CHAPTER 10

HYDRAULIC TURBINES

Reference: Fundamentals of Turbomachinery

William W. Peng, 2008
Introduction & Applications 2

• Hydraulic turbines convert hydropower stored in water at high elevations or

in flowing rivers into mechanical energy or power to drive electric generators
or other machinery.

• Hydropower is a type of renewable energy derived from solar energy.

• In the U.S., hydropower accounts for:

o 7% of actual electricity generation (77% of renewables)
o 9% of generating capacity (83% of renewables)
Introduction & Applications 3

• Pumped storage plants are becoming a popular way to store energy.

• The turbine (runs reversibly or using separate pump) pumps water from low to
high reservoir during off-peak hours. Stored energy in water is reused by the
turbine to supplement extra demand during peak hours.

• Pumped storage with thermal base-load plants offer:

o improved total system reliability
o more efficient use of available base-load units
o ability for rapid change in load
Introduction & Applications 4

• In large pumping systems, hydraulic turbines can be used as a power recovery

device instead of a pressure reducing valve (in the lower discharge pressure
line).

• Interest in hydraulic turbines

is rising recently due to the
increasing costs in the energy
sector.
Types of Hydraulic Turbines 5

• Hydraulic turbines are generally classified into 3 groups:

o Pelton (impulse type)

→ low flowrate, high head

o Francis, Pump (mixed flow; reaction type)

→ medium flowrate, medium head

o Kaplan, Bulb (axial flow; reaction type)

→ high flowrate, low head
Types of Hydraulic Turbines 6

• All hydraulic turbines can be vertical- or horizontal-axis turbines. Examples

of such installations are shown for a Pelton turbine.
Types of Hydraulic Turbines 7
Types of Hydraulic Turbines 8

Pelton Turbine

→ It has the following characteristics:

• One or multiple nozzles operate the turbine runner

• Backward-pointing nozzles might be used for braking

• Load is changed by controlling water flow with needle valves and deflectors
or simply shutting off some valves

• Impulse-type since all hydraulic head is converted into kinetic energy through
nozzles, while water is under constant atmospheric pressure through runner
buckets
Types of Hydraulic Turbines 9

Reaction Turbines

→ Such turbine impellers can be mixed-flow or axial-flow types, and are similar
in construction to centrifugal pumps, except they have wicket gates at inlet
around the outer periphery to control the flowrate.

→ Mixed-flow types include Francis or

Pump turbine (pump operated inversely
as a turbine).

→ A possible variation is the Deriaz

turbine (diagonal-flow) with shorter
(like a propeller) and adjustable blades.

Deriaz Turbine
Types of Hydraulic Turbines 10

Reaction Turbines

→ Axial-flow types can with fixed blade propeller or adjustable like a Kaplan
operating at relatively constant high efficiency.

→ Possible variations:
• Bulb: generator enclosed & submerged in water passage
• Tubular: generator outside & connected to shaft directly or by gears
• Rim: generator mounted on outer tips of runner blades

Bulb Turbine Tubular Gear Turbine Rim Generator Turbine

Selection of Hydraulic Turbines 11

→ Prior to selection of hydraulic turbines, it is vital to remember parameters

describing their performance such as:

a) Flow coefficient: 𝜙 = 𝑄Τ𝜔𝐷 3

b) Energy coefficient: 𝜓 = 𝑔𝐻Τ𝜔2 𝐷 2

c) Power coefficient: Π = 𝑃𝑠 Τ𝜌𝜔3 𝐷 5

d) Efficiency: η = 𝑃𝑠 Τ𝜌𝑄𝑔𝐻 = ΠΤ𝜙𝜓

e) Non-dimensional specific speed: 𝜔𝑠 = 𝜔𝑄 0.5 Τ 𝑔𝐻 0.75

0.25 Τ 0.5
f) Non-dimensional specific diameter: Δ𝑠 = 𝐷 𝑔𝐻 𝑄

g) Lazy form specific speed: 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑁𝑄0.5 Τ𝐻0.75

h) Lazy form power specific speed: 𝑁𝑠𝑝 = 𝑁𝑃𝑠 0.5 Τ𝐻1.25

i) Lazy form specific diameter: 𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝐻0.25 Τ𝑄 0.5

Selection of Hydraulic Turbines 12

→ Also, some data figures and tables should be well recognized:

• Figure 10.9: efficiency is plotted vs. the non-dimensional specific speed 𝜔𝑠

for different turbine types.
Selection of Hydraulic Turbines 13

• Table 10.1: ranges of specific

speed 𝑁𝑠 in SI units for different
turbine types are given.

