Resources and Development:

Development of Resources:
- Resources are crucial for human survival and maintaining quality of life.
- In the past, resources were seen as free gifts of nature and were used without restraint.
- This has resulted in several major problems:
- Depletion of resources to satisfy the greed of a few individuals.
- Accumulation of resources in the hands of a few, leading to societal divisions between the rich
and poor.
- Indiscriminate exploitation of resources causing global ecological crises such as global
warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution, and land degradation.
- Equitable distribution of resources is necessary for a sustainable quality of life and global
peace.
- If the current trend of resource depletion by a few individuals and countries continues, the
future of the planet is at risk.
- Resource planning is essential for the sustainable existence of all life forms.
- Sustainable existence is a part of sustainable development.

Resource Planning:
- Planning is crucial for the efficient use of resources, especially in a diverse country like India.
- India has regions with varying resource availability, with some being rich in certain resources
but deficient in others.
- Some regions in India are self-sufficient in terms of resources, while others face acute
shortages of vital resources.
- Examples include Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh, which are rich in minerals
and coal deposits, and Arunachal Pradesh, which has abundant water resources but lacks
infrastructure.
- Rajasthan is well-endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks water resources.
- Ladakh, a cold desert, has a rich cultural heritage but faces deficiencies in water,
infrastructure, and vital minerals.
- Balanced resource planning is necessary at the national, state, regional, and local levels to
address these disparities.

Resource Planning in India:

- Resource planning is a complex process that involves identifying and inventorying resources
across different regions of a country.
- This process includes surveying, mapping, and estimating the qualitative and quantitative
measurements of resources.
- It also requires the development of a planning structure with appropriate technology, skills, and
institutional setup to implement resource development plans.
- The resource development plans need to be aligned with the overall national development
plans.
- India has made consistent efforts to achieve resource planning goals since its First Five Year
Plan after Independence.
- Availability of resources is essential for regional development, but it is not sufficient without
corresponding changes in technology and institutions.
- Some economically backward regions in India are rich in resources, while some economically
developed regions have a poor resource base.

History of Resources:
- Colonisation was driven by the rich resources in colonies, attracting foreign invaders.
- The technological superiority of colonising countries enabled them to exploit resources and
establish dominance.
- Resources can only contribute to development when accompanied by technological
development and institutional changes.
- India's history of colonisation highlights the importance of technology, human resources, and
historical experiences in resource development.
- Development in India requires more than just the availability of resources; it also involves
technology, human resources, and historical context.

Conservation of Resources:
- Resources are crucial for development, but excessive consumption can lead to
socio-economic and environmental issues.
- Resource conservation is important at various levels to address these problems.
- Leaders and thinkers, such as Gandhiji, have emphasized the need for resource conservation.
He aptly stated that there is enough for man's need but not for man's greed.
- Gandhiji believed that greed and modern technology are the main causes of resource
depletion.
- He advocated for production by the masses over mass production to promote sustainability.

Land Resources:
- Land is a crucial natural resource that supports various aspects of life and economic activities.
- India has diverse relief features such as mountains, plateaus, plains, and islands.
- 43% of India's land area is plain, suitable for agriculture and industry.
- Mountains cover 30% of the country's surface area, providing water sources, tourism
opportunities, and ecological benefits.
- Plateau regions, covering 27% of the country, are rich in minerals, fossil fuels, and forests.

Land Utilization:
- Land resources are utilized for various purposes including forests, barren and waste land,
non-agricultural uses like buildings and roads, permanent pastures, grazing land, miscellaneous
tree crops groves, cultruable waste land, fallow lands, net sown area, and gross cropped area.
- The net sown area refers to the physical extent of land where crops are sown and harvested,
while the gross cropped area includes the area sown more than once in an agricultural year in
addition to the net sown area.

