General Horticulture

1| Page HORTICULTURE
Unit I
THE IMPORTANCE OF
HORTICULTURAL EXPLOITATION IN
THE COUNTRY AND ITS PROJECTION
TOWARDS A GLOBALIZED MARKET.
> CONCEPT
V Horticulture ; Horticulture is
the science in charge of plant cultivation.
The term comes from the Latin hortus
(garden) and cultura (cultivation).
Horticulture is also the crop industry and
specifically the term is also used for
growing vegetables. This branch of
agriculture is fundamentally concerned with the production of plants used by man
for food, ornamentation and also for medicinal purposes.
V Olericulture ; studies and gathers information about vegetables, whose flower,

fruit, stem, leaves and roots are consumed in a fresh, cooked or industrialized
state.
> RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER SCIENCES
V Phytotechnics ; studies the cultivation of plants of economic interest.

V Entomology ; studies the pests that attack horticultural crops.
V Phytopathology ; studies diseases that attack plants.
V Edaphology ; studies the characteristics of soils intended for agricultural
exploitation.
V Meteorology ; studies the relationship of crops with the climate of each region.
• Commercialization ; It is related to the marketing of products.
> FOOD AND SOCIOECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES
V Nutritional importance ; vegetables are capable of producing great

quantity of food per unit of cultivated area, of high nutritional value for the human
organism, they stand out more for the quality than for the quantity of the food
produced. Therefore, its main role in nutrition is not to provide calories, proteins,
carbohydrates or fats, but rather vitamins and mineral salts, essential to maintain
Lic. Vidal Velasquez Lopez

good health.
The human body does not have the capacity to store vitamins and mineral salts
generally, as it does with other nutrients. This is the reason why it is advisable to
eat vegetables daily in adequate quality to meet your physiological needs.
V Socioeconomic importance ; particular climate or market can be used to the

maximum by horticultural producers who become specialists and can sell
through cooperative systems. The agroindustry located in production areas
generates employment for small farmers and their families.
> THE CONTRIBUTION OF HORTICULTURE AS PART OF RURAL

DEVELOPMENT
1) It is a source of labor employment.

2) Contributes to a balanced and complete diet.
3) It is a means for farmers to learn new techniques and acquire positive attitudes
towards change.
4) Provides more income in less time.
5) It significantly helps to improve the quality of life.
> CURRENT STATE AND PERSPECTIVE OF HORTICULTURE IN THE

COUNTRY AND MERCOSUR
Actual state; Vegetable production has always depended on small farmers who
make up 80% of Paraguay's agricultural population. But in recent years, some
companies have emerged that are dedicated to large-scale production using many
personnel and more modern facilities according to the seasonal situation, for
example. Irrigation system (sprinkler and drip), half shade and ground cover.
Even so, most vegetables are grown outdoors under natural conditions,
consequently, it constitutes a drop in price in the market, and even leads to the
products being thrown away (wasted). The annual percentage of self-sufficiency of
the main vegetables is considered less than 50% and in times of low production we
depend on imports, which leads to the flight of currency.
Added to the problems that are currently being faced are:
o The deficiency of production elements such as; plot, irrigation system,

installations against rain and sun protection.
o The deficiency in the development of basic cultivation techniques is the diffusion
of the developed techniques that very little reaches the producer.
either Consequently, deficiencies occur in the selection of
the
varieties and seeds, the instability of the production andthe low
productivity, poor quality, loss in competence with the

foreign products and low profitability.
Perspective ; Vegetables play a role very important in the

nutritional life of the people and in our country, their consumption has increased in
recent times and will continue to increase in the future.
Vegetables occupy a primary place in the farmers' economy due to their high
degree of convertibility into money in the market. Even by cultivating a small area
you can have a relatively high income, depending on how it is managed.
In the current trend of the liberalization of international trade, the situation of

vegetable production in our country, surrounded by great economic powers,
presents several problems related to production technique and tough international
competition in production and sale. In the reduced domestic consumption market,
the production base and the imperfect transportation system and above all, the
political-economic problems caused by small producers with low economic
capacity where the production of vegetables is assumed by the majority of them. .
Still, it is necessary to overcome these problems and develop production.
The cultivation of vegetables is one of the viable alternatives for the diversification
of production in our country, because the international demand for food currently
tends towards the consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables, which means
opening new markets for the producer and even more so considering the validity of
MERCOSUR , which will increasingly demand highly competitive products.

Unit II
THE MAIN TYPES OF

HORTICULTURAL EXPLOITATION
> TYPES OF ORCHARD – Characteristics

Horticultural farms are characterized by the
purpose proposed or the production
technology used.
1) Specialized commercial garden :

dedicated to a maximum of two to three horticultural crops, e.g. Tomato,
pepper, bulb onion, etc. In this type of garden, advanced technology is normally
applied and the rate of mechanization of operations is extremely high, using
modern inputs, such as; hybrid seeds, chemical fertilizers and the most
effective phytosanitary products. Generally, such farms are located far from
consumer centers, but accessible through paved or passable routes at all times
to facilitate the exit of the products. In our country, this type of company
includes growers of 50, 100, 200 thousand and more plants of any horticultural
sector.
2) Diversified commercial garden : dedicated to the cultivation of different

species and varieties of vegetables, according to the preference of the
consumer market and are generally located near large cities. According to
experience, diversified gardens are much less efficient from an economic and
agronomic point of view than specialized gardens.
3) Garden with industrial purpose : it has the particularity of supplying raw

materials to industries. In this type of garden, crops are grown as extensively as
possible, in order to produce a large volume of harvest at a lower cost. To this
end, all care is mechanized, reducing labor costs to the essential minimum. A
great incentive for the country's horticultural production would be the installation
of industries.
4) Educational garden : also known as family or recreational, it has an

inestimable value in food, mainly for rural producers. The domestic garden, as it
can also be called, does not have a commercial objective but rather an
educational one, primarily improving the family's diet in terms of vitamins and
mineral salts.
In this type of garden, the cultivation area is generally small, located close to the
home or the educational institution, being a typically diversified garden and the
work is carried out manually. Taking advantage of the free hours, its importance
lies in providing fresh vegetables for consumption and at the same time to teach

how to produce and consume, to children in schools and young people in schools.
Unit III
d DIFFERENT TYPES OF HORTICULTURAL EXPLOITATION – Planning

and Organization
> FACTORS TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
1) Location : the chosen place will be located near water sources, with flat
topography or with a gentle slope, it must be fenced and, if possible, it will
have windbreaks. The chosen place must be subdivided for greater ease of
operation, the extent of the land will depend on its purpose; If it will be family or
commercial. If possible, it should not be located in places that are difficult to
access or very far from consumption centers, because most vegetables are
perishable. A garden, whether commercial or business, will have to be located
close to the main consumer markets. .
2) Facilities : in a commercial garden, a shed will be needed as a storage facility

for machinery, implements, tools, agrochemicals, fertilizers and various
materials.
3) Survey of the area : for a large orchard or in places where there are many
irregularities in the soil, there is a need to proceed to a topographic survey of
the area, in order to have a better orientation of the rows or planks; When the
garden is used for sprinkler irrigation, this care must be well observed to allow
good orientation of the irrigation channels.
Unit IV
Q REPAIR THE SOIL BEFORE SOWING OR PLANTING VEGETABLES
> FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE LOCATION OF THE ORCHARD
1) Types of soil : when choosing the place where we are going to install a
garden, one of the circumstances that should draw our attention is the nature of the
quality of the soil. The word soil, when we use it in reference to agricultural issues,
means the loose layer that covers the earth's crust and in which all the evolutions
that constitute the germination and development of plants occur.
Humus ; It is formed by organic waste (animals and plants) in the process of
decomposition.

In the soil, three different layers are considered that rest on a fourth, almost always
impermeable, which belongs to the earth's crust and is stony or clayey in nature.
The first three layers, which are the ones that may interest us the most, are
called:
V Topsoil or active soil : superficial

V Inert soil or second layer : the one immediately below it.
V Underground : the one between the second and the rough floor.
Most of the soils dedicated to vegetable crops in our country have a sandy texture
and as traditionally the tillage is carried out superficially, they have a hard layer
between 15 to 30 cm deep called plow foot . It is necessary to break this layer
with a subsoiler, so that the roots of the plants can exceed this depth.
2) Physical constitution of the soil : the soil is the medium for root implantation
and where the mineral elements that vegetables use for their growth are found.
Soils may be heavier or lighter, which may limit the species to be grown. In
commercial production there must be the best possible association between the
species to be grown and the type of crop or species to be implemented.
> WATER SOURCE

Vegetables normally contain a greater amount of water as a component, compared
to other crops, for this reason they require a lot of water in the growth process.
Obtaining a good harvest is the product of optimal plant development. To achieve
this, it is essential that there is no deficiency in the water supply, considering that in
our country, the rainfall regime presents a lot of variability, in quality, frequency and
since most of our soils are sandy, with low retention capacity. of water, it is
necessary to install an irrigation system to regulate the water supply.
The irrigation water for vegetables must satisfy the following conditions:
V Quantity ; Depending on the type of soil, there is a consumption of 0.5 to 1

liter of water per second per hectare. The spring must have a sufficient flow
to satisfy the water needs of the crops.
V Quality; The water must be free of mineral salts that are harmful to the
development of plants, impurities from industries that are frequently toxic to
plants. Nor should it be a carrier of worms and microorganisms that are
pathogenic to humans.
> SHELTER AND PROTECTION OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

The goal of vegetable cultivation is stable production in quality and quantity, as well
as achieving greater economic income. To achieve this objective, several
cultivation techniques have been created with the use of coverage, with good
results observed.
Most vegetable crops in our country are grown outdoors, the use of cover is

relatively low. Considering the competition with imported products in the local
market and the possibility of exporting to neighboring countries, it is a very
important aspect to take into account to achieve development in this area of
production and it will be essential to produce with high quality and maintaining
stability in In terms of quantity, overcoming the negative influences of the
subtropical climate such as high T o , very strong sunlight and concentrated rain.
1) GROUND COVER : in this method, dry stubble of grasses or other

vegetables, plastic can be used to cover the ground. It has several objectives such
as:
V Stimulate crop growth by maintaining soil moisture, preventing the growth of
weeds.
V Protecting crops from contamination of stem, leaf and fruit diseases.
• Prevents soil erosion.
The materials used for this purpose are:
either Dry stubble of grasses or other vegetables ; mainly grasses

different species (colonial, Cameroon, bracciaria, kapii patcholí, jahapé, can be
used for the same purpose, waste from agricultural industries such as cane
bagasse, rice and coconut husks, etc. These materials, at the time of their use
They must be dry, otherwise it can become a means of contamination, mainly
diseases. In cucurbits, if dry grass is used, the tendrils are attached to these
materials for fixation.
either Plastic coverage ; the most used is black plastic, it is recommended

that is 20 to 30 microns thick with a width of 1.5 to 2.0 meters.
Observation : the application of fertilizers should be limited, because under
covered soil the nutrients are almost not lost. The material should also be placed
when the soil is sufficiently moist and at the end of the crop, do not leave remains
of the plastic in field.
According to the purpose of use, several kinds of plastics are available on

the market.
either black plastic ; Its main characteristic is the dark black color that
avoids the direct passage of sunlight.
either Transparent plastic ; Its main objective is to stimulate growth

of the crop by increasing the T or of the soil. With this material, adequate control is
required to avoid the rapid growth of weeds because light passes through and
encourages their growth.
either Silver plastic ; In addition to features such as

soil, its silver color prevents the approach of insect vectors, its effectiveness in the
control of viral diseases has been proven.

2) CROP COVERAGE : consists of covering the crop partially or completely,
o
with the aim of conserving T , protecting against rain, intense sunlight and controlling
pests and diseases.
3) Cultivation system for the conservation of T o : the structures

used for this purpose are known as tunnel, plastic and glass greenhouse, all are
airtight and prevent the entry of wind and rain.
either The tunnel ; It is a small structure, its measurements

Approximately they are 3 meters wide and 1 meter high, these measures make the
normal entry of people impossible. To assemble the structure, tacuara, fine iron
rods, and shaped plastic pipe can be used.

arch, it is a simple and low-cost structure but with the drawback that it must be
assembled and dismantled in each growing period and requires a lot of work to
control the conservation of T o .
either The GreenHouse ; It is more or less 6 meters wide and the length
desired, and may have one or several modules. An arch-shaped iron pipe is used
as framework for the structure. Wood can also be used and plastics are normally
used as covering material. The construction cost is lower than the glass
greenhouse, but it requires a lot of effort to control aeration and damage control
from successive crops.
or The glass greenhouse ; It has a good capacity to transmit sunlight and

maintain T o . It is very durable because the frame is made of iron pipe.
o Protection against sunlight ; It consists of lowering the T or by controlling the

intensity of sunlight that reaches the plants, this is achieved with the use mainly of
half-shade mesh.
either Protection against rain and

efficiency ; Its objective is to protect the crop
from rain, the method is simple and low cost,
the structure is easily assembled. To assemble
the roof, wooden materials or iron pipes can
be used, then it is covered with plastic, the
side part is left uncovered, to avoid high T o .
This installation is suitable for many crops, but
especially for tomatoes, cucumbers, locote
and cucurbits in general.
Currently, vegetable production in our country has experienced an increase, but it

is expected that in the future the consumer will be more demanding of higher
quality products, and it is also essential to take into account exports to neighboring
countries. In order to respond to this need, high quality products must be harvested
and stability in the harvest quantity must be maintained, thus involving both internal
distribution and export. Protected cultivation has several advantages, making its
adoption essential even by small farmers.
> Advantages of this method
either Reduction of damage caused by diseases ; can

greatly reduce the incidence of diseases such as late blight
tomato, bacterial spot, cucurbit downy mildew, phhitopthora rot, strawberry

anthracnose and others.
either Reduction of damage to the fruit ; can reduce the appearance of

tomato fruit cracking, scald, fruiting deficiencies and others.

either Quality improvement ; in tomatoes the sugar content increases
(Brix degree), the fruits have greater shine and a very smooth surface, in melon the
sugar content also increases, in the strawberry the fruits are obtained with more
shine and sugar content.
o Increase in work efficiency ; Cultural tasks such as driving, spraying with

agrochemicals and harvesting can be carried out at the right time regardless of
weather conditions, uniformity in growth can be achieved, in addition to increasing
the quantity and quality of the product.
o Recommendations for adoption
either You should choose a soil with good drainage, loose, aerated, with
preferably close to the producer's home to facilitate crop control.
either In any crop that is carried out in a structure with protection against
Rain , T increases and sunlight easily decreases, causing excessive plant growth.
Therefore, strict control must be maintained regarding driving and pruning
branches and the application of fertilizer.
either Once the system is established, with the succession of crops, it

begins to
Soil diseases, pests and others easily appear. Once it affects the plant, the
expansion is rapid, completely affecting the crop in a short time. To avoid this type
of problem, the necessary control must be established for each case.
> Construction of rain protection structure

recommended for our environment
The trend of progress in vegetable production must be pointing towards processes

that also facilitate the trend on the part of small producers of rain protection
structures.

