpart in that it has never become established
in culture due to state restrictions.

Today, rock music is centered almost exclusively in Beijing and Shanghai , and has very
limited influence on Chinese society. Wuhan and Sichuan are considered pockets of rock
music culture meanwhile. This points to an important cultural, political and social
difference that exists between China, the West, and also between different parties within
China. While rock existed in China for decades, the milestone that brought the genre to the
international stage was when Cui Jian played with The Rolling Stones in 2003 , at the age
of 42.

Traditional music

Chinese musicians in a Shanghai restaurant.

Instrumental

Traditional music in China is played by solo instrumentalists or in small ensembles of

plucked and bowed string instruments, flutes, and various cymbals, gongs, and drums. The
Chinese musical scale has five notes. Chinese bamboo flutes and guqin are the oldest
3
known Chinese instruments. Instruments are traditionally divided into categories based on
the material they are made of: leather, gourd, bamboo, wood, silk, earth/clay, metal and
stone. Chinese orchestras are traditionally made up of bowed string instruments,
woodwinds, plucked strings and percussion instruments.

Instruments

 Woodwind Instruments & Percussion Instruments

dizi , sheng , paigu , gong , paixiao , guan , bells , cymbals

 Rubbed strings

erhu , zhonghu , dahu , banhu , jinghu , gaohu , gehu , yehu , cizhonghu ,

diyingehu , leiqin

 plucked strings

guqin , sanxian , yangqin , guzheng , ruan , konghou , liuqin , pipa , zhù

Representation of a traditional music concert at the Hubei Provincial Museum in Wuhan.

Vocal music has traditionally been sung in a weak, non-resonant or falsetto and is usually
sung more in solo than in chorus form. All traditional Chinese music places more emphasis
on melody than harmony. Chinese vocal music probably developed from sung poems and
verses set to music. Instrumental pieces played on an elhu or dizi are popular, and are often
available outside of China, however, pipa and guzheng music, which are more traditional,
are more popular within China. The guqin is perhaps the most respected instrument in
China, although very few people know what it is, or have seen or heard it being played. The
zheng, a form of zither , is the most popular instrument in Henan , Chaozhou , Hakka and
Shandong . The pipa, a type of lute , believed to have been introduced from Arabia during
the 6th century , and adapted to Chinese tastes, is the most popular instrument in Shanghai
and surrounding areas.

Han ethnic music

The Han ethnic group makes up around 92% of China's population. Han ethnic music
consists of heterophonic music , in which musicians play versions of the same melodic line.
Percussion accompanies most music, dance and opera.

chinese opera

4
Main article: Chinese opera .

Chinese Opera has been hugely popular for centuries, especially Peking Opera . The music
is often guttural, with high-pitched vocals, usually accompanied by a suona , a jinghu ,
other types of stringed instruments, and percussion. Other types of opera include Pingju ,
Cantonese Opera, Puppet Opera, Kunqu , Sichuan Opera, Qinqiang , ritual mask opera and
Huangmei xi .

Folk music

Han folk music became established at weddings and funerals. It usually includes a form of
oboe called suona and percussion ensembles called chuigushou . The music is diverse,
sometimes happy, sometimes gloomy and sometimes based on Western pop music or TV
music. Ensembles made up of sheng s (kinds of harmonicas), suona s, dizi se and
percussion instruments such as yunluos, are popular in northern villages; Their music
derives from imperial temple music in Beijing , Xi'an , Wutai Shan and Tianjin . Xi'an
drum music, consisting of wind and percussion instruments, is popular around Xi'an, and
has received some popularity outside China in a highly commercialized form. Another
important instrument is the sheng, which is the ancestor of all Western reed instruments,
such as the accordion . Parades led by Western brass band types, often compete in volume
with shaum/chuigushou bands.

Half section of the Song Dynasty (960 – 1279) version of The Nocturnal Delights of Han Xizai , originally by
Gu Hongzhong ; 5 women are seen dancing and one on the right plays a pipe to entertain the guests.

South of Fujian and Taiwan , Nanyin or Nanguan is a musical genre of traditional ballads.
These are sung by a woman accompanied by a xiao flute, a pipa and other traditional
instruments. The music is generally sad and mourning and typically deals with women
grieving for love. Further south, in Shantou , Hakka and Chaozhou , erxian and zheng
ensembles are popular.

Sizhu ensembles use flutes and string instruments, plucked or bowed, to make harmonious
and melodious music, which became popular in the West among some listeners. These are
popular in Nanjing and Hangzhou , and throughout southern Yangyse . The Sizhu has been
secularized in the cities, but remains spiritual in the rural areas.

Jiangnan Sizhu ( Jiangnan clay and bamboo music), is a style of instrumental music, often
played by amateur musicians in Shanghai teahouses, which has become widely known
beyond its place of origin.

Guangdong or Cantonese music is instrumental music from Canton and surrounding areas.
This is based on Yueju (Cantonese Opera) music, along with new compositions from the
1920s onwards. Many pieces have influences from jazz and Western music, using
syncopation and triple time.
5
Regional music

Tibet

Music forms an integral part of Tibetan Buddhism While chanting remains perhaps the
best-known form of Tibetan Buddhist music, complex and vivid forms are also displayed.
Monks use music to recite various sacred texts and celebrate a variety of festivals
throughout the year. The most specialized form of singing is the so-called yang , which is
made up of small syllables, has no timing and is dominated by resonant and sustained
drums. Other forms of chanting are unique to Tantra as well as to the four major monastic
schools: Gelugpa , Kagyupa , Nyingmapa and Sakyapa . Of these schools, the Gelugpa is
considered a more sober and classical form, while the Nyingmapa is widely described as
romantic and dramatic. The Gelugpa is perhaps the most popular.

Secular Tibetan music survived the Cultural Revolution more intact than spiritual music,
especially due to the Tibetan Institute of Performing Arts (ITAI), which was founded by the
Dalai Lama shortly after his self-exile. The ITAI originally specialized in the lhamo form
of opera, which has since been modernized with the addition of influences, Western and
otherwise. Other secular genres include nangma and toshe , which are often accompanied
by a variety of instruments designed for highly rhythmic, danceable music. Nangma
karaoke is popular in modern Lhasa . A classical form called gar is very popular and is
distinguished by ornate, elegant and ceremonial music that honors dignitaries or other
respected people.

Tibetan folk music includes lu a cappella songs, which are distinctively loud, weak with
glottal vibrations, like the now rare epic bards who sing the tales of Gesar , the most
popular hero of Tibet.

Tibetan music has influenced the pioneering compositions of Philip Glass and, more
influentially, Henry Eichheim . Later artists formed New Age fusions of pioneers Henry
Wolff and Nancy Hennings . These two collaborated on Tibetan Bells , perhaps the first
fusion of New Age and Tibetan influences, in 1971 . Glass's original Kundun soundtrack
proved influential in the 1990s, while the popularity of Western-adapted Buddhism (e.g.
Richard Gere , Yungchen Lhamo , Steve Tibbetts , Choying Drolma , Lama Karta and
Kitarō and Nawang Khechong ) helped popularize Tibetan music.

With the arrival of Tibetan refugees in the Himalayas , Western music, often in unique
Tibetan forms, began to be popular among Tibetans. Rangzen Shonu quickly became the
most popular ethnic Tibetan rock and accidental pop performer. Other forms of imported
popular music include Hindu ghazal and filmi , popular throughout the Himalayas and in
Tibetan communities around the world. Fusions between Western and Tibetan have been
largely suppressed in China, but have been widespread and innovative outside the country.
In the mid to late 1980s, a relaxation of government rules allowed a form of popular music
to emerge in Tibet proper. Direct references to native religion remain prohibited, but
commonly understood metaphors are widespread. Pure Tibetan pop is heavily influenced
by light Chinese rock, and hits like Jampa Tsering and Yatong are found. Songs of political
and social awareness are rare in this form of pop, but are commonplace in a second type of
Tibetan pop. Nangma karaoke bars appeared in 1998 and are common in Lhasa, despite the
Chinese government's treatment ways.
6
Guangxi

Guanxi in a region of China. His most famous modern music score is Sister Liu , who was
the protagonist of a 1960s film that introduced Guanxi cultures to the rest of the world.

The Gin people are known for their instrument called 独 弦 琴 (pinyin: dúxiánqín; lit.
"Single-string zither"), a string instrument with only one string, which is said to date from
the 8th century.

Yunnan

Nakhi Musicians.

Yunnan is an ethnically diverse area of southeastern China. Perhaps best known in the
province is the lusheng , a type of wind instrument like the harmonica, used by the Miao
people of Guizhou for antiphonal pantatonic courtship songs.

The Hani of Honghe Prefecture are known for a unique type of choral, microtonal songs for
rice transplantation.

The Nakhi of Lijiang play a type of song and dance called baisha xiyue , which was
supposedly brought by Kublai Khan in 1253. Dongjing is a type of music related to
southern Chinese forms and is popular today.

Sichuan

Sichuan is a province located in Southwest China. Its capital city, Chengdu , is home to the
only institution of higher musical education in the region, the Sichuan Conservatory of
Music. The province has a long history of Sichuan Opera.

Manchuria

Manchuria is a region of Northeast China, inhabited by ethnic groups such as the Manchu .
The most prominent folk instrument is the octagonal drum, and the lullaby youyouzha is
also well known.

Xinjiang

7
Xinjiang is dominated by the Uyghur , a Turkic people related to others in Central Asia .
The best-known Uyghur musical form is On Ikki Muqam , a category of twelve sections
related to Uzbek and Tajik forms. These complex symphonies vary widely between
categories of the same muqam , and are constructed on a seven-note scale. Among the
instruments we find the dap , a drum, Dulcimeles , Fiddles ( violins ) and Lutes ;
performers have room for personal embellishments, especially in percussion. The most
important performer is Turdi Akhun, who recorded most of the muqams in the 1950s.

Kuaiban

Kuaiban is a type of rhythmic dialogue and singing that is often performed with percussion
instruments such as clackers . The center of the kuaiban tradition is Shandong province.
Kuaiban bears a similarity to rap or other forms of rhythmic music found in other cultures.

Modern music

These are the genres that began after 1912 to coincide with New China .

Popular music

Chinese pop (c-pop) originally begins with the shidaiqu genre, founded by Li Jinhui on the
mainland; It had Western jazz influences such as Buck Clayton . After the establishment of
the Communist Party, the production company Baak Doi ended up leaving Shanghai in
1952. 6 The seventies saw the growth of Cantopop in Hong Kong and then Mandopop in
Taiwan. The continent remained on the sidelines for decades with a minimal degree of
participation. Only in recent years have mainland Chinese youth become consumers of
Taiwanese Mandopop . Likewise, China is not considered a center of considerable
production, despite having its large population. 7 When Hong Kong icon Anita Mui
performed the song Bad Girl in China during the nineties, she was banned from returning
to the stage for showing a rebellious attitude. 8 By Western standards, the performance was
no more rebellious than, for example, those given by Madonna ; Mui had based many of his
moves on his style. Many mainland artists often try to begin their commercial success in
Hong Kong or Taiwan first, and then return to the mainland as a part of gangtai culture.