Land Use Pattern in India:

- Land use is determined by physical factors such as topography, climate, and soil types, as well
as human factors such as population density, technological capability, and culture.
- Land use data is available for 93% of India's total geographical area, with the exception of
most of the north-east states and areas occupied by Pakistan and China.
- The land under permanent pasture has decreased, posing challenges for feeding the cattle
population.
- Current fallow lands are either of poor quality or have high cultivation costs, resulting in
cultivation once or twice every two to three years.
- The net sown area varies greatly from state to state, with Punjab and Haryana having over
80% and Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, and Andaman Nicobar Islands having less
than 10%.
- The forest area in India is lower than the desired 33% outlined in the National Forest Policy
(1952), impacting the livelihoods of people living on the fringes of these forests.
- Waste land includes rocky, arid, and desert areas, while land put to other non-agricultural uses
includes settlements, roads, railways, and industry.
- Continuous use of land without conservation measures has led to land degradation, with
significant repercussions on society and the environment.

Land Degradation and Conservation Measures:

- Land is crucial for meeting 95% of our basic needs for food, shelter, and clothing.
- Human activities have led to the degradation of land and accelerated natural forces that cause
damage to land.
- Deforestation, overgrazing, mining, and quarrying are significant contributors to land
degradation.
- Mining activities have left scars and traces of over-burdening, particularly in states like
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha.
- Overgrazing is a major cause of land degradation in states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
- Over-irrigation in states like Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh has led to water
logging, salinity, and alkalinity in the soil, causing land degradation.
- Industrial activities, such as mineral processing and the discharge of industrial effluents, have
become significant sources of land and water pollution.
- Solutions to land degradation include afforestation, proper grazing management, planting
shelter belts, controlling overgrazing, stabilizing sand dunes with thorny bushes, and managing
waste lands.
- Control of mining activities and proper disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after
treatment can also help reduce land and water degradation in industrial and suburban areas.

Soil as a Resource:
- Soil is a crucial renewable natural resource that supports plant growth and sustains various
living organisms on Earth.
- It takes millions of years for soil to form, even up to a few centimeters in depth.
- Factors such as relief, parent rock or bedrock, climate, vegetation, other forms of life, and time
play significant roles in soil formation.
- Natural forces like temperature changes, running water, wind, glaciers, and decomposers
contribute to the formation of soil.
- Chemical and organic changes occurring in the soil are also important.
- Soil consists of both organic (humus) and inorganic materials.
- The soils of India are classified into different types based on factors like soil formation, color,
thickness, texture, age, and chemical and physical properties.

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation:

- Soil erosion is the denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down, often caused
by human activities like deforestation, over-grazing, construction, and mining, as well as natural
forces like wind, glacier, and water.
- Running water can cut through clayey soils, creating deep channels known as gullies, making
the land unfit for cultivation, referred to as bad land or ravines in the Chambal basin.
- Sheet erosion occurs when water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope, washing
away the topsoil, while wind erosion happens when loose soil is blown off flat or sloping land.
- Defective farming methods, such as ploughing up and down the slope, can lead to soil erosion,
but contour ploughing along contour lines can help decelerate water flow and prevent erosion.
- Terrace cultivation, strip cropping, and planting shelter belts of trees can also help prevent soil
erosion by breaking up the force of wind and stabilizing sand dunes and deserts.

Forest and Wildlife Resources:

Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India:

- Conservation is crucial due to the rapid decline in wildlife population and forestry.
- Conservation helps preserve ecological diversity and life support systems such as water, air,
and soil.
- It also preserves genetic diversity of plants and animals, aiding in species growth and
breeding.
- Traditional crop varieties in agriculture and fisheries heavily rely on the maintenance of
biodiversity.
- The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act was implemented in 1972 to protect habitats and
endangered species.
- National parks and wildlife sanctuaries were established by central and state governments.
- Various projects have been initiated to protect specific animals like tigers, rhinoceros,
crocodiles, lions, elephants, etc.
- Conservation efforts now focus on biodiversity as a whole, including insects and plants.
- Hundreds of butterflies, moths, beetles, and one dragonfly have been added to the list of
protected species.
- In 1991, plants were also added to the list of protected species.