With this objective, two types of armatures have been experimented with; iron and
wooden pipes for the construction of said structures, these must meet the following
conditions.
The width should be more than 6 meters to facilitate work inside, easy to build and
dismantle in such a way as to avoid damage to the next crop, use low-cost material
and simple structures that allow construction by the farmer himself.
LMÁCIGO:
It is the prepared place where the seed is in direct contact with the earth that
provides the first nutrients to the new plants it needs, so careful preparation is
important, it must be fertile, porous, free of clods and have a good capacity for
retention of moisture necessary for seed germination and to enable the nutrition of
new plants.
The seedbed must satisfy the particular

requirements of each vegetable, with regard to
the main factors that affect the germination of the
seeds; T or , light, water, oxygen. For this, the
seedbed must be located so that it receives
sunlight throughout the day.
REPAIR:
In most cases, a width of 90 to 110 cm, 15 to 20

cm deep, 10 to 15 cm high and long is used
according to the need for shedding, after which the land
from the place was conveniently removed, It is mixed with manure and
chemical fertilizers the recommended amount.
Normally the production of vegetable seedlings is

carried out by the same producer, in traditional
flowerbeds, however, this method of work brings
with it some inconveniences, which subsequently
translate into losses in production and are the
following:
either The place used as a nursery is not

always appropriate.
either Sowing is not uniform and consequently germination and

emergency are irregular.

either The seedlings are of different sizes, which leads to transplanting
them
also at different times.
either Seeds are used in exaggerated quantities and the production period
is
longer.
either The roots suffer exaggerated manipulation, favoring the entry of
pathogens.
> Losses reach up to 30%.
ECIPIENTS FOR SHUTTLE PRODUCTION:
There are different types of containers that can be used for the production of
vegetable seedlings. The choice will depend on the destination that will be given to
the seedlings, the species of vegetables to be planted, economic factors and the
technology used by the producer.
OS OF CONTAINERS:
The advantages and disadvantages of using containers for seedling production are
listed below.
> Advantages:
either A uniform production of seedlings is obtained, especially those

species that normally do not tolerate transplanting.
either Greater number of useful sheds per unit area and less damage to the
estate.
either Less possibility of contamination by pathogens and better control
over
the environment.
o Higher percentage ratio between sown seeds and obtained seedlings.
o Less stress from molting during transplantation.
o Greater ease in the execution of cultural care such as thinning, irrigation and
phytosanitary control, as well as saving water and chemical products.
> Disadvantages:
o Total dependence on artificial irrigation.

o Root development limited to the shape and size of the container.
o Higher production cost.
o Greater water drainage, consequently, the substrate dries out more easily.

TYPES
CONTAINERS:
OF
> Newspaper pots or

newspaper ; It is quite simple and allows the
production of seedlings without the need for
repicking. To make, a glass bottle, aluminum
can or tube that is between 5 to 10 cm in
diameter and 10 to 15 cm high can be used as
a mold. The paper is cut into strips, wrapped
around the mold and then folded to the
bottom.
One of the disadvantages of this type of pot is

the need to have labor for making the pots,
preparing the soil, filling them, planting and
subsequent care. Another problem could arise
with the mixture used (manure, fertilizer, soil),
because it may be contaminated with
pathogens.
The arrangement of the pots on the ground can favor their contamination, in
addition to allowing the growth of the roots outside the environment limited by the
container, as the pots are fragile, they are subject to favorable or unfavorable
environmental conditions.
> Plastic pots (rigid and

flexible); This type of container has similar
characteristics to the previous one, the
difference is that the plastic one is produced
by specialized companies and has its own
cost. With the paper pot you spend on labor,
with the plastic pot, on the purchase of it.
> Isopor trays ; This system allows the
production and
marketing of a large number of seedlings, the trays are made of plastic or
expanded polyethylene (isopor) and have the advantage of having a thermal effect,
enabling better development of the seedlings, even under T or extreme conditions.
The trays are lightweight, moisture resistant, with different size and depth, some
with 128, 242, 284, 288 perforated cells, allowing water to escape and free root
growth. The cells can have the shape of an inverted pyramid, round or cylindrical

and a variable height between 60, 120 and 150 mm.
The trays can be placed on a strong and rigid support, which is resistant to
humidity, they must be protected from rain and high and low Ts . The height of the
support is recommended to be 1 meter, because it facilitates the planting work.
Regarding the tray substrate, there are specialized companies that produce and
market it. The materials used for its preparation are basically of mineral and
organic origin, they must have good aeration capacity, water retention, good
drainage and free of pathogenic microorganisms. If prepared by the producer, the
substrate must be disinfected with hot steam or chemicals.
SOIL DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL
• The successive cultivation ; That is, the continued cultivation of the same
variety or species in the same plot leads to the appearance of damage to the
plants. Damage manifests itself as alterations in both the growth and yield of the
crop, even if the cultivation process and fertilizers have been properly managed.
It is considered that 60% of the causes lie in infectious soil diseases, and in the
country an increase in these damages is expected with increasing greenhouse
cultivation since this almost always leads to successive cultivation.
either Through successive cultivation, certain substances are lost or

accumulated
nutrients and changes the chemical composition of the soil.
o Changes the pH of the soil due to the previous crop.
o Changes the chemical nature of the soil.
o Increases the population of pathogenic microorganisms in the soil and plant
parasitic nematodes.
either The poisonous substances secreted by the residues of the previous
crop
or its roots accumulate within the soil.
• Soil diseases ; In the soils that are cultivated there are many
microorganisms and among them there are pathogenic germs that act as parasites
on the roots of the plants, decomposing them. They form knots, enter the stems
and reach the leaves through the vessels.

• that start from the roots causing alterations in growth such as wilting,
yellowing and even the death of the plant.
In addition, there are pathogens that after causing diseases in the stems and
leaves, their spores and mycelia continue to live both on the surface and in the soil
and can cause diseases in the following crops.
IX Control of soil diseases
o Through solarization.
or Through burning.
either By using resistant varieties.
o Through disinfestation with chemical products.
Unit V
SOWING VEGETABLES
> The seed ; constitutes one of the

main parts of the vegetables, since obtaining
a good harvest depends on it. During the
entire vegetative and reproductive cycle of the
plant, a variable period passes, during which a
series of vital functions are fulfilled that we
can call “ species manifestations”. The seed
is considered as a specific individual in a state
of rest, which, through the stimulation of a
special excitation, passes from said vegetative state to continue the manifestations
of the species it represents.
The seed in its simplest expression is a closed embryo, which is protected by a
surrounding wall that varies in nature and thickness, called integument. The
embryo is the future plant reduced to tiny proportions or invisible to the naked eye.
Two parts are already outlined in it, one of which will give the root system, the
other the stem or trunk and the aerial organs.
The cotyledons are the nutritional reserves to provide the embryo, and the
integuments protect the delicate organs enclosed in it.
> Conditions for germination ; so that the seed, whatever it may be,
can germinate, two essential conditions are required: heat and humidity.
> Characteristics of the seed and its conservation.

❖ The conditions that must be met to consider good quality seeds are:
o Have a specific hereditary character of the variety, which differentiates it from

others.
o Be rigorously selected and have no degeneration of character.
o Have a germination percentage greater than 90%, uniform and in the shortest
possible time, that is, a high germination rate.
o Be clean, dry and not mixed with weed seeds.
either Being well mature and developed, these influence the increase in
percentage and reduction of germination time.
o Be fresh and not have a mixture of old seeds.
o Be properly preserved.
o Be free of pests and diseases.
❖ Conservation and duration of seeds ; the duration of the seeds

of vegetables, varies according to the conservation conditions and type. By nature,
the seeds of spinach, carrot, bulb onion, leaf onion and others are short-lived, but
not the seeds of cucumber, eggplant, tomato, cucurbit and others, which are long-
lived.
To keep them in good condition and for a long period, the mature seeds must be
extracted, drying them until the moisture content is around 5% to 14%, at the time
of preparation. If humidity is reduced to less than 5%, the longevity of the seed will
be reduced and if it exceeds 14%, the spread of fungi will increase.
The seed should be kept in an environment of 30% to 60% humidity and maintain a
T o of 5ºc to 10ºc. It is important to put a desiccant (such as silica crystal) in an
airtight container, next to the seed.
❖ Pelletized seeds ; They are those that are coated in a way to uniform their
size, making them suitable for mechanized use (seeder) or to facilitate the
handling of very small seeds. Pelletized seeds demonstrate their potential when
seedlings are produced in trays with cells, in large quantities. Pelletized seeds
can be adapted to the size of the seeder.
SOWING
❖ Planting time ; entry
economic growth achieved through the
cultivation of vegetables increases if they are
marketed during the high price season. For this
to be possible, it is necessary to extend the
growing season, advancing or delaying its
period. From the administrative point of view it

also offers an advantage, because it allows for better distribution of work and better
use of family labor.
It must be considered that each crop has its conditions suitable for sprouting,
growth and maturation, determining the period of each crop. To modify the growing
period, it is essential to control the climatic conditions, mainly the T o and the good
selection of varieties of each species, for each season of the year.
> Planting methods:
either Direct sowing ; carefully prepare the ground, remove waste

of previous crops, of infesting weeds, level the surface which must be perfectly
uniform. These methods are normally used for two groups of vegetables:
1. Vegetables whose used part is the root, which cannot be damaged in the
moment of transplant, such as carrots, radishes, turnips, etc.
2. Vegetables whose root system can be damaged by the
transplant such as watermelon, pumpkin, squash, cucumber, melon, peas, beans,
beans, and others.
o Sowing in a seedbed ; can be done in the following way:
Broadcasting , the seeds logically remain on the surface and must then be
covered with mulch distributed with a sieve and finally, light pressure must be
exerted in order to keep the seeds in place.
In a furrow or in lines , open a small furrow at a distance of 10 to 15 cm

transverse to the flowerbed and at a depth depending on the species to be planted.
In the hole , open the hole with a shovel, fertilize, mix well and deposit the seed at
a convenient depth.
either Sowing in a pot (paper or polyethylene); the latter presents some

advantages, such as:
V The possibility of transporting vegetables is normally not

transplantable, using plastic coverage and consequently producing vegetables
outside of their natural season and taking advantage of a better price for the
product.
V It allows to greatly reduce damage to the root system and reduce

the incidence of viral diseases of tomato and other species.

V In this way the seeds are placed directly in the pots
and when the seedlings have 4 to 5 definitive leaves, they are taken to the final
place.
IEGO
Most vegetables contain about 90% water. Therefore, their rational production
cannot be carried out without having abundant water. Irrigation is one of the
cultural cares that favors increased productivity and improved quality of
vegetables.
After sowing and during the first vegetative phases, watering should be done with
finely misted jets, to avoid uprooting the seeds and damaging the small plants. A
very rational and common practice consists of protecting the seedbed with dead
cover (dry grass) before watering.
Irrigations are repeated to keep the useful water between 60% and 100%. Thus,
from germination to the end of vegetative growth, the proportion of water must be
close to 100%. For vegetables, whose edible part is the leaves, flowers and stems,
this percentage must be maintained throughout the natural cycle, because a
deficiency, even if temporary, favors the formation of poor quality tissue, reducing
the commercial value of the product, which must present tender and delicate
fabrics.
> Water supply can be done in the following ways
either Drip irrigation ; this

This method uses tape with small
holes that supplies water to the plants
in the form of drops, watering is carried
out practically at ground level. This
system prevents the leaves from
getting wet, therefore it has the
advantage of reducing the frequency of
diseases. It is suitable for small
dimensions, the cost of a very large
water source and its use is very installation is low, does not require a
convenient for the production of
vegetables, especially tomatoes.

either Sprinkler irrigation ; this
The system uses equipment called a
sprinkler and irrigation is carried out from
a relatively considerable height; its
installation does not require much work.
The disadvantages of this job are:
• High installation cost.

V Water droplets tend to hit plant
leaves a lot.
creating conditions conducive to the appearance of diseases.
• Irrigation is not always uniform due to the wind.
either flood irrigation ; In this system, water is run between the

crop furrow. It has a very low installation cost and its use is difficult on a plot with a
steep slope or very sandy soil.
• Irrigation frequency and amount of water to supply

Regarding the periodicity of irrigation and the total volume of water to be supplied
to horticultural crops, it is not possible to give standards applicable to the generality
of cases, because water needs are closely linked to environmental conditions,
seasonality, to the nature of the soil and above all, to the particular requirements of
each species.
During the first vegetative phase, the need for water increases, reaching a
maximum in correspondence with the greatest leaf development, and gradually
decreases in the maturation phase until the conclusion of the economic phase
(harvest) that currently corresponds to the biological cycle. In the spring and
summer seasons, the water supply should be carried out early in the morning or in
the evening, or even at night if the land is subject to strong sunshine.
CULTURAL CARE OF THE SCHOOL
thinning ; In order to offer the seedlings space, air and light to prevent them from
growing pale and weak, the operation called thinning or thinning is carried out, both
in the seedbed or seedbed and in the field. The poorly formed or damaged plants
are eliminated first. The remaining plants, which due to being too crowded could
not develop correctly and are in good condition, can be transplanted to another plot
temporarily, awaiting the definitive transplant.

This operation is carried out when the seedlings are 3 cm high and is verified when
the soil is moderately moist, pulling them up with one hand, while with the other
you hold the foot of the adjacent one to prevent them from being uprooted. The
density that should remain once thinning is completed depends on the species.
Weed control in the seedbed ; Vegetables are herbaceous species that do not
withstand the competition of weeds, and even less so in the seedbed, which can
cause a reduction in their degree of development. Mechanical weed control, which
is widely known to everyone, must be practiced at the right time. Chemical control
can also be used in the seedbed.
Unit VI
T TRANSPLANT
It consists of transferring the seedlings from

the seedbed or seedbed to the definitive
place or nursery. It is verified when the root
system is quite developed and 4 to 5
definitive leaves have formed.
For this purpose, the appropriate

transplanters are used, which allow each
plant to be uprooted with its bread of soil.
The soil must be watered previously but not excessively, otherwise the soil will not
be able to adhere to the roots.
The place that will receive the seedlings must be prepared in advance, the
seedlings will be placed in small holes or in furrows, in a vertical position, taking
care that the roots do not suffer twisting and that the neck is at surface level. If the
soil is dry, it is a good practice to fill the small holes and furrows with water, letting
it drain before placing the seedlings. Finally, the soil should be compressed around
the base of the plants to guarantee the stability and adhesion of the substrate to
the plants. estate.
The transplant should be done in the afternoon, or in overcast or cloudy weather,

so as not to force the roots to make the additional effort of compensating for water
losses through the leaves in some cases. As long as the seedlings do not show
roots and good development, it is advisable to protect them from the direct action
of the sun's rays.

Unit VII
c ONTROL, CARE AND PROTECTION OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS
> Concept and purpose:
either ringing ; The transfer of seedlings from the seedbed is called ringing.
to the nursery, after presenting the two well-developed true leaves. Some
vegetables such as leafy brassicas and tomatoes benefit the most from
transplanting seedlings to the nursery, because in such species, there is a rapid
recovery of damaged roots, giving rise to an extensive root system that develops
more in width. that in depth, thus benefiting the plants. In addition, spraying with
soluble micronutrients necessary for such species is facilitated in the nursery.
The greater space between them facilitates the execution of all cultural care,
making it possible to obtain more robust and healthy seedlings.
The nursery is a bed similar to a seedbed, except for the consistency of the bed,
which must be more clayey and heavier. The place chosen for the nursery must
have a clay-sandy texture, to which manure must be added, thus obtaining an ideal
soil to facilitate the removal of seedlings with clods.
The space varies from 10 x 10 cm to 10 x 5 cm, the first being the most advisable.
The depth of the plant in the nursery should be a little greater than that of the
seedbed, taking into account that the cotyledon leaves should not be covered.
The purpose of this process is that it allows a better selection of the seedlings, and
also favors the obtaining of thicker stems.
either hilling ; It consists of accumulating a little soil at the foot of the plants
to increase their stability if they are exposed to the action of the wind, to protect the
roots from the cold, to avoid waterlogging in poorly permeable soils in case of
prolonged rainfall, to cause the emission of basilar buds used in organic
reproduction. Generally hilling is done with the carpida.
or Tutoring ; This operation consists of providing support to long-stemmed,

climbing or creeping vegetables, either to avoid contact with the soil that causes
fruit rot, or to ensure that the air and sun penetrate evenly throughout the plant.
The most used type of stake is the crossed rods, which must be installed before
the plants are 30 cm high to prevent them from falling. The rods to be used
(tacuara or other material) must measure 2 to 2.20 meters long and must be
placed slightly inclined one to the side of each plant.
These must cross each other, resting on a well-stretched wire, tied to posts 20 to
30 meters apart from each other. This type of training is normally used in tomato
crops.

either weeding ; consists of cutting the main stem or the secondary ones,
at a
variable height, depending on the vegetable species to stimulate the formation of
new branches and increase production, or cut the branches that carry fruits in
formation, in the axil of the branches, in order to slow down vegetative
development in favor of the fruiting. This operation is not carried out on all
vegetables, but only on some, such as tomatoes, melons, watermelons and others.
either Carpidas ; It is very necessary to eliminate weeds to have a greater

plant growth. This must be carried out as many times as necessary, and can be
carried out mechanically or manually, with great care so as not to cause damage to
the root of the plant.
> EFFECTIVENESS OF ORGANIC MATTER AND CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS IN

HORTICULTURAL CROPS
> Pass ; It is any material that incorporated into the soil, improves the
physical, chemical and biological conditions of the soil, with a view to increasing
crops, that is, any material that increases soil productivity.
Chemical fertilization is one of the agricultural practices that most affects the
results of a garden. In addition to Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium
(K), which are normally used in other crops, vegetables are also very demanding in
other nutrients considered secondary such as Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg),
Sulfur (S), Zinc (Zn), Boron (B), Molybdenum (Mo), Copper (Cu).
Use of organic matter and application methods;
The quantity and quality of organic matter contained in the soil greatly influences
the productive capacity of plants. In our country, due to the predominance of sandy
soil, the effects achieved with its use are very significant, its decomposition is very
rapid, accelerated, mainly due to the high T o and high humidity, a situation that
conditions the continuous supply of 3 5 tons per 1,000 m 2 of land annually.
Organic matter has various levels of decomposition; In some cases, the stems and
dry leaves are not able to transform into humus, that is, the decomposition is not
completed and in others the decomposing microorganisms finish the process.
Organic matter whose decomposition is not completed is called bulky and humus
when decomposition is completed. The two types of materials are very well used
by plants in the following way:
4- Direct effect on the growth of plants and the improvement of the quality of
production, through the contribution of micro and macro nutrients. These are easily
absorbed by plants, achieving optimal growth and a good-looking, good-tasting
product, in short, of good quality.