Starting in the 20th century, popular music in mainland China became more popular. In
particular, at the beginning of the 21st century, artists from this same part of China began to
produce a wide range of Mandarin folk songs along with many new albums.

Many of these artists performed for the promotion of the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games.

Rock and heavy metal

The widely known predecessor of Chinese rock is Cui Jian . 4 In the late eighties, he played
the first Chinese rock called: Yi wu suo you (translated as "I have nothing"). It was the first
time that an electric guitar was used in China. He became the most famous performer of his
time, and by 1988, he played in the concert broadcast worldwide in conjunction with the
1988 Seoul Olympics . 4 His socially critical lyrics earned him the ire of the government
and many of his concerts were banned or canceled. Following the 1989 Tian'anmen Square
Protests , he performed with a red bandage around his head as an anti-government action.
8
Next, two bands became famous: Hei Bao (translated as "Black Panther") and 唐朝 ( Táng
Cháo in Pinyin , translated as "Tang Dynasty"). Both started during the late eighties, early
nineties. Hei Bao is an old school rock band. Táng Cháo was the first Chinese Heavy metal
band. Their first CD combines elements of traditional Chinese Opera and old school Heavy
Metal. The album, released between 1991 and 1992, was a very important breakthrough.
Unfortunately, one member died shortly after release.

Around 1994-96, the first thrash metal band, Chao Zai , was formed. They released three
CDs, the last one in cooperation with pop singer Gao Chi . At the same time the first new
metal bands were formed and inspired by Western bands such as Korn , Limp Bizkit or
Linkin Park . China would have its own with Yaksa , Niuqu De Jiqi , AK-47 and Overheal
Tank .

National Music

Patriotic or revolutionary music

Patriotic music or Guoyue was basically music taken in some grand performances to
embolden national pride. Since 1949, it has been by far the most government-promoted
genre. Compared to other forms of music, national symphonic music flourished in the
country. In 1969 the cantata was adapted to piano concertos. The "Yellow River Piano
Concerto" was played by pianist Yin Chengzong , and continues to be performed today on
world stages. During the height of the Cultural Revolution , musical composition and
performances were greatly restricted. A soft, harmonious, generic, all-Chinese form of
music called guoyue was artificially created to be performed in conservatories. After the
Cultural Revolution, musical institutions were reinstated and music performance and
composition revived. At the peak of the Mao Tse-Tung era, music accelerated the political
level in "Revolutionary Music", leaning towards a cult status and becoming mainstream
under the pro-communist ideology.

Grades
^ Jones
1. . Andrew F. [2001] (2001). Yellow Music—CL: Media Culture and Colonial
Modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age. Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-2694-9
2. ^ Broughton, Simon. Ellingham, Mark. Trillo, Richard. [2000] (2000) World Music:
The Rough Guide. Rough Guides Publishing Company. ISBN 1-85828-636-0
3. ↑ BuildingIPvalue. " BuildingIPvalue ." Recent developments in intellectual
property.Retrieved on 2007-04-04 .
^ Gunde ,
4. Richard. [2002] (2002) Culture and Customs of China. Greenwood Press.
ISBN 0-313-30876-4
5. ^ Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 148.
6. ^ Shoesmith, Brian. Rossiter, Ned. [2004] (2004). Refashioning Pop Music in Asia:
Cosmopolitan flows, political tempos and aesthetic industries. Routeledge
Publishing. ISBN 0-7007-1401-4

9
 7. ^ Keane, Michael. Donald, Stephanie. Hong, Yin. [2002] (2002). Media in China:
Consumption, Content and Crisis. Routledge Publishing. ISBN 0-7007-1614-9
8. ^ Baranovitch, Nimrod. China's New Voices. University of California press. ISBN
0-520-23450-2

References

 Jones, Steven. "The East Is Red... "And White"". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and
Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music,
Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific , pp 34–43.
Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0 .
 Lee, Joanna. "Cantopop and Protest Singers." 2000. In Broughton, Simon and
Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music,
Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific , pp 49–59.
Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0 .
 Lee Yuan-Yuan and Shen, Sinyan. Chinese Musical Instruments (Chinese Music
Monograph Series) . 1999. Chinese Music Society of North America Press. ISBN 1-
880464-03-9
 Rees, Helen with Zingrong, Zhang and Wei, Li. "Sounds of the Frontiers." 2000. In
Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla
(Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and
Pacific , pp 44–48. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0 .
 Shen, Sinyan. Chinese Music in the 20th Century (Chinese Music Monograph
Series) . 2001. Chinese Music Society of North America Press. ISBN 1-880464-04-
7.
 Trewin, Mark. "Raising the Roof." 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham,
Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin
& North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific , pp 254–261. Rough Guides
Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 185828636025.

Musical instruments in ancient China

Submitted by work

Instruments for band

king buffet selmer yamaha conn vito drum herch mouthpieces tubas and more
www.olveramusic.com

Reduce Generator Noise

Industrial All Weather Sound Panels for serious noise generator NRC1.00 Acoustiblok.com

Introduction

Chinese music is as old as its civilization. Among the instruments from excavations at sites
from the Shang dynasty (1766-1122 BC) you can find stone and bronze bells, Pan flutes,
etc.

10
Chinese music differs greatly from Western music due to its rhythm, rhythm, tone and
ornaments, which give it its unmistakable sound . This is primarily due to the peculiar
sound and playing style of traditional Chinese musical instruments.

Musical Instruments in Ancient China

Ancient musical instruments were traditionally divided into eight categories, the so-called
eight sounds, according to the material from which they were made. On the other hand,
modern instruments are divided by the way they are played and are classified into three
broad categories: wind instruments, strings and percussion.

Classification by Construction

 metal musical instruments

Metal musical instruments are made of bronze or bronze- tin alloy. There are a large
number of different kinds, the most important being bells. Cymbals and gones are also
metal musical instruments, all of which possess clear sound quality and warm tone that
define the classic timbre of Chinese metal and stone musical instruments.

Figure 1 - Bronze bell

 stone musical instruments

The main type of stone musical instruments is the lithophone or tsin. The tsin or lithophone
is made of marble or jade, the harder the stone, the more vibrant and strident the sound will
be. Lithophones are divided into simple or compound lithophones. Composite lithophones
or pien-tsin consist of sixteen stones of different sizes hanging from a string in a closet.
Since the founding of the Republic of China in 1911, except for Confucius temples, it has
been very difficult to find a lithophone.

 Silk musical instruments

11
They are instruments made with silk strings. Before the Shang and Chou dynasties, there
were only two types of stringed instruments, the Chinese violin or chin, and the harp or su.
After the Chin and Han dynasties, the zither or cheng appeared; the kung-hou, an
instrument with twenty-three strings; the lute under yuan-hsien; the chin lute; the three-
stringed lute or san-hsuan; the pi-pa or Chinese lute; and the two-string hu-chin violin.

 Bamboo musical instruments

The main musical instruments made of bamboo are the vertical flute or hsiao, the horizontal
flute or ti, and the cylindrical oboe or kuan. The difference between the hsiao and the ti is
the position in which they are played, since both are made of bamboo. The hsiao is played
like a piccolo, while the ti is played like a flute. There is a subtle difference in the sound
quality and tone of these two instruments, because the ti has a vibrating membrane, while
the hsiao does not. Among the ancient instruments, the most important is the pai-hsiao,
which is used to emit the standard tone. Apart from the hsiao and ti, we have the hu, which
is a type of reed with a duller and deeper sound than the previous two. What was formerly
called the pi-li is the kuan, a contemporary pipe with a very clear high sound that plays the
definitive role of leader in large orchestras.

 pumpkin musical instruments

There is a type of gourd called pao-kua whose dried shell was used in ancient times to
make musical instruments. In this category we have yu and sheng. The sheng is a harmonic
instrument, and the yu is very similar but larger and with more tubes. Before the Warring
States Period (403-221 BC), these instruments were very popular. There is an anecdote
about yu during the spring and autumn period, where King Hsuan of Chi liked yu music so
much that he demanded that there be many in the orchestra. Nan Kuo, who did not know
how to play yu, could have gotten confused among the musicians. When the king died, his
successor on the throne also liked to listen to yu music, but he demanded that the musicians
play the instrument one by one. For fear of being discovered and punished, Nan Kuo had to
flee the kingdom. As a result, a saying has remained that alludes to the fact and is used to
describe people who find themselves in a position without having the corresponding
qualifications. On the other hand, we can also see that the yu and sheng were very common
instruments among the Chinese people several millennia ago.

 Clay musical instruments

Among the Chinese musical instruments made of clay, the yuan and fu stand out mainly.
The fu is shaped like a small jug or bracero and is very rare today. The ocarina or yuan has
a history of at least seven thousand years. At the beginning, it only had one hole to blow
into and another where the sound came out; It gradually evolved into eight-hole, ten-hole
and semi-tone yuan. This instrument has a soft tone with a strong sound quality, giving a
feeling of desolate beauty.

 Leather musical instruments

Among the musical instruments made with animal leather , the drum or ku stands out,
which is one of the oldest in China. The drum has many functions , being used as a rhythm

12
marker for dances in times of peace, and as indispensable instruments in the Chinese band
in times of war .

 wooden musical instruments

Among the first types of musical instruments made of wood we have the chu, the wu and
the pai-pan. Later the "wooden fish" or mu-yu, and the pan-tzu appeared. The chu is a
musical instrument used to mark the beginning of religious rites, while the wu serves to end
the musical intervention. Aside from Confucius temples, it is rare to see these instruments
in Chinese music orchestras.

Figure 5 - Wooden Instruments Figure 6 - Drum or ku

The eight categories of Chinese musical instruments have gone through many changes over
the past four millennia. They carry the unique tone of Chinese music and with complex and
refined playing techniques , they can produce exquisite and smooth sounds that characterize
the Chinese musical tradition, a cultural heritage of which the Chinese people are proud.

Contemporary Classification of Chinese Musical Instruments

After a long period of evolution , the traditional eight categories are today inadequate to
classify Chinese musical instruments. For example, today a hsiao or ti can be made of
bamboo, bronze or jade. Chinese musical instruments are now divided according to how
they are played into wind instruments, stringed instruments, and percussion instruments.

 wind instruments

Following the historical developments and unification of China, the wind instruments of
many ethnic minorities gradually penetrated into central China. The fusion of those ethnic
musical instruments with Chinese culture brought greater progress that led to a relatively
complete integration of musical instruments. Most wind instruments have been passed
down through time and have been very popular. The wind instruments most commonly
seen in a Chinese instrumental music orchestra are the transverse flute, ti; the mouth organ
sheng; the vertical flute, hsiao; the conical oboe or so-na; the pa-wu; and the cylindrical
oboe or kuan.

