Laboratory Manual: Biology

Experiment 2
Study of Plant specimens

Aim: To identify and study the morphology of representative types of bacteria, fungi
and different plant groups.

Principle: Morphology is the study of the characteristic features of the species. It

could be a study of external or internal features. Morphological studies help in
identification and classification of organisms.

Requirement: Permanent slides, hand section/photograph of bacteria, Oscillatoria,

Spirogyra, Rhizopus, Yeast, preserved/fresh specimens of mushroom, lichens, Funaria,
Marchantia, Dryopteris/fern, Pinus, angiospermic plants (one monocotyledonous plant
like maize plant and one dicotyledonous plant like pea/sun flower).

Procedure
Procedure for the study of organisms vary from one organism to the other
depending upon their shape and size.
• Microscopic organisms like bacteria, algae, fungi can be studied with
the help of microscope only. Observe the permanent slides under a
microscope and note down the characters.
• Large-sized specimen (fresh or preserved) can be examined directly
with naked eye or with the help of a hand lens.
• Compare your observations with the characteristics given below.

Observation

BACTERIA
(i) Bacteria (sing. : bacterium) are unicellular (Fig. 2.1).
(ii) Cell wall is present.
(iii) Absence of membrane bound organelles like
mitochondria, nucleus, golgi bodies, plastids, etc.
(iv) Mesosomes are present.

Fig. 2.1 Bacteria (rod-shaped)

Exercise 2

(v) Bacteria exist in different shapes like globular (coccus), rod-shaped

(bacillus), spiral (spirullum) and comma-shaped (vibrio).

Systematic position
Kingdom – Monera
Class – Eubacteria

OSCILLATORIA
The features given below are useful in identifying Oscillatoria
(Fig. 2.2).
(i) It is a blue-green algae of fresh water bodies.
(ii) Thallus is filamentous, unbranched, multicellular. Dead cell
(iii) The cells are arranged one above the other like a pack of cards.
(iv) Each cell has a definite cell wall.
(v) Some cells of the filament may be dead and appear as blank
Fig. 2.2 Oscillatoria
spaces in the filament.
(vi) Fresh specimen of the filaments show oscillatory movements and
hence the name Oscillatoria.

Systematic position
Kingdom – Monera
Division – Cyanobacteria
Class – Cyanophyceae

SPIROGYRA Pyrenoids
Observe the following features: Chloroplast
(i) Spirogyra is a green-coloured algae commonly found in
Nucleus
stagnant fresh water bodies.
(ii) It is unbranched, filamentous and slimy to touch.
(iii) The filament is composed of large number of long, Vacuole
cylindrical cells placed one above the other in a
single row.
(iv) The cells are characterised by long spiral ribbon-shaped
Fig. 2.3 Spirogyra
chloroplasts with several pyrenoids (Fig. 2.3).
(v) There is a single large vacuole in each cell.

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 Laboratory Manual: Biology

(vi) Conjugation tubes formed between the cells of two different

filaments may also be found when in reproductive phase.

Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Thallophyta
Class – Chlorophyceae
Sporangium RHIZOPUS
Spores
Observe the following features:
Columella (i) Thallus is an interwoven mass of hyphae called mycelium.

Sporangiophore
(ii) Hyphae are tubular, multinucleate and without any septa
(coenocytic) (Fig.2.4).
(iii) Some hyphae are horizontal and grow parallel on the surface of the
Stoloniferous substratum. These are called stoloniferous hyphae. Some hyphae
hyphae grow down into the substratum, and are called rhizoidal hyphae.
Erect vertically growing hyphae are called sporangiophores.
Rhizoidal
• Sporangiophore bears the capsule or sporangium, which is
hyphae
globular in outline.
Fig. 2.4 Rhizopus
• A dome-shaped columella is found inside the cavity of
sporangium.
• Numerous black spores fill the cavity between columella and
the sporangial wall.

Systematic position
Kingdom – Fungi
Division – Eumycota
Class – Zygomycetes

AGARICUS (COMMON EDIBLE MUSHROOM)

Observe the following features in the specimen:
(i) Common edible mushroom is the fruiting body
Pileus
or basidiocarp of Agaricus.
(ii) The fungus is a saprophyte that grows in soil
rich in humus and with thick layer of semi- Gills
Stipe
decomposed organic matter.
(iii) The thallus consists of an underground, highly Annulus
interwoven mass of thick colourless hyphae. Fig. 2.5 Agaricus

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Exercise 2

(iv) A young fruiting body is a white, spherical, button like structure.

A mature fruiting body can be distinguished into two parts (Fig. 2.5).
(a) An erect stalk or stipe composed of mass of vertically arranged
hyphae, and
(b) An umbrella like pileus attached ventrally at the centre to the stalk.
At the base of the stipe is collar like ring known as annulus, which
is a remnant of the covering of young basidiocarp.
(v) There are radiating plate like structures called gills on the under surface
of pileus, which radiate from the centre to the periphery. The gills bear
basidia and basidiospores.

Systematic position
Kingdom – Fungi
Division – Eumycota
Class – Basidiomycetes

SACCHAROMYCES (YEAST)
Observe the following features (Fig. 2.6):
(i) Cells are oval or spherical in shape, and colourless. Bud

(ii) Cells form chains of buds that help in propagation.

(iii) Each cell has one vacuole.
(iv) Single nucleus is present in each cell. Nucleus

Systematic position
Kingdom – Fungi
Division – Eumycota Fig. 2.6 Yeast
Class – Saccharomycetes

LICHENS
(i) The body of lichen is a thallus, which is grey or greyish in colour.
Yellow, red, orange or brown segments may be present in some species
(Fig. 2.7).