• Figure 10.11: head (m) vs. shaft

power (kW) application ranges
of different turbine types are
plotted on a logarithmic scale.
Selection of Hydraulic Turbines 14

• Figure 10.10: data relating specific diameters to specific speeds for different
turbine types is presented (resembles Cordier diagram for pumps).
Selection of Hydraulic Turbines 15

→ It should be noted that in Figure 10.10, data is defined as follows:

0.25 Τ 0.5
• Non-dimensional specific diameter: 𝜃 = 𝐾𝜃 𝐷 𝑔𝐻 𝑄
where: 𝐾𝜃 = 𝜋 0.5 Τ20.75 = 1.054

• Non-dimensional specific speed: 𝜎 = 𝐾𝜎 𝑛𝑄0.5 Τ 𝑔𝐻 0.75

where: 𝐾𝜎 = 𝜋 0.5 20.25 = 2.11

& 𝑛 is in rps (revolutions per second)

• Specific speed 𝑵𝒔 is also given on horizontal axis in [𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑚3 Τ𝑠 0.5 Τ

𝑚0.75 ]

• Constant lines of energy and flow coefficients are presented as:

o 𝜓 = 𝑔𝐻Τ𝐾𝜓 𝑛2 𝐷 2 with 𝐾𝜓 = 𝜋 2 Τ2 & 𝑛 (𝑟𝑝𝑠)

o 𝜙 = 𝑄 Τ𝐾𝜙 𝑛𝐷 3 with 𝐾𝜙 = 𝜋 2 Τ4 & 𝑛 (𝑟𝑝𝑠)

Selection of Hydraulic Turbines 16

→ Selection Procedure

1. Given available head (𝑯) and capacity (𝑸), efficiency is estimated for
instance as 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟗 and hence the output shaft power is calculated from
𝑷𝒐 = 𝑷𝒔 = 𝜼𝝆𝑸𝒈𝑯.

2. With 𝐻 & 𝑃𝑜 known, the type of turbine can be selected from Figure 10.11.

3. Determine the speed 𝑵 (in rpm) either by selecting an appropriate value or (if
possible) by using the formula: 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇Τ𝒏𝒑 where 𝒇 is the electrical
frequency in Hertz (60 Hz in the U.S. for example) and 𝒏𝒑 is the number of
poles in the used generator (multiple of 2 or 4). Either way, check that 𝝎𝒔 &
𝑵𝒔 will result in an efficiency close to the assumed one in Figure 10.9 and
within the specified range in Table 10.1.

4. Estimate the impeller diameter using Figure 10.10.

• Optional step: you can check for the values of energy and flow coefficients 𝜓
& 𝜙 to be close to those of Figure 10.10.
Selection of Hydraulic Turbines 17
Performance Characteristics 18

→ Performance of hydraulic turbines can be plotted and provided as curves with

different styles or configurations. Here are some examples:

• Figure 10.12: relationship of torque, power, & efficiency vs. impeller speed is
expressed in terms of the speed ratio 𝑈Τ 2𝑔𝐻.
Performance Characteristics 19

• Figure 10.13: similar relations are depicted but with the effects of flowrate or
gate opening.
Performance Characteristics 20

• Figure 10.14: a complete performance map is presented in terms of the non-

dimensional parameters 𝜙, 𝜓, Π, & 𝜂. Gate opening effects are also shown.
These are called Hill Curves used to predict performance of prototypes based
on similarity laws.

• Note: similarity or
affinity laws of
pumps are also
applicable for
hydraulic turbines:

o 𝑄~𝑁𝐷 3
o 𝐻~𝑁 2 𝐷 2
o 𝑃𝑠 ~𝑁 3 𝐷 5
Performance Characteristics 21

• Figure 10.15: efficiency is plotted vs. the full load percentage for convenience
in some applications.
Performance Characteristics 22
Pelton Turbine 23

• It is an impulse machine used for high-head, low-flow installations. Pressure

drop occurs in the nozzle (P.E. converts to K.E. as high-speed jet).

• Note that state 1 is the state before the nozzle, state

2 is at bucket (blade) inlet, and state 3 is at the
turbine outlet.
• For a turbine, Euler’s equation is given as:

∆𝐸 = 𝑔𝐻 = 𝑈𝑖 𝑉𝑢𝑖 − 𝑈𝑜 𝑉𝑢𝑜

• For a Pelton wheel, 𝑈 is the same at inlet & outlet,

and flow velocity is in the same direction of 𝑈 at
inlet. Euler equation then becomes:

∆𝐸 = 𝑔𝐻 = 𝑈 𝑉𝑢2 − 𝑉𝑢3
= 𝑈 𝑈 + 𝑊2 − 𝑈 − 𝑊3 sin 𝛽3
= 𝑈 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 sin 𝛽3

Given that 𝑈 > 𝑊3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽3 which is usually the case

Pelton Turbine 24

• For ideal flow with no friction → 𝑊2 = 𝑊3 then:

∆𝐸 = 𝑈𝑊2 1 + sin 𝛽3 = 𝑈(𝑉2 − 𝑈) 1 + sin 𝛽3
• But, we also have:
1
∆𝐸 = [ 𝑈22 − 𝑈32 + 𝑉22 − 𝑉32 + 𝑊32 − 𝑊22 ]
2
1
⇒ ∆𝐸 = 𝑉22 − 𝑉32 for Pelton wheel with no friction
2

• Hence, a utilization factor 𝜺 is defined as:

Δ𝐸 Δ𝐸 𝑈 𝑈
𝜀= = = 2 1 + sin 𝛽3 1−
Δ𝐸+𝑉32 Τ2 𝑉22 Τ2 𝑉2 𝑉2

→ Proper derivation yields maximum 𝜀 for:

𝑈 1
=
𝑉2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2

𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1 + sin 𝛽3 Τ2
⇒ ൝
Δ𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑈 2 1 + sin 𝛽3
Pelton Turbine 25

• In fact, friction losses are present in the nozzle & buckets. To include them, a
nozzle efficiency & bucket velocity coefficient are defined as:
𝜂𝑛 = 𝑉22 Τ2𝑔𝐻
൝
𝐶𝑉𝑏 = 𝑊3 Τ𝑊2

• The hydraulic efficiency can be then defined as:

Δ𝐸 2Δ𝐸𝜂𝑛 𝑈 𝑈
𝜂ℎ = = 2 = 2𝜂𝑛 1− 1 + 𝐶𝑉𝑏 sin 𝛽3
𝑔𝐻 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2
1
→ At optimum conditions: 𝜂ℎ,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜂𝑛 1 + 𝐶𝑉𝑏 sin 𝛽3
2

• Now including the mechanical & leakage losses, shaft power becomes:
𝑃𝑠 = 𝜂𝑚 𝜂𝑣 𝑚Δ𝐸 = 𝜂𝑚 𝜂𝑣 𝜂ℎ 𝑚𝑔𝐻 = 𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑔𝐻 = 𝜂𝑜 𝜌𝑄𝑔𝐻

𝜋
• Note that: 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉2 = 𝑑𝑛2 𝜂𝑛 2𝑔𝐻 𝑑𝑛 : nozzle diameter
4
Hydraulic Turbine Problems 26
Francis & Kaplan Turbines 27

• Francis turbine is a radial-flow turbine with either pure radial or mixed-flow

impeller. As opposed to pump, flow enters radially and discharges axially.
Inlet guide vanes are used to direct the flow in proper direction.

• Kaplan turbine is an axial-flow type (also called propeller turbine) with fixed
blades, or adjustable blades used to flat the efficiency curve over wide range
capacities.

• Basic design of such turbines is based on Euler equation:

∆𝐸 = 𝑔𝐻 = 𝑈1 𝑉𝑢1 − 𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2 = 𝑈1 𝑉𝑢1 = 𝑈1 𝑉1 cos 𝛼1

𝑃𝑠 = 𝜂𝑚 𝜂𝑣 𝑚Δ𝐸
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉1 sin 𝛼1 Design condition of
𝑉1 = 𝜂𝑛 2𝑔𝐻 no swirl at outlet

𝐴1 = 𝜋𝐷1 𝑏1 (Francis)
To account for losses in 𝜋
𝐴1 = 𝐷𝑡2 − 𝐷ℎ2 (Kaplan)
penstock & nozzle 4
Cavitation 28

• Cavitation is also a problem in hydraulic turbines causing noise, vibration,

and structure erosion, but it rather occurs at turbine discharge where pressure
is minimum. To avoid it, the following condition must be met:
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 ≥ 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑅
𝑉𝑒2
where, 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 = 𝐻𝑎 − 𝑍1 + + 𝐻𝐿 − 𝐻𝑣
2𝑔

𝑯𝒂 : atmospheric pressure head

𝒁𝟏 : turbine height above tail
water
𝑽𝒆 : flow velocity at draft tube
exit
𝑯𝑳 : head loss in draft tube
𝑯𝒗 : water vapor pressure head
Cavitation 29

NPSHR can be determined from Figure 10.21,

from Thoma’s number:

𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻
𝜎=
𝐻

which is given graphically as a function of the

specific power speed:

𝑃𝑠 0.5 ℎ𝑝 0.5
𝑁𝑠𝑝 = 𝑁 1.25 𝑟𝑝𝑚 1.25
𝐻 𝑓𝑡

or analytically using the following formulas:

1.8
0.006 + 0.55 𝑁𝑠𝑝 Τ100 → Francis
𝜎=ቐ 2.5
0.1 + 0.3 𝑁𝑠𝑝 Τ100 → Kaplan
Cavitation 30

Q = 63 ft3/s; H = 80 ft; N = 400 rpm; Hv = 0.363 psi.