The transverse flute, you

Wind instruments that were played horizontally in the past were called ti or heng-ti. The ti
or transverse flute is one of the oldest types of bamboo flutes. Legend has it that in the

13
reign of Emperor Wu (157-187 AD), at the height of the Han dynasty, ti was introduced to
the imperial capital at Chang An, after the great general Chang Ching brought it from the
kingdom of Sheng-jung, located to the West. The ti flute also plays the role of conducting
the melody.

Figure 7 - Transverse Flute, ti

It has been present in China for many centuries and in many areas. There are many
varieties, which can be divided into three types: pan-ti, chu-ti and lu-ti. The pan-ti was
originally an important accompaniment instrument for the pan-tzu opera, hence its name.
The pan-ti has a thin and short body, its sound projection is high and strong, hence it is a
flute used for high notes.

The chu-ti is also called middle ti. The body of the chu-ti is thicker and longer, its sound is
broader and softer, and it is widely used in southern China. It is the main accompaniment
instrument of kun-chu music, hence its name, which means chu flute. It can be played alone
or in accompaniment.

The lu-ti is also known as the new flute, as it is a relatively recent instrument in Chinese
music. Its tone is elegant and soft, being useful to be played together with the yang-chin.

The structure of the pan-ti, chu-ti and lu-ti is very similar, except that the pan-ti and chu-ti
have six holes, while the lu-ti has eleven, and also lacks a hole for the vibrating membrane.
The transverse flute or ti is made up of several parts. The body of the ti is made of bamboo,
which has been hollowed out by removing its knots and divisions, so that it remains a tube.
It has a stopper made of cork, which is inserted at the end of the tube where the blowing
hole or mouth is located. The membrane hole is the second hole from the left end of the
flute and is used to accommodate the vibrating membrane. The function of this membrane
is to change the tone. A flute without such a membrane does not have as good a tone. The
membrane is made of a type of hemp, which has been rubbed into a thin sheet that produces
a clear, dry sound as air passes through it.

There are a total of six holes, numbered one through six from right to left. Using the fingers
to cover or open these holes produces the different notes. The main note hole is the upper
opening that produces the sound and can be used to adjust the pitch and determine the
highest range of the instrument. The auxiliary note hole is the second hole to the right of the
main hole, it has a beautiful sound and can be used to increase the volume , it is also used to
introduce the piao-suei, an ornament that is tied to make the flute look more attractive . The
hai-ti or hai-nao is a chamber inside the body of the flute that extends from the stopper to
the center of the blowing hole to prevent air from flowing upward, but from concentrating
to produce the sound.

14
 Figure 8 - Transverse Flute

The transverse flute is a highly sensitive instrument. If the same note is played repeatedly,
the musician can produce notes at a very fast pace with very powerful expressions. When
playing the flute, the musician uses both the chest and diaphragm to inhale a large amount
of air in order to play longer segments. Before playing, you should hold the ti with both
hands as shown in the photo. The left thumb is placed firmly on the top of the flute. The
index and ring fingers should be placed over the holes six, five and four, while the little
finger rests lightly on the body of the instrument. The right thumb and little finger also rest
lightly on the flute, while the index and ring fingers match holes three, two and one.

the sheng

Among Chinese wind instruments, the sheng is one of the oldest. Its unique shape and tone
can be used to harmonize and make simple melodies that serve as accompaniment to the
main melody.

Figure 9 - Sheng

The sheng is a very peculiar instrument and occupies a very important position in Chinese
musical instruments. It uses a fixed high-pitched reed and a tube with fixed air volume,
producing the sound by coordinating the two types of vibrations. Today, the number of
flutes in this Chinese mouth organ varies from thirteen to thirty-six, but the most common
is the seventeen-flute sheng. Because the number of reeds varies, it can also be classified
into seventeen-reed, thirteen-reed, and fourteen-reed sheng. In ancient times, the thirteen-
reed sheng was popular in southern China and was known as su-sheng. In the north, the
seventeen-reed sheng was popular and was called northern sheng, and the sheng of the
southwestern region was called lu-sheng.

The sheng is essentially divided into two parts. The first part consists of 17 tubes with
different lengths, known as sheng pipes. The other part is the base where the bamboo tubes
are fixed.

15
The tubes of the sheng are made of thin bamboo rods. Round finger holes are drilled in the
bamboo pipes, as well as the sound hole. The finger holes are used to control the sound that
comes from the pipe. If you close it, that allows the tube to produce resonance, between the
air and the reed. The reed can be vibrated to produce sound by inhalation or exhalation. On
the other hand, if the hole is opened, resonance is eliminated and no sound is produced.

This method of producing sound by covering the hole and extinguishing it by opening the
hole is a special feature of sheng. The section of the pipe above the note hole is not merely
for decoration, but has an auxiliary function in the production of sound. The sheng pipes
are divided into long, medium and short pipes, the length being determined by the note you
want to produce. After the tubes or pipes are placed on the base, they look like two phoenix
tails together. All tubes are slightly inclined inward, the middle and lower parts are level
and straight, and the shape resembles two hands in offering, creating a beautiful
appearance.

The foot of the sheng is the junction between the tubes and the base, and plays an important
function in the production of sound. At the base, called sheng-tou, is the mouth of the
instrument. Its function is to stabilize and unite the different parts of the instrument. It has a
round lid with a hole on top where it is inserted at the foot, which in turn connects with the
tube.

Figure 10 - Sheng

The vertical flute, hsiao

It is said that before the Ying dynasty, a wind instrument similar to the Chinese syrinx or
pai-hsiao already existed in China. A pipe that was blown alone was called shu, which is
the same as ti. Subsequently, any flute played vertically is called hsiao, while a flute played
horizontally is called ti.

Figure 11 - Representative painting of two flute players

16
The biggest difference between the hsiao and the ti is that the former has the hole higher at
the back of the tube and is blown directly onto the instrument. In ancient times, the hsiao
was the Chinese syringe or pai-hsiao, which consisted of several pipes together, and each
one only produced one note. It was later discovered that by drilling holes at different
distances in a long tube different notes could be obtained. Thus, the syringe-shaped hsiao
was transformed into the single-tube hsiao.

The vertical flute or hsiao is made from a single bamboo tube, with the top knot present,
while the other knots are hollowed out to achieve an empty tube. The blow hole is located
at the top and is V or U shaped. The hsiao is slightly longer than the ti and does not have a
vibrating membrane hole between the blow hole and the note holes, and the blow hole is
larger than the ti. The blow hole is usually at one end of the body, which has six note holes
and two base openings. Five of the note holes are located in the front and one behind. They
are numbered from one to six, from bottom to top. The hsiao is made with purple bamboo
and a segment with four to five knots is sought.

Figure 12 - Vertical flute, hsiao

The conical oboe, so-na

The so-na is a type of oboe that serves as a reverberant instrument. In reality, so-na is the
transcription of a foreign word. In the past, it was used for martial music, but today it is
commonly used in marriage ceremonies, funeral ceremonies or religious processions. The
sound of the so-na is extremely loud, however, it is played indoors to express a warm
welcome through its loud and clear tone. Additionally, its low note can also impart a
somber feeling.

The so-na uses a double reed to produce sounds and is relatively a sonorous wind
instrument. It is frequently used for outdoor performances. It is composed of five parts,
including the mouthpiece, air plate, tuner, spout and bowl. In the pipe made of wood there
are eight note holes. In the front part of the pipe there is a small bronze tuner. Above the
tuner is the air plate and the mouthpiece made of cane brava. The bowl is located at the
back of the spout.

17
 Figure 13 - So-na bowl

Figure 14 - Cylindrical oboe or kuan

The cylindrical oboe or kuan

The cylindrical oboe or kuan is also an ancient musical instrument. The kuan was known in
ancient times as pi-li. It is a leading instrument in the orchestra, which is why it is also
called tou-kuan, or first pipe. It has relatively loud sound and the tone is high, bright and
compact. It plays an important role in the middle tones of symphonic pieces.

The cylindrical oboe is made up of two parts: the mouthpiece and the body. The body has
eight holes, seven in front and one behind. The mouthpiece location is on top and the holes
are numbered one through eight from bottom to top, with the number seven on the back.
There is also a kuan with nine holes, seven in front and two in the back.

Figure 15 - Execution of the cylindrical oboe

The pa-wu

The pa-wu is a traditional musical instrument of the Hani ethnic group of Yunnan province.
It is a type of reed flute that is played by blowing it perpendicularly. Produces a full and
eloquent tone. It is most useful if played with broad or moderate tones, and can also be used
for musical pieces that demand a lot of technical skill. The tone of the pa-wu harmonizes
very easily with other musical instruments.
18
 Figure 16 - Pa-wu

 String Instruments

Compared with the other categories of Chinese musical instruments, there is a greater
diversity of string instruments. Through the long tradition of the Chinese people, these
instruments have evolved in form and techniques, becoming instruments with Chinese
characteristics. Stringed instruments are classified according to the way they are played and
can be divided into percussion stringed instruments, plucked stringed instruments, and
bowed stringed instruments.

Percussion string instruments

The yang-chin is the only percussion stringed instrument that exists today. In the past it was
known as foreign chin because it originally comes from the Middle East. It was introduced
to China only during the Ming dynasty, and because its shape resembles a butterfly, it has
also been called chin butterfly. The tone of yang-chin is clear and natural.

Figure 17 - The yang-chin. Percussion Stringed Instrument

Plucked string instruments

The most common plucked string instruments are the liu-chin, the pi-pa or Chinese lute, the
yuan-hsien bass lute; the round lute or yueh-chin; the three-stringed lute or san-hsuan; the
ku-chin or seven-string zither; and the Chinese zither or ku-cheng.

Liu-chin

Among plucked string instruments, the liu-chin belongs to the high-tone category. It is
known as the willow leaf lute, due to its shape. As it also has a resemblance to the pi-pa or
Chinese lute, it is also called small pi-pa. Originally, the liu-chin was relatively simple and
only made a loud, shrill sound. The instrument currently used has a wider range of sound
and the note positions are more precise, so that it meets the requirements for orchestral or
solo performance .
19
 The structure of the liu-chin is largely similar to that of the Chinese lute or pi-pa, except
that the liu-chin is smaller and has no frets on the neck or tube. On the top and neck of the
instrument there are 24 sound markers replacing the frets. There are two sound holes in the
lid, as well as a sound window.