5- Secondary effect through the improvement of the physical properties of the
soil, mainly due to the formation of humus, which allows the improvement of the
structure, increasing the water and nutrient retention capacity. Nutrition becomes
more efficient due to the dynamic action of microorganisms, achieving good growth
and facilitating crop management.
The different materials that can be used as a source of organic matter are:
V The compost formed by the decomposition of plant matter, the

manure, green fertilizers and others.
V Chicken manure (chicken manure) due to its high nutrient content,
It has the same effects as a chemical fertilizer, because; a) the direct effect is very
strong and b) it has very little residual effect.
In the application of organic matter, the essential point is the determination of its
degree of decomposition; Planting should not be carried out immediately after
applying a material whose decomposition is not yet complete. If this process is
short it will not be effective and may even cause damage to the plant. For example,
if well-decomposed cow dung is applied, planting can be done after 10 to 15 days,
but if fresh manure is applied, planting should be done after 60 to 90 days.
Organic matter can be applied in the following way:
6- Broadcast ; The application is carried out throughout the field in an

equitable, uniform manner and is incorporated into the soil by means of a plow or
harrow.
7- Localized application ; limiting the application in the furrows or holes

where the planting or transplanting will be carried out. This application method is
used when little organic material is available. It is essential that the organic matter
is not exposed to rain, because its nutritional components may be lost. Before
application, it must be protected with plastic or a tent, and then immediately
incorporated into the soil.
Chemical fertilizer application methods ; characteristics of different methods of

applying chemical fertilizers to vegetable plots.
Fertilizer Elements : The 6 main elements that must be applied as nutrients are;
N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S.
Fruit vegetables are characterized by requiring greater amounts of Mg and Ca

compared to other species. Especially in tomatoes, melons and strawberries, these
characteristics are more evident, causing damage typical of deficiencies.
Types of fertilizers ; Fertilizers are classified according to a) the method of

preparation, b) the characteristics of the elements they contain and c) the
nutritional effect. It is very important to be aware of these three aspects. Organic

fertilizers are suitable for growing vegetables because the effect of the application
is prolonged and acts moderately.
Chemical fertilizers are made through chemical reactions like urea and other
compound fertilizers.
There are compounds with rapid and slow solubility or a combination of both. To
choose the type of fertilizer we must consider the type of crop and the application
method; the determination of the dose must be made by calculation, taking into
account the percentage of each element contained in the fertilizer, which varies
depending on the formulation.
Application methods ; Depending on the time of application, they are called basic
fertilization and additional or coverage fertilization. Basic fertilization is applied
before planting and additional or coverage after planting, to complement the basic
fertilization.
Depending on the characteristics of each element, the following points must

be considered:
V Nitrogen (N) reacts sensitively to the growth of

plant and is easily lost in the soil (by leaching or evaporation). For this reason,
several forms of this element have been developed and several application
methods have been created. As a principle, for additional fertilization you should
opt for a quickly soluble product.
V Phosphorus (P) is an essential component for the initial stage

of crop growth and is almost not lost in the soil, it is an immediate action element
and is applied in its entirety as basic fertilization.
V Potassium (K) is lost in minimal quantity and is a component

necessary for the later stage of crop growth. For this reason, it is applied in basic
fertilization and in additional fertilization in equal proportion.
The main application methods are:
V Total or broadcast application method ; is the method for fertilization

basic and is applied throughout the plot.
Partial or localized application method ; It is a method used for additional

fertilization, but in special cases it is adopted for basic fertilization.
The application is located in areas of dense root expansion, mainly on planks, and
makes it easier to manage the effect on the plants.
V Liquid application ; It is applied as additional fertilization and the

fertilizer substance dissolved in water. It requires special equipment, its
effectiveness is immediate and makes it easier to manage the effect on plants.

V Foliar fertilization ; as nutrients are also absorbed by the
leaves, there is the possibility of supplying nutrients by this means, for which the
fertilizer is dissolved in water and applied using a sprayer. Thanks to its rapid
absorption, it is very suitable for correcting deficiencies in the different stages of
plant growth.
BASIC KNOWLEDGE ABOUT AGROCHEMICALS
Agrochemicals ; They are products that serve to prevent and/or control diseases,
pests and weeds that cause damage to crops. It is also known as poisons,
pesticides, chemical products, phytosanitary products, agrotoxins, etc. For the use
of these products and as a prevention or control measure, the most efficient
product must be chosen, taking into account the types of diseases, pests, weeds
and the circumstances in which they appear, otherwise, the same thing may occur.
In the man. The normal thing to do in the case of a headache is to take a
medication suitable for this discomfort, not a medication for belly pain, because, in
addition to not being effective, it can cause side effects.
% Types of agrochemicals
1. Fungicide ; controls fungal diseases. Others

Products have specific action such as bactericides that act on bacteria.
2. Insecticide ; controls insects e.g. Aphids, caterpillars, leafminers,

suckers, mealybugs, thrips, etc. Some insecticides have an ovicidal effect.
3. Herbicide ; exerts its action on weeds, in general or

selective.
4. Adherent ; increases the adhesion force of the liquid, facilitating the

absorption by leaves and fruits. It has no action on pests or diseases, but it has the
indispensable function of retaining the chemical solution applied to the waxy
surface of the plant for longer. When mixed with the solution to be applied, it
expands and allows better adhesion on the entire external surface of the plant,
increasing the effectiveness of the product.
% Forms of agrochemicals
• Emulsifiable concentrate ; It is a liquid product, whose active ingredient is

diluted in an appropriate solvent accompanied by another product that facilitates its
dissolution in water. It is a transparent liquid that turns white when mixed with

water.
• Concentrated suspension It is a white, sticky liquid, formed by an active

ingredient, crushed into small particles, suspended in water e.g. Polytrin, tracer,
confidor, others.
• Wettable powder ; They are fine grains made up of an active ingredient

plus the product that facilitates dilution in water and the adjuvant. Most fungicides
have these characteristics. Ex. Benlate, Mancozeb, Captán, Dithane and Servín,
the latter being an insecticide.
• Granulated ; They are grains formed by mixing the active ingredient with
mineral substances, the product is applied directly to the surface of the soil. Ex.
Furadan.
• dry powder ; They are powders formed by the mixture of active ingredient
and a large amount of mineral substances, which increase their volume and
facilitate their distribution, they are applied directly in their original formulation. Ex.
Folidol.
% Toxicity of agrochemicals
Agrochemicals must be handled with great care because they are poisonous to
humans and animals. The products that are currently for sale in our country have
specifications on the packaging label, indicating not only what type of pest it is
effective on, but also the observations for its safe use. For this reason, before
using them, it is essential to read the label.
The registered agrochemicals, which circulate in the market of our country, are
classified into five categories according to their degree of toxicity on men and
animals. These categories can be identified at first glance by the colors of the label
TOXICOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO) FOR PESTICIDES FOR AGRICULTURAL USE

^ Precautions to be taken into account when spraying; In vegetables, pest

control with agrochemicals is important; these products also have effects on
humans and animals. At the time of spraying the operator must take sufficient
precaution for his safety.
• Preparation of the agrochemical ; Take maximum caution when handling the

pure liquid, because it has a high degree of toxicity.
V Use rubber glove.

V Avoid spilling the liquid on clothing.
• Avoid inhalation of the product, using a protective mask.
• Spraying;
V The first condition for spraying is that the person who

performing the work must be in good health. You should not do the work for at
least 24 hours after consuming an alcoholic beverage.
V The skin must be well protected.
V It should not be sprayed against the wind.
V When applying a granulated product, contact should be avoided
direct with your hands.
V The person who will carry out the spraying should dress appropriately.
adequate; hat, mask, long-sleeved shirt, rubber gloves, long pants and boots.
After spraying, it is important that the worker follow the following

instructions:
1. Shower, cleansing the entire body with soap to remove residue

of the chemical product.
2. Change and wash the clothes used at the time of spraying.
3. Do not drink alcoholic beverages on the same day that you will perform the
test.
spray.
4. There is a risk of poisoning due to absorption of the adhered product
throughout the body.
STRATEGIES FOR PEST CONTROL
Insecticides are widely used today, so much so that when mentioning pest control
we immediately associate it with spraying. Even if it is sprayed with a highly
efficient product, if no control is carried out on neighboring crops, there will be a
very high level of pest population. As a consequence, the level of infestation will
increase rapidly in the treated crop and it will not be possible to obtain a
satisfactory result in its control.
On the other hand, there are many beneficial insects such as ladybugs that are
very efficient and could be used in biological control programs. That is why it is
important to use selective products, which control the pest insect but do not affect
predators.
4- Cleaning of the surroundings of the crop ; The species of mites, whiteflies,

aphids, caterpillars and thrips that attack commercial crops live in the weeds that
grow around them, therefore, weeds must be eliminated to prevent their
multiplication. At the end of the cycle and as soon as possible, the harvested plants
should be uprooted and eliminated, to prevent the reproduction of these pests.
4- Use of natural enemies ; In the grasslands and forests located around

commercial crops, there are numerous natural enemies of pests. It is very
important to take advantage of their potential, reducing the frequency of
agrochemical applications, especially the species of mites, aphids and thrips have
several natural enemies that are their predators and parasites.
Natural enemies are very susceptible to insecticides, which the more they are
applied, cause their population density to decrease.
For this reason, it is necessary to know the pest species that exist and analyze
whether or not their control is necessary. Spraying with broad-spectrum
agrochemicals should be avoided as much as possible, because they can cause
negative effects on natural enemies.

The systematic use of insecticides favors pest resistance and causes the
elimination of natural enemies. Once the natural enemies are eliminated, they will
hardly appear again, as they are more susceptible to insecticides and have the
longest biological cycle. Pests significantly increase their population and as a
consequence re-infestation occurs.
4- How to take advantage of natural enemies ; Due to lack of knowledge, the

larvae and adults of natural enemies can be eliminated, therefore it is important to
know the morphology and behavior of these insects. In the presence of a
considerable population of natural enemies, the use of insecticides should be
avoided if possible. If necessary, selective ones should be used, which are efficient
for pest control and do not affect beneficial insects.

CULTIVATION OF
LETTUCE
botanical description
Class ; Dicotyledonous
Family ; Compositaceae
Gender ; Lactuca
species ; Lactuca sativa
Introduction
Lettuce is a very popular vegetable in the world and occupies an important place
from an economic point of view. In our country it constitutes an interesting sector
for a large number of rural families, it is one of the horticultural species of greatest
interest to producers due to massive consumption nationwide and because it can
be grown throughout the year.
Floor
This vegetable requires very loose, well-drained soil, rich in organic matter, pH of
6.0 to 6.5. Fertilization is carried out according to the result of the soil analysis.
Climate
The precocity of this crop allows us to have varieties adapted to the different times
of the year. The ideal T for its development is 12 o ca 25 o c.
Varieties From a practical point of view we can group them into:
4- Winter varieties ; May Queen, Grand

Rapids, Great Lakes, Aurelia, Withe Boston,
others.
4- Summer varieties ; Criolla Blanca,
Summer Baba, Brazil 303, Summer Wonder.
Planting time
Lettuce is planted all year round, in the winter

it is done from April to August, using the
recommended varieties, and in the summer,
from September to March.

Planting system
The most used method is

planting in a seedbed; for this
purpose, it is recommended to
disinfest the soil (chemical or
physical). Traditionally the
Producers carry out broadcast
sowing, however, there is
another method that consists of
sowing in furrows transverse to
the plank, with a distance of 15
cm between the furrows.
The seeds must be deposited at

an approximate depth of 0.5 to 1
cm, using 1 to 2 g of seeds per m 2. With this method, 500 g of seed are required to
cover 1 ha of land. Germination occurs 3 or 4 days after sowing, depending on the
quality of the seeds and the care
taken, it is advisable to water
daily.
Currently, isopor trays are

available for sowing; this
technique allows the production
of better quality seedlings.
Soil preparation for the final

location
Lettuce is a short-cycle
vegetable; it requires well-
prepared soil, with a good amount of organic matter. It is recommended to apply
urea as coverage, 20 g in 20 liters of water, 2 weeks after transplanting and
continue 2 to 3 more applications every 8 days.

Transplant
For this operation, it is important to prepare

the soil and incorporate organic matter in
advance; the seedlings are transplanted with
4 to 5 definitive leaves. The planting distance
is 20 x 20 or 25 x 25 cm. The transplant
should preferably be carried out in cloudy
weather or in the afternoon, followed by good
watering.
Main pests and their control

Dose/10 liters.
Pests control
water Grace period (days)
Aphid Pirimor 10g 7
thrips Danitol 10cc 4
Ant Trebon 25cc
leafminer worm Servin 15g 14
Thrips ( Thrips Miners White fly Aphids

tabaci )
wireworm gray worm black donut

Main diseases and their control
Grace period (days)
Diseases Dose/10 liters.
control
water
Fusarium sp. Dithane 25g 7
Soil fungi Benlate 10g
Septoria Dithane 25g 7
Rhizoptonia solani Tricarbamix 25g 10
LMV Mosaic Wear seeds
certified 15g 2
Bacterial stain Agrimycin
Erwinia carotovora Kasumin 25cc

Medium They capture 25g
Dithane 25g
Topsin 10g 7

Anthracnos Botrytis or gray Downy

e mold mildew
Sclerotinia Lettuce Mosaic Virus (LMV) Septoriosis

Cultural care
4- Sanitation ; Like all horticultural plants, lettuce does not escape the problems
caused by fungi, bacteria and other pathogenic agents that can affect production,
which is why it is recommended to carry out control as preventive measures and
with the products recommended for cultivation.
4- Irrigation ; After transplanting and during the recovery time of the plants, 2 or
more waterings should be carried out per day and then, depending on the weather
conditions, once a day. After the seedlings have caught, two or three days later,
dry coverage is placed between the rows. Weeds that appear on the plank must be
eliminated to avoid competition for water, nutrients and light.
Harvest and packaging
The harvest is carried out at the time of complete development, which occurs
between 60 to 70 days after sowing, depending on the variety and planting time. It
is advisable to harvest in the early morning or late afternoon, depending on the
distance from the consumer market. Production varies from 160,000 to 170,000
plants per ha.
Behavior of lettuce under partial shade


CABBAGE CULTIVATION
Family ; cruciferous
Gender ; brassica
species ; Brassica oleracea capitata
Introduction
It is an easy-to-grow vegetable that gives high production depending on crop

management.
Most varieties of cabbage are grown in the coldest times of the year and reproduce
by seed and therefore those of good quality and origin should be used.
Climate
It is normally planted in winter, it is a species that resists frost, but currently there
are varieties that adapt to heat (summer), a time when market prices are higher for
this product. Therefore it can be produced throughout the year.
Floor
Cabbage produces better in heavy soils, requiring a pH of 6.0 to 6.5, but if it is very
acidic, it is recommended to make a liming whose amount to be applied will
depend on the result of the soil analysis.
Soil preparation is very important for the proper development of the plant; plowing
and harrowing must be carried out, leaving the soil very loose. It is also
recommended to add organic matter 15 days in advance.
Varieties
4- Winter varieties; ox heart, quintal

flat, golden field, brumswick flat, YR
50, rubby boll red (purple).