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.7 Lichen : (a) Crustose; (b) Foliose; (c) Fruticose

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(ii) There are different forms of thallus. Three main categories of thalli are
recognised on the basis of their general growth, form and nature of
attachment to the substratum. These are as follows:
(a) Crustose
• These are encrusting lichens with thin, flat, inconspicuous
thallus without lobes.
• The thallus appears as a thin layer or crust, closely attached by its
whole of the lower surface to stones, rocks, barks of wood
trees, etc.
(b) Foliose
• Foliose lichens are leafy lichens with flat lobed and horizontally
spreading thalli.
• These are attached to the substratum by rhizoid like structures.
(c) Fruticose
• These are shrubby lichens with cylindrical, flat or ribbon like
upright, generally branched and pendulous thalli.
• These are attached to the substratum by disc like structures at
their bases.
MARCHANTIA (LIVERWORT)
(i) Marchantia thallus is dorsiventrally flat, thalloid structure that grows
flat on the surface of the soil substratum (Fig. 2.8).
(ii) Thallus is dichotomously lobed, with an apical notch in each lobe.
(iii) There is a dark median furrow called mid-rib on the dorsal side that
extends into each lobe.
(iv) Small cup-like structures called gemma cups are borne on the dorsal
(a) surface of the thallus. They contain the vegetative propagules called
gemmae.
(v) Ventral side of the thallus bears colourless, unicellular rhizoids which
are of two types- (a) smooth walled, and (b) tuberculate rhizoids. The
rhizoids help in anchorage and absorption of water through their
capillary action.
(vi) Reproductive organs are borne on antheridiophores and
(b) archegoniophores that arise from the apical notches of male and female
Fig. 2.8 Marchantia
thalli respectively.
bearing (vii) The antheridiophore has a flattened, more or less convex head or
(a) antheridiophore receptacle which bears antheridia.
(b) archegoniophore (ix) The archegoniophores are umbrella shaped structure, with outwardly
projected ribs. Between the ribs are the archegonia.

Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Bryophyta
Class – Hepaticopsida

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Exercise 2

FUNARIA (MOSS)
(i) The thallus of Funaria consists of small upright, 'stem'
that bears, small, ovate and leaf-like structures which
are without midrib (Fig. 2.9).
(ii) The leaves are green and are spirally arranged on the
stem-like portion.
Capsule
(iii) The thallus is attached to the substratum by a cluster of
rhizoids. Seta
(iv) Rhizoids are long, colourless, septate and intertwined.
(v) Reproductive organs are borne on separate branches of
the same thallus. Leaf
(vi) The flattened apex of the male branch bears the antheridia
which are club shaped, while the flattened receptacle of
the female branch bears archegonia which are flask Rhizoids
shaped.
(vii) A mature Funaria plant bears (on female branches) the Fig. 2.9 Moss
sporophyte which consists of a prominent conical capsule
raised on a long stalk known as seta and a foot which is
embedded into the tissues of the gametophyte.

Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Bryophyta
Class – Musci/Bryopsida

DRYOPTERIS (FERN)
Fronds
(i) Dryopteris is a fern (Pteridophyta) with obliquely
growing, subterranean rhizome (Fig. 2.10).
(ii) Rhizome is short, thick and is covered with scale leaves,
remnants of leaf bases and cluster of adventitious roots.
Ci r ci nnat e
(iii) The aerial shoot consist of several large compound leaves
venation
called fronds.
(iv) Each compound leaf arises from a bud. The young leaf Rhizome
has circinnate venation. The leaf is rolled from apex
Fig. 2.10 Dryopteris
downwards like a watch spring and petiole has dense
covering of brown hair like structures called ramenta.
(v) Leaves are long, upto 1.0-1.5 m length, compound with
leaflets arranged on either side of mid-rib called rachis.
Rachis is the extended part of the petiole.
(vi) Petiole is long, cylindrical and covered with hairs when
young.

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(vii) Leaflets or pinnules have wavy margin, and are sub sessile.
(viii) Large number of greenish (when young) or black (when mature) sac
like structures are borne on the ventral side of the pinnule at the point
of bifurcation of each vein. These are called as sori (single: sorus).
(ix) Each sorus contains a cluster of sporangia bearing spores.

Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Pteridophyta
Class – Filicopsida

PINUS
(i) Pinus is a cone-shaped tall tree (Fig.2.11).
(ii) Stem is hard, woody, cylindrical, rough and
branched.
(iii) Branches are of two types- (a) branches of
unlimited growth, and (b) branches of
limited growth.
(iv) Both types of branches bear large number
of brown, membranous scaly leaves.
(v) Branches of limited growth are borne in the
axil of scale leaves. They are 2-3 cm long
and bear a cluster of long, needle like leaves.
(vi) The needle like green leaves are called
acicular leaves.
(vii) The dwarf branch with its needles is known Fig. 2.11 Pinus tree
as spur shoot.
(viii) Reproductive organs are borne in male and female cones in the same
plant.
(ix) Male cones are borne in large clusters (8-40). They are small, green,
conical and composed of central axis surrounded by large number of
green and small microsporophylls which are compactly arranged .
(x) Micro sporophylls bear two elongated sac like structures at the base on
the ventral side. These are called pollen sacs. Pollen grains are winged.
(xi) Female cones are large, 10-30cm in length consisting of
megasporophylls. Megasporophylls are compact when young but
spread apart when mature. Each megasporophyll has (a) bract scale
and (b) ovuliferous scale which bears 2 ovules on the ventral side.

Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Gymnosperm
Class – Coniferopsida
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Exercise 2

DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANT
(i) Plant body is differentiated into roots, stems and leaves (Fig. 2.12).
(ii) Taproot system.
(iii) Leaves simple or compound, with reticulate venation.
(iv) Flowers tetramerous or pentamerous, either solitary or in clusters
forming inflorescence.
(v) Reproductive organs are stamens and carpels. Within the carpels ovules
are present.
(vi) Seeds have two cotyledons.
Example: Hibiscus, pea, gram, lady's finger, ground nut.
Fig. 2.12 Pea plant
Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Angiosperm
Class – Dicotyledonae

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANT Male flower

(i) Plant body differentiated into roots, stems, and leaves (Fig. 2.13).
(ii) Fibrous root system.
(iii) Leaves simple or compound with parallel venation. Fruit
(iv) Flower trimerous. Leaf
(v) Ovules situated inside the carpels.
(vi) Seed has one cotyledon Stem
Example: maize, wheat, sugarcane, paddy

Systematic position Fig. 2.13 Maize plant

Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Angiosperm
Class – Monocotyledonae

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Experiment 3
Study of Animal specimens.
Aim: To study some selected animals on the basis of their external features

Principle: Diversity among animal kingdom is enormous. A systematic study of such

a huge number of animals would not have been possible without a proper classification.
Zoologists have identified sufficiently large number of animals varying from microscopic
protozoans to the giant whale. These animals have been classified on the basis of
their morphological similarities and dissimilarities as well as on their phylogenetic
relationships. In the present study, emphasis has been put on morphological features.
The classification given at the end indicates their systematic position.