Figure 18 - Liu-chin middle zone

The pi-pa or Chinese lute

Formerly, the term pi-pa covered a number of instruments including the pi-pa proper, the
yuan-hsien bass lute; the round lute or yueh-chin; the three-stringed lute or san-hsuan; and
the chin lute. This is because all these instruments share two tapping techniques in
common, the pi and the pa. The pi describes the right hand pressing the instrument forward
and the left; while pa refers to the right hand pressing backwards and to the right. Because
the pi-pa can play elegant melodies and strong, dynamic martial music both in solo and
orchestral performances, the techniques for playing it in orchestras have been fully
exploited to perform all its functions.

Figure 19 - Chinese lute or pi-pa

"Lightly pulsing, slowly twisting, large pearls, small pearls spilling over a jade saucer," is a
classic verse describing the techniques, timbre and tone variations of the Chinese lute or pi-
pa. In ancient times, any plucked stringed instrument that was played like a guitar was
called pi-pa, and not necessarily the lute we know today. The term included the three-

20
stringed lute or san-hsuan, the bass lute yuan-hsien, and others. Later, each of them
acquired its own name and the pi-pa itself became an important plucked string instrument.

The Chinese lute or pi-pa consists of the head, pegs, body, high and low frets, strings and
bridge. The head is the decorative part of the instrument. The tuners have a hole where the
strings are inserted, they have a long shaft to facilitate string tension. The ropes are fixed on
the pegs and pass through the body to be tied to the base. The body has indications to set
the position of the strings. There are four or six high frets on the neck of the lute, and they
are subsequently numbered from one to six. The frets fix the location of the notes and
pressing a certain fret produces the proper note.

Figure 20 - Performance of the Chinese Lute

Bass lute or yuan-hsien

The yuan-hsien or bass lute is named in honor of Yuan Hsien, a character from the Tsin
dynasty. To meet the needs of new compositions for orchestras, some improvements have
been made to this instrument in recent years. The improved version of the yuan-hsien
comes in different sizes and there are three types: large, medium and small. The medium
bass lute produces a soft tone, while the large lute produces a high, soft tone. Currently,
large and medium-sized yuan-hsien are often used in Chinese music orchestras.

Figure 21 - Bass laud or yuan-hsien

Although the bass lute or yuan-hsien has a long history, it continues to maintain its ancient
form and style, being an instrument with four strings and twelve positions. Externally, the
bass lute has a head that is merely decorative. The neck has a piece of paper where the
position of the twelve notes in the absence of frets are marked. The body of the lute is a
round, flat sounding box. The top has a bridge insert to hold the strings and there is also a
sound hole. There are four pegs for the four strings of the instrument.

The Round Lute or yuen-chin

21
The round lute or yueh-chin is a string instrument that evolved from the yuan-hsien or bass
lute. It plays a very important role as an accompaniment to Chinese drama performances. It
has a clear, bright tone, and is easy to handle. Consequently, it can be played alone or in
orchestras.

The structure of the round lute or yueh-chin is very similar to that of the yuan-hsien, with a
head, neck, pegs and strings. The body of the instrument is a round soundboard with two
basic sound holes at the bottom, as well as two sound stands to hold them in position.

The three-stringed lute or san-hsuan

The three-stringed lute or san-hsuan is another important musical instrument in traditional

Chinese drama performances and ballads. After continuous development , the instrument
received its current name during the Yuan Dynasty. The tone of the three-string lute is
extremely clear and unique, which together with its excellent functionality, makes it
indispensable in regional drama and ballad genres.

Figure 22 - Round lute or yuen-chin Figure 23 - Three-string lute

The san-hsuan usually seen are the large three-stringed lute and the small three-stringed
lute. The large lute is used in northern ballad music, while the small lute is more common
in southern performances. The structure of both is very similar.

The drum of the lute is the soundboard. The top of the lute tube has three pegs. The middle
section is the plucking board, and the lower part connects with the body or drum, thus
integrating the main structure of the san-hsuan. The strings are tuned using the pegs and
there are three strings on the instrument. Depending on the high or low pitch, the strings
have different thicknesses. The string pillow is the point where the strings rest. The bridge
is used to transmit the vibrations of the strings to the drum. The plectrum is used to pluck
the strings.

The ku-chin or seven-string zither

The seven-string zither or ku-chin was previously known simply as chin and is an
extremely ancient musical instrument and to distinguish it from other types of zither, the
term ku has been added, which means ancient or old. The original ku-chin had only five
strings, but it was increased to seven during the Chou (Zhou) dynasty, which is why it is
called the seven-string zither.

22
 Figure 24 - Seven-string zither, ku-chin

Of all the plucked stringed instruments, the construction of the ku-chin or seven-stringed
zither is the most complex and each part of the instrument bears a name reminiscent of the
past. The main body of the ku-chin is made up of two rectangular pieces of wood that are
assembled to form a large sound box. The bottom plate has two sound holes. The face of
the zither is where the instrument is plucked and has seven strings. There are thirteen frets
made of mother-of-pearl shell, to mark the position of the notes. The frets are arranged
from one on the far right to thirteen on the far left of the zither. The order of the strings
begins with where the string touches the first fret on the right, which has the lowest pitch
and the thickest string. The strings go down, becoming thinner and with higher tones.

Figure 25 - Detail of the seven-string zither

The citara or ku-cheng

The zither or ku-cheng was already a very popular musical instrument in the kingdom of
Chin, during the Warring States Period (403-221 BC). The musical instrument was unique
to the kingdom of Chin, and that is why it was called cheng. The zither used in those days
had twelve or thirteen strings, after being improved, it came to have 18 strings, 21 strings,
25 strings and even 44 strings.

Figure 26 - Zither or ku-cheng

23
The zither or ku-cheng is basically similar to the ku-chin, it has the appearance of a long
square box slightly bulging in the middle. The entire body serves as a sound box, the
bottom being flat while the top is round. There are three sound holes in the bottom. The
ropes are evenly distributed and each rope is tempered by a stake. The stakes are placed in a
staggered manner to obtain the different notes. The wooden strip that protrudes from the
head of the zither is called yueh-shan and is the place where the strings are attached. At one
end of the sash there are holes through which the ropes are inserted. The pegs are precisely
the pegs, which are used to tune the strings and tune the instrument.

 String and Percussion Instruments

 This type of musical instruments combines the special qualities of string
instruments and percussion instruments. Through this combination it is possible to
achieve a unique fusion of sounds.

Although only one instrument of this type is known, its contribution to Chinese music is so
important; It is considered one of the fundamental elements of this.

The yang-chin: a silk thread, a piece of bamboo

The yang-chin is a foreign musical instrument that was introduced to China only during the
Ming dynasty, and for that reason, it was originally called the chin or foreign lute. The
current yang-chin differs in appearance from the original. Due to its external shape,
arrangement of notes and scope, the yang-chin can be classified according to the number of
strings, there being types with 8, 9, 10, 13 and 14 rows. After decades of consistent
improvement and innovation , the pulley yang-chin has emerged. A small pulley has been
added to the side of the instrument to facilitate changing keys or tuning. This allows the
yang-chin to have a greater musical scope and be more expressive, making it an important
member of Chinese musical instruments.

Figure 28 - Yang-chin. Unique string and percussion instrument

24
The yang-chin has a flattened, stepped-shaped box made of poplar wood, which serves as a
sounding board. A small hole is cut in the front to serve as a sound hole. Several bridges are
placed on the soundboard. Yang-chin are divided into 3- and 4-bridge types. The
instrument's strings are made of steel , usually stainless steel. On the other hand, there is a
bamboo mallet that is used to play the strings. The mallet is made from bamboo sheets, and
should be soft and highly flexible. In the front part there is a small piece of sponge,
artificial leather or adhesive tape, and it is the part that comes into contact with the strings.

Figure 29 - The yang-chin

 Percussion Instruments

Percussion instruments have a long tradition in China, and were highly developed even
during the Shang dynasty. During the Warring States Period (403-221 BC), percussion
instruments accounted for more than half of all musical instruments of that era. With the
introduction of foreign musical instruments and evolutionary changes, an even greater
number of them appeared, especially with the spread of dramatic arts in the daily life of the
people. The most common percussion instruments are bells, lithophones, drums, cymbals
and those made of wood, which were mentioned above.

Chinese percussion instruments have a long history and a force of presence that dates back
about three thousand years. Already at that time there was a great variety of them, which
over time were absorbing other more sonorous ones from abroad, such as the clapper or
pan, the yun-lo or cloud gong, the night watchman's rattle or pan-tzu, etc.

They have been widely used in folk music. Apart from being able to perform
independently, they can be integrated into orchestras along with wind and string
instruments, where despite the difference between them, they manage to express a strong
local accent. The gons, drums and cymbals are the main instruments, but we also have
wooden instruments, bells and chimes.

The gong or

The gong or lo comes from the western part of China, it later evolved into many types,
including a large gong, a small gong, the rhythmic yun-lo or cloud gong, the 10-sided gong
and the 36-sided gong. The original technique of playing with one hand and a mallet has
been replaced by the technique of playing with two hands, giving more flexibility to the
instrument. The gong is often played along with drums, combining the sound of the two
instruments to create that unmistakable Chinese atmosphere of joy and celebration.

25
 Figure 30 - Structure of gons of various sizes

The Drum or ku

The music of gons and drums offers one of the most interesting and unique aspects of
traditional Chinese musical instruments. During the New Year and other festive occasions,
those little angels of happiness that generate the joyful atmosphere are called the percussion
instruments.

There are multiple applications of the drum or ku and there are also many varieties of
drums with different names. At present, the most common are large drums, small drums
and lined drums. Of these, one type developed in recent years deserves special attention . It
combines several large and small drums to achieve rhythm variations.

Figure 31 - Drum or ku

The structure of the drums is quite similar, they all have two pieces of beef hide stretched
on the top and bottom of a wooden frame. The drum face is firm, but has flexibility. It is
usually placed on a wooden base while played with wooden sticks to produce sound.

26
 Figure 32 - Representative drawing of a performer

The way the drum is struck can alter the rhythm and pitch. Tan-ta or single beat uses a
single drumstick to play the drum. Hsuan-ta or double beat uses two drumsticks to hit the
drum at the same time. Meng-ta or smothered blow consists of placing a drumstick or the
palm of the hand on the face of the drum, while hitting it with another drumstick. tun-ying
or staccato is hitting the drum and immediately placing your hand on the face of the drum
to stop the sound.