4- Summer variety; togetherness, crazy summer, 4 seasons, matzukase.
The YR 50 and 4 seasons varieties tolerate heat quite well.
Preparation of seedbed
The preparation of the soil for the seedbed must be carried out with a good
removal and crumbling of the soil, to which 4 kg of organic matter per m 2 must be
incorporated. The amount of seed to cover 1 hectare is 150 gr.
Planting time
The planting time is very important, since winter varieties should be planted from
April to August and those that resist summer heat, from September to March.
Planting system
To carry out this operation, it is always advisable to disinfest the land with Dithane
or Tricarbamix at a dose of 25 gr in 10 liters of water.
The recommended method for sowing is in a tray or on a plank, which consists of

opening 1 cm deep and 15 cm between furrows, where the seeds will be
deposited. With this method, seed is saved and there is more space between the
plants, which favors their good development, because there is greater air
circulation and light entry.
ringing
The nursery for capping should be 1.0 to 1.10 m wide

and of variable length, adding 3 to 4 kg of manure per
m 2 . Picking is done when the seedlings have two
definitive leaves, the space between seedlings is 10 x
10 cm, followed by good watering.
It is also important to spray with insecticides to avoid

or combat the attack of aphids, Ybytasó and other pests that can damage the
seedlings.
Soil preparation
With good land preparation you can obtain good

production. This consists of carrying out a good
plowing, followed by adding fertilizers at a rate of 1.5
kg per m 2 of the formulation. 12-12-17-2 and
later a
tracked. It is important to prepare the land 15, taking days before transplant,
care to mix the chemical fertilizer well with the soil.

Transplant
The seedlings to be transplanted must have 4 to 5

definitive leaves, and it is very important to pull out
the seedlings with the clod included, to avoid losses
during the operation. At that moment the furrowing
or opening of the hole is carried out.
The recommended planting distance is 40 x 60 cm or 50 x 70 cm between plants

and rows, with the former reaching around 28,000 plants per ha.
Cultural care 4- Cleaning; It is a task that must be carried out and consists of
removing the dry and yellow leaves from the plants and cleaning around the stem.
4- Irrigation; It is always necessary to do it, because the lack of water can reduce
production, mainly in times of drought, and it is recommended twice a day.
Main pests and their control
Dosage /10 liters of

Pests Control Waiting period/days
water
Aphid Pirimor 10g 7

Cricket Servin 15g 8
Fall armyworm Trebon 25cc 14
leafminer worm Danitol 10cc 4
Ant Servin 15cc 8
Main diseases and their control
Dosage/10 liters of
Diseases Control Waiting period/days
water
black rot Daconil 20g 7

of the cruciferous Topsin 10g 7
soil fungus Tricarbamix 25g 8

Dithane 25g 7
Benlate 10g 1

downy mildew Topsin 25g 7
cruciferous Dithane 25g 7
Hernia Benlate 10g 1
Nematodes Furadan 10 gr/m 2 90

Crop rotation
soft rot Daconil 20g 7

Cupravit 20g 7
Fertilization
This operation is carried out to obtain good quality and quantity of production. The
first application is made after the transplant when the seedlings have taken root
well, using the 12-12-17-2 formulation and applying 10 gr/plant and the second,
when head formation begins with a dose of 15 gr/plant of the same formulation,
followed by a good irrigation. The method used for fertilization is to make furrows 3
cm deep and 15 cm from the plant.
Harvest
Cabbage has a cycle of 90 days from sowing,

therefore when it reaches its maximum point of
development and is well compacted it can be
harvested, using a very sharp knife for the operation.
Commercialization
For the sale of this item, it is important to obtain good

production, in quantity, quality and uniformity of the
product. It also affects the production season, in the months of low production the
prices are higher, that is, in the summer, when the price of the product is higher.
Packaging
For transportation, it is important to pack the products in wooden or plastic crates,

following local market standards, so that they have a good presentation and
consequently a good price.

CARROT CULTIVATION
Family ; umbelliferous
Species; Daucus carota
Introduction
The carrot is a biennial plant with a very fleshy root that, depending on the variety,
has different size and color. In our environment, a part of the crop is used for fresh
consumption, and the waste is used for animal nutrition. Its industrialization for
juices or dehydrated products can increase the interest of producers and become
an export factor.
Floor
This crop requires sandy-clayey soils, with good depth and permeability, in such a
way that it favors root development. This is why very heavy soils are not indicated
for this crop. Carrots develop well in soils where the acidity is very light, that is,
where the pH is between 5.5 to 6.8. It is necessary to supply a lot of organic matter
before sowing, therefore, it is advisable, before starting it, to level the acidity of the
soil with agricultural lime, and then add about 40 tons of cattle manure per hectare.
Varieties
Among the most heat-resistant varieties, the Shin Kuroda and the New Kuroda
are among the most widespread, since there are others that have shorter roots and
adapt very well to high temperatures. It is very important that soil disinfestation be
carried out before sowing, especially to combat a great crop enemy, such as
nematodes.
Other varieties are from the group; Nantes, Chantenay, etc.
Planting time
Carrot sowing goes from September to February, and this must be taken into
account because for the germination of carrot seeds, the temperature needs to be
around 22 0 C. In our environment, cultivation is done on a small scale in the
orchards near the market, where

Marketing in general is done with the root and foliage, because there are buyers
who prefer the root with the foliage.
The latter is very good, since it can be used to prepare soups, or adding chopped
to sauces to take advantage of its properties and flavor.
During the vegetative period, the carrot needs cool weather, that is, the T o is
between 15 0 c and 22 0 c.
Preparation of planks
The planting boards should be 0.80 m to 1.10 m

wide, the length depends on the surface capacity
you have, but it is better not to go beyond 50
meters to facilitate the farmer's work. and a
space between planks of about 40 to 50 cm
should be left for the walkway.
Sowing
For one hectare, about 5 kilos of seed should be

calculated; Sowing is done continuously at a
depth of 1 cm. The distance between rows is
about 20 cm. During the germination and
development period, this crop is very demanding
on water, which can be provided in the form of
spraying. It is necessary to thin out between 20
and 40 days after germination, so that the
distance between plants is about 6 cm within the
rows.
Depending on the variety used, carrots are ready

for harvest 80 to 120 days after sowing. Within
the reports we have, the average production is
20 to 30 tons per hectare.
The most accepted carrots are those

that have a large proportion of outer
rind, since the inner part is generally
woody and flavorless. Due to the
geographical position of our country,
which is favored by the

solar radiation, the cultivated varieties have a deep
color and a very special sweetness that favors their
use in the preparation of juices.
Large varieties are destined for industrialization

and fresh marketing. The fine varieties are
presented in Agro shopping in bundles with leaves,
because many consumers use the latter to prepare
tortillas that are very tasty; These can be produced
all year round, they are usually sweeter and resist
washing better without breaking, reducing discards.
The growing demand for fresh consumption and industrialization mean that work is
being done on genetic improvements of new varieties that have less green collar,
smoother skin, are resistant to diseases and that allow mechanization of the crop.
Carrot pests
Carrot fly (Psylla rosae)
Damage : the larvae penetrate the roots, where they create sinuous galleries,
especially on the outside, which will later be the source of rot. If conditions are
favorable, there is a loss of commercial value of the attacked roots.
Control : soil disinfection and/or seed disinfection. The application of Teflutrin

0.5% is recommended, presented as a granule at a dose of 10-15 kg/ha.
Aphids (Cavariella aegopodii, Aphis spp., Myzus persicae)
In addition to the direct damage they cause, aphids are vectors of viral diseases,
therefore they are doubly dangerous.
Damage : aphids feed by biting the epidermis, which is why they produce strong
curls on the leaves that take on a yellowish color.
Biological control : there are numerous predators of aphids such as Coccinella

septempunctata, Chrysopa and some hymenoptera parasites that develop their
larvae inside the aphid.
Chemical control : contact aphids will be used in the event that the aphids are not
protected inside the curled leaves, using as active materials: Malathion, Diazinon,
Fenitrothion, etc. In the case of root aphids, Teflutrin 0.5% will be used with the
same dose given for the carrot fly.
Gray worms (genus Agrotis)
Damage : Caterpillars devour the aerial parts of plants during the night, while they
remain on the ground or under dry leaves during the day.

Chemical control
Chlorpyrifos ; 25%0.30 to 0.405 wettable powder
Diazinon ; 45 kg/ha granulated
Wireworms (Agriotes obscurus, A. sputator, A. lineatus)
Damage : they attack the roots of the carrot, producing galleries that sometimes
generate rot.
Control : at the time of sowing it is recommended to deposit Diazinon 10%,

presented as a granule in the soil at a dose of 45 kg/ha.
Nematodes (Heterodera carotae, Meloidogyne spp.)
Heterodera carotae It is a very important and widespread pest in temperate

climates. The symptoms of its attack are plants with very reduced foliage and
reddish leaves. The roots are reduced and appear bifurcated, causing an abnormal
head of hair with dark rootlets.
Meloidogyne spp ; It spreads in warm climates, causing significant damage to the

roots, transforming them into strings of galls.
Control
Physical methods : a method that is very effective, and used both in seedbeds
and greenhouses, is to treat the soil with hot water, since nematodes die at
temperatures of 40-50ºC.
Cultural methods : soil amendments based on organic matter, crop rotation

(interspersing non-sensitive plants), disinfecting farm implements, machine wheels,
etc., that have been working in contaminated fields and cleaning weeds, since
Many nematode species are polyphagous.
Carrot diseases
Downy mildew (Plasmopara nivea)
Control : it is very convenient to use fungicides as a preventive measure or at the

beginning of the first symptoms of the disease. The frequency of treatments should
be every 12-15 days under normal conditions. If it rains during the interval from
treatment to treatment, another spray should be applied immediately after the rain.
Powdery mildew ( Erysiphe umbelliferarum, Leveillula taurica)
Damage : the attacks produced by both fungi are similar, as they are characterized
by the formation on the surface of the leaves of a type of dirty white rot made up of
conidiophores and conidia.

Control
Chlorthalonil ; 30% plus thiophanate methyl

17% 0.20 to 0.25% suspension
concentrated.
Ethyrimol; 6% + Maneb 40% 0.30-0.60% concentrated suspension.

CULTIVATION OF BULB ONION
botanical classification
Class : Monocotyledonous
Family: Liliaceae
Species : Allium cepa L.
Origin
The primary origin of the onion is located in Central Asia, and as a secondary
center the Mediterranean, as it is one of the oldest consumer vegetables. The
first references date back to around 3,200 BC since it was highly cultivated by
the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. During the Middle Ages, its cultivation was
developed in Mediterranean countries, where large bulb varieties were selected,
which gave rise to modern varieties.
The onion has been cultivated since ancient times, much more for its therapeutic
and seasoning qualities than for its nutritional qualities. Its consumption is so
deeply rooted in all social strata of all
countries of the world.
Botanical characteristics
It is a herbaceous plant, waxy leaves,

fasciculated roots, little branched,
occupying a volume of soil equivalent to a
cylinder 25 cm in diameter and 60 cm
deep. The marketable part is a tunicate
bulb, formed by the fleshy sheaths of the
leaves that overlap each other,
constituting a reserve organ, where
carbohydrates are accumulated. The external film of the bulb is dry, shiny and of
variable color, according to the variety. The stem is a compressed disc from
which the roots and leaves originate. The flowers are hermaphrodite, small,
greenish, white or violet, which are grouped in umbels.
Varieties and their behavior
a) Short or early day : Cultural cycle of 4 to 5 months. They are the least
demanding in photoperiod, producing marketable bulbs under conditions of 10 to
12 hours/light. Generally these cultivars do not resist storage well. Examples:
Excel, Valencianita, Texas Early Grain 502, Red Criolla.
b) Average day : Cultural cycle of 5 to 6.5 months. They are more demanding

in photoperiod, producing well under 11 to 13 hours/light. They resist prolonged
storage better and the flavor is stronger compared to the previous ones. The
most popular cultivar of this group is Bahía Periforme, which is well adapted to
our environment. The bulbs are "pear-shaped", almost spherical, the film is
brown-yellow, the plant is well resistant to the disease called "purple spot".
There are many new improved selections of this cultivar adapted to different
conditions, such as Bahía Pira Ouro, Bahía Precoces de Piracicaba, Bahía Ouro
AG/55.
The best climatic conditions for each of the phases are the following.
1. Vegetative development ; for 3 to 4 months after germination,

The onion requires a temperature of 15 0 to 25 0 c, well-distributed rainfall and a
relatively short photoperiod that is less than the minimum necessary for bulbing.
High T or anticipate bulb formation, reducing its size and production.
2. Bulbification ; requires a photoperiod greater than the minimum
necessary according to the
variety, well-distributed rainfall and T o higher than the previous phase.
3. Maturation ; requires long photoperiod, dry and hot weather, for
This crop is more of a winter crop, that is, it is planted in the coldest time of the
year.
SOIL AND FERTILIZATION
Onion produces best in sandy-clay soils, or sandy loam soils, rich in organic
matter and pH between 5.5 to 6.0. Due to the vertical growth of the root system,
the best location of chemical fertilizers applied basically is in the planting furrow;
Organic fertilization should be done broadcast, well in advance of transplanting.
Phosphorus is the nutrient that enables the best responses, increasing

productivity, bulb size and precocity. Nitrogen has a variable effect, its
application in moderate doses being favorable, and excesses should be
avoided, because it prolongs the cultural cycle, exaggeratedly developing the
aerial part and harming the formation and maturation of the bulbs. Most of the N
dose should be applied in coverage, 30 and 60 days after transplanting.
Potassium does not offer good responses in the productivity and size of the
bulbs, but it can influence their conservation. The exact dosage of

Fertilizers to be applied should be adjusted according to soil analysis results.
Sowing
Planting time ; The best time to sow is between March 15 and the end of April.
You can also sow it from February to have an early harvest but there is a risk of
losing it, because with high T o , germination decreases and the seedlings can
dry out.
For the same reason, if the sowing is late, that is, in May the seeds will
germinate well, the seedlings will develop, but the harvest may be compromised
due to the high T or season, which causes them to complete their cycle ahead of
time. and the bulbs are not the desired size and weight.
The most used method for sowing is in seedbeds; this method requires
approximately 1.5 kg. of seed for planting 1 Ha. onion, with germination of 80 to
95%. Sowing is done in transverse furrows spaced 10 cm apart, with 1 to 1.5
cm. deep, using 3 to 4 gr. of seed per square meter. An effort should be made to
sow uniformly and sparsely, since thinning out the excess seedlings is
detrimental to those that must remain in the seedbed.
Transplant
The seedlings are transplanted at 15 to

20 cm. high and 4 to 5 mm in diameter,
which occurs 40 to 50 days after
sowing. As the transplant is delayed, a
prolongation of the cultural cycle may
occur, since the old seedlings suffer
more from the transplant, potentially
reducing yield; Whole seedlings,
without pruning the roots and leaves,
are the best.
The transplant should be done so that the seedlings are at the same depth as
they were in the seedbed; The best spacing depends on a series of factors: level
of fertilization, climate, way in which cultural care will be conducted, etc.
Considering the current preference for medium-sized bulbs (80 g), the ideal
spacing is 20 to 30 cm. between rows and 8 to 10 cm. between plants, which
involves around 300,000 plants/Ha.

