The scientific method in solving environmental problems

related to the Study of biology:

In BIOLOGY, the Scientific Method is an ordered series of steps to follow to solve a given problem.
The steps of the scientific method are:

a) OBSERVATION
b) STATEMENT OF A PROBLEM
c) DATA COLLECTION
d) FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
e) EXPERIMENTATION
f) CONCLUSION

Every scientific process begins:

Direct or indirect OBSERVATION (through instruments) of phenomena that occur in nature. These
observations involve, in addition to visual impressions, sound perception, tasting flavors, recording
temperatures and textures, different smells, etc. and records its characteristics in detail and then
questions the cause of these phenomena.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM: The correct formulation of the problem largely guarantees the
success of the research. For example: When sugar is added to coffee and stirred with a spoon, the
sugar "disappears." However, when you taste the coffee you can see that it is sweet. What was it that
happened? The scientist begins to COLLECT DATA all possible information about the problem he
intends to study. For example, about sugar and coffee, books that deal with the solubility of
substances, the chemical composition of sugar, the effect of stirring a liquid, etc. will surely be useful.
Based on the observations made and the information obtained, the scientist states what would be the
most probable answer to his questions. This response is known as HYPOTHESIS, and serves as the
initial axis of the experimental verifications. For the sugar and coffee example, some testable
hypotheses would be: The sugar dissolved in the coffee; Dissolution was better when hot; Stirring
facilitates said dissolution, etc.
Among all the probable answers to a problem statement, the researcher chooses only one and works
on it.
Once the hypothesis has been formulated, the scientist must verify that it is valid in all cases, for
which he will carry out EXPERIENCES where the natural conditions in which the studied
phenomenon took place are reproduced as closely as possible. When experiences are planned, the
following are taken into account: the STEPS that will be followed, all the FACTORS or VARIABLES
that may influence the results; the MATERIALS necessary to carry out the experiments; the
approximate TIME that may be needed for the checks and the MEASUREMENTS and RECORDS
that must be taken to improve the results and thus be able, in the future, to repeat the experiments.
All observations, data and measurements obtained during experimentation must be organized in
tables and graphs in order to draw CONCLUSIONS. Experiences and measurements are repeated
repeatedly and only have VALIDITY if they do not contradict each other. From there a CONCLUSION
is reached whether the hypothesis is proven or not, that is, whether it is VALID or NOT . If it is valid,
the scientist disseminates it to the rest of the scientific community. For example, in the case of sugar
and coffee, if the hypothesis was that heat favored dissolution, this could be proven, leading to the
emergence of a SCIENTIFIC THEORY.

The Scientific Method in BIOLOGY consists of several steps:

Example:
a) OBSERVATION: I notice that the leaves of the trees are green.
b) PROBLEM: Why are the leaves of trees green?
c) HYPOTHESIS: 1- Tree leaves are green because they have a green pigment called Chlorophyll.
2- The leaves of trees are green because they carry out Photosynthesis (manufacturing food).
d) EXPERIMENTATION: To demonstrate that the leaves of the trees are green, I do a simple
experiment in which I place alcohol in a glass jar and introduce green leaves and bring it to a boil.
After boiling, I observe that the alcohol has turned green and that color is due to the Chlorophyll
(green pigment) that all green vegetables have, essential for carrying out Photosynthesis.
e) CONCLUSION: In conclusion, Hypotheses 1 and 2 are VALID, since the leaves of the trees are
green due to the presence of a green pigment called Chlorophyll, essential for carrying out
Photosynthesis.

Tale:

A story is a short narrative that is the creation or fiction of one or more authors, based or not on real events,
inspired or not by previous writings or legends, whose plot is carried out by a small group of characters, and which
has a relatively simple. However, the border between a long story and a short novel is certainly not easy to draw.

Legend:
A legend is a traditional narrative that includes fictional, often supernatural elements, for example, gods; and is
passed down from generation to generation. It is set in a time and place that is familiar to the members of a
community, which gives the story a certain verisimilitude. In legends that present supernatural elements, such as
miracles, the presence of feral creatures or creatures from beyond the grave, etc., these are presented as real, since
they are part of the world vision of the community in which the legend originates. In their process of transmission
through oral tradition, legends often experience deletions, additions or modifications, thus emerging a whole range
of variants.