Ya-chi or hitting with pressure consists of hitting the drum and not lifting the stick
immediately but pressing it on the face of the drum. Yao-chi or oscillatory beating is
holding the drumstick in each hand and shaking or shaking the wrist at the same time so
that the drum produces a restricted sound. Kun-chin or rolling rhythm uses the two
drumsticks to alternately beat the drum, continuously and quickly. Hitting the stick on
different parts of the drum face produces different sounds, allowing for different pitches.
Typically, the sound in the middle of the drum is relatively low, and the closer you get to
the edge, the louder and firmer the sound is.

Cymbals or pa

Cymbals or pa are also called tung-pa or bronze cymbals, or cha-pa or friction cymbals.
They stand out for their accompaniment in folklore performances of gons and drums, as
well as in presentations of orchestras or dance and drama groups . Cymbals can be divided
into several types, including large and small cymbals, lion cymbals, and water cymbals.

Figure 33 - Cymbals

Figure 34 - Execution of the cymbals

27
Cymbals or pa have always added color to gons and drums to enhance the dramatic effect.
They are also known as tung-pa or bronze cymbals. There are cymbals of different sizes,
from large to small. They are made of bronze plates with a protrusion in the center. The
sound is clear and dry, generally accompanying small sounds to impart a light and cheerful
mood.

The nao is a type of cymbal that is identical in shape to the pa, but has a larger area and a
thinner "navel" in the center and larger edges. Since the Sung Dynasty, the bronze cymbal
used by Buddhists has been called nao.

To play the instrument, the cymbals are taken with both hands and placed at chest height,
generating a clear and clean sound when struck. The methods for using the cymbals are as
follows: the flat strike or ping-chi, which bring the cymbals together face to face with a
strong blow and separate them. The dull blow or meng-chi consists of not moving the
cymbals away immediately after the blow. Drumstick beating or tsui-chi consists of hitting
the cymbal with a drumstick to produce a bright sound. The rubbing stroke or ma-chi is
achieved by rubbing the two cymbals continuously to produce a humming sound, which
may represent water or anxiety. The side strike or pien-chi strikes the side of one cymbal
against the other to produce a light sound. The cross-beat or chiao-chi consists of crashing
the cymbals perpendicularly to create a short sound.

 Percussion instruments made of wood

 Any musical instrument that uses wood to strike on wood falls into the category of
percussion instruments made of wood. The most used currently are the clapper or
pan, the night watchman's rattle or pan-tzu, and the mu-yu or "wooden fish." The
clapper or pai-pan is generally used to ring in drama performances. The night
watchman's rattle or pan-tzu is used to set the rhythm in pan-tzu opera, in order to
increase the dramatic effect. The mu-yu or "wooden fish" is used to keep the
rhythm. In orchestras, a large mu-yu and a small mu-yu are often used to achieve
high and low sounds.

The bread or clapper

The bread or clapper is also called sound bread or striker. The center piece of wood inside
the clapper is a little thicker and flattened on both sides. The top and bottom pieces are
thinner with the center of one side raised. The two ends are tied with a string. The raised
part of the bottom piece fits with the center piece and produces the sound when it hits the
center piece.

Figure 35 - Bread or clapper

28
To play the clapper, place the instrument in your left hand, holding the lower piece and
inserting your thumb between it and the upper piece. By moving the wrist, the lower piece
collides with the upper part.

The clapper is frequently used to accompany recited songs or reinforce percussive music.
The night watchman's rattle or pan-tzu is an accompaniment instrument of the pan-tzu
opera. It is used to chime and add a stronger atmosphere to the drama. It also serves to
cause a greater impact from the orchestra.

The mu-yu or "wooden fish"

The mu-yu or "wooden fish" was originally an accompaniment instrument for religious
ceremonies, later it has become an orchestra accompaniment instrument. Its name is due to
the fact that it is made of wood and externally has the shape of a fish. There are large and
small mu-yu, the large ones have a low tone, while the small ones have a high tone.

A wooden hammer is used to hit the wooden part of the instrument, producing its own
sound within an orchestra, which usually has large and small mu-yu. Frequently, the mu-yu
alternates with the clapper to mark high and low measures.

Figure 36 - Mu-yu or wooden fish

Figure 37 - Mu-yu of different sizes

Bells (chung) and stone chimes

Bells are very ancient metal musical instruments in China, while stone chimes are
instruments made of stone material. There are a number of varieties of these two types of
instruments, with the majority of them used in temple ceremonies. The pien-chung or serial
bells are worth mentioning; the pien-ching or serial chimes; and the tung-ching or bronze
chime.

29
 Figure 38 - Bells

The pien-chung or series bells is a type of marimba with bells of different sizes. Most of
them have 16 bells of different sizes or thickness, which hang from a frame in two rows of
eight bells each. Each bell plays one note and they are arranged in half notes.

The smaller the bells, the louder the sound they produce. The same happens with the stone
chimes, which are also made up of a series of 16 pieces of different thicknesses and sizes
with their own notes. They are arranged in half notes, in two rows of eight pieces each.
There are twelve types of tung-ching or bronze chimes. The sound they produce is dry and
clear, and their tone is warm. It is one of the Chinese musical instruments that produce the
finest sound.

Figure 39 - Stone chimes

Bibliography

Global Chinese Language and Culture Center. An introduction to traditional Chinese

musical instruments. http://educ.ocac.gov.tw

LAFARGA M., Manuel. History of Music and Folklore Course. Faculty of History of the
University of Valencia. http://usuarios.iponet.es/mlafarga/Historia.htm

Microsoft Corporation. Encarta Thematic Encyclopedia 2004.

Osmel Mauricio Brito Bigott

Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela

Ars Nova Music School

30
Caracas

The Ritual and Culture of Music in Ancient China

Ritual and music culture is the organic component of traditional Chinese culture,
which has an important influence on continuing and further developing Chinese
civilization. In the traditional cultural model of ritual and music, ritual and music
often present an appearance of uniform harmony.
Since the Xia and Shang Dynasties, the wisdoms had already established the rules of
rituals and music to promote ethical and moral principles, as well as to maintain social
order, forming a fairly complete system of ritual and music. Now, after thousands of
years of influence on the history of Chinese civilization, it still has strong vitality.

The birth of ritual and music culture

Music is linked to ritual around the world, and from its first appearance. Music is an
essential part of religious rites since times of primitive veneration. Until the Xia
Dynasty, the system of rituals began to form, but it is difficult to know its details due
to the lack of records.
The Zhou Dynasty was the first dynasty to establish rules for “rites” (sacrifice
ceremonies, court protocol, etc.) and “music” (music and dance that accompanied the
ceremony). The Zhou Dynasty, which followed the Shang practice of ruling through
fiefdoms, ensured that feudal owners came from a ruling clan. Therefore, a strict
hierarchy appeared among the feudal owners of the Zhou Dynasty, based on the
patriarchal clan system and including clans to which main wives and concubines
belonged. The feudal chiefs maintained a position of being descendants of Emperor
Zhou, as did the grandees who ruled the various districts of the feudal state as to the
governor of the state, and the nobles under them who were related to the grandees.

31
The system of rituals and music reinforced and stabilized this strict patriarchal hierarchy.
Each person at each grade in the hierarchy enjoyed the types of rituals and music assigned
to their particular grade. The objects of music and dance, the types and numbers of
musical instruments, and the number of musicians for each grade were strictly limited, so
exceeding the limits was considered a serious offense.
According to tradition, these regulations were promulgated by the great governor of the
dynasty, the Duke of Zhou. He synthesized ritual norms from ancient times to the Shang
Dynasty, reconstructing and developing them into a course of action and framework of
state laws. Confucius' view a century later was that music was the best way to reflect the
manners of a nation, and that in ancient times, authority was manifested equally in rites
and ceremonies and in laws and declarations. The system of rituals and music lasted for
the next 2,000 years, until it was abolished with the end of the Qing Dynasty, China's last
feudal dynasty.

32
The connotation of ritual and music culture
The essence of the rite is “difference”, meaning that it does not matter whether rich or
poor, honest or humble, young or old, intimate or distant, the people of each group have to
follow their regulations of conduct, and should not exceed them. The duty, power and
occupation of each are confirmed by the social status classified under this system of order.

Putting emphasis on difference without harmony, society would go opposite. How to

promote great harmony and tolerance in this repressive society? Through music. It acts
like a ligament, leading people to a harmonious life. If the monarch and the officials listen
to music together in the great hall, the officials will be more respectful to the leader; If
young people and old people from the same clan listen to music together in the village, the
young people will be more obedient; If father and son listen to music together at home,
they will become more intimate. Therefore, the Duke of Zhou established the rules of
“music” along with that of “rites”. Rituals for differentiation and music for harmonious
synthesis, these two are inseparably interconnected and play a part together.
The ritual and music system of the Zhou Dynasty regulated people's behavior to follow
social and moral order, which not only sustained the dynasty for 800 years, but also laid a
solid foundation for the ultimate establishment of a unified culture. established by the Qin
and Han empires.

33
Japan music
Japan has a rich musical culture that comprises a varied palette of traditional styles as
well as a diverse offering of exported styles that include rock, electro, punk, folk, metal,
reggae , salsa, and tango as well as country music and hip hop .

Traditional Japanese music is known as Hougaku (邦楽), while the word Ongaku (音
楽) designates music in general . The modern name J-Music refers to certain branches of
Japanese music with Western touches.

Japanese traditional music

In the 16th century, the komuso, a group of Zen Buddhist monks, developed a
practice of sound meditation . They called this individual meditation practice, which
involved meditating while blowing certain sounds into a Shakuhachi - a Japanese flute that
is held vertically like a recorder rather than the traditional transverse flute - suizen. The
sounds were not improvised and the goal of these Zen monks was to achieve enlightenment
through the sound of the shakuhachi. The shakuhachi was not considered a musical
instrument, gakki, but one of Buddhist religious practice, hooki.

In 1871 this group of monks was banned and then the sound of the shakuhachi began to be
transmitted as music under the name of original music, honkyoku. 1

In Japan there is a countless variety of types of traditional music . Two of the oldest
styles are shōmyō , or "fat man singing", and gagaku , or orchestral court music, both
styles coming from the Nara and Heian periods.

Gagaku is a type of classical music that has been performed at the Imperial Court
since the Heian period. Kagurauta (神楽歌), Azumaasobi (東遊) and Yamatouta (大和
歌 ) are relatively indigenous repertoires. Tōgaku ( 唐 楽 ) and komagaku originated
from the Chinese Tang Dynasty by transmission across the Korean Peninsula .
Additionally, gagaku is divided into kangen (管弦) (instrumental music) and bugaku
(舞楽) (dance accompanied by gagaku).

Honkyoku ( "original pieces") date back to the 19th century BC. C.. These are
shakuhachi solo pieces performed by the monks of the Fuke mendicant sect of Zen
Buddhism . These monks, called komusō ("emptiness monks"), performed honkyoku for
alms and enlightenment . The Fuke sect ceased to exist towards the end of the 19th century,
but currently continues a written and oral tradition of numerous honkyoku, although this
music is often performed today in concerts or musical settings.