Cultural care
Soil removal and cleaning are essential for onion

development. In the first stage of growth, the land
must be clean, so that the seedlings develop free of
weeds. Cleaning can be done with your hands or
with a hoe to avoid cutting the plants. Watering,
which should be done when the plants require it, is
important to add water at the right time, in the
required amount and well distributed, 2 weeks
before. After the harvest, irrigation must be
completely suspended to prevent the bulb from
storing water and thus prevent fruit rot, preserving it
for much longer. Dead cover can also be used to
conserve soil moisture and control weeds.
Most common diseases and their control
. , ......................................................................
X Purple leaf spots ; (Alternaria porri)
Symptoms ; It attacks the leaves and the flower

stem, it is known by the white stripes or striae at the
beginning, then concentric circles are formed,
which appear isolated from each other, from 2 to 3
cm that grows and then cover all the leaves and
flower stem, killing the plant. The spots are light
brown at first, changing to black and covered with a
black powder.
Control ; choose a resistant variety (Red criolla),

avoid planting in places where there is little air
circulation, land with a lot of shade and humidity. Sanitize with Dithane Z78, 40
to 60 gr per 20 liters of water.
and ........., , X Downy mildew ( Peronospora destructor)

Symptoms ; It appears with white, oval spots, then a white powder appears,
and if the T o and humidity are high, a color change of the powder occurs,
turning to a dark green, medium opaque or dark violet. When the fungal attack is
strong, the onion leaf turns a soft yellow color and then dries up.

Control ; carry out crop rotation, sow in well-drained soil, burn the leaves that
were affected and spray with Dithane M45, 40 to 60 gr per 20 liters of water.
X Pink Cresting
Symptoms ; The fungus is located in the root, it
has a pink color, the attack dries the root, then the
plant emits new roots, which are quite fine,
therefore weakening the plant and the bulb.
Control ; use resistant varieties (Granex, Excel

Bermuda), crop rotation.
Ladybug eating aphids
Most common pests and their

control
thrips leaf miner aphids
Control ; apply systemic and contact insecticides

HARVEST AND MARKETING
Harvesting and subsequent handling is one

of the most neglected technical aspects in
national onion production. The ideal
harvest point is when the bulb reaches
maximum size, the leaves dry and the
aerial part falls down, naturally. Bulbs
harvested in this state are better preserved
than those harvested immature, and are
also of better quality.
Days with low environmental humidity, with

good sunshine, and dry soil during harvest,
are ideal conditions for obtaining high
quality bulbs with good conservation
capacity. In light soils, plants can be pulled
up by hand; In heavy soils, the roots are
cut with a hoe or with a furrow passed in
the row.
After starting, the bulbs should remain in

the field, exposed to the sun, for at least
one day; The curing process (loss of water
and complete drying of the neck) should
continue in a shed for 3 to 5 days; Only then should the leaves and roots be cut,
and bagged for marketing; The traditional packaging is the mesh type bag with a
capacity of 45 Kg. of clean bulbs.
By following these recommendations, a yield of 18 to 20 tons of marketable

onion per hectare can be achieved.
Conservation
Like the T or in Paraguay, it is quite high and humid at the time of harvest,
production can be compromised due to rot, which is why great care is required.
Conditions for conservation
> Plant in medium-heavy soils that are well permeable.

> As for fertilizers, excessive use of N must be avoided, but yes, it is
You can apply a good amount of P and K.

> At the time of harvest, the land must be very dry.
> Wait for the neck of the plants to bend and leave a few in the field.
days for them to dry and lose some water and avoid rot.
> The bulbs have thin necks, with very shiny outer tunics, bulbs
healthy and without damage, they are the best for conservation.
Conservation methods
Ristrado (braid), on shelf and refrigerated (refrigerator).
Medicinal properties
Onion is rich in properties that make it a general tonic and stimulant. Due
to its content in vitamins A and C it can treat all types of respiratory diseases,
also thanks to its content in vitamin B it can treat nervous diseases. It has
certain antianemic properties, and thanks to its iron, phosphorus and mineral
content, it replenishes blood and red blood cell loss. Onion protects against
infections and above all regulates the digestive system, maintaining the balance
of digestive ferments and preventing intestinal parasites.
CULTIVATION OF BULB GARLIC

Class : Monocotyledonous
Family : Liliaceae
Genus : Allium
Species : Allium sativum L.
Common garlic is an annual, herbaceous

plant that normally reaches 50 cm in height.
Its leaves are lanceolate, elongated and
narrow with a V-shaped section, 30 to 50
cm long, covered by a thick litter
waxy that protects it against fungus
pathogenic, but which also makes spray
coverage difficult. The pods form a unique
pseudo stem, whose lower underground
part is a compound bulb, formed by bulblets that are developed buds, rich in
nutritional reserves.

The stem itself is reduced to a disk located at the base of the bulb, being the
starting point for roots, leaves and bulbils. The roots are fasciculated, poorly
branched, with vertical growth, reaching 6 cm in depth.
Varieties evolutionary cycle
> Precocial ; from 4 to 5 months, common white, mineiro

> Half ; from 4.5 to 5.5 months, ñapuri, flug sang, amarante, centenario and
savinia.
> Late ; over 5.5 months, colorado mendocino, arequipeña,
campineiro.
Climate and soil requirements

Climate
o
The most indicated average monthly temperature ranges between 13 and 24
Soil preparation
The most appropriate soils for growing garlic

are sandy-clayey soils, rich in organic matter.
Very clay soils should be avoided because they
make harvesting difficult and deform the bulbs;
Very sandy soils are also not good because
they do not have the necessary moisture and
nutrient retention power.
If acidity correction is necessary (the pH should be 6.0 to 6.5), it is ideal that it be

carried out 6 months in advance, cultivating another species beforehand.
Organic fertilization, with 30 to 40 tons of poultry manure, or 10 to 15 tons of
chicken manure per hectare, is very desirable.
Multiplication
It can be done in two ways: using seeds or
from bulbils. The first method is hardly
applied, since it delays obtaining mature and
useful garlic for consumption for up to two
years, however, by planting bulbils, garlic is
obtained with greater precocity and great
homogeneity.

Choice of plant material
The almost exclusive multiplication by bulbils gives garlic a great stability of
characters, which explains the limited number of botanical varieties cultivated,
the White or common variety being the one that prevails in all countries. White
garlic is late, rustic, with good productivity and excellent flavor.
Planting time:
Planting times may vary depending on the variety and regional climatic
conditions. In our country, following the behavior of temperature and the
variation in the length of the day (photoperiod), planting should be carried out
from March 10 to May 15.
Planting process : Garlic is planted by cloves or

bulbils. Care must be taken not to use garlic
seed contaminated with diseases and pests.
Preparation for planting begins with "deseeding,"

which is the operation of breaking up the heads
(bulbs), separating the cloves from each other.
The classification is then made by tooth size.
Those of different sizes tend to ripen at different
times and therefore those of equal sizes should
be planted for a good quality harvest. The classification is done through four
sieves: No. 1, with 15 x 25 mm mesh; the no. 2; with 10 x 20 mm; the no. 3, with
8 x 17mm; and No. 4, with 5 x 17 mm.
The teeth that pass through the screen No. 4 are called sticks. A selection must
then be made, eliminating teeth with different coloration, attacked by pests and
diseases, or with any damage. Afterwards, a treatment is carried out to reduce
contamination with soil diseases, mainly white rot. The treatment consists of
spreading the cloves on a piece of plastic, spraying it with water and a little
adhesive and placing them, still slightly moist, in a drum with an eccentric shaft
in which a recommended fungicide is placed.
Next, the drum is rotated so that the fungicide adheres to the teeth. The planting
is carried out in beds of 0.70 m to 1.00 m wide. The distance between the rows
should be 25 to 30 cm. and between plants within the rows 8 to 10 cm. at a
depth of 3 to 5 cm. Using the spacing of 30 x 10 cm, there is room for 300,000
plants per hectare, and the expenses with garlic-seed will be 1200 Kg. If the
remaining teeth are used

screen No. 1, with 4 g each; 900 Kg. of sieve teeth No. 2, with 3 g each; 600
Kg. of teeth of the screen No. 3 with 2 g each; or 300 kg. of teeth of the screen
No. 4 with 1 g each.
Of the varieties with small cloves such as Branco Mineiro, Cateto Roxo,
Centenario and Dourado, an average of 350 to 400 kg/ha of garlic-seed is used.
Those with large teeth such as Chonan, Peruano, Quiteria, Caxiense, Gigante
Roxo, Chinés and Amarante, 700 to 800 Kg/ha.
Cultural care
Dead cover after planting and

before garlic sprouts, 7 to 10 cm
thick, favors the reduction of soil
temperature and moisture retention
and prevents the appearance of
weeds. Rice straw, seedless grass
or sugarcane bagasse are normally
used.
In case of dry weather, sprinkler

irrigation is carried out every two
days in the first thirty days; every
four or five days for the next sixty
days; now every week until ten or
twenty days before harvest. Irrigation can also be carried out in furrows,
requiring good technical guidance.
Fertilization
Garlic responds well to organic and chemical fertilization, P stands out for the
greatest responses in production. Potassium fertilizers are less important for
garlic, mainly in soils with a medium to high percentage of this element and
when organic fertilizer is used.
Main diseases
$ rust ; that develops in conditions of a lot of rain, fog

thick and temperature around 20 °C.
$ Purple spot or burning of the leaves ; what happens with humidity
high and constant (excessive rainfall), persistent dew or excessive irrigation.

& White rot ; favored by mild temperatures, and the garlic stem and bulb
nematode.
Main pests
The main pests are thrips, a small insect that

sucks the sap of the plant, causing it to
yellow and dry; the bulb mite that lives in the
folds of the leaves and on the teeth, and can
cause a decrease in production and
shrinkage of the bulbs or teeth; and other
minor pests such as the thread lizard, the
military lizard, and already in storage
conditions, the weevil.
Harvest
When the leaves begin to dry, the garlic reached the harvest point. The harvest
should preferably be done on a sunny day, in the morning, so that the curing or
drying begins at the harvest site itself. The plants are uprooted whole and left on
the beds, so that the bulbs are covered by the leaves of the previous row, thus
remaining from one to three days depending on the weather conditions. The
cure then continues in sheds, in the shade, for twenty to sixty days, with the
bulbs placed on stands, cloths or mats on trestles.
Storage
Until the marketing or planting season,

the garlic must be stored in a shed with a
clay tile roof and a cement floor, free of
any water infiltration. Garlic should be
placed on trestles, in stacked boxes or
bags, in thin layers on boards or dry
floors.
In a cold room, at 0 °C and relative

humidity of 70 to 75%, garlic can be
preserved for up to eight months.
Normally garlic is stored without
branches, but there are producers who advise leaving them, as well as the roots;
They store the garlic in strings, so that it lasts longer without sprouting.
Before marketing, heads with defects are removed, the branch is cut 1 cm from
the head and the root flush with it, being careful not to damage it, and the first
outer layer of the bulb is removed. Hollowness is considered a defect

(vain) partial or total, sprouting, opening of the bulb, and others such as
fungal attacks and mechanical damage .
Embedded
Once dry and free of dirt, the outermost leaves are torn
off, and with the help of the remaining leaves, the heads
are braided into a chain to facilitate their suspension in a
dry and ventilated place, where they will end up losing
any moisture they may still contain.
LOCOTE CULTIVATION
Class : Dicotyledonous
Family : Solanaceae
Genus : Capsicum
Species : Capsicum annum
Introduction
The pepper or locote can be consumed fresh accompanying various salads; also
cooked, fried, baked; in garnishes of meat, fish, rice, and other vegetables; and
as a condiment, especially the spicy-flavored varieties. It is high in vitamin C; a
high water and fiber content; a low level of calories and is recommended against
constipation, as an antioxidant and in slimming diets. It contains oils that are
used in the preparation of beauty creams and hair lotions. Locote is sensitive to
low temperatures and frost, which can even cause the death of the plant.
It adapts to various types of soil, although the best are those that are loose,
deep, rich in organic matter, with good drainage and with good water retention
capacity. The crop does not tolerate compact and clay soils; and it is very
sensitive to excess soil moisture that causes problems with diseases due to
wilting; in addition to rot and root asphyxiation. Prefers slightly acidic to neutral
soils. If the soil is very acidic, correction must be carried out with agricultural
lime, according to what is determined by the result of the soil analysis.

It is a shrubby plant, which reaches about 60
to 80 cm in height, its roots reach up to a
meter deep, its flowers are hermaphroditic,
being normally pollinated, and sometimes
cross-pollination with spicy lot can occur.
Varieties
Pepper varieties are classified into 2 groups:
1) Elongated or guampita type : Agronomic 10,

Cascadura, Magda, Nacional. This type of locote
is preferred in the local market, and is also
accepted for export.
2) Square type : Yolo Wonder, California

Wonder, Keystone, Melody. This type is preferred
in the export market and is also highly
appreciated by housewives for the preparation of
the exquisite “stuffed locote.”
Climate
Locote is typically a tropical climate vegetable, requiring higher daytime and

nighttime temperatures than tomatoes.
Production of seedlings :
a) Sowing in seedbeds : The seed is sown in well-prepared seedbeds, for

which the soil must be turned over, the clods broken, manure added, the soil
leveled and disinfected well in advance. Then 1 cm transverse grooves are
marked. deep, separated at 10 cm. each other, where the seeds are deposited.
In one linear meter, only up to 50 seeds should be planted. After covering the
seeds with the same soil, the plank should be covered with straw, coconut leaf
or other material, and then watered with plenty of water. In summer, seed
germination occurs 5 or 7 days after sowing.
Care must be taken to remove the soil cover when germination begins.
The seedbed must always be kept moist; You have to water daily and constantly
take care of the health and vigor of the plants. Thus, the seedlings will be ready
for transplanting 30 to 40 days after sowing; to that

age, the seedlings are 10 to 12 cm. tall, 4 to 6 leaves, and the thickness of the
stem is equivalent to that of a pen.
b) Sowing in a pot or in an isopor

tray : In this
method, the soil prepared in the
same way as a seedbed is loaded
into newspaper or polyethylene
plastic pots or into the tray. The
polyethylene pots and trays
HE find
available in agricultural and
veterinary products stores; those
made of newspaper can be
prepared by the same producer,
with the advantage that waste (paper) is recycled, and at the time of
transplanting it is completely incorporated into the soil. Sowing is done by
placing 1 or 2 seeds in the center of the pot 1 cm deep. Land preparation
Land preparation includes the following operations: clearing, plowing, tracing,

liming, matching and opening furrows. When liming is done, this operation must
be carried out two months before planting. The plowing is done to a depth of 25
to 30 cm, the furrow is enabled and organic matter or chemicals are added.
Transplant : The second step constitutes the transplant of the seedlings

obtained in a seedbed or pot to the final location.
The field must be plowed, tracked and furrowed. Manure and available chemical
fertilizer are placed in the planting furrows at least 5 days before transplanting.
For the transplant, the seedlings must be extracted very carefully, avoiding
damaging the roots; Ideally, the roots should be protected by a clod. The use of
pots facilitates this procedure and ensures almost 100% catch. Then the
seedlings are placed in the furrow and covered with soil, making sure that they
are buried at the same depth as they were in the seedbed or pot. Immediately
after transplanting it should be watered.
Planting density ; It varies from 33,000 to 35,000 plants per ha. The planting
distance is 60 to 70 cm between rows and 40 to 50 cm between plants.
Complementary fertilization : Add chemical fertilizer 30, 60 and 90 days after

transplanting, of the 12-12-17-2 or 15-15-15 formulation, during the crop cycle.