Requirement: Representative animals (slides, museum specimens, models,

photographs, charts), microscope.

Procedure
The method of observing specimens of different taxa varies from microscopic
examination to gross morphological features seen with naked eye.
For identification of some microscopic specimens, place the slide of the
specimen on the stage of a compound microscope. Adjust the focus using
the adjustment screws of the microscope in such a way that the entire
specimen is clearly visible in the focus. For identification of animals visible
with the naked eye, specimens preserved in 5-10% formalin are used. Draw
labelled diagrams of the specimens seen.

Note: Features marked with ‘*’ are the the identifying features of the organism.

Observation

AMOEBA Contractile vocuole Nucleus

(i) The whole body is made up of a single cell (acellular

organisation).
(ii) *Body shape is irregular with many blunt pseudopodia
(Fig. 3.1).
(iii) A deeply stained nucleus of almost round shape is
present. Food vacuoles
Pseudopodium
(iv) *A contractile vacuole and several food vacuoles are
present in the cytoplasm. Fig. 3.1 Amoeba
Exercise 3

Systematic position
Phylum – Protozoa
Class – Sarcodina

HYDRA
(i) Body, called polyp is elongated and cylindrical (Fig. 3.2). Tentacles
(ii) Long, slender and contractile tentacles (6-10) are present that Opening
encircle hypostome with an opening at the tip. This end is Hypostome
called oral end.
(iii) The opposite (aboral) end of the body is flat, which helps the Body
animal to attach itself to the substratum. This is called Bud
basal disc.
(iv) Bud-like structures branch out from the polyp, which
ultimately separate as young hydra (vegetative propagation). Fig. 3.2 Hydra
(v) Sometimes, gonads may be seen as small bulges on the body.

Systematic position
Phylum – Cnidaria
Class – Hydrozoa

FASCIOLA (LIVER FLUKE)

The external features are as follows:
(i) *A leaf-like dorso-ventrally flattened body (Fig. 3.3), about Mouth
Oral sucker
20-30 mm in length, and 4 to 12 mm in width in the middle.
Gonopore
(ii) Anterior part of the body is broader with a conical end.
Acetabulum
(iii) *Mouth is present at the tip of the cone, and is surrounded
by a muscular oral sucker.
(iv) On the ventral surface of the body there is a muscular ventral
sucker situated 3-5 mm behind (posterior) the oral sucker,
and it is called acetabulum.
(v) *Slightly anterior to acetabulum on the ventral surface, there Excretory pore
is an opening called genital aperture or gonopore. Fig. 3.3 Liver Fluke

(vi) At the tip of the posterior end, an opening called excretory

pore is present.
(vii) Liver fluke is bisexual.

Systematic position
Phylum – Platyhelminthes
Class – Trematoda

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ASCARIS (ROUND WORM)

The external features of round worm are as follows:

Mouth
(i) *Body long (20 to 40 cm), cylindrical (5 to 6 mm
diameter) with no segmentation (Fig. 3.4).
(ii) Sexes are separate; the females are longer than the
males.
(iii) *Both the ends are pointed; posterior end of male is
ventrally curved.
(iv) Mouth is situated at the anterior end, and is surrounded
Female by three lips, one present mid-dorsally and rest two
genital
lips are situated ventrolaterally (for viewing these lips a
aperture
magnifying lens is needed).
Penial (v) *Single longitudinal lines are present on the dorsal,
spicule ventral and on the two lateral sides, all along the length
of the body. Out of these, the lateral lines are
comparatively more distinct than the other lines.
(vi) Excretory pore is present on the ventral surface slightly
behind anterior end.
(b)
(vii) In addition to the ventrally curved posterior tip, the male
worm has a pair of penial spicules very close to the
(a) cloacal opening.
(viii) In case of female specimen a female genital aperture is
Fig. 3.4 Ascaris (a) Female
present mid ventrally at about one-third distance from
(b) Male
the anterior end.
Systematic position
Phylum – Aschelminthes
Class – Nematoda

PHERETIMA (EARTHWORM)
The external features of earthworm are as follows:
(i) *Body narrow and elongated about 150 mm in length and 3 to 5 mm
in diameter (Fig. 3.5). The anterior end of the body is pointed whereas
the posterior end is slightly depressed or blunt.

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Exercise 3

(ii) *Entire body is divisible into more than 100 Mouth

externally distinct segments of almost equal size.
These segments are called metameres.
(iii) Body surface of the living animal is slimy and moist
due to the secretion of mucus from the body wall. Clitellum
(iv) Dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body can be easily
distinguished, as the dorsal surface is darker than
the ventral one. Besides this, a mid-dorsal dark line
is also visible all along the length of the body due to
underlying dorsal blood vessel.
(v) Mouth is situated ventrally in the first metamere
called the peristomium.
(vi) Anus is situated at the tip of the last metamere.
(vii) *In the adult earthworm, the skin or body wall around
the segments 14th to 16th is comparatively thick,
and it is called clitellum.
(viii) Female and male genital apertures are present
ventrally in the14th and the 18th segments
respectively. The female genital aperture is situated
mid-ventrally, whereas the male genital apertures are
ventro-lateral in position. (a) (b)
(ix) A pair of genital papillae is also present Fig. 3.5 Earthworm (a) Dorsal view
ventrolaterally in the 17th and the 19th segment just (b) Ventral view
above and below the male genital apertures.
(x) On the ventral surface, four pairs of openings of
spermathecae are situated ventrolaterally in the
grooves between 5/6, 6/7, 7/8 and 8/9 segments.