Samurai often listened to and took part in performing musical activities as part of their
practices to enrich their lives and knowledge.

Musical theater has developed in Japan since ancient times. Noh ( 能 ) or nō was
generated from various popular traditions and by the 14th century had become a
highly refined art. Kan'ami (1333-1384) and Zeami (1363?-1443) elevated it to its
position of maximum sophistication. In particular, Zeami was the author of the core

34
of the Noh repertoire and was the author of many treatises on the secrets of the Nō
tradition (which were only widely disseminated in the modern age).

Another form of Japanese theater is puppet theater, often called bunraku ( 文 楽 ). This
puppet theater also has popular roots and was especially developed during Chonin in the
Edo period (1600-1868). It is generally accompanied by recited verses, in various jōruri
styles accompanied by shamisen music.

During the Edo period actors (from 1652 only adult males) performed in kabuki theater
which was very popular and colorful. Kabuki, which included all types of performances
from historical plays to musical pieces with dance numbers, was often accompanied
by nagauta -style singing and shamisen performances.

Biwa hōshi, Heike biwa, mōsō, and goze =

The biwa , which is a form of short-necked lute , was played by groups of itinerant
musicians ( biwa hōshi ) who used it to accompany their stories. The most famous of
such stories is the Song of Heike , a story from the 19th century BC. C. about the triumph of
the Minamoto clan over the Taira . Around the 13th century, the Biwa hōshi began to
organize themselves into a kind of trade association ( tōdō ) for visually impaired men. This
association eventually came to control a large portion of Japan's musical culture.

Additionally, numerous smaller groups of itinerant blind musicians formed in the

Kyushu area. These musicians, called mōsō ( blind monks ), roamed the countryside
and performed a variety of religious and semi-religious texts to purify homes and
bring good health and luck. They also had a repertoire of secular genres.The biwa they
played was considerably shorter than the Heike biwa played by the biwa hōshi.

Lafcadio Hearn tells in his book Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things "Mimi-
nashi Hoichi" (Hoichi the Earless), a Japanese story about ghosts and a blind biwa hōshi
who plays " Song of Heike ".

Since the medieval era, blind women who were musicians, called goze , also roamed
the fields, singing songs and playing music accompanied by a small drum. Starting in
the 17th century, they played the koto or the shamisen . Goze organizations spread
throughout the region, and until very recently existed in what is now Niigata Prefecture.

Taiko

35
 Taiko performer.

The taiko is a Japanese drum that is used in the performance of various genres of
music; there are various models that differ in size. It has achieved great popularity in
recent times as the central percussion instrument of numerous musical ensembles, the
repertoire is based on folk music of the past . Such taiko music is played by ensembles
with large drums called kumi-daiko . Its origins are somewhat uncertain, although it can be
traced back to the 6th and 7th centuries, from a clay figure of a musician with a drum.
Although it later had Chinese and Korean influences , the instrument and its music
remained linked to its authentically Japanese roots. Taiko drums during this period were
used during battles to intimidate the enemy and pass command orders. Taiko was
later adopted for the performance of Buddhist and Shintō religious music. In the past,
taiko players were holy men, who only played on special occasions and in small
groups, although later secular men (very rarely women) also played taiko at semi-
religious festivals such as bon dance.

Modern taiko performers' sets are said to have been invented by Daihachi Oguchi in 1951.
Oguchi, who played the drum at jazz events, incorporated his musical knowledge into the
constitution of ensembles with a large number of performers. His energetic style made his
group very popular in Japan, making the Hokuriku region the center of taiko music. Among
the musicians who emerged around that time, Sukeroku Daiko and his partner Seido
Kobayashi stand out. Around 1969, the Za Ondekoza group emerged, which was founded
by Tagayasu Den ; Za Ondekoza promoted the incorporation of young performers who
proposed some innovations to taiko music, and it spread in festivals and communal parties.
During the 1970s, the Japanese government provided financial support to certain activities
that were part of Japanese culture, and as a consequence many taiko groups were formed.
Towards the end of the 20th century, taiko groups spread throughout the world, especially
in the United States . GOCOO is the name of a modern taiko band.

Folk music: Min'yō

36
 A woman playing the shamisen , 1904.

Japanese folk songs ( min'yō ) can be classified in various ways, generally four main
categories are distinguished: songs about work, religious songs (such as sato kagura ,
a type of Shinto music), songs for events such as weddings , funerals and festivals (
matsuri , especially Obon ), and children's songs ( warabe uta ).

In minyō , singers are usually accompanied by the three-stringed lute called

shamisen , taiko drums, and a bamboo flute called shakuhachi . Other instruments
sometimes used are a transverse flute known as shinobue , a bell called kane , a small
drum called tsuzumi , and a 13-stringed zither called koto . In Okinawa , the main
instrument is the sanshin .While these are all traditional Japanese instruments, in modern
instrumentation the use of electric guitars and synthesizers is sometimes seen , depending
on the style and age of the singer, sometimes enka singers incorporate elements of the
traditional min'yō repertoire ( Enka is a genre Japanese musical).

There are several terms commonly associated with min'yō such as ondo , bushi , bon uta ,
and komori uta .An ondo is usually a folk song with a distinctive melody that can be
understood as having a 2/4 rhythm (although musicians usually do not group the notes).
The typical folk music heard in dances at Obon festivals is usually an ondo. A fushi is
a song with a characteristic melody. Its name, pronounced "bushi," means "melody"
or "rhythm." Very rarely the word is used alone, instead it is accompanied by a prefix that
refers to an occupation, location or personal name. Bon uta , as the name indicates are
songs for Obon , the lantern festival of the dead. Komori uta are lullabies for children.
The names of min'yo songs often include a descriptive term usually at the end, for
example Tokyo Ondo, Kushimoto Bushi, Hokkai Bon Uta, and Itsuki no Komoriuta.

Many of these songs emphasize certain syllables as well as include high-pitched

screams ( kakegoe ). Usually kakegoe are shouts of joy but in min'yō , they are often
included as part of the chorus. There are numerous kakegoe , and they vary by
region.For example in Okinawa Min'yō , you will hear the expression "ha iya sasa!". While

37
in the central areas of Japan, the expressions "a yoisho!," "sate!" or "a sore!" are more
common. Some others are "a donto koi!," and "dokoisho!"

Recently, a guild -based system for musical training known as the iemoto system has been
used for some forms of min'yō. This system was initially developed to transmit classical
musical genres such as nagauta, shakuhachi, or koto, but since it proved to be profitable for
teachers and was supported by students who wanted to obtain learning certificates, the
method was extended to cover other genres such as min'yō, Tsugaru-jamisen and other
forms of music that were traditionally transmitted informally. Nowadays some min'yō are
transmitted through this type of pseudo-family organizations, and apprenticeships for
prolonged periods are common.

Contemporary music market

The contemporary music industry in Japan has quite a few differences from the Western
way, especially the form of promotions for artists. The country's form of promotion has
also served as an example to follow for various Asian countries.

Sales of albums, singles, and recently DVD, are measured by the company Oricon , which
is also responsible for creating a ranking of the best sellers in Japan on a daily, weekly,
monthly and annual basis.

Although major labels such as Sony Music , Warner or Columbia make efforts to try to
insert Western music into the market, they have almost no place within Oricon , with the
first places on the list practically always occupied by Japanese artists.

Main differences with the West

Song titles

The Japanese are known for their great respect for calligraphy and writing. It is observed in
some song titles, mainly since the 1980s , that artists have been freeing themselves, first
beginning to use titles in Latin languages for some of their songs (even if they were in
Japanese), and later even using titles in Latin languages. completely in uppercase and all in
lowercase, or even games between them to make them more disordered, and in some way
more "eye-catching" for the public. Even names of alternative rock and Japanese pop bands
use these marketing techniques. The most classic examples are the title already typical
among Japanese artists completely in capital letters, or the incorporation of " ~ " u " - " is
also included, which are also symbols frequently used within songs, although symbols that
are not found are also used. present within our system as ☆ and ♥, to make titles even more
striking.

The titles of the songs are strictly respected with their different forms of spelling and
calligraphy in the market, and except for pages that are not very cultured regarding
Japanese musical culture, you can find titles such as " HANABI " written " Hanabi " or "
RUN ☆ RUN ☆ RUN " spelled " Run*Run*Run* ", but they are the minority (especially
English-speaking websites that market Asian music).

Release of singles and later album

38
In general, the market acts differently than in the West in the sense that promotion occurs in
a different order, especially with regard to the releases of albums and promotional singles.
In Japan , unlike the West, an artist who has just debuted or an artist who releases new
works after ending the promotion of his previous album releases at least 3 or 4 singles
before the release of the album that will contain said songs, on the contrary from the West
where a single is generally released and the album is released days later. Some consider this
maneuver better than the Western one mainly because it allows consumers a better
understanding of the content of an artist's album, and even more so if they have previously
also purchased the promotional singles.

The so-called "PV"

Music videos in Japan are commonly known as PV ( Promotional Video ); This was
adopted from the Western market before the more modern term MV ( Music Video ) was
installed, and PV was marked in the consumer's consciousness to immediately relate the
term to the music video of a song.

CD with DVD

For some years now, it has been common to incorporate DVDs as accompanying products
to albums and singles without discrimination. This maneuver is carried out mostly by the
country's largest independent label Avex Trax . DVDs generally include the PVs of the
songs that are also included on said CD (album or single), and also on rare occasions
behind-the-scenes scenes of the videos or an interview.

References

1. ↑ Horacio Curti. « Sound ideal and elements of its construction in the music of
Japan. ». Accessed October 28, 2012.

Traditional Japanese Music

Traditional Japanese music is classified according to the period of origin into gagaku
(the oldest), nogaku (medieval era), and shamisen and koto music.

Of all the subclasses of traditional Japanese music, the most followed today are
sokyoku, nagauta, kouta and yokyoku.

39
Sokyoku is music played with a type of harp. Currently it has been mixed with Western
music.

Nagauta is a class of epic songs based on shamisen (lute family instrument) music. It is
played in a very cheerful way accompanied by flutes and hand drums.

Kouta are short songs that appeared in the 19th century that derive from traditional short
songs from the 15th and 16th centuries. The songs are sung at a fast pace with a low voice
accompanied by shamisen (lute-like) music played with the fingers instead of a plectrum as
is normally played.

Yokyoku are the songs that are sung in the noh theater that I have already mentioned. The
songs are made up of verses with a certain rhythm. The musical instruments are flutes,
large drums and hand drums.