Project Tiger:
- Tiger is a key wildlife species in the faunal web.
- The tiger population has significantly decreased from an estimated 55,000 to 1,827 in 1973.
- The major threats to tiger population include poaching, shrinking habitat, depletion of prey
base species, and growing human population.
- Tiger skins and bones are traded for traditional medicines, particularly in Asian countries.
- India and Nepal are prime targets for poaching and illegal trading due to their habitat hosting
two-thirds of the surviving tiger population.
- "Project Tiger" was launched in 1973 as a well-publicized wildlife campaign.
- Tiger conservation is important not only for saving an endangered species but also for
preserving biotypes of significant magnitude.
- Notable tiger reserves in India include Corbett National Park, Sunderbans National Park,
Bandhavgarh National Park, Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary, Manas Tiger Reserve, and Periyar
Tiger Reserve.

Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources:

- Forest and wildlife resources in India are primarily owned or managed by the government
through the Forest Department or other government departments.
- The forest resources are classified into three categories: Reserved Forests, Protected Forests,
and Unclassed Forests.
- Reserved Forests, which make up more than half of the total forest land, are considered the
most valuable for conservation purposes.
- Protected Forests, comprising almost one-third of the total forest area, are safeguarded from
further depletion.
- Unclassed Forests include forests and wastelands owned by both the government and private
individuals and communities.
- Reserved and protected forests are also known as permanent forest estates, serving the dual
purpose of producing timber and other forest products while providing protection.
- Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forests, accounting for 75% of its total
forest area.
- Several states like Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
West Bengal, and Maharashtra have significant percentages of reserved forests.
- On the other hand, Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, and Rajasthan have a
substantial portion of their forests classified as protected forests.
- The northeastern states and parts of Gujarat have a high percentage of unclassed forests,
which are managed by local communities.

Community and Conservation:

- Conservation strategies in India involve traditional communities living in forests
- Villagers in Sariska Tiger Reserve and Alwar district of Rajasthan are actively involved in
protecting habitats
- The Chipko movement in the Himalayas successfully resisted deforestation and promoted
community afforestation
- Efforts to revive traditional conservation methods and promote ecological farming are gaining
momentum
- Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme in India involves local communities in managing
and restoring degraded forests
- Local communities need to be involved in natural resource management for sustainable
development
- Economic and developmental activities should be people-centric, environmentally friendly, and
economically rewarding.

Sacred groves - a wealth of diverse and rare species:

- Nature worship is a tribal belief that emphasizes the protection of all creations of nature.
- Sacred Groves, also known as forests of God and Goddesses, are patches of untouched
forests that are revered and protected by local communities.
- Certain societies worship specific trees, such as the mahua and kadamba trees in the Chota
Nagpur region and the tamarind and mango trees in Odisha and Bihar.
- In Indian society, different cultures have their own traditional methods of conserving nature and
its creations.
- Springs, mountain peaks, plants, and animals are often considered sacred and closely
protected.
- Macaques and langurs are treated as part of temple devotees and are fed daily in many
temples.
- In Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, herds of blackbuck, nilgai, and peacocks are seen as an
integral part of the community and are not harmed.

Water Resources:

Water Scarcity and need for Conservation and Management:

- Water scarcity is not just limited to regions with low rainfall or prone to drought, but can also be
caused by over-exploitation, excessive use, and unequal access to water among different social
groups.
- Large and growing populations, along with industrialization and urbanization, contribute to
water scarcity by increasing demands for water and putting pressure on existing freshwater
resources.
- Falling groundwater levels due to over-exploitation for irrigation and industrial use, as well as
pollution from domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals, pesticides, and fertilizers, further
exacerbate water scarcity.
- Conservation and proper management of water resources are crucial to safeguard against
health hazards, ensure food security, maintain livelihoods, prevent ecological degradation, and
mitigate the impact of water scarcity on our lives.

Dam:
- A dam is a barrier that obstructs the flow of water and creates a reservoir or impoundment.
- The term "dam" refers to the reservoir rather than the structure itself.
- Dams typically have a spillway or weir to allow water to flow intermittently or continuously.
- Dams are classified based on their structure, intended purpose, or height.
- Based on structure and materials used, dams can be timber dams, embankment dams, or
masonry dams.
- Dams can also be categorized based on their height, such as large dams, major dams, low
dams, medium height dams, and high dams.