Systematic position
Phylum – Annelida Anterior sucker
Class – Oligochaeta

HIRUDINARIA (LEECH) Mouth

The following external features can be easily observed in

the specimen: Annulus
(i) *The body is elongated with convex dorsal surface,
and flat ventral surface (Fig. 3.6).
(ii) The dorsal surface is dark green, and the ventral
surface is yellowish brown.
(iii) Size varies from 6 to 10 cm in length. However, leeches
may contract or elongate their body much beyond
the limits mentioned. Posterior sucker
(iv) Body surface always remains moist due to secretion
of mucus from the body wall. Fig. 3.6 Leech

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(v) *At the anterior end on the ventral surface a cup-shaped anterior
sucker is present. Mouth is present in the centre of the anterior sucker.
A ventral sucker is also present at the posterior end of the body.
(vi) Anus is present on the dorsal side at the junction of the last metamere
and the posterior sucker.
(vii) Hundred or more very closely arranged grooves or annuli are present
on the body surface. There are 33 body segments each with five
superficially marked annuli except the few anterior and posterior ones.
(viii) Each of the five anterior metameres bears a pair of eyes on the dorsal
margin. Each eye looks like a dark spot.
(ix) There are 17 pairs of ventro-laterally arranged nephridiopores in the
metameres starting from 6th to 22nd.
(x) The male and female genital apertures are present on the ventral side
in the middle of the 10th and 11th metameres.

Systematic position
Phylum – Annelida
Class – Hirudinea

PALAEMON (PRAWN)
Following are the external features of prawn:
(i) Size of the animal is
variable. Usually, it
measures between 20 and
30 cm in length (Fig. 3.7). Antenna
Cephalothorax
Rostrum Eye
(ii) Usually orange-red in
Abdomen
colour, however, the colour
is variable. Telson
(iii) A bit laterally compressed
body is elongated, bilateral
and symmetrical.
(iv) *Body is apparently
divided into anterior
cephalothorax (fused
Fig. 3.7 Prawn
head and thorax) and
posterior abdomen.
(v) *The cephalothorax can be identified by a thick and hard shield- like
cover, called the carapace. Anteriorly the carapace is extended as a
serrated and pointed rostrum.
(vi) *A pair of stalked compound eyes are present at the anterior end of
cephalothorax.
(vii) Abdomen consists of six segments each with its own set of biramous
appendage.

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Exercise 3

(viii) At the end of the last abdominal segment, a terminally pointed

structure, telson, is present.
(ix) *There are 19 pairs of jointed appendages, i.e., one pair in each
segment. In the cephalothoracic region, there are 13 pairs of
appendages of which antennules, antenna, chelate legs, and
nonchelate legs are the prominent ones. The appendages of the five
anterior abdominal segments are called the pleopods or swimming
legs. The appendages of the last abdominal segment are broader and
called uropod.

Systematic position
Phylum – Annelida
Class – Crustacea

Note: It is a common fresh water arthropod found in rivers, ponds, lakes, streams, etc.

BOMBYX MORI (SILKMOTH)

The external features of mulberry silkworm is given below:
(i) Body colour is creamy white and measures
approximately 25 mm in length (Fig. 3.8).
(ii) *Heavy and stout body is divisible into head, thorax and
abdomen.
(iii) Head is comparatively small. Thorax is provided with
three pairs of jointed legs and two pairs of wings.
Abdominal segments are continuous with thoracic
Fig. 3.8 Silkmoth
segments.
(iv) *The entire body as well as wings are covered with
microscopic scales.
(v) A pair of compound eyes and an antenna are present on
the head.
(vi) *In sitting posture, the wings remain outstretched (like
the wings of an aeroplane).
(vii) They are nocturnal.

Systematic position
Phylum – Arthropoda
Class – Insecta

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APIS INDICA (HONEYBEE)

Honeybee is a social insect, and three distinct morphological forms
(members) can be identified in a colony of bees. These are queen,
workers, and drones. All the three morphological forms of bees have
the features of an insect (Fig. 3.9).
Following common features are present in all the members of the
colony:
(a) (i) *Body is divided into three distinct regions: head, thorax
and abdomen.
(ii) Head is somewhat triangular. A pair of large compound
eyes is present dorso-laterally on it. Three small ocelli
are present on the dorsal surface between the two
compound eyes. Mouthparts are present ventrally on
the head.
(b) (iii) Thorax consists of three segments, i.e., prothorax,
mesothorax and metathorax. One pair of jointed legs is
present ventrally in each of the thoracic segment. There
are two pairs of membranous wings present dorsally
in the mesothorax and the metathorax.
(iv) Abdomen: A six-segmented abdomen is present behind
the metathorax. A very narrow region in between the
abdomen and thorax.
(c) Apart from these common features, the workers, queen and
drones can be identified by their own specific features:
Fig. 3.9 Honeybee
(a) Worker (a) Workers
(b) Queen (i) Workers (unfertile female) are smallest in size (Fig. 3.9a).
(c) Drone
(ii) Abdominal segments bear wax glands, which are present
ventrally on the four posterior abdominal segments.
(iii) *A sting is present at the end of the last abdominal
segment.
(iv) Pollen - collecting baskets are present in the thoracic legs.

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Exercise 3

(b) Queen
(i) Queen (fertile female) is largest in size (15-20 mm) in a colony of
bees. Every colony has a single queen bee (Fig. 3.9b).
(ii) *The abdomen is long and tapering.
(iii) Wings and legs are small.
(iv) Eyes are small.
(v) Wax gland is absent in the abdominal segment.
(c) Drones
(i) Drones (males) are larger than workers but smaller than queen in
size (Fig. 3.9c).
(ii) *Eyes are very large (i.e., even larger than those of workers).
(iii) Wax glands are absent in the abdominal segments.
The common Indian species of bees are: Apis dorsata, Apis indica and
Apis florae. Among these species Apis dorsata is largest in size and Apis
florae is smallest.

Systematic position
Phylum – Arthropoda
Class – Insecta
Order – Hymenoptera

PILA GLOBOSA (APPLE SNAIL)

The external features are as follows:
(i) *Body of the animal remains lodged within a
hard and one-piece spirally coiled calcareous Shell
shell (Fig. 3.10).
(ii) There is a wide opening at the end of the last
whorl of the shell, which remains closed by
another calcareous plate called operculum.
(iii) The body consists of four regions: head, foot, Operculum
visceral mass and mantle.
(iv) It inhabits shallow freshwater (paddy fields,
ponds) and moves with its foot.
Fig. 3.10 Pila

Systematic position
Phylum – Mollusca
Class – Gastropoda

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ASTERIAS (STAR FISH) Madreporite Anus

Mouth
The external features are as
follows
(i) *Starfish is an unique
marine organism, which
can be identified by its
star-shaped pentamerous
structure (Fig. 3.11).
Ambulacral
(ii) Body with apparent radial
groove
symmetry with diameter
(a) (b)
ranging between 15-20
cm. Fig. 3.11 Star fish (a) Aboral view
(iii) Body has a central disc (b) Oral view
from which five tapering arms radiate.
(iv) The entire body surface bears numerous small-sized blunt
protuberances.
(v) The lower surface is called the oral surface, as mouth is situated
centrally on this side (Fig. 3.11a).
(vi) *Radiating from the mouth there are five grooves, the ambulacral
grooves, which continue in the five arms on the oral side.
(vii) *Special organs, called tube feet, are present in these ambulacral
grooves.
(viii) The upper surface is called aboral surface, where anus is present
(Fig. 3.11b).
(ix) At the margin of the central disc on the aboral surface is a circular
sieve like structure called madreporite situated near the junction of
two arms.