JAPANESE MUSIC

Traditional music from Japan, performed by small ensembles of instruments and voices.
The compositions usually have a three-part structure called jo-ha-kyu. Its structure consists
of an introduction, a relaxation part in the central section, and an acceleration effect
towards the end of the work. This arrangement is preserved in much Japanese music and
applies both to individual musical phrases and to compositions as a whole.

cult music

The music of Shintoism, the ancient Japanese religion, is called kagura (good music).
It is used in religious ceremonies or imperial functions and also in Shinto folk
40
festivals. The songs and dances are meant to praise the gods and entertain them. The
music of seasonal festivals is played with drums, rattles and flutes; Dancers perform
this music inside and outside the temples. Their performances are interspersed with
songs to the gods.

Buddhist music in Japan is sung in Sanskrit, Chinese or Japanese. It is characterized

by profuse ornamentation and a free rhythm. The bells ring intermittently. The bon-
odori dances of the o-bon festival are limited in their movements; They are
accompanied by singers and sometimes by the flute, the drum and the shamisen, a
three-stringed lute.

court music

Japan's ancient court music ( gagaku ) has its origins in the 8th century. It comes
mainly from China and Korea. Gagaku orchestras can have up to 17 musicians
including woodwind instruments, plucked strings, and percussion. The winds include
a flute, usually of the type known as ryûteki; a short double-reed tube called a
hichiriki; and a shô, a reedless mouth organ that has 17 bamboo tubes inserted into a
globular (air) box with a blowing hole.

The flute and double reed pipe play the melody, while the mouth organ makes a
background of overlapping sounds. The phrases of the music are punctuated by the
sounds of a horizontal double-membrane drum (kakko), a large hanging drum (taiko),
and a small gong (shôko), as well as by short melodies and arpeggios played on the
lute. four-stringed (biwa) and the 13-stringed zither (koto).

Gagaku music uses six modes or scales of Chinese origin, all of them derived from two
basic pentatonic scales: ryo (D, E, F sharp, A, B and D, as well as G and C sharp as
auxiliary notes) and ritsu ( sol, la, do, re, mi and sol, in addition to si and fa as
auxiliaries). The measures of gagaku music are basically two beats.

The sho

The shô is a Japanese mouth organ derived from the Chinese shêng. It consists of 17
bamboo flutes and a wooden air chamber. It is used in ancient court music called
gagaku.

dramatic music

Music for theater in the early Middle Ages was influenced by early Buddhist music. It
consisted of lute accompaniments of stories called heikebiwa and music for theater No.
The lute accompaniments established melodic and rhythmic structures that usually
represented specific emotions or situations.

The music of No contains parts for voices and instruments. Actors or a choir sing
while instrumentalists accompany them with a shoulder drum (ko-tsuzumi) and a hip
drum (ô-tsuzumi). The complete instrumental ensemble (called hayashi) also includes
a flute (nô-kan), which signals the formal divisions within the drama, adds color to the
lyrical moments, and accompanies the dances, for which the taiko drum is also used .
41
No's music uses its melodic and rhythmic patterns within pre-established forms, but is
played with a flexible speed (tempo). The variations in the tempo of the No music are
marked by the drummers.

The most popular form of traditional Japanese theater is kabuki, which is estimated to have
been born in 1596, and managed to establish itself in the mid-17th century.

Kabuki music uses instrumentalists and singers, most of whom sit at the back of the stage,
while others remain offstage performing sound effects and special accompaniment music.
The main form of dance music in kabuki is nagauta, performed by the No instrumental
group and shamisen. The most famous musical form used in puppet plays is called gidayu.

Chamber music

Beginning in 1500, music for solo instruments shamisen and koto became popular.
Originally, the music of both instruments was a collection of short, unrelated songs (
kumiuta ). However, koto music developed some forms that are entirely instrumental
and others that are partly vocal. An example of a completely instrumental form is
danmono, which is a theme with variations. An example of an instrumental and vocal
combination is jiuta, in which voices and instruments alternate.

In instrumental interludes, one to three kotos are used, to which a shamisen and a
shakuhachi, an upright flute, are usually added. Shamisen music is of two types:
lyrical pieces for home entertainment ( utaimono ); and theatrical music for kabuki
drama and puppet plays. The koto is usually tuned to one of two pentatonic scales of
local origin: the in (D, E flat, G, A, B flat and D, with auxiliary notes F and C) and the
I (D, F, G, A). , C and D, with E and B flat auxiliaries).

The modern era

When Matsuhito became emperor of Japan, like Meiji, in 1867, Western influences began
to be accepted. Composers developed new forms based on Western models. Japan now has
many excellent orchestras and opera companies. The music taught in public schools is
basically Western.

Despite this, old traditional music remains popular. One of the teachers responsible for the
introduction of European modes was Suzuki Shinichi, who studied in Berlin. It was he who
designed a highly acclaimed method of teaching music for children (especially the violin).

Takemitsu Toru, one of Japan's best-known modern composers, dared to produce new
music with Japanese instruments used in the Western way. Requiem for Strings (1957) is
one of his most performed works. November Steps II (1967) is a double concerto for
orchestra and Japanese instruments, commissioned by the New York Philharmonic
Orchestra. He has also composed several pieces for the American pianist Peter Serkin.

Shamisen

42
The shamisen is a Japanese lute with a very long, flat neck. It has a belly made of cat skin
and three strings that are played with a bone plectrum called bachi. The shamisen is a
traditional instrument of kabuki theater.

Folk music

Japanese folk music, of very ancient origin, basically exists in the forms of religious music,
work songs and dance accompaniments. Folklore entertainments, such as masked balls, folk
theater, and communal dances, include musical parts and accompaniment. Tribes of
northern Japan, such as the Ainu, have a distinct musical tradition that suggests ancestral
ties to northern Asia.

Music of Ancient Rome

Trio of musicians playing an aulos , cymbala , and tympanum ( Pompeii mosaic)

The music of Ancient Rome was one of the features that evolved in ancient music since its
birth of the Roman Empire .

The monarchy

43
 Woman playing a Khitara

The Romans were initially too barbaric and too warlike to cultivate the arts and especially
music. The first ideas they had about it came from the Etruscans , but they were rude and
shapeless and without any principle. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus , Romulus
and Remus , having been educated in the house of Faustulus, there learned literature, the
exercise of weapons and music. The same author says that the Arcadians first brought
Greek letters and instrumental music to Italy, which was then limited to certain airs played
on a kind of lyre or on two instruments called trigon and lydio . Before this time, only the
shepherds' flutes were known in Italy. In the time of Romulus or shortly after him, the flute
and cymbals were played in the sacrifices made to the goddess Cybele . Numa Pompilius
chose for her the patricians who had beautiful figures, whom he called Saliens whose
functions were limited to singing hymns in honor of the god of war. Servius Tullius ordered
that two entire centuries be composed of trumpets and horns.

The Republic

It is also found in the law of the Twelve Tables , instituted in the year 302 of Rome, that the
master of funerals could use twelve flute players in them. Only when stage games were
instituted in the year 415 was music held in any honor. According to Horace , Lucius was
the first to invent a comedy in Rome in the year 510 that only consisted of reciting verses
accompanied by flute players and later by string players. Under the consulship of Aemilius
in Rome in 560, music appeared with greater brilliance and was introduced into the feasts
and then privileges were granted to all musicians from other countries who wanted to settle
in Rome. Shortly after, Manlius , to make his triumph more magnificent, had the most
famous musicians come from different countries and especially from Greece and since
then, music contributed largely to the splendor of the festivals and sacrifices.

The Empire

44
 Cupids playing the lyre (c. I AD, Herculaneum)

At Caesar 's Naumachia show at Lake Fuccino near Rome, it was said that there were many
thousands of musicians and women singing and playing instruments. In the funeral pomp of
this dictator, the musicians threw their instruments and the trophies with which they used to
beautify the Theater onto his bonfire.

Augustus was not passionate about music, but his reign was not unfavorable to this art.
Considering that spectacles were an excellent means of restraining and distracting the
people, he not only often gave festivals similar to those mentioned above, but also ordered
that all pieces of theater and music, before being performed in public, be examined and
approved by some private magistrates called Edites . The use of expressing one's
satisfaction or discontent through applause or whistling dates back to the time of this
emperor: he rewarded those who in public spectacles surpassed others and was the first to
demonstrate his satisfaction by applauding them.

The death of Augustus was the decline of music because Tiberius , due to a murder
committed in the theater, banished the musicians, the comedians and many of the
spectators. Caligula brought the musicians and comedians back to Rome and showered
them with benefits. Historians say that he sang very well, having as his favorite a certain
Nestor who was considered a good singer and a good actor. Claudius , who succeeded him,
also protected the musicians, distributing to them not only the usual salaries but also gold
crowns, but nevertheless, he preferred gladiator combats to theater pieces.

Nero returned music to all its splendor by also cultivating it as a teacher. He had a beautiful
voice, he sang very well and he played the lyre and the zither so that he could compete for
the prize in public games. It would take too long to enumerate the extravagances of this
45
Emperor to be considered a skilled musician. His madness for music reached such an
extreme that he considered it the main element of the empire's happiness and this
contributed to the Romans despising it from then on.

Since then nothing has been found that can give us an exact knowledge of what music was
like among the Romans until the decline of the Empire, after which the Greeks took over
and took up residence in Rome.

References

Encyclopedic Dictionary of Music , Carlos José Melcior, 1859

MUSIC IN ANCIENT ROME

September 19, 2011 by Social Sciences

In reality, Rome did not contribute much to Greek music, since, although they conquered
their territories, Greek culture was always more important. Of course, the Romans adapted
Greek music to their character. It seems that the state or the Roman leaders themselves did
not agree to value music, some condemned it and said that it should be played little and in
moderation, such is the case of Tullius Cicero.

Musical virtuosos were respected and considered throughout the Empire. They studied
under the tutelage of memorable teachers; They had to lead a methodical and healthy life;
They made concert tours throughout the Empire and received important payments, and
numerous patrician families continued the practice that had begun with the famous Gracchi,
Tiberius, and Gaius Sempronius around 110 BC, of sending their children to music and
dance schools.

Among these virtuosos, the Greeks stood out such as: Terpnos, great cytar player (teacher
of Nero), Polon and Mesomedes of Crete, among others .

46
In the origin of Rome, the ludiones appear, actors of Etruscan origin who danced to the
rhythm of the tibiae, a type of oboe, an instrument similar to the Greek aulós, sometimes
accompanied by vocal singing.

Other artists, dancers, are called histriones, which means dancer in Etruscan.

We have practically nothing left of these types of music, except brief fragments, which Terence
used in one of his theatrical performances. The Carmen Saecularis , a song in stanzas for a boys'
and girls' choir, premiered in 17 BC. c.