Hydraulic Structures in Ancient India:

- Sringaverapura near Allahabad had a sophisticated water harvesting system in the first
century B.C., which channeled floodwater from the river Ganga.
- During the time of Chandragupta Maurya, extensive construction of dams, lakes, and irrigation
systems took place.
- Evidence of advanced irrigation works has been discovered in various regions such as
Kalinga, Nagarjunakonda, Bennur, and Kolhapur.
- In the 11th Century, the construction of Bhopal Lake, one of the largest artificial lakes at that
time, was completed.
- Iltutmish constructed the tank in Hauz Khas, Delhi in the 14th Century to provide water supply
to the Siri Fort area.

Multi Purpose Projects and Integrated Water Resource Managaement:

- Ancient civilizations have a long history of constructing hydraulic structures like dams,
reservoirs, and canals for water management.
- Modern dams in India serve multiple purposes such as irrigation, electricity generation, flood
control, and water supply for domestic and industrial use.
- Multi-purpose projects were seen as a means of development and progress
post-Independence, integrating water resources management.
- Large dams and multi-purpose projects have faced opposition due to environmental impacts
like sedimentation, habitat destruction, and social issues like displacement of local communities.
- Irrigation from dams has led to changes in cropping patterns, ecological consequences like soil
salinization, and social disparities between landowners and landless poor.
- Conflicts arise over water allocation between different stakeholders, leading to inter-state water
disputes and protests against project failures.
- Dams have not always been successful in flood control, sometimes exacerbating flood
situations and causing soil erosion, land degradation, and other environmental issues.

Rainwater Harvesting:
- Water harvesting systems were considered a viable alternative to multi-purpose projects due
to their socio-economic and environmental benefits.
- Ancient India had a rich tradition of water harvesting, with people having extensive knowledge
of rainfall patterns and soil types.
- Different techniques were developed to harvest rainwater, groundwater, river water, and flood
water based on local ecological conditions and water needs.
- Examples of water harvesting techniques include diversion channels in hill and mountainous
regions, rooftop rainwater harvesting in Rajasthan, and inundation channels in the flood plains
of Bengal.
- In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain-fed storage structures
like khadins and johads.
- In Rajasthan, underground tanks called tankas were commonly used to store drinking water,
with some tanks being as large as a room.
- Tankas were part of a rooftop rainwater harvesting system, where rainwater from rooftops was
collected and stored in the tanks.
- Rainwater stored in tankas was considered a reliable source of drinking water, especially
during dry summers.
- Today, rooftop rainwater harvesting is declining in western Rajasthan due to the availability of
water from the Rajasthan Canal.
- However, in many parts of rural and urban India, rooftop rainwater harvesting is being
successfully implemented to conserve water.
- An example is the village of Gendathur in Karnataka, where nearly 200 households have
installed rooftop rainwater harvesting systems to meet their water needs.
- Gendathur receives an annual precipitation of 1,000 mm, and each house can collect and use
about 50,000 liters of water annually with an 80% collection efficiency.
- The village collectively harvests around 1,00,000 liters of rainwater annually.
- Tamil Nadu is the first state in India which has made roof top rainwater harvesting structure
compulsory to all the houses across the state. There are legal provisions to punish the
defaulters.
- Roof top rain water harvesting is a common practice in Shillong, Meghalaya, despite the region
receiving high rainfall.
- Cherapunjee and Mawsynram, located near Shillong, receive the highest rainfall in the world,
yet Shillong faces water shortage.
- Almost every household in Shillong has a roof top rain water harvesting structure.
- 15-25% of the total water requirement of households in Shillong is met through roof top water
harvesting.

Agriculture:

Primitive Subsistence Farming:

- Primitive subsistence agriculture is still practiced in certain areas of India.
- This type of farming involves small patches of land and the use of primitive tools and family or
community labor.
- It relies on the monsoon, natural soil fertility, and other environmental conditions for crop
growth.
- It is a form of "slash and burn" agriculture, where farmers clear a patch of land and cultivate
cereals and other food crops to sustain their families.
- When the soil fertility decreases, farmers shift to a new patch of land for cultivation, allowing
nature to naturally replenish the soil's fertility.
- This type of agriculture has low productivity as farmers do not use fertilizers or modern inputs.
- It is known by different names in different regions of the country.