Empirical knowledge:

It is that which is acquired through everyday knowledge and is acquired through the evolution and daily life of the
individual.

Empirical knowledge is all that: Man acquires due to the various needs that arise in life, by instinct and not by well-
founded thought that is learned without science and without laws. This is also transmitted through relationships
with the society around you on a daily basis. In the school of life.

It is everything that is based on experience without theory or reasoning.

It is one that is acquired through lived experiences. With the school of life.

Empirical knowledge is that which arises from one's own experience, arriving at concrete knowledge.

Empirical knowledge is acquired through experiences and is also transmitted through relationships with the
society around you.
Over time we have wanted to give way to empirical knowledge. Now we can define what is the knowledge that is
acquired and learned in life without science and laws.

It is everything that is acquired by instinct and not founded thought. Animals act because of this knowledge, which
we can also call instinct.

Empirical knowledge is everything that man acquires due to the various needs that arise in life. It is constantly
evolutionary, because it moves around the changes suffered by each individual and is based on desire and
experience.

It can be defined as a simple opinion that needs to be verified through logical reasoning, thus arriving at the
episteme.

This knowledge is abstract, by saying abstract it is understood that it is not true knowledge. To move from
empirical knowledge it is necessary to investigate certain knowledge through the four logical principles.

Philosophical knowledge:

Philosophy is the study of a variety of fundamental problems about issues such as existence, knowledge, truth,
morality, beauty, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of approaching these problems
(such as mysticism and mythology) by its critical and generally systematic method, as well as by its emphasis on
rational arguments.

Theological knowledge:

Theology is a set of techniques and methods of human nature that aim to achieve particular knowledge about
divine entities. Etymologically it comes from the Greek: theos 'God' and logos 'study, science', meaning 'the study of
God; the study of things or facts related to God'.

This term was used for the first time by Plato in "The Republic" to refer to the understanding of divine nature
through reason, as opposed to the literary understanding of his contemporary poets. Later, Aristotle used the term
on numerous occasions with two meanings:

* Theology as the fundamental branch of Philosophy, also called first philosophy or science of first principles, later
called Metaphysics by its followers.

* Theology as a name for mythological thought immediately prior to Philosophy, in a pejorative sense, and above
all used to call ancient non-philosopher thinkers theologians (such as Hesiod and Pherecydes of Syros).

Scientific knowledge:

Scientific knowledge is that which requires a research process.

Scientific knowledge is a method based on empirical knowledge since empirical knowledge is acquired from
experience, in short, scientific knowledge is born from empirical knowledge. Scientific knowledge is that curiosity
that leads us to reason why things happen, of course all those things that attract us and draw our attention.

I define it as all that information that is obtained through the scientific method, research, experimentation and
investigation of the Object, in search of the truth.
It is everything where you can begin to investigate the person to know all the expectations of the object or person
or animal.

Scientific knowledge is that which is acquired about reality and is based on research through a process.

It is that set of knowledge of some subject that meets certain characteristics such as: *systematized or methodical
*objective *verifiable or verifiable

It is a system of concepts about the external phenomena and laws of the world which can be verified through
rationality and systematization.

Scientific knowledge is that truth discovered through the research process, based on all the evidence that leads us
to investigate reality to obtain a truth with certainty.

To express concepts you must have knowledge of spelling and mainly of the topic being discussed.

Scientific knowledge is a dynamic thought in the consciousness of subjects capable of using critical reflection on a
problem. It is true that certain steps are required to reach it, however, categorical thinking is necessary to access
them, which is why it requires the category of 'totality' understood as the openness to the reality we live in to
specify a specific topic.

It is a well-founded, critical, conjectural, systematized and methodical knowledge about aspects of the universe.
Philosophy:

Object of philosophy:

Philosophy has as its object the rational knowledge of the temporal and changeable things of the sensible world.
Wisdom is concerned with the intellectual knowledge of the eternal and immutable realities and truths of the
supersensible or intelligible world of its own forces. The formal object of philosophy is the light of reason. The
result of the process of philosophical investigation is science, which only occurs in understanding by virtue of
intrinsic evidence, whether immediate (intuition).