Systematic position
Phylum – Echinodermata
Class – Asteroidea

SCOLIODON (SHARK)
The external features of Scoliodon are as follows:
(i) *It is a marine fish having elongated, streamlined, dorsoventrally
flattened body at anterior end and laterally compressed at posterior
end (Fig. 3.12). Dorsal fin
Dorsal fin
Tail (anterior) Gill slits
(posterior)

Caudal fin
Anal fin Mouth
Pelvic fin
Pectoral fin
Fig. 3.12 Dog fish

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Exercise 3

(ii) Body measures upto 60 cm in length.

(iii) Body is covered with minute placoid scales that can be felt when skin
is rubbed from tail to snout.
(iv) Body is divided into head, trunk and tail.
(v) A crescentic mouth is present on the ventral surface of the head
behind the tip. Mouth has several rows of sharp and backwardly
pointed teeth on both upper and lower jaws.
(vi) *Tail is elongated with heterocercal caudal fin (the upper and lower
halves of unequal size).
(vii) *Body bears a number of unpaired and paired fins. The unpaired
fins have two dorsals, a lobed caudal and a median ventral fin. Pectoral
and pelvic fins are in pairs.
(viii) *Five pairs of gill slits are present laterally between mouth and
pectoral fins.
(ix) A median groove-like cloacal aperture is situated ventrally between
the two pelvic fins.
(x) Sexual dimorphism is visible as males have midventrally situated
copulatory organ.

Systematic position
Phylum – Chordata
Subphylum – Vertebrata
Superclass – Pisces
Class – Chondrichthyes

LABEO ROHITA (ROHU)

The external features are as follows:
(i) Streamlined and laterally compressed body, which is grey or black on
the dorsal side; and silvery on the ventral surface. Size may reach up to
1m in length (Fig. 3.13).

Dosal fin
Scales
Caudal fin

Mouth

Operculum Anal fin

Pectoral fin

Pelvic fin

Fig. 3.13 Rohu fish

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 Laboratory Manual: Biology

(ii) *Body is divisible into head, trunk and a tail with homocercal (dorsal
and ventral lobes are of equal size) caudal fin.
(iii) Head is extended between the snout and the posterior end of the
operculum (i.e., gill cover). Snout is depressed and obtuse. The
operculum is free and open along the posterior and ventral margins.
Mouth is a transverse opening near the tip of the snout, which has
fleshy lips.
(iv) *The margin of the lower lip is fimbriated.
(v) The whole body is covered with overlapping cycloid dermal scales.
(vi) Both unpaired and paired fins are present on its body. The unpaired
fins are a dorsal fin, a caudal fin and an anal fin. Pectoral and pelvic fins
are paired.

Systematic position
Phylum - Chordata
Subphylum - Vertebrata
Super Class - Pisces
Class – Osteichthyes
Note: Labeo rohita or Rohu is one of the major freshwater carps having bony endoskeleton
found in rivers and ponds in the Indian subcontinent.

RANA TIGRINA (FROG)

The following features can be observed: (Fig. 3.14)
(i) *The body consists of head and trunk, neck is
absent.
Tympanic membrane (ii) Highly placed external nasal opening, eyes are
Eye bulging and covered by a nictitating membrane. The
outer boundary of middle ear is covered by a
membrane, called tympanic membrane.
(iii) *Skin is naked, (that is without any type of scales)
Mouth and slimy (secretion of mucous glands present in
the skin).
(iv) Mouth is terminal, having protrosible bifid tongue.
Upper jaw is beset with several rows of spiny teeth,
Forelimb lower jaw has no teeth.
Hindlimb
(v) *Forelimbs are smaller than the hindlimbs. The
Webbed foot forelimbs have four, and hindlimbs have 5 clawless
digits. An interdigital web-like membrane is present
Fig. 3.14 Frog
in the hind-limbs, which is used for swimming.

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Exercise 3

Systematic position
Phylum – Chordata
Subphylum – Vertebrata
Class – Amphibia

CALOTES (GARDEN LIZARD)

It has the following external features: (Fig. 3.15)
(i) *Body is divided into head, neck, trunk and
elongated tail.
(ii) *Body is covered with rough epidermal scales.
(iii) Head is triangular with a cone-shaped snout
having a wide mouth. A pair of nostrils and eyes
present on the head. Eyes are dorso-lateral in
position on head.
(iv) *Two pairs of pentadactyl (five digits) limbs; the Fig. 3.15 Garden lizard
digits are clawed.
(v) The skin provides the animal with protective
colouration in its environment.

Systematic position
Phylum – Chordata
Subphylum – Vertebrata
Class – Reptilia

Note: Garden lizard is an arboreal (tree dweller) reptile commonly found among the bushes,
shrubs and trees.

COLUMBA LIVEA (PIGEON)

Eye
Pigeon is one of the most common birds showing flight
adaptations and having cosmopolitan distribution.
The external features are as follows (Fig. 3.16):
Beak
(i) *Body covered with feathers.
(ii) Streamlined body divisible into head, neck and
trunk. Wing

(iii) *A small and round head, having beak without

teeth. In addition the head bears a pair of nostrils,
large eyes and opening of the ears (covered
with feathers). Hind limb
(iv) Eyes are provided with movable eyelids and
nictitating membrane. Fig. 3.16 Pigeon

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 Laboratory Manual: Biology

(v) Cylindrical neck is very flexible to facilitate mobility of the head.