Intensive Subsistence Farming:

- This type of farming is practiced in areas with high population pressure on land.
- It is labor-intensive farming that relies on high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation to
achieve higher production.
- Some states in India where this type of farming is practiced are not mentioned in the provided
text.
- The division of land among successive generations due to the right of inheritance has resulted
in uneconomical land-holding sizes.
- Despite the small land sizes, farmers strive to maximize output due to the absence of
alternative sources of livelihood.
- As a result, there is significant pressure on agricultural land in these areas.

Commercial and Plantation Farming:

- Commercial farming involves the use of modern inputs such as high yielding variety seeds,
chemical fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides to achieve higher productivity.
- The level of commercialization in agriculture varies from region to region. For example, rice is
a commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but a subsistence crop in Odisha.
- There are crops that may be commercial in one region but provide subsistence in another
region.
- Plantation farming is another type of commercial farming where a single crop is grown on a
large area.
- Plantations, such as tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, and banana, cover large tracts of land and
use capital-intensive inputs with the help of migrant laborers.
- The produce from plantations is used as raw material in respective industries.
- Tea in Assam and North Bengal, and coffee in Karnataka are important plantation crops in
India.
- The development of plantations relies on a well-developed network of transport and
communication connecting the plantation areas, processing industries, and markets.

Cropping Pattern:
- India has three cropping seasons - rabi, kharif, and zaid.
- Rabi crops are sown in winter and harvested in summer, with important crops like wheat,
barley, peas, gram, and mustard grown in states like Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.
- Kharif crops are grown during the monsoon season and harvested in September-October, with
important crops like paddy, maize, jowar, and cotton grown in regions like Assam, West Bengal,
and Maharashtra.
- The Zaid season falls between rabi and kharif seasons, with crops like watermelon,
muskmelon, cucumber, and sugarcane being grown during this time.

Rice:
- Rice is the staple food crop for the majority of people in India
- India is the second largest producer of rice globally, following China
- Rice is a kharif crop that requires high temperatures (above 25°C), high humidity, and annual
rainfall above 100 cm
- In areas with less rainfall, rice cultivation is supported by irrigation
- Rice is primarily grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas, and deltaic
regions
- The development of canal irrigation and tubewells has enabled rice cultivation in regions with
lower rainfall, such as Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Rajasthan.

Wheat:
- Wheat is the second most important cereal crop.
- It is the main food crop in the northern and northwestern parts of the country.
- Wheat is a rabi crop, which means it requires a cool growing season and bright sunshine
during ripening.
- It needs 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season.
- There are two important wheat-growing zones in the country: the Ganga-Satluj plains in the
northwest and the black soil region of the Deccan.
- The major wheat-producing states in India are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan.

Millets:
- Jowar, bajra, and ragi are important millets grown in India.
- These millets are considered coarse grains but have high nutritional value.
- Ragi is rich in iron, calcium, other micro nutrients, and roughage.
- Jowar is the third most important food crop in terms of area and production.
- Jowar is a rain-fed crop and is mainly grown in moist areas that require minimal irrigation.
- Major Jowar producing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya
Pradesh.
- Bajra grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil.
- Major Bajra producing states are Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and
Haryana.
- Ragi is a crop that thrives in dry regions and can grow on various types of soils.
- Major ragi producing states are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Sikkim, Jharkhand, and Arunachal Pradesh.

Maize:
- Maize is a versatile crop used for both food and fodder.
- It is a kharif crop that thrives in temperatures between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old
alluvial soil.
- In states like Bihar, maize is also grown in the rabi season.
- The use of modern inputs like HYV seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation has led to an increase in
maize production.
- Major maize-producing states in India include Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.

Pulses:
- India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world.
- Pulses are a major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
- The major pulses grown in India are tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas, and gram.
- Some pulses are grown in the kharif season, while others are grown in the rabi season.
- Pulses require less moisture and can survive in dry conditions.
- Except for arhar, all pulses help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air.
- Pulses are often grown in rotation with other crops.
- The major pulse-producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar
Pradesh, and Karnataka.