Cultural care
> Systematic weed control : Carpidates must be carried out

superficially and at the right time; that is, before weeds begin to compete for
water, light and nutrients with locote plants.
> Soil cover : Cover the soil with plant debris or plastic.
This helps maintain moisture, control weeds, and protect the soil from erosion.
> Place stakes : Depending on the vigor of the plants, it is necessary to
place
50 cm tutors. high, to which the plants are
tied. This is important when there are
strong winds.
> Control; integrated and timely
plagues and diseases.
> Irrigation : Irrigation is essential
to obtain high returns. The crop must be
watered when there is a lack of rain.
More common diseases
and ..................................................
X Cercoporiosis of pepper ;
(Cercospora capsici)
Symptoms ; It is produced by a fungus

that attacks any part of the plant,
causing its death if the attack is
intense. It manifests itself on the leaves
as round spots bordered by a dark
stripe of dark color.
Control ; To control the spread of the disease, it is necessary to remove and

burn the attacked plants and spray the healthy plants with 1% Bordeaux broth.
and . . ...................................................
X Mildew or pepper blight
(Phytophthora capsici):
Symptoms ; When it attacks seedling

plants, it manifests itself as a greenish-
brown spot that spreads quickly over the
stem, causing the death of the plant. In

Adult plants have similar spots but they become dark and make the stem brittle.
The attack on the fruits begins near the calyx, the skin loses shine and wrinkles.
Control ;
> Use disinfected seeds.

> Disinfect the seedbeds with 2% formalin.
> Destroy diseased plants, burning them to prevent spread.
> Reduce risks.
> Spray periodically with 1% Bordeaux broth.
> Crop rotation.
® .............................................................................
X Wet or soft rot (Bacillus carotovorus):
Symptoms ; It appears in fruits that begin to wrinkle and lose their normal
consistency. The epidermis wrinkles but does not rot, but not the inside of the
fruit, which becomes putrid and dark. It attacks both the stored fruit and the living
plant.
Control; To control it in the garden, it is important to rotate crops, combat weeds

and insects, destroy infected plants, avoid dense plantings, etc. To avoid this
during storage, we must disinfect the tank with 2% copper sulfate and have good
ventilation.
Most common pests
Aphids, Vaquita de San Antonio, Thrips, Mites, Burritos, and others. Control with
contact and ingestion and systemic insecticides, uproot and burn host plants.
HARVEST
The harvest begins 90 days to 110 days

after sowing. The fruits are harvested in a
green or red state; The green ones are
harvested about 20 days before the red
ones. The harvest is manual and the fruits
are cut with scissors or penknife, always
leaving about 2 cm to 3 cm of peduncle or
stem to better preserve the locote. During
this operation you must be careful not to
force the branches as they break easily
due to the knots. Pepper yield varies, but it is possible to obtain from 8 fruits to
12 fruits per plant.
Green peppers can be preserved for 15 days or 20 days in ventilated

environments, and protected from the sun and rain with temperatures between
8ºC and 10ºC and a relative humidity of 60%. Red peppers, on the other hand,

are preserved in the same previous conditions of temperature and humidity but
only for 7 days. The fruits that will be preserved must be previously selected
taking into account firmness and uniform shape; and the absence of defects
such as cracks, rot and sunburn. The cultivation of this vegetable is a very
interesting option, especially because it can generate a good income margin for
the small producer.
Packaging
Preferably use medium-sized crates, although depending on the buyer, it may

also be sent in bags.
General considerations
> Classify correctly according to the variety and do not mix it with others.
> Unify the size, color and ripening of the fruits.
> Present the fruits clean and free of foreign bodies.
> Distribute the fruits throughout the space and capacity of the container, and
do not crush them.

TOMATO CULTIVATION
BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION
CLASS: Dicotyledonous
FAMILY : Solanaceae
GENUS : Lycopersicum Sculentum
Introduction
The tomato is the most important vegetable

in the world. There are many varieties and new ones come onto the market
every so often. Commercial varieties are F1 hybrids, more productive,
homogeneous and incorporate resistance to diseases, but they are not suitable
for leaving seeds for the following year.
Morphology
The tomato is an annual plant, native to the mountainous land of the Andes
Mountains, however in tropical regions it behaves as a perennial. For its good
growth it requires relatively cool temperatures and low humidity.
The aerial part of the plant is completely covered by fine hair, from which it gives
off its characteristic aroma. Depending on the growth habit, it can exceed 1
meter in height, when it is determined, or exceed 2 meters, when it is
indeterminate. In this case, if pruning is not carried out, it becomes a climbing
plant.
The fruit is a fleshy and juicy berry, oval or round in shape, with a diameter of
between 5 to 8 cm, red, orange-red and yellow in color. It has a lot of nutritional
value because it mainly contains vitamins A, B and C, and is rich in inorganic
salts, which is why it is important to consume it fresh.
Varieties
Tomato varieties for natural consumption are classified into two groups: Santa
Cruz (Ángela G-51, Jumbo, Santa Clara) and smooth or round (Sunny, T 70).
In 1997, through the Project to Improve Vegetable Production Technology for

Small Producers in Paraguay,

They began genetic improvement work on tomatoes, considered one of the
vegetables most grown by small producers as an income alternative.
These studies gave two varieties; firstly the T – IAN V 1 “ Pyta Pora ”.
The characteristic of Pytã Porã is that it belongs to a variety with an

indeterminate growth habit; Vigorous and large in size, it has double clusters
producing up to 6 fruits per cluster.
In the genetic improvement process, the fruit has been given a high degree of
hardness; For this reason, its post-harvest duration is very important, reaching
up to 12 days after ripening, depending on the T or the environment.
Its most outstanding characteristics are high yield (in the field 4 to 5 kilos in the
greenhouse 8 kilos); excellent fruit quality; tolerant to major diseases; longer
postharvest duration; It can be cultivated throughout the country due to its wide
adaptation.
Considerations: optimal time for production from March to December; summer

production with half shade and soil cover; the producer can produce his own
seed; Before cultivation, a soil analysis must be carried out.
PYTÍ GUAZÚ VARIETY
Called T - IAN V 2 " Pytã Guazú " it

is a variety of determined growth, a
vigorous growing plant, very similar
to the hybrid BHN 270, it has
flowers with double clusters,
producing between 5 to 6 fruits.
The advantage of this variety is that

new plants can be produced from its
seeds.
Performance and adaptation : the performances obtained by the material in

the different locations tested in Itá, Piribebuy, IAN, 3 de Febrero and Coronel
Oviedo demonstrated great adaptation to them. Outstanding characteristics:
high yield (in the field 4 to 5 kilos - in the greenhouse 8 kilos); excellent fruit
quality; tolerance to septoria; by

Its wide adaptation is recommended for cultivation in all horticultural areas of
the country.
General considerations : optimal production time March to December; cheaper

seed; summer production with half shade and ground cover; The producer can
produce his own seed from the selection of the best fruits; First of all, do a soil
analysis.
Var. Super Cetapar
Characteristics
The Super Cetapar variety was

obtained from crosses between a
Taiwanese variety and a Japanese
variety, then selection and self-
fertilization were carried out for
more than 7 generations to obtain
distinguishability,
homogeneity and stability. The
growth habit of this plant is
indeterminate, with vigorous
vegetative development in the
summer. It has a growth similar to the T-70 variety. Its fruits have an elliptical
shape, medium size, intense red color, sweet flavor with moderate acidity, long
conservation period, resistant to handling and transportation. In addition, the fruit
is well accepted in the national market due to its color and conservation
capacity. Depending on management and growing conditions, it can produce
more than 7 to 8 kg per plant.
The Super Cetapar tomato has good tolerance to bacterial spot because,
normally, when the symptoms of this disease appear, they immediately spread
from the lower leaves to the upper leaves. But in this variety the spread of the
disease is delayed, allowing a long harvest period. According to the results of
the research, it was observed that the degree of occurrence of bacterial spot in
this variety decreases by approximately 50% after 2 months of starting the
summer harvest. Furthermore, tolerance to early blight and septoria was
established in this variety.

Characteristics in
he
growth and development
The tomato plant is characterized

by the simultaneous development
of the vegetative part (stems and
leaves) and the reproductive part
(flower bud). The excessive
application of some nutrients such
as Nitrogen (N), insufficient
exposure of the plant to sunlight
and high T o , favors vegetative
development to the detriment of
reproductive development,
consequently anomalies arise in
the flower organs that cause
defects in fruiting, for this reason it is important to properly control these growth
factors.
Temperature
The optimal development temperature ranges between 20 0 C and 30ºC during

the day and between 11 0 C and 17ºC during the night. Temperatures between
above and 40ºC affect the fruiting and development of the plant as well as its
root system. Temperatures below 10ºC also cause problems. Outside these
ranges the plant perishes. However, the effects of temperature interaction
combined with air and humidity must be taken into account.
Humidity
Very high relative humidity favors the development of aerial diseases and
cracking of the fruit and makes fertilization difficult, because the pollen becomes
compacted, aborting part of the flowers. Dryness below 50% also affects flower
pollination. Low relative humidity also makes it difficult for pollen to attach to the
stigma of the flower.
Brightness
The plant requires exposure to a lot of light, ideally in full sun. Reduced
luminosity can affect flowering, fertilization and vegetative development. In
greenhouse breeding, at critical moments the interrelation between day and
night temperature and luminosity can be crucial.

Floor
It is not demanding in terms of soils, although it prefers loose ones rich in

organic matter. It is very important, as in all vegetables, that the drainage is
good, that is, that it does not become waterlogged for a long time.
Sowing
The seeds can be sown directly in the garden

soil, but the most common and recommended
thing is to previously make a seed bed or
seedbed, that is, sow them in trays or pots and
then, when they are about 15 cm. transplant to
the final place.
To speed up germination, cover the seedbed

with plastic without touching the substrate,
which is raised about 25 cm, and not
completely closed, so that it has ventilation. At
a constant temperature of 25º C, germination
takes place in six days, at 35ºC in nine days
and at 10ºC in forty-five.
Water very gently, so that the seeds do not

move, and keep the place moist, not
waterlogged.
When the little plants emerge, and have two leaves, leave the one that you see
as the strongest, and remove the others and carry it to the pick. When they are
about 15 cm. tall, they are now ready to transplant.
Traditional cultivation
Tomato can be grown outdoors or in a

greenhouse . For the hobbyist, the most
common is in the outdoor garden, but for the
professional farmer, growing in a
greenhouse or with protection is very
important.
At the end of winter, prepare the soil well to

30 cm. and incorporates a good organic
fertilizer , mixing it homogeneously. It is very
important to make this fertilizer, it will be the
nutritional base for the crop.

Indicative dose of manure : 3 kilos per m 2 of animal manure, compost, mulch
or other organic fertilizers. Do not plant outside until the risk of frost has
disappeared.
The planting method is in rows, staked with tacuara or other types of materials.
Prepare ridges of earth, leaving a groove between ridge and ridge. From the
center of one ridge to the center of the other, there should be about 60-70 cm.
(separation between lines).
Plant the seedlings on the ridges with a separation of 40 cm between

plant.
Improved system
> Cultivation methods in seasons

hot ; To achieve a good harvest in the hot
season, mainly in the months between
November and April, it is necessary to
consider the use of a cover with white or black
half-shade mesh installed at a height of 2.2
meters, this with the purpose of protect plants
from the intense heat that occurs at this time
and also avoid contamination of stems, leaves
and fruits by diseases transmitted by the effect
of splashes when raindrops impact the ground. The use of this production
system allows obtaining a continuous income at a time when tomato production
is
becomes very difficult.
> Structure growing system with

rain protection ; In crops managed in
structures with transparent plastic coverage,
as protection against rain, a stable and high-
quality production can be achieved, due to the
control that this system exercises over certain
climatic factors, mainly rain and in some cases
frost. Regarding the reduction of damage
caused by the main diseases, the system
allows

obtaining a product that meets all the conditions for exploitation.
Production of seedlings
For the differentiation of the floral bud to be optimal, it

is essential that the seedlings are well managed in
their initial growth stage, which ranges between 25 to
55 days after sowing and up to 95 days with the rain
protection system.
A highly recommended method is the production of seedlings in tunnels, with

double coverage, with a fine mesh net, to prevent the entry of pests that transmit
viral diseases, overlaid with transparent plastic, to avoid the effect that rain may
cause. . This tunnel is raised on a plank, where the pots with the seeds or the
seedlings planted for their development are installed.
Previous work for the production of seedlings
1) Local for the formation of molts ; preferably near the

housing and a water source, with a good drainage system, sufficient sunlight
and good ventilation.
2) Tunnel installation ; is done

mainly to avoid contact with insect vectors, such as whiteflies or virus-
transmitting thrips (vira head), as well as to
avoid the direct impact of rain on the
plants.
3) Pots ; the dimensions of the

Pots that will be used in the formation of
seedlings are: 10 cm in diameter, 10 cm in
height, with a capacity of 500 g of substrate
and a 1 to 2 cm hole in the bottom for
drainage.
4) Substrate preparation ; the

materials that will be part of the
Substrate mixture must meet two
fundamental requirements, be free of any
type of pathogen and contain sufficient the main nutrients for the proper
development of the seedlings. For this crop

recommends mixing equal parts of soil extracted from the forest or compost,
well-decomposed chicken or farmyard manure.
5) Disinfect the substrate ; For this purpose, methods can be used

physical (heat source) and chemical (biocides). Ex. Basamid 30 to 40 gr per 100
kg of substrate, for which airtight sealing with polyethylene is recommended for
a week to obtain good results.
Mentoring
Staking is essential to keep the

plant upright and prevent the
fruits from touching the ground.
The stems are tied with sailing

thread to the tutor to
loose enough so that it does not
affect their growth.
Irrigation
Furrow irrigation is common,

flooding the space between ridge
and ridge. About 10-15 irrigations
are given with an interval of 7-12
days between irrigation and
irrigation. Another very common
and comfortable method is drip
irrigation and less used,
sprinkling.
• Vegetables are sensitive to

both excess and deficiency of
water.
Careful with this.
• Water preferably in the early morning or in the evening after sunset.
• Excessive irrigation or fertilizers cause the fruit to lose flavor.
• Never water plants just before harvesting.

Subscriber
Fertilization in home gardens is based on manure prior to planting (it can be

animal manure from cows, sheep, horses..., compost, mulch, etc.); nothing
more, that is enough.
Commercial cultivation makes intensive use of chemical fertilizers to obtain

greater production, however, if the crop land is poor in nutrients or the first flower
clusters appear poor or the leaves do not grow, you have the possibility of
making a cover fertilizer. when the plants are already installed with an NPK
(Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium) compound fertilizer.
Weeding
A very important task is to remove the shoots that

appear in the axils of the leaves every 10 days or so. If you do
not remove them, they will give rise to new stems, a tangle of
plant will form, and the tomatoes will be much
More smalls.
With this, you will ensure that the plant produces larger
and better quality fruits, and at the same time you will
have a stronger plant, with less foliage, which will
dedicate all its energy to the fruits.
Therefore, all the lateral shoots that emerge from the

axils of the leaves or at the base of the plant are
suppressed as they appear (when they measure about 3
cm.). If the sprout is tender, it is cut by hand, simply
bending the stem until it comes off; If the tissue has
developed stiffness, it is best to cut it with pruning
shears.
Do not cut the terminal shoot because it is what leads the plant upwards. Cut it
when the first cold weather arrives and the plant is finishing its cycle, to help the
last tomatoes it has ripen better.
Carpida
It is a very light dig to keep the soil loose, prevent crust formation and eliminate
weeds that emerge throughout the crop. It is made very superficial so as not to
break crop rootlets.