Disciplines of philosophy:

Ontology: study of being

- Ethics: study of good and evil

- Aesthetics: study of beauty

- Theology: study of theodicy. Theodicy (from the Greek Θεοũ -god- + δίκη -justice-) is a branch of philosophy, also
known as natural theology, whose objective is the rational demonstration of the existence of God through
reasoning, as well as the analogous description of his nature. and attributes.

- Cosmology: study of the origin of things

- Anthropology: study of man

- Teleology: study of life after death

- Epistemology: study of knowledge

- Linguistics: study of forms of expression

- Psychology: study of human behavior

- Metaphysics: study of the subjective

- Logic: study of what common sense involves

- Theosophy: study of God and the things around Him

- Anthroposophy: study of man and everything around him.

- Sociology: study of human groups, their development, structure, etc.

- Gnoseology: study of nature, origin, limits, etc. Of knowledge.

Philosophy method:
1- METHOD: It is a process through which you order actions to achieve an end.

2- CHARACTERISTICS OF THE METHOD: It is objective, it is ordered, it is sequential, it seeks a result, it is

executable, it is explicit in writing.

3- IDEAL METHOD: Each purpose has a method that allows you to achieve its objectives. For example: The
teaching-learning activity, its method is eclectic, because the combination of the inductive and deductive method is
used.

4- PROBLEM OF THE TRUE METHOD: it is knowing how to choose the method to follow according to the issue or
cause of the problem to be solved. The subjective nature of the choice can contribute to choosing an inappropriate
method.

5- THE IDEAL OF THE METHOD: Finding the truth in everything

6- THE METHODS:

6.1- Inductive method

6.2- Deductive method

6.3- Eclectic method

6.4- Observation Method

6.5- Analytical method

6.6- Synthetic method

6.7- Simulation.

6.8- others.

7- Modern philosophy uses them all. You cannot stop using any of them, including iconograms. His incessant search
for the truth is not exclusive of any method.

Definition of logic and its history:

The science that is based on the laws, modalities and forms of scientific knowledge is known as logic. It is a formal
science that lacks content since it focuses on the study of valid inference alternatives. That is, it proposes studying
the appropriate methods and principles to identify correct reasoning versus incorrect reasoning.

Etymology allows us to know that the term 'logic' has its origin in the Latin word logĭca, which in turn derives from
the Greek logikó s (from logos, "reason" or "study"). The Greek philosopher Aristotle, experts in historical issues
say, was a pioneer in using the notion to name the testing of arguments as indicators of truth within science, and in
presenting the syllogism as a valid argument.

However, we cannot ignore that throughout history there are many other figures who have contributed with their
ideas and approaches to developing this science. Thus, for example, during the Middle Ages we must highlight the
role played by Averroes, the philosopher from Có rdoba who, among other things, stated that it was essential to
study the logic of the ancient masters in order to, from there, proceed to “ philosophize” in the right way.
Already in the 18th and 19th centuries, one of the figures who most addressed the topic of logic was Immanuel
Kant. He is considered one of the most important and influential thinkers in history and stands out for the fact that
in this matter at hand he established a new concept: transcendental logic.

A term with which said philosopher of Prussian origin tried to define the process by which the human being must
carry out an investigation of what would be the pure concepts of categories of transcendental type or also what is
the exact understanding .

Hegel, Augustus De Morgan, John Venn and Gottlob Frege are other authors who have stood out in the field of logic
and especially the latter who caused a real revolution with his theories. Hence, he is considered, along with the
aforementioned Aristotle, as the most important logician in all of history. And it established the concepts of proof,
predicate logic or formal language.

Aristotle is considered the father of formal logic. On the other hand, informal logic refers to the methodical
examination of probable arguments based on oratory, rhetoric and philosophy, among other sciences. Its objective
is the recognition of paradoxes and fallacies, as well as being an effective resource to construct discourses
correctly.

Natural logic is the natural ability to reason without appealing to science. The so-called fuzzy or diffuse logic, on
the other hand, is that which contemplates a certain uncertainty when analyzing the true or false nature of
propositions, similar to the reasoning of human beings.