Sugarcane:
- Sugarcane is a tropical and sub-tropical crop that thrives in hot and humid climates with
temperatures ranging from 21°C to 27°C and an annual rainfall between 75cm and 100cm.
- Irrigation is necessary in regions with low rainfall.
- Sugarcane can be cultivated in various soil types and requires manual labor from sowing to
harvesting.
- India is the second largest producer of sugarcane globally, following Brazil.
- Sugarcane is a primary source of sugar, gur (jaggery), khandsari, and molasses.
- The major sugarcane-producing states in India include Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab, and Haryana.

Oil Seeds:
- India was the second largest producer of groundnut in the world after China in 2018.
- In rapeseed production, India ranked third globally after Canada and China in 2018.
- Oil seeds cover approximately 12% of the total cropped area in India.
- Main oil seeds produced in India include groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum, soyabean,
castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed, and sunflower.
- These oil seeds are primarily used as cooking mediums, but some are also utilized in the
production of soap, cosmetics, and ointments.
- Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts for about half of the major oilseeds produced in India.
- Gujarat was the largest producer of groundnut in India, followed by Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu
in 2019-20.
- Linseed and mustard are rabi crops, while sesamum is a kharif crop in the north and rabi crop
in the south of India.
- Castor seed is grown as both a rabi and kharif crop in India.

Tea:
- Tea cultivation is an example of plantation agriculture and was introduced to India by the
British.
- Most tea plantations in India are now owned by Indians.
- Tea plants thrive in tropical and sub-tropical climates with deep, fertile, well-drained soil.
- The tea bushes require a warm and moist frost-free climate throughout the year, with evenly
distributed showers for continuous growth.
- The tea industry is labor-intensive and requires abundant, cheap, and skilled labor.
- Tea is processed within the tea garden to maintain its freshness.
- Major tea-producing states in India include Assam, Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts in West
Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
- Other tea-producing states in India are Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra
Pradesh, and Tripura.
- In 2018, India was the second-largest producer of tea globally, following China.

Coffee:
- Indian coffee is renowned globally for its high quality, particularly the Arabica variety which was
originally brought from Yemen.
- The cultivation of Arabica coffee was first introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and continues to
be grown in the Nilgiri region spanning Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
- The Arabica variety of Indian coffee is highly sought after worldwide, indicating its popularity
and demand in the global market.

Horticulture Crops:
- India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China.
- The country produces both tropical and temperate fruits, with specific regions known for
certain fruits such as mangoes, oranges, bananas, lichi, guava, pineapples, grapes, apples,
pears, apricots, and walnuts.
- India is also a significant producer of vegetables like pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato,
brinjal, and potato.

Rubber:
- Rubber is primarily grown in equatorial regions, but can also be cultivated in tropical and
sub-tropical areas under specific conditions.
- The crop requires a moist and humid climate, with rainfall exceeding 200 cm and temperatures
above 25°C.
- Rubber is a significant industrial raw material, with major cultivation areas in Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Andaman and Nicobar islands, and Garo hills of Meghalaya.

Fibre Crops:
- Cotton, jute, hemp, and natural silk are the four main fibre crops cultivated in India.
- Cotton, jute, and hemp are derived from crops grown in the soil, while natural silk is obtained
from silkworm cocoons fed on mulberry leaves.
- The process of rearing silk worms for silk fibre production is called sericulture.

Cotton:
- India is considered the original home of the cotton plant
- Cotton is a key raw material for the textile industry
- In 2017, India was the second largest producer of cotton globally, after China
- Cotton thrives in drier regions with black cotton soil, such as the Deccan plateau
- Ideal conditions for cotton growth include high temperatures, light rainfall or irrigation, 210
frost-free days, and ample sunshine
- Cotton is a kharif crop, taking 6 to 8 months to mature
- Major cotton-producing states in India include Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh

Jute:
- Jute is referred to as the golden fibre and thrives in well-drained fertile soils in flood plains.
- High temperatures are necessary for its growth.
- Major jute producing states in India include West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha, and
Meghalaya.
- Jute is utilized in the production of gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets, and various
artefacts.
- Despite its versatility, jute is facing market competition from synthetic fibres and packing
materials like nylon due to its high cost.

Mineral and Energy Resources:

What are Minerals:

- Geologists define minerals as homogenous, naturally occurring substances with a definable
internal structure.
- Minerals are found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the hardest diamond to the softest
talc.
- Rocks are combinations of homogenous substances called minerals, with some rocks
consisting of a single mineral while others consist of several minerals in varying proportions.
- Over 2000 minerals have been identified, but only a few are abundantly found in most rocks.
- The physical and chemical conditions under which a mineral forms determine its properties
such as color, hardness, crystal form, lustre, and density.
- Geographers study minerals to better understand landforms, while geologists focus on the
formation, age, and composition of minerals.
- Minerals can be classified for general and commercial purposes.

Types of Minerals in India:

- India has rich and varied mineral resources, but they are unevenly distributed
- Peninsular rocks contain most reserves of coal, metallic minerals, mica, and non-metallic
minerals
- Sedimentary rocks in Gujarat and Assam have most petroleum deposits
- Rajasthan has reserves of many non-ferrous minerals
- North India's alluvial plains lack economic minerals
- Geological structure, processes, and time of formation contribute to mineral distribution
- Concentration of mineral in ore, ease of extraction, and proximity to market affect economic
viability
- Choice between options is necessary to meet demand and turn a mineral deposit into a mine

Ferrous Minerals:
- Ferrous minerals make up approximately 75% of the total value of metallic minerals
production.
- These minerals are crucial for the growth of metallurgical industries.
- India exports significant amounts of ferrous minerals once domestic needs are met.

Iron Ore:
- India has abundant resources of iron ore and is rich in good quality iron ores.
- Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a high iron content of up to 70%, making it valuable in the
electrical industry.
- Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of quantity used, but it has a
slightly lower iron content than magnetite.
- In 2018-19, the majority of iron ore production (97%) in India came from the states of Odisha,
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, and Jharkhand.
- The major iron ore belts in India are the Odisha-Jharkhand belt, Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt,
Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru-Tumakuru belt, and Maharashtra-Goa belt.
- The Odisha-Jharkhand belt has high-grade hematite ore in Badampahar mines (Odisha) and
Gua and Noamundi mines (Jharkhand).
- The Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra has very high-grade
hematite ore in the Bailadila range of hills.
- The Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru-Tumakuru belt in Karnataka has large reserves of
iron ore, with the Kudremukh mines being one of the largest in the world.
- The Maharashtra-Goa belt includes the state of Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra,
where iron ore is efficiently exploited and exported through Marmagao port.

Manganese:
- Manganese is primarily used in the production of steel and ferro-manganese alloy.
- Approximately 10 kg of manganese is needed to manufacture one tonne of steel.
- Manganese is also utilized in the manufacturing of bleaching powder, insecticides, and paints.
Non-Ferrous Minerals:
- India's reserves and production of nonferrous minerals are not satisfactory.
- Nonferrous minerals such as copper, bauxite, lead, zinc, and gold are important for
metallurgical, engineering, and electrical industries.
- The distribution of copper and bauxite in India is worth studying.

Copper:
- India has a significant shortage of copper reserves and production.
- Copper is valued for its malleability, ductility, and conductivity, making it essential in industries
such as electrical cables, electronics, and chemicals.
- The main copper-producing regions in India are the Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, the
Khetri mines in Rajasthan, and the Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.

Limestone:
- Limestone is commonly found in sedimentary rocks containing calcium carbonates or calcium
and magnesium carbonates.
- It is a crucial raw material for the cement industry and is essential for smelting iron ore in the
blast furnace.
- Limestone is present in most geological formations and plays a significant role in various
industrial processes.

Hazards of Mining:
- Miners face various hazards that impact their health and the environment.
- Inhaling dust and noxious fumes puts miners at risk of pulmonary diseases.
- Collapsing mine roofs, inundation, and fires pose constant threats to miners' safety.
- Mining activities contaminate water sources in the region.
- Dumping waste and slurry leads to land degradation, soil pollution, and increased stream and
river pollution.
- Stricter safety regulations and environmental laws are necessary to prevent mining from
becoming a dangerous industry.