(vi) Forelimbs are modified into two wings for flying. The hindlimbs have
four-clawed digits of which the first one is backwardly directed and the
remaining three are forwardly directed. It helps in perching and bears
the weight of the body while standing.
(vii) Cloacal aperture is situated at the posterior end of the trunk.

Systematic position
Phylum - Chordata
Subphylum - Vertebrata
Class - Aves

ORYCTOLAGUS LAGOMORPHA (RABBIT)

Rabbit is a fossorial (burrowing) mammal. However, it can lead a terrestrial
life in the thick vegetation.
The external features include (Fig. 3.17)

(i) A medium sized animal, about 40 cm in length

when adult.
(ii) Body is covered with hair, and is divisible into
head, neck, trunk and a small tail.
(iii) *Head is pear-shaped with a blunt snout.
Anteriorly it bears a mouth and a pair of
external ears, the pinna. The upper lip has a
median cleft through which the incisor teeth
Pinna get exposed. Few prominent and stiff hairs are
Tail present laterally on the upper lip. These are
Vibrissae touch- sensitive (tactile) and called vibrissae
or whiskers.
(iv) A short but highly flexible neck is present
between the head and the trunk.
(v) *Males have a small, cylindrical and muscular
Fig. 3.17 Rabbit penis, a pair of scrotal sacs in which a pair of
testes are lodged. Females have slit-like vulva.
Females also have four to five pairs of
mammary glands, which open ventrally as
teats or nipples along the thorax and
abdomen. Animal is viviparous.
(vi) Tail is short, upwardly directed and furry.

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Exercise 3

Systematic position
Phylum – Chordata
Subphylum – Vertebrata
Class – Mammalia

29
Experiment 4.1- Study of mitosis in plants

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 Experiment 4.2
Study of mitosis in animals.

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Exercise 5
Study and identification of human skeleton and bones.










Procedure
(i) Observe the different types of bones and joints present in a
human skeleton.
(ii) Draw labeled diagram of your observations.

Observation
Frontal
(a) Human Skull
(i) It is composed of two sets of bones - cranial and facial
Parietal
(Fig. 33.1).
(ii) Cranial bones are occipital, parietal, frontal, temporal, Temporal
sphenoid and ethmoid bones. Orbit
Nasal
(iii) Corresponding to their location in the body, the cranial passage
bones have strong bone case for eyes called orbit.
Maxilla
(iv) Facial bones form the front part (i.e., face) of the skull.
Mandible
(v) A single U-shaped bone called hyoid is present at the
base of the buccal cavity. Fig. 33.1 Human Skull
(vi) A nasal passage formed by nasal bones is present just
below the orbit.
(vii) Maxilla and pre-maxilla bones form the upper jaw, and the mandible
bone forms the lower jaw. These two bones also form the face, and
into them are lodged teeth in special sockets. Teeth are not bones.
(viii) Distinct sutures in zig-zag fashion are present at the junctions of
the frontal with the two parietals, as well as between the
two parietals.

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(ix) The occipital bone has a very big foramen at its posterior base, the
foramen magnum, through which the brain is continued posteriorly
as a spinal cord.
(x) The skull is dicondylic, i.e., it has two occipital condyles for
articulation with the first cervical vertebra.

(b) Vertebral Column

(i) It consists of 26 serially arranged Neural spine
units (Fig. 33.2) called vertebrae
(singular: vertebra). Transverse process
(ii) Each vertebra has a central hollow
portion called neural canal through
which the spinal cord passes. The
Neural canal
first vertebra is the atlas and it
articulates with the occipital
condyles of skull. Centrum
(iii) Vertebral column has several types
of vertebrae: cervical (7), thoracic (12), Fig. 33.3 A typical vertebra
lumbar (5), sacral (1 which is fused),
and caudal or coccygeal (1which is fused).
(iv) A typical vertebra (Fig. 33.3) has a — (i) centrum, the modified
notochord (ii) two laterally projecting transverse process (iii) a neural
canal through which passes the spinal cord (iv) a mid dorsal neural
spine formed by the union of neural arch. Depending upon their
location in the body, secondary modifications are seen in the length
of transverse process and the length of neural spine. The two
Fig. 33.2 Vertebral neighbouring vertebrae articulate with each other through their
column anterior and posterior zygapophyses. Intervertebral discs are present
between the centra of two neighbouring vertebrae.

(c) Rib Cage and Sternum

(i) Sternum forms the floor of branchial basket. It bears 7 (seven) notches
for articulation with ribs. It has hexagonal disc at the top called
manubrium. Lower end has a reduced bone called xiphoid process
(Fig. 33.4).

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(ii) Ribs can be put under two classes: the thoracic

ribs, and the sternal ribs. The thoracic ribs
Sternum
articulate with the thoracic vertebrae, and the
sternal ribs do so with the sternum. Some (7) of Sternal Rib
the thoracic ribs are attached to the sternal ribs
with the help of ligaments, enabling the increase
and decrease in volume of the thoracic chamber
Thoracic Rib
during respiration.
(iii) There are 12 (twelve) pairs of thoracic ribs. Each
rib is a thin flat bone and is carried ventrally
from the vertebral column. It has a head
articulating with the centrum, and tubercle
articulating with transverse process of vertebrae
Floating Rib
(Fig. 33.4).
(iv) 7 (seven) pairs of thoracic ribs are attached to
the sternal ribs. Fig. 33.4 Rib cage and sternum
(v) Last 5 (five) pairs of thoracic ribs do not articulate with sternal ribs,
and are called false ribs. Among these, the last 2 (two) pairs of false
ribs are free and are called floating ribs.

(d) Pectoral Girdle

(i) It consists of a clavicle and a scapula (Fig. 33.5).
(ii) Scapula is a large triangular flat bone with a slightly
elevated ridge called spine. The spine projects as a Clavicle
flat, expanded process called the acromion.
(iii) The clavicle is a long slender bone with two Scapula
curvatures. The clavicle articulates with the
acromion. Fig. 33.5 Pectoral Girdle
(iv) Below the acromion is a depression called the glenoid
cavity, for articulation of the head of the humerus to form the shoulder joint.

(e) Pelvic Girdle

(i) It consists of two halves.
(ii) Each half is formed by the fusion of three bones - ilium, ischium and pubis (Fig. 33.6).
(iii) At the point of fusion of the above bones is a cavity called acetabulum to which the thigh
bone articulates.