On the other hand, mathematical logic is characterized by using an artificial symbolic language and making an
abstraction of the contents.

There are other types or classes of logic, such as so-called binary logic, which works with variables that only take
two discrete values.

Logic:

Logic object:

Logic is a science and its object of study is the forms, structures or schemes of thought. If we compare the following
examples of thoughts, we will find that they can refer to very different things (that is, their content is variable), and
yet they have common structures:

1. 7 is a prime number and 4 is even.

2. Gasoline is flammable and potash is caustic.

3. Venus is a planet and Sirius is a star.

4. March has 30 days or March has 31 days.

5. Man makes his history or history makes the man.

6. 4 is odd or 4 is even.

7. If man makes his history, then destiny is a myth.

8. If 4 is even, then 4" is also even.

9. If tobacco causes cancer, then cigarettes are a means of suicide. Despite having different content, these examples
can be grouped into three classes, according to the expressions "And", "Or", "if...then", which relate thoughts such
as "4 is odd", to what are called propositions.

Propositional logic is the part of logic that studies the ways in which some propositions are related to others and,
above all, the relationship that exists between the propositions that make up an argument.

Valid forms of propositional logic:

The task of logic is the formal analysis of reasoning. And the place of that analysis is language. Only in language,
only to the extent that they are formulated in a language, do reasonings offer the possibility of analysis. The
analysis of reasoning implies, therefore, a logical analysis of language.

Now, the analysis of reasoning can be carried out from different levels of logical analysis of the language. Well,
there are two levels of logical analysis of language, to which two levels of logical calculation correspond: the
calculus of propositions (which is what we are going to study) and the calculus of predicates.

Currently, Logic is presented to us in the form of a calculus, a calculus is a pure syntactic structure. The calculation
of statements or propositions is the most basic logical calculation and, at the same time, the most fundamental: it is
the one with the greatest expressive poverty and, at the same time, the starting point of all the others. This first
logical layer deals with the inferential relationships between statements taken as a whole. This means that logical
analysis stops for now at the edge of the statements, without penetrating their internal structure, the statement
being, therefore, the unit of analysis. That is, the Logic of statements is a logic of unanalyzed statements. The logic
of statements will only take into account those ways of deducing a statement from others that are valid without the
need to analyze each one of them internally. The elements that internally make up the statements are, at this
logical level, irrelevant from a logical point of view.

In conclusion, in the calculation of propositions, as the first level of logical analysis, what is involved is analyzing
the validity of those reasonings in which we start from premises that are unanalyzed statements to reach, as a
conclusion, statements that They are not analyzed either. The calculus of propositions is, therefore, the analysis of
the inferential relations between propositions.

We are in the most basic section of Logic. The analysis of the language that corresponds to it must, therefore, be the
most elementary, the most “thick”. The analysis of the language on which the calculus of propositions is based
divides the language – and this is simplifying – into two types of elements:

 On the one hand, propositions, whole sentences. (Content).

 On the other hand, connectives, particles that serve to link simple propositions forming compound propositions.
(Shape).

In all reasoning we can distinguish a form (which is constant) and a content (which varies). Logic dispenses with
specific content, but not with the idea of content in general. The content in general is represented by variables, by
symbols that replace any statements. The shape is represented by constant symbols.

Variable symbols, also called propositional variables, represent propositions. A proposition is a meaningful
linguistic segment that can be true or false. What's more, not only can it be true or false but it has to be either true
or false, but not both at the same time (Principle of bivalence). Following an almost universal practice, lowercase
letters starting with p are used as propositional variables (p, q, r, s, t, ....). Propositions can be simple or atomic,
those that do not include any linking or connective symbol; and composite or molecular, those that include some
connective.
For their part, constant symbols or logical symbols represent the form of reasoning, their mission is to serve as a
link, establish connections between propositions, they are called connectives. Logic defines connectives
extensionally or materially, that is, taking into account only their operational nature, and in no way their factual
meaning. Such definitions are algorithms, carried out by means of a truth table, a mechanical system that allows us
to find the truth value of a compound proposition from the truth value of the simple propositions that form it.