Ground Cover
Soil coverage is a recommended practice but not essential. It consists of

spreading a layer of about 2 cm of decomposed compost or leaf mulch between
the young plants, once they are established. The cover will reduce water loss,
provide nutrients and prevent the appearance of weeds.
Leafless
Remove some leaves when the tomatoes are already big, to begin to ripen,
starting from the bottom, so that they do not take away the sun from the fruits.
Prevention of physiological damage
1. fruit deformation
Symptoms ; Elliptical shaped fruits are observed due to the fusion of several
fruits, the formation of a small fruit in the fissure of the apical area of some fruit,
the growth of small fruits on one of the sides of other fruits.
Causes ; In the period of floral differentiation, in the middle of the growth stage,
the plant is affected by low T o , increasing the number of sepals and pelalos,
consequently the number of locules, leading to deformation of the fruits.
Control ; Be careful when applying fertilizer and controlling irrigation, so that the
plant does not show excessive growth or experience a sudden change.
2. Fruit cracking
Symptoms ; appears a little before

harvest. There are three types of cracking,
circular and radial (from the peduncle) and
irregular (lateral part of the fruit).
Causes ; It is produced by internal

pressure, caused by the intense growth of
this part of the fruit, accompanied by the
hardening of the external surface.
Control ; exercise strict control over

the availability of water in the soil, avoiding excess or marked deficiency.
3. Fruit blossom end rot
Symptoms ; The apex becomes greasy

after 2 to 3 weeks of fruiting,
subsequently this part sinks, giving rise
to the formation of circular, generally
hard spots.
Causes ; The direct responsible for this

anomaly is Calcium (Ca) deficiency,
generally due to a low availability of this
element in the soil.
If there is an excess of Mg, K and N, their absorption also decreases, drought

with high T o , weakening the roots and delaying the mobilization of Ca inside the
plant.
Control ; Foliar application of a 0.5% solution of Potassium Chloride (KCl) is

very effective in the initial period of symptoms.
4. premature flower
Symptoms ; It has more than 6 pelages, leaf growth at the tip of the floral
cluster.
Causes ; succulent growth caused by excess N within the plant.
Control ; proper management of the crop in the application of fertilizers,

irrigation, pruning, soil coverage.
5. flower fall
Symptoms ; There is no fruit formation, due to the flowers falling.
Causes ; They can be due to lack of light, high or low T, deficiency in

reproductive growth or excessive vegetative growth.
Control ; Thin the leaves so that the light reaches the flowers. In case of high T
o,
the ventilation of the premises must be improved, the soil cover improved or
the amount of irrigation water regulated.

Tomato diseases and their control
* Septoriosis : (Septoria lycopersicii)
Symptoms ; The first symptoms are observed in

the seedbed, where it causes damage, especially in
susceptible varieties. The disease attacks the entire
aerial part, cotyledons, leaves, stems, sepals and
fruits. The symptoms on the leaves appear as circular,
brownish, somewhat depressed spots, with an ash-
colored center. On the stem, the spots have diffuse
edges, completely covering it. On the fruits, they
usually appear as small necrotic spots of 1 to 2 mm.
cultural control ; destroy diseased plants by burning or burying them, avoid

abundant irrigation, crop rotation preferably with grasses, fertilize in a balanced
manner, eliminate nightshade plants close to the crop, avoid successive
plantations in the same place or close to the crop
chemical control ; dose for 20 liters of water

X Early Blight : (Alternaria solani)
% Benlate: 12 to 24 gr. Cupravit: 50 to 60

• Dithane M-80: 40 gr. gr.
Mancozeb: 60 gr.
Symptoms ; Generally the disease is detected on
older leaves where it manifests itself as small dark
brown spots surrounded by a yellow halo. As the
lesion grows, it forms concentric rings that are quite
characteristic of this disease. When the attack is
severe, the leaves dry out and fall, exposing the fruits, which, exposed to the
sun's rays, burn.
cultural control ; crop rotation, eliminate weeds of the nightshade family, avoid
low areas that are very humid and poorly drained, avoid abundant irrigation.

% Copper oxychloride: 60 gr. Dithane M-80: 40 gr.

% Blight Late: (Phytophthora
infestans)
Symptoms ; On the leaves, the disease

begins as small brown spots with a light
green halo and a moist appearance.
These lesions are larger than early blight,
and one lesion can cause the entire leaflet
to dry out. On the stem the lesions are dark and can cause the death of the
terminal shoot. The attacked fruits present slight deformation and brown spots,
causing rot that generally begins in the region of the calyx, but remains with its
firm consistency.
Control ; The same applies for Late Blight.
^ White Mold ; (Sclerotinia

sclerotium)
Symptoms ; The parts of the plants

closest to the ground are the most
affected. When there is high
humidity, a white mycelium appears
in the infected part. As the disease
progresses, the stem dries and takes
on a brown color and inside it
develops. black sclerosis of irregular
shapes. The attacked fruits develop
a hard rot of light color and growth of
the fungal mycelium on the infected
parts.
Culture control ; avoid abundant

irrigation, crop rotation, keep the soil with good drainage, avoid a very dense
population of plants, cover the soil with transparent plastic in times of good solar
radiation.
2 Pilarstin: 10 to 12 cc. Topsin M: 20 gr.

...
X Fusariumsis; (Fusarium oxiporum)
Symptoms ; Affected plants initially show

only temporary wilting during the day,
which progressively worsens as the days
go by. Then the yellowing of the leaves
occurs, which progresses starting with the
lower leaves. The woody tissue of
diseased plants is covered with a reddish-
black spot in longitudinal streaks. On the
outside of the stems you can clearly see
the appearance of addressed adventitious
roots. On the neck of damaged plants, a
necrotic canker can be seen that advances up the stem.
cultural control ; sow healthy seeds, avoid subsequent cultivation of tomato,

uproot and burn diseased plants, apply agricultural lime to correct soil acidity to
a pH of 6.5 to 6.0, which reduces the disease.
chemical control ; disinfect the soil with Basamid at 30 to 40 gr per m 2 ,

incorporate the product to a depth of 10 to 15 cm, after 7 to 10 days remove the
soil to release the gases. For this disease, curative treatment is not possible,
only preventive.
and.......... . .
X Bacterial Wilt ; (Rhizoctonia solanacearum)
Symptoms ; The beginning of the attack is manifested by the wilting of young

leaves during the day, which temporarily recover at night and on cloudy days.
When the disease worsens, wilting is observed in the lower leaves, after 5 to 7
days, they no longer recover from the wilting although the plant may remain
green and, finally, the death of the plant occurs. The sap-conducting vessels
turn brown, although they often have a rather light color that is not easily
identifiable. The vessels are moist and when you press strongly on one of them
it releases a milky liquid or bacterial secretion.
Control ; The disease has no chemical control, it must be prevented. Diseased

plants should be burned or buried and plenty of organic matter applied to allow
beneficial soil microorganisms to multiply.

............................................
X Bacterial Spot; (Xanthomonas campestri)
Symptoms ; Immediately after transplanting, small dark brownish, watery,

rounded and irregular spots of 1 to 2 mm appear on new leaves. The contour of
the lesions produces the deformation of the leaves and their increase, their fall.
Dark green lesions originate on the stem, and on the fruits small green or
brownish watery spots surrounded by a white halo, which when enlarged turn
black, forming a tuberization or crust in the center. Lesions of the same type also
appear on the sepals; when the lesions increase, they affect the production and
economic value of the fruits.
cultural control ; use certified seeds, rotate crops, use plastic cover and protect
crops from rain.
X Agrept; 10 to 20 gr. Agrimycin; 7 to 10 gr.

X Cuprimicin; 40 gr. Blue vitigran; 60 to 80 gr.
—..................... .
X Hollow Stem ; (Erwinia carotovora)
Symptoms; The first symptoms appear

after budding, the petiole loses its shine and
takes on a black color. As the disease
develops, it penetrates the interior of the stem,
spreading up and down. When you press the
stem with your finger, it breaks, revealing
internal rotting of the tissue and a strong odor.
The disease also affects the external part of
the stem where it causes black rot. In the
fruits, the bacteria penetrates through the holes produced by insects, rotting
them and giving off a foul odor, although they remain fixed to the peduncle of the
plant, later taking on the appearance of a bag of water.
cultural control ; cultivate in well-drained soils, fertilize in a balanced way

avoiding excess N, carry out weeding when the plant is dry, combat insects that
cause wounds on the fruits, rotate crops with grasses and use soil cover.
chemical control ; Same for Bacterial Spot

e - ..........................................—___—
X Curling of the leaves ; (TYLV, Tomato
Leaf Virus)
Symptoms ; Plants infected at an early age

stop growing, the terminal and axillary shoots
take an erect shape and the leaves have
reduced size and abnormal shapes. The
leaves that develop after infection are curled
downwards, those that develop later become
chlorotic and deformed with the margins
curled upwards. The effect on the fruit
depends on the age of the plant. If it is
infected at an early age, it loses vigor for the
production of marketable fruits. When the
infection occurs in late stages of development,
it affects the formation of floral clusters, but
The already formed fruits show normal
ripening. No symptoms are observed in
flowers, but abortion is common due to lack of
good pollination.
cultural control ; The seedbed should be prepared away from virus-infested

crops, cover the seedbed to protect it from the insect vector, eliminate diseased
plants immediately after harvest, destroy weeds that serve as hosts.
chemical control ; spray the plants with insecticides to combat

appearance of the vector insect.
X Vira Cabeza ; (TSWV, Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus)

Symptoms ; If the infection occurs when the plant is small, it stops growing, the
leaves appear curved downwards and
appear stiff. The edges of the leaflets of the
upper leaves have a purplish red or tan
color, sometimes this
symptoms can be combined with

stippled mosaic or necrotic rings
or with a chlorosis of regular
intensity on the leaf blade.
Deformation and curling of the
leaf blade occurs, followed by
necrosis in the shoots and leaves
of the apical sector.
In fruits, both green and ripe,
superficial deformations usually
appear due to the presence of
protuberances and chlorotic
and/or necrotic rings. In cases of very early infections, the death of plants before
flowering is feasible.
cultural control ; protect the seedbed against thrips, avoid tomato plantations
close to others that are also hosts, such as solanaceae, malvaceae,
compositaceae and others.
chemical control ; control the population of its natural vectors, e.g. Thrips.
e..
X Mosaic ; (TMV, Tobacco Mosaic
Virus)
Symptoms ; The leaves present a
mosaic that alternates light green and
dark green colors, rarely with yellow
areas and take an elongated and
twisted shape upwards. Open flowers
may not set due to stunted growth
and poor pollen germination.
In older fruits, internal hardening may

occur due to the presence of the
virus, conditioned by other factors
such as soil humidity, nutritional
deficiency and varietal
characteristics.
Control ; sow healthy seeds,

disinfect the tools after each operation by submerging them in a concentrated
detergent solution, and before carrying out cultural tasks such as weeding,
staking, etc., the operator must wash his hands with soap and water.

^ Mosaic of the Cucurbitaceae ;
(CMV, Cucumber Mosaic Virus)
Symptoms ; the mosaic of the

Cucurbits produce the disease known as “
fern leaf ” in tomatoes, that is,
deformation and stretching of leaves, a
phenomenon that gives the plant the
appearance of a fern. These
abnormalities are seen most intensely in
the apical shoots, which then extend to
the entire plant, causing slight curvature
of the edge of the leaves and growth
arrest. The characteristic symptom of
CMV is the appearance of threads or
filaments from the tips of the leaves,
development decreases and plants
affected by this disease have a very low
yield. Severely affected plants produce
some fruits, although these are small and
take a long time to mature.
Control ; eliminate weeds that host the virus and control the insect vector
(aphid).

Tomato pests and their control
Aphid White fly
tomato moth Bug
leaf miner leaf caterpillar

red spider
Mite
Different types of mites
Different types of caterpillar
Lacewing
Symptoms of red spider

mites

Control;
V Eliminate, by uprooting, burning or burying host plants for these insects that
are found near tomato crops.
V Spray with insecticides according to your mouthparts; Ex. chewer with contact
and ingestion insecticides, sucker with systemic insecticides.
V If possible, apply biological insecticides so as not to eliminate beneficial
insects.
V If the population is not numerous, control some insects mechanically
(manually).
V Use repellent, e.g. kerosene 20 cc or creolin 2 to 3 drops in 20 liters of water
and spray around the plot.
V Use other home remedies that you know, that can benefit the ENVIRONMENT
.
Harvest
It has a great consumer demand for large fruits, with good flavor, a pleasant
appearance to the eye when presented in packages or in boxes, with fruits of
uniform sizes and well ripened.
To deliver a mature and good quality product to the consumer market, the
distance from the market must first be considered and based on this, establish
the appropriate harvest time. Once this is done, the preparation of the product is
carried out, taking into account the quality indicators, so that the consumer can
identify it very easily, also taking care of other aspects, such as the type of
packaging and the storage temperature.
Regarding the quality of the fruit, we can mention some of them that easily vary
before and/or after harvest and are; coloration, decomposition, softening,
wrinkling, flavor, etc.
It is advisable to harvest when the degree of coloration reaches 80%, and with a
frequency that will depend on the season, variety and cultivation method. It is
normally done every 3 to 4 days in summer and once a week in winter.
Do not store onions and tomatoes together because it encourages rot.

WATERMELON CULTIVATION
Family ; Cucurbit
species ; Citrullus vulgaris
Botanical feature
It is an annual herbaceous plant, with a creeping or climbing habit, a highly

branched root system, a deep main root and superficially distributed secondary
roots.
Stems: of creeping development, in a state of 5 to 8 well-developed leaves, the

main stem emits second-order sprouts from the axils of the leaves. In the
secondary sprouting, the tertiary sprouting begins and so on, so that the plant
covers 4 to 5 square meters. These are green herbaceous stems, covered with
hairs that develop in a creeping manner, being able to climb due to the presence
of bifid or trifid tendrils, and reaching a length of up to 4 to 6 meters.
Leaf: petiolate, pinnate-split, divided into 3 to 5 lobes that in turn are divided into
rounded segments, presenting deep notches that do not reach the main vein.
The surface is soft to the touch and the underside is very rough and has very
pronounced veins. The main nerve branches into secondary nerves that
subdivide to go to the last segments of the leaf, imitating the palm of the hand.
Flowers: yellow, solitary, pedunculated and axillary, attracting insects due to

their color, aroma and nectar (entomogamous flowers), so that pollination is
entomophilous. The corolla, of regular or actinomorphic symmetry, is made up of
5 petals united at its base. The calyx is made up of free sepals (dialysépalus or
corysepalus) of green color. There are two types of flowers: male or staminate
and female or pistillate, with both sexes coexisting on the same plant, but in
different flowers (unisexual flowers). The male flowers have 8 stamens that form
4 groups welded together by their filaments.
The female flowers have rudimentary stamens and a villous and ovoid inferior
ovary that in its first stage resembles a watermelon the size of an olive stone
(incipient fruit), making it easy to differentiate between male and female flowers.
The latter appear both on the main shoot and on the secondary and tertiary
shoots, with the first flower in the axil of the seventh to the eleventh leaf of the
main shoot. There is a correlation between the number of germinated pollen
tubes and the size of the fruit.