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Exercise 33

Sacrum (v) The two halves of the pelvic girdle meet ventrally to form
the pubic symphysis.
Ilium

Pubis
Ischium

Fig. 33.6 Pelvic Girdle (f) Bones of the Hand or Fore Limb
(i) It is made up of bones consisting of humerus, radius and
ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges (Fig. 33.7).
(ii) Humerus is a straight bone with a long shaft, and forms
the upper arm. The head of the humerus fits into the glenoid
Clavicle cavity of the pectoral girdle. It has a crest at its proximal
Scapula end in the form of deltoid ridge for the attachment of arm
muscles. The distal end has a foramen and a trochlear
Humerus process, which forms elbow joint with radius and ulna.
(iii) Radius-ulna consists of 2 (two) separate bones of the
Radius forearm namely radius and ulna. Ulna is more developed
and has olecranon process at its
Ulna proximal end, which forms
elbow joint with humerus.
(iv) Carpals consist of 8 (eight) small
Carpals
bones arranged in two rows. It
forms the wrist (Fig. 33.8).
(v) Metacarpals are made up of 5
Fig. 33.7 Forelimb
(five) long bones forming the
palm of hand.
(vi) Phalanges consist of 2 (two) in
the thumb and, 3 (three) bones
Fig. 33.8 Carpals,
in the remaining four fingers, Metacarpals and
thus totalling 14 (fourteen) bones. Phalanges

(g) Bones of the Leg or Hind Limb

(i) It is made up of femur, tibia and fibula, patella (knee cap) tarsals,
metatarsals, phalanges (Fig. 33.9).
(ii) The femur is the longest bone. The head of femur fits into the
acetabulum of the pelvic girdle. The proximal end has trochanters
for attachment of thigh muscles. The distal end has two condyles,
which articulate with triangular shaped patella and proximal part
of tibia to form knee on the ventral side.

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(iii) Tibia-fibula consists of two separate bones namely tibia and fibula
and is present in the shank region of leg. Tibia is more developed
than fibula. Its proximal end articulates
with femur and patella and forms knee.
(iv) There are 7 (seven) tarsal bones, which are
Femur
arranged in two rows to form the ankle. The
largest bone of these is calcareous which
form heel (Fig. 33.10).
(v) Metatarsals consist of 5 (five) bones and
Tibia
form foot.
Fibula (vi) Phalanges consist of 2 (two) bones in big
toe and three bones in each of the remaining
toes thus totaling 14 (fourteen) bones.
Fig. 33.10 Tarsals

Fig. 33.9 Hind limb

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EXPERIMENT- 6-
Study and describe locally available flowering plants from family Solanaceae.

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 EXPERIMENT – 7

Preparation and study of T.S of dicot and monocot roots and stems.

I. Transverse section of a dicot stem

Aim

To study the transverse section of a dicot stem.

Theory

 A typical example of a dicot stem is a sunflower

 The transverse section depicts the arrangement of different tissues in a particular way from the
exterior to the centre.

Identification

 The epidermis has multicellular hairs.

 The hypodermis is collenchymatous.
  The xylem is endarch with the protoxylem being at the centre and the metaxylem being at the
periphery.
 Vascular bundles are open, collateral and conjoint.
 They are arranged in a ring-like manner.
 Pith is found at the centre.

Conclusion

The specimen provided is a section of a dicot stem.

II. Transverse section of a dicot root.

Aim
To study the transverse section of the dicot root.

Identification
 The epidermis shows the presence of unicellular hair
 Absence of hypodermis
 Radially arranged vascular bundles
 The number of phloem/xylem bundles is not more than 6
 The xylem is an exarch
 Absence or rare occurrence of pith

Conclusion
The specimen provided is a section of the dicot root.
III. Transverse section of a monocot stem.

Aim
To study the transverse section of monocot stem.

Theory
 The maize plant is a monocot plant
 The transverse section is circular having a smooth surface
 The ground tissue consists of many scattered vascular bundles.
 From the periphery to the center, the transverse section displays the structure of
different tissues in a particular manner .

Conclusion
The specimen provided is a section of the monocot stem.

IV. Transverse section of a monocot root.

Aim
To study of the transverse section of monocot root, maize root.
Identification
 Epidermis sees the presence of unicellular hair
 Absence of hypodermis
 Radially arranged vascular bundles
 8 or more than 8 phloem and xylem bundles
 A well-developed pith

Conclusion
The specimen provided is a section of the monocot root.
Experiment-8
Study of osmosis by potato osmometer

Aim: To demonstrate osmosis by potato osmometer.

Principle: Osmosis is a common physical process observed in living cells and tissues of all
organisms. It is defined as the movement of molecules of solvent from a region of its higher
concentration to a region of its lower concentration across a selectively permeable membrane,
such as the plasma membrane.

Requirements: Fresh large sized potato tuber, beaker, 20% sucrose solution,
water, petridish blade/scalpel, bell pin needle marked with waterproof ink.

Procedure
• Cut the potato tuber into two equal halves with a razor blade or
scalpel. Peel off the outer skin. As the shape of the tuber is irregular,
shape the two halves in squares.
• Scoop from the centre of the tuber the soft parenchyma to make a
small cavity of circular or square shape. The cavity prepared by
scooping should have minimum thickness at the bottom.
• Fill half the cavity with 20% sugar solution. Fix a pin into cavity
in such a way that the mark is in line with the sucrose solution
layer as shown in the Fig. 15.1.

Solution level

Before experiment After experiment

Fig. 15.1. Potato osmometer showing osmosis

• Place the osmometer in a beaker/petridish filled with water in

such a way that 2/3rd of the potato osmometer is dipped in water.
• Leave the set up undisturbed for about an hour.
• Observe the level of sugar solution in the osmometer at the end of
experiment.
• Repeat the experiment using water in tuber cavity and sucrose
solution in beaker/petridish.

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Discussion
The volume of sucrose solution inside the osmometer increases due to entry
of water from the beaker as a result of endosmis. A water potential gradient
is established between the sucrose solution present in the osmometer and
the external water. Although living cells of potato tuber separate these two
liquids, they permit entry of water into sugar solution. Interpret the results
you observed when water has been used in place of sucrose solution in the
osmometer (potato tuber).