During the reign of Servius Tullius (578-534 BC), sixth king of Rome, Groups of
musicians were established in the Roman Legions. Thus, the Cornicem (Cornu players) and
the Tubicem (Tuba players) were established. They had the rank of army non-
commissioned officers, the same as the flag bearers. Later, around the year 400 BC, these
Roman military and ceremonial groups will be made up of flutes, horns and trumpets of
very varied shapes and sizes and peculiar instruments such as the Syrinx flute (Syrinx) and
the Lituo (Lituus) or curved trumpet.

47
Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-80 BC) had among his servants the rich freedman
Chrysogonus, who counted among his own slaves a large number of instrumentalists and
singers who were responsible daily for maintaining a permanent musical atmosphere in his
residence. In general, many slaves were trained as musicians.

According to historian Paul Henry Láng, Emperor Caligula listened to orchestral music
while sailing in the Bay of Naples. (Pompeii) and Nero, in addition to exhibiting his own
qualities as a cytar player, implemented the Sacred Festivals in the year 60, in which music
played an important role. Later, Emperor Titus Flavius Domitian established the Capitoline
Games, in which the performance of instrumentalists, musicians, singers and poets was
rewarded. Thus turning music into spectacle.

In multiple acts and ceremonies, military and ritual, the use of various instruments became
frequent such as the Bucina , a folded trumpet with a removable mouthpiece, the Tibia
which, at first was a bone flute, later became transverse and the Tympanum or Tambourine.
and the cerní , similar to a horn, and the tuba , a straight trumpet with low sounds , litus ,
long-tube trumpet. As percussion instruments they used cymbals, kettledrums and
tambourines. The lyre was also very popular .

Later, with the Roman conquests, the music was enriched thanks to the contributions from
Egypt, Syria and Hispania. The cytarody , verses recited with a zither, reappear, and other
times, a virtuoso played the zither in concert, which is known as cytaristic. It is known that
there were contests of these types.

48
In the time of Emperor Caesar Augustus (63 BC-14 AD), the Aulos, an instrument
inherited from the Greeks, increased in size and became an instrument similar in size to
tubas. And the historian Ammiano Marcelino (340-400 AD) tells us about the use of large
lyres that had to be transported in carts. And the number of performers also increased, so
that they formed impressive ensembles of musicians, a tradition that already existed in
Egypt. Lucius Anneus Seneca, Nero's tutor, speaks of the number of instruments, including
the hydraulis,

But perhaps where the musical genre can best be appreciated is as an accompaniment to
theater, in places such as circuses, theaters and amphitheatres, such as in Greece. Unlike in
Greece, choir parts were not as important in Rome. There were parts sung with tibiae
accompaniment generally, which could be single or double, these being repeated twice. The
pairs had a tuning equal to the others. In Rome, the recited parts, called deverbia, were
followed by cantica or parts sung by a soloist or a duo. In the intermissions recitals were
offered

The most famous authors were Plautus, whose best-known works are Amphitryon, The
Captives, The Carthaginian and the Menaecmi, and Terence who wrote Andria, The
Brothers, Phormio... who gave vocal music, above all, a fundamental role in their works. .
In the tragedy, the main author was Seneca. Among the philosopher's works were 14
tragedies, Medea, The Trojan Women and Agamemnon are some of the titles.

49
 About these ads

Music in Ancient Rome

Music, as well as art in general, science and philosophy would become a fundamental part
of Roman civilization. But Rome did not contribute anything to Greek music. He simply
made it his own.

Both tragedy and Greek music were consolidated in the peninsula, evolving in the Roman
way. They acquired characteristic features that sometimes varied the aesthetics that music
had reached in Greek civilization.

Musical celebrations were of great importance in Ancient Rome. Generally, there were
large parties attended by numerous musicians and choirs who delighted listeners with their
melodies and songs. They went around the city so that everyone could hear them.

It was a rather superficial transmission, of a purely festive and effective nature. During
these musical days, several “virtuous musicians” came to the capital from all parts of the
Empire to liven up and brighten any situation. They liked to put on a sensational show with
some eccentricities, to attract the public's attention. The humor factor was also relevant to
create this lavish and relaxed atmosphere.

Among these, there were very important artists in those times, who had a lot of fame and
were very well paid. They used to lead a rather festive life, like their work. Of the most
popular musicians, the Greeks stood out such as: Terpnos, great cytar player and teacher of
Nero, Polon and Mesomedes of Crete, among others.

As for the musical instruments most used in Ancient Rome, these came from different
peoples of Antiquity. And the Roman civilization had different cultures under its
hegemony, which influenced and enriched Rome, through their habits, customs and
traditions. Thus, the solo instruments that were most used were the lyre and the citara.

The first consists of a kind of harp, although the lyre is smaller than a conventional harp. It
is the first instrument that the “Bible” refers to and it is the only string instrument that
appears in the “Pentateuch”. It was generally made of wood and had ten strings. Its shape
50
varied and so did its size, thus prioritizing sound more than aesthetics. Some of them were
small enough to touch while walking. The timbre was sweet to the ear and the expression of
its music was considered a sign of happiness.

Regarding the zither, there are those who believe that the decachord is the same as this
instrument. The zither is a derivation of the lyre, the latter being broader and deeper than
the other. Therefore it also has more sound.

Another very important instrument, but considered not very suitable for education, was the
aulos. This was normally left in the hands of the most professional musicians. It was a
double flute with holes and a reed. Nero wanted to be considered a professional when he
played the citation in front of people. They say that on his deathbed he kept saying: “What
artist is going to perish with me.”

Comedies began to be performed in Roman theaters, built in the Greek form. The most
significant authors were: Plautus (250-184 BC) with such well-known works as: “Host”,
“The Captives” and “The Carthaginian” or also Terence (194-159 BC) with “Andria”, “The
Brothers” or “Phormio”. The tragedy did not have great significance. Its main exponent
was Seneca, a victim of Nero. Fourteen tragedies have been preserved from the works of
the great philosopher, “Medea”, “The Trojan Women” and “Agamemnon”.

Music had an essential role in theatrical works. The sung parts were accompanied by tibiae,
which could be single or double. The pairs had the same tuning as the others. The odd
tibiae were tuned octaves from each other. Unlike performances in Greece, in the Roman
theater the chorus was not important. Although there were some exceptions. The recited
parts or “deverbia” were followed by sung parts or “cantica” by a soloist or duo. During the
intermissions in the different acts, musical interludes were offered by the tibicen.

From the year 389 of the founding of Rome (364 BC) with the institution of the Ludi
Scenici to appease the ravages of the plague, an important event for Roman music occurred.
The Ludiones, actors of Etruscan origin, danced to the rhythm of the tibiae, corresponding
to the Greek aulos. Then, the Romans, impressed by such a spectacle, began to imitate
these dances and added a new element: the vocal melody. These artists were called
Histriones, which means “dancers” in Etruscan. The truth is that no piece of music has
reached us, except for a small fragment of a comedy by Terence, whose title is “Hecyra”,
which belongs to the first half of the 2nd century BC. But there are numerous musical
treatises of the period, which allows us to approach said musical theory.

When the empire consolidates, the phenomenon of immigration begins to grow. This will
enhance Roman culture and music will not be an exception. In this way, the innovative
elements from Syria, Egypt and Spain were relevant. Cádiz dancers were characterized by
their movements considered lascivious. Currents will appear that will go against this, as
51
well as the entire original mix of cultures. Old styles of virtuoso character will appear, such
as the citarodia, based on the zither and the voice, or also the citaristica, which is the soloist
zither. Several emperors promoted new contests and competitions. Some of them managed
to be recognized as virtuous. This is the case of Nero or Hadrian.

Although Roman music is limited to adopting Greek music, as we have seen, there are
some variations. There is great improvisation, without fixed notation. Little by little, brass
instruments will gain importance. Melodies and songs are essential in everything public,
from lavish celebrations to the educational field. But what is clear, with or without
innovations, is that Rome knew how to appreciate music.

The Romans adapted the theories of the Greeks to their musical needs and practices. The
Greek aulós became the Roman tibia, an instrument that occupied a prominent place in
religious ceremonies, military music and theater. However, the most prominent interpreters
were the intellectual slaves subjected to the Roman lords who came from the Greek
provinces. It can be said that music in the Roman Empire confirmed what was known in
Classical Greece, such as monophonic singing (in a single voice or in unison choirs), the
relationship between music and prosodic rhythm (of the accents and rhythms of the text
spoken or recited) and improvisation when playing an instrument, putting into practice
known and regulated musical formulas.

In the Roman theaters, which imitated the Greek ones, plays and free musical concerts were
performed. Instead of composing the music for the performances themselves (like the
Greek playwrights), in Rome this task was assigned to other creators. For example, Flaccus,
son of Claudius, was the author of music for the works of Terence. Provincial musicians
also stood out, such as the Greeks Terpnos (great zither player and teacher of Nero),
Menicrates, Pollio and Mesomedes, author of hymns to Helios and Nemesis. Music was not
restricted, as in other cultures, to men. Luciano, the writer, praises the singing and zither-
playing skills of aristocratic women as well as courtesans.[center]

MUSIC IN ANCIENT ROME

We know less about music in ancient Rome. There is an enormous amount of images, some
instruments and thousands of written descriptions, but no musical compositions based on
Latin texts have survived from the Roman period.

The Romans collected a good part of their musical culture from Greece, especially after the
Greek islands became a Roman province in 146 BC. As in Greece, lyric poetry was often
sung. The tibia (Roman version of the aulos ) played an important role in religious rites,
military music, and theatrical performances, including musical preludes and interludes,
52
songs, and dances. The tuba , a long, straight trumpet inherited from the Etruscans (first
inhabitants of the Italian peninsula), was used in religious, military and state ceremonies.
The most characteristic instruments were a large, circular G-shaped horn called a cornu , as
well as a smaller version, the buccina . Illustration 1.6 shows tibias and cornus headdresses
in a funeral procession. Music was part of most public ceremonies, was offered as public
entertainment and was an integral part of education. Cicero, Quintilian and other writers
stipulated that cultivated people should have musical education.

During the height of the Roman Empire, in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, art, architecture,
music, philosophy and other aspects of Greek culture were imported to Rome and other
cities. Ancient writers tell us about famous virtuosos, great choirs and orchestras, and great
festivals and musical competitions. Numerous emperors supported and cultivated music,
Nero had aspirations of achieving fame as a musician and competed in several
competitions. However, with the economic decline of the Empire in the 3rd and 4th
centuries, the large-scale musical production and lavish expenditures of the preceding
centuries ceased. Whatever the direct influence of the music of Rome on subsequent
European developments, it seems in any case to have left hardly any trace.

ILLUSTRATION 1.6

53