Fruit: globose or oblong pepponid berry formed by 3 fused carpels with attached
receptacle, which give rise to the pericarp. The ovary has central placentation
with numerous ovules that will give rise to the seeds. Its weight ranges between
2 and 20 kilograms. The color of the bark is variable, and may appear uniform
(dark green, light green or yellow) or with stripes of yellowish, grayish or light
green on backgrounds of various green tones. The pulp also has different colors
(red, pink or yellow) and the seeds may be absent (triploid fruits) or show
variable sizes and colors (black, brown or white), depending on the variety.
Climatic requirements
The rational management of climatic factors together is essential for the proper
functioning of the crop, since they are all closely related and action on one of
these affects the rest.
Temperature
Watermelon is less demanding in temperature than melon, with triploid cultivars

being more demanding than normal ones, also presenting greater germination
problems.
When the temperature differences between day and night are 20 to 30 ºC,
imbalances arise in the plants: in some cases the neck and stems open and the
pollen produced is not viable.
Frost 0ºC
Vegetation arrest 11-13ºC
Minimum 15ºC
Germination
Optimal 25ºC
Bloom Optimal 18-20ºC
Development Optimal 23-28ºC
Fruit ripening 23-28ºC
Humidity
The optimal relative humidity for watermelon is between 60% and 80%, being a
determining factor during flowering.
Ground requirements
Watermelon is not very demanding on soil, although it does well in well-drained

soils, rich in organic matter and fertilizers.
Choice of plant material
Main selection criteria: Requirements of the destination markets

Characteristics of the commercial variety: plant vigor, fruit characteristics,
disease resistance.
Two groups of hybrid varieties on the market can be considered:
“ Sugar Baby type” varieties, with dark green rind.
“ Crimson type ” varieties, with striped bark.
Within both types, watermelons with seeds and without seeds can be
considered, although generally triploid watermelons are becoming “ Crimson
type ”, so the striped skin is being a differentiating character for the consumer
between watermelons with seeds and without seeds.
Cultural care
Plantation
The grafted plant from the seedbed must be placed so that the root ball is in
contact with the soil, covering it with sand, and the graft is above the sand, thus
avoiding the emission of roots by the watermelon due to the humidity. Provide
irrigation, since otherwise problems with Fusarium attack could arise.
Padded
It consists of covering the soil/sand generally with a black polyethylene film of

about 200 microns, in order to: increase soil temperature, reduce water
evaporation, prevent the emergence of weeds, increase the concentration of
CO2 in the soil , increase the quality of the fruit, by avoiding direct contact of the
fruit with soil moisture. It can be done before planting, or after to avoid burns on
the stem.
Pruning
This operation is carried out optionally, depending on the chosen framework,

since no significant differences have been observed between the production of
pruned and unpruned watermelons, and its purpose is to control the way in
which the plant develops, eliminating main shoots to advance sprouting and
growth of secondary ones.
It consists of eliminating the main shoot when it has between 5 and 6 leaves,
allowing the 4-5 secondary shoots to develop that start from their axils, giving a
more rounded formation to the plant.

Pollination
Normally, if the environmental conditions are favorable, it is advisable to use

bees ( Aphis mellifera ) as pollinating insects, since with the use of hormones
the results are unpredictable (fruit malformation, etc.), due to the many
cultivation factors. and environmental factors that influence hormonal action. The
number of hives can vary from 2 to 4 per hectare, and can even be higher,
depending on the plantation framework, the vegetative state of the crop and the
climate.
When cultivating apirena (triploid) watermelon, it is necessary to use diploid

watermelon as a pollinator, since the pollen of the former is sterile. Associations
are sought in which the flowering of the pollinator and the pollinated coincide in a
ratio of 30 to 40% of the pollinator + 60 to 70% of the pollinated or 25 to 33% of
the pollinator + 67 to 75% of the pollinated. It is common to associate “Sugar
Baby type” watermelons as pollinators with “Crimson type” as pollinated so as
not to confuse them when harvesting.
Harvest
Generally this operation is carried out by specialists, guided by the following

external symptoms:
V The tendril on the peduncle of the fruit is completely dry, or the first leaf above
the fruit is withered.
V When you hit the fruit with your fingers, a dull sound is produced.
V When you press the fruit between your hands, you hear a clear sound as if it
were cracking internally.
V When scratching the skin with your nails, it separates easily.
V The “bed” of the fruit takes on an ivory yellow color.
V The waxy layer (pruine) on the skin of the fruit has disappeared.
V The fruit has lost 35-40% of its maximum weight.
Planting measurements
The most common planting measurements for grafted watermelon are 2 m x 2 m

and 4 m x 1 m. The first has the disadvantage that the surface is covered very
soon and sometimes even before enough female flowers have developed, since
these appear after the fifth or sixth nodes. The second measure is more
appropriate, since it also allows better use of water and nutrients and the rest of
a certain part of the land (due to the arrangement of the dripper branches, which
are placed in pairs per crop line).

Irrigation
Although there are farms in which sprinkler irrigation is carried out, drip irrigation
is the most widespread system in greenhouse watermelons, with water and
nutrients supplied depending on the phenological state of the plant, as well as
the environment in which it develops; type of soil, climatic conditions, quality of
irrigation water, etc.
Chemical fertilization
The most widely used fertilizers are simple fertilizers in the form of soluble solids
(calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, monopotassium
phosphate, monoammonium phosphate, potassium sulfate, magnesium sulfate)
and in liquid form (phosphoric acid, nitric acid), due to due to their low cost since
they allow easy adjustment of the nutrient solution, although there are complex
solid crystalline and liquid fertilizers on the market that adequately adjust, alone
or in combination with simple fertilizers, to the balances required in the different
phases of development. of the crop.
The contribution of microelements, which years ago had been largely neglected,
is vital for adequate nutrition, and a wide range of solids and liquids can be
found on the market in mineral form and in the form of chelates, when it is
necessary to promote their stability in the culture medium and its absorption by
the plant.
There are also numerous deficiency correctors of both macro and micronutrients
that can be applied via foliar or drip irrigation, amino acids for preventive and
curative use, which help the plant at critical moments in its development or
under unfavorable environmental conditions, as well as other products (humic
and fulvic acids, saline correctors, etc.), which improve the conditions of the
environment and facilitate the assimilation of nutrients by the plant.

Most common pests
red spider mite; Tetranychus urticae (koch), develops

on the underside of the leaves causing discoloration,
yellowish spots that can be seen on the upper surface
as first symptoms, with larger populations desiccation
or even defoliation occurs, the most serious attacks
occur in the first phenological stages. , high
temperatures and low relative humidity favor the development of the pest; in
watermelons with high levels of pest, damage to the fruits may occur.
Preventive methods and cultural techniques
V Disinfection of structures and soil prior to planting in plots with a history of red
spider mites.
V Removal of weeds and crop remains.
V Avoid excess nitrogen
V Monitoring of crops during the first phases of development.
V Biological control through natural enemies.
White fly ; Trialeurodes vaporariorum (West)
The young parts of the plants are colonized by the

adults, laying on the underside of the leaves. From
these, the first larvae emerge, which are mobile. After
settling on the plant, they go through three larval
stages and one pupal stage, the latter characteristic
of each species. Direct damage (yellowing and
weakening of plants) is caused by larvae and adults
when feeding, absorbing the sap from the leaves.
Indirect damage is due to the proliferation of sooty
mold on the honeydew produced during feeding,
staining and depreciating the fruits. and hindering the
normal development of plants. Both types of damage
become important when population levels are high,
other indirect damage is produced by the
transmission of viruses, Trialurodes vaporariorun is a
transmitter of the yellowing virus in cucurbits. Bemisia
tabaci is potentially a transmitter of a greater number
of viruses in horticultural crops and currently acts

as a transmitter of the Tomato Yellow Curl Virus (TYLCV), known as “spoon
virus”.
V Placing meshes on the greenhouse bands

V Cleaning of weeds and crop remains.
V Do not associate crops in the same greenhouse.
V Placing yellow chromatic traps.
V Biological control through natural enemies
Aphid ; Aphis gossypii (Sulzer)
They are the most common and abundant aphid

species in greenhouses, they present
polymorphism, with winged and wingless females
of viviparous reproduction, the wingless forms of
the first have black siphons on the green or
yellowish body, while those of Myzus are
completely green (in sometimes brown or pink).
They form colonies and are distributed in pockets
that are dispersed, mainly in spring and autumn,
by the winged females.

• Biological control through natural enemies.
Thrips ; Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande)
The adults colonize the crops by laying eggs within

the plant tissues in leaves, fruits and, preferably, in
flowers (they are floricultural), where the highest
levels of population of adults and larvae born from
the eggs are located. Direct damage is caused by the
feeding of larvae and adults, especially on the
underside of the leaves, leaving a silvery appearance
on the affected organs that later become necrotic.


V Biologic control
• through natural enemies.
Caterpillars; Spodoptera exigua (Hübner Nematodes; Meloidogyne spp
Diseases caused by the “ash” fungus or

powdery mildew of cucurbits; Sphaerotheca
fuliginea (Schelecht)
The symptoms observed are white powdery spots on

the surface of the leaves (upper and underside) that
cover the entire vegetative apparatus, eventually
invading the entire leaf. It also affects stems and
petioles and even fruits in very strong attacks. The
attacked leaves and stems turn yellowish and dry. Weeds and other cucurbit
crops, as well as crop remains, would be the sources of inoculum and the wind
is responsible for transporting the spores and dispersing the disease.
Temperatures are within a range of 10-35 ºC, with the optimum around 26 ºC.
The optimal relative humidity is 70%.
V Elimination of weeds and crop remains.

V Use of healthy seedlings.
• Carry out treatments on the structures.
Postharvest
Harvest
Watermelon; ( Citrullus lanatus Thunb ), is a non-climacteric fruit and therefore,

to achieve an optimal degree of quality, the fruit must be harvested when it is
completely ripe. The ground spot (the portion of the fruit that rests on the
ground), changes from pale white to creamy yellow at the proper state of cutting.
Another harvest indicator is the wilting (not drying) of the tendril closest to the
contact area between the fruit and the peduncle. In cultivars with seeds, maturity
is acquired when the gelatinous covering (aril) that surrounds the seeds
disappears and their protective covering hardens. Cultivars vary widely in
soluble solids at maturity. In general, a content of at least 10% in the central pulp
of the fruit is an indicator of appropriate ripeness, if at the same time the pulp is
firm, crunchy and of good flavor.
Quality
The fruits should be symmetrical and uniform and the surface appearance waxy
and shiny. There should be no scars, sunburns, traffic abrasions, dirty areas or
other surface defects, nor evidence of bruising.
0
Temperature ; 10 to 15 c generally, storage life is 14 days and up to 21 days
at 7 to 10 0 c.
Optimal relative humidity
85 to 90 0 c, high relative humidity is generally recommended to reduce drying

and gloss loss.
Special considerations
Sliced or cubed watermelon for pre-cut fruit salads has a very short period of
optimal quality, the pulp becomes watery and floury.

MELON CULTIVATION
Family ; Cucurbit
Gender ; Cucumis
species ; Cucumis melo
Taxonomy and morphology
It is an annual herbaceous plant, with a

creeping or climbing habit, its root system is
abundant, highly branched and rapidly
developing, its stems are covered with hairy
formations, and have nodes in which leaves,
tendrils and flowers develop, sprouting new
stems. from the axils of the leaves.
The leaf has an ovate, reniform or

pentagonal orbicular blade, divided into 3 to 7 lobes with toothed margins and
are hairy on the underside. The flowers are solitary, yellow and can be male,
female or hermaphrodite. The male ones usually appear first on the lowest
internodes, while the female ones and the hermaphrodites appear later on the
second and third generation branches, although always next to the male ones.
The level of fertilizing elements greatly influences the number of male, female
and hermaphrodite flowers, as well as the time of their appearance; pollination is
entomophilous.
The fruit has a variable shape (spherical, elliptical,

ovate, etc.); The bark is green, yellow, orange, white,
etc., and can be smooth, reticulated or
striated. The pulp can be white, yellow, creamy,
orange,
salmon or greenish. The placenta contains the seeds
and can be dry, gelatinous or watery, depending on
its consistency. It is important that it be small so that it does not reduce the pulp
of the fruit and that the seeds are well located in it so that they do not move
during transport.

Edaphoclimatic requirements
The melon plant grows in warm and not excessively humid climates; In humid
regions with little sunlight, its development is negatively affected, resulting in
alterations in the ripening and quality of the fruits.
Humidity
At the beginning of plant development, the relative humidity should be 65 to

75%, in flowering 60 to 70% and in fruiting 55 to 65%. The melon plant needs a
lot of water during the growth period and during fruit ripening to obtain good
yields and quality.
Brightness
The duration of luminosity in relation to temperature influences both plant growth

and floral induction, flower fertilization and rate of absorption of nutritional
elements.
The development of flower ovary tissues is closely influenced by temperature

and lighting hours, so that long days and high temperatures favor the formation
of male flowers, while short days and low temperatures induce the development
of flowers with ovaries.
Floor
The melon plant is not very demanding on soil, but it gives better results in soils
rich in organic matter, deep, soft, well-drained, with good aeration and a pH
between 6 and 7. It is demanding in terms of drainage, since waterlogging
causes root asphyxiation and fruit rot.
It is a species with moderate tolerance to salinity of both soil and irrigation water,
although each increase in one unit of the given soil conductivity represents a
7.5% reduction in production. It is very sensitive to deficiencies, both in
microelements and macroelements.
Measurements and planting density
In creeping crops, the most common planting frames

are 2 m. x 0.75 m. and 2 x 0.5 m., giving planting
densities that range between 0.75 and 1 plant per m 2 ,
when the plants are staked, planting densities that
range between 0.75 and 1 plant per m 2 are
recommended, when the plants are staked, they are
recommended densities from 1.25 to 1.5

plant per m 2 and up to 2 plants per m 2 when pruning to a single stem.
However, these densities can also vary depending on the variety cultivated.
Sowing and transplanting
You can choose between one system or another depending
on the growing season, but for early production we are
forced to sow in seedbeds due to the limitation of soil
temperature in the months of December to February. For
direct sowing, the minimum soil temperature should be
16ºC, placing one seed per blow that is covered 1.5 to 2 cm
deep with humus.
When sowing in the seedbed, the transplant is carried out

after 6 to 7 weeks, with at least the first true leaf well developed, although the
optimum would be to have two true leaves well formed.
Padded
It consists of covering the soil/sand generally with a black polyethylene film in

order to increase the temperature of the soil, reduce water evaporation, prevent
the emergence of weeds, increase the concentration of CO2 in the soil, and
increase the quality of the fruit with soil moisture. It can be done before planting,
or after to avoid burns on the stem.
Tunelillos
In early plantations, once the transplant has been carried out, plastic tunnels can
be placed to increase the temperature. To do this, wire arches are placed
approximately every 1.5 meters, which are covered with a film that is attached to
the ground with the sand itself to protect from low temperatures, prevent dripping
due to condensation, avoiding or reducing the risk of rot. Other materials used
are transparent polyethylene films, with the inconvenience of dripping, and the
thermal blanket which, although it increases the temperature to a lesser extent,
improves ventilation conditions and avoids the problem of dripping.

Pruning systems
This operation is carried out with the purpose

of promoting the precocity and setting of the
flowers, controlling the number and size of
the fruits, accelerating maturity and
facilitating ventilation and the application of
phytosanitary treatments.
There are two types of pruning : for

cultivation with a stake (generally raffia
thread) and for creeping cultivation. In both cases, it is taken into account that it
is the third and fourth order stems that produce the greatest number of female
flowers, while only male flowers appear on the main stem.
In creeping cultivation, when the plants have 4 to 5 true leaves, the main stem is
pointed above the second or third leaf. From each of the axils of the remaining
leaves, lateral stems emerge and are pruned when they have 5 to 6 leaves
above the third. New branches that are fruitful grow from the axils of the
remaining leaves. Pruning these above the second leaf above the fruit is
optional when it has begun to develop. Normally, tertiary stems are not pinched,
although it is an advisable practice to curb their vigor and promote fruit
formation. When the melon is trained, two main branches or a single branch can
be left.
Fertigation
The irrigation method that best adapts to the melon is drip irrigation because it is
a plant that is very sensitive to waterlogging, with the supply of water and
nutrients depending on the phenological state of the plant, as well as the
environment in which it grows. develops (type of soil, climatic conditions, quality
of irrigation water, etc.).
Fertilization
Regarding nutrition in the melon plant, nitrogen is abundant in all organs;

Phosphorus is also abundant and is preferentially distributed in the organs
responsible for reproduction (since it is essential in the first phases of pollen
tube elongation) and in the root system; Potassium is abundant in fruits and in
the conductive tissues of the stem and leaves, where it accumulates at the level
of the middle lamella of the cell walls and plays a fundamental role in the support
structures.
Nutrition deficient in nitrogen produces a 25% reduction in the total growth of the
plant, with special impact on the root system, even if the other elements are in
optimal concentrations. Likewise, the amounts of available nitrogen influence the
area/root ratio; increasing localized nitrogen contributions increase this ratio,

both due to the increase in the aerial part and the decrease in the volume of the
soil explored. The type of salt used as a nitrogen source can also influence the
behavior of the plant depending on its ease of assimilation. During flowering, an
excess of nitrogen results in a 35% reduction in female flowers and almost 50%
in hermaphrodite flowers.
A phosphorus deficiency can cause a decrease in the growth of the aerial part
by 40 to 45%, which is manifested