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 Experiment - 9
Study of distribution of stomata on the upper and lower surfaces of
the leaves.

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 EXPERIMENT –10

Test for the presence of sugar (sucrose), starch, proteins, and fats in suitable animal and plant

materials.

Aim
To detect the presence of sugar (sucrose), starch, proteins, and fats in suitable animal and plant
materials.

Theory
Nutrition is a source through which living entities obtain food for the body to get fueled with
energy. Therefore the food we eat must be well-balanced with all the substances that are required
by our body to perform daily activities, these substances are known as nutrients.

Nutrients nourish the body by releasing the energy required for the body’s growth. Some of the
nutrients found in food are:

 Proteins
 Carbohydrates
 Fats
 Vitamins
 Minerals
 Dietary fibres

Test for Sucrose

The presence of sucrose can be tested in a sample using Benedict’s test.
Material Required
 Benedict’s Reagent
 Sugar cane extract
 Concentrated HCl
 NaOH solution
 Burner
 Dropper
 Test tube
 Test tube holder

Procedure
 Take a clean and dried test tube and add sugar cane extract into it.
 Now carefully add a few drops of concentrated HCl using a dropper to the test tube.
 Hold the test tube securely with the help of a test tube holder.
 Place the test tube near the Bunsen burner and allow the solution to boil for two minutes.
 While boiling, the hydrolysis of sucrose occurs and the fructose converts to glucose.
 With the help of a dropper, add a few drops of NaOH solution to the test tube so that the solution turns
alkaline.
 Now add a few drops of Benedict’s reagent with the help of a dropper into the test tube.
 With the help of a test tube holder, place the test tube near the Bunsen burner and allow the solution to
boil for a few minutes.
 Observe the changes.

Observation
The colour of the solution colour from blue colour to green colour. From green colour, it finally
changes to brick red or orange colour. This indicates that the solution contains glucose.

Test for Starch

Material Required
 Potato extract
 Iodine solution
 Test tube
 Dropper

Procedure
 Take a clean and dried test tube and add potato extract into it.
 Add five to six drops of iodine solution with the help of a dropper into the test tube.
  Keep the test tube undisturbed and allow the mixtures to stand for a few seconds.
 Observe the changes.

Observation
The presence of starch in the potato extract is indicated when the colour changes to a blue-black
colour.

Test for Proteins

The presence of proteins in a sample can be detected by the following tests:

 Biuret Test
 Xanthoproteic Test
 Million’s Test

1. Biuret Test

Material Required
 1% CuSO4
 40% NaOH solution
 Dropper
 Egg Albumin
 Test tube
 Test tube holder

Procedure
 Take a clean and dried test tube and add egg albumin into it.
 Now add a few drops of 40% NaOH solution with the help of a dropper into the test tube containing the
egg albumin.
 With the help of a dropper, add 2 to 3 drops of 1% CuSO4 solution into the same test tube contained in
the egg albumin.
 Now shake the test tube slowly in order to mix the solution present in it completely.
 Keep the test tube undisturbed and allow the mixtures to stand for 5 minutes. After a few minutes,
observe the changes.

Observation
The solution in the test tube appears to be violet in colour. This indicates that the sample that is
tested contains proteins.
Test for Fats
The presence of fats in a sample can be detected by the following tests:

 Sudan III Test

 Paper Spot Test

1. Sudan III Test

Materials Required
 Sudan III Solution
 Oil
 Test tube
 Dropper
 Egg Albumin

Procedure
 Take a clean and dried test tube and add a few drops of oil into it.
 Now into the same test tube, add five to six drops of the Sudan III reagent with the help of a dropper.
 Stir the test tube continuously and allow the solution to stand for a while.
 After a few seconds, observe the changes.

Observation
The presence of fat in the sample is indicated when pink colour droplets appear on the test tube.

2. Paper Spot Test

Materials Required
 A piece of white paper
 Peanut seeds
 Watch glass

Procedure
 On the piece of white paper, place the fresh peanut seeds.
 Crush and rub the peanut seeds on the white paper.
 Remove the peanut seed remaining on the watch glass.
  Observe the changes on the piece of white paper.

Observation
The spot where the peanut seeds are rubbed turns translucent. This indicates the presence of
fats in the sample.
Experiment 11
Aim: To study the rate of respiration in flower buds/germinating seeds.

Principle: Respiration is a vital process in living organisms and generates energy through
break down of food materials in presence/absence of O2. The released energy is used for all
life processes. Rate of respiration depends on internal and external factors (age, physiological
status and type of cell, temperature, and availability of oxygen).

Requirement: Flower buds/germinating seeds, boiling tube, single bore rubber cork fitted
with a pipette, cotton, stand with burette clamp, KOH solution, black paper and filter paper.

Procedure
• Take about 10-15 buds or 10-15g germinating seeds in a boiling
tube or wide mouth test-tube. Introduce a wad of cotton. Dip a 2 ×1cm
strip of filter paper in KOH solution and place it in the tube ensuring
that it does not touch the cotton swab or seeds.
• Dip the tip of the pipette in water and slowly suck-in
water in such a manner that a small air bubble is
trapped in it. Now insert the attached rubber cork
(along with pipette) into the tube as shown in
Fig. 24.1. The test tube should be fixed in horizontal
position with burette clamp.
• Note the position of air bubble in the pipette.
• Record the distance travelled by the bubble at 2 minute
intervals for a period of time.
• Now shift the set up to bright sunlight (outside the
laboratory). After a few minutes, note the distance
travelled by the bubble at 2 minute intervals for the Fig. 24.1 Experimental setup for
same period of time. the study of rate of
respiration

Observation

Compare the two sets of values obtained in the experiments. It is likely that
in the experiment conducted in bright sunlight the bubble moves much
faster indicating higher rate of respiration. One of the factors that is
responsible for increase in rate of respiration is temperature. Can you think
of a reason?

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 Laboratory Manual: Biology

Discussion
Notice that the rates of respiration are not same in different materials and
under different conditions. Respiration is an enzymatic process where food
materials are broken down to release energy. Light and temperature affect
the process. Young meristematic cells show high rate of respiration.

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 EXPERIMENT 12
Test for the presence of sugar in urine

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 Experiment - 13
Test for the presence of albumin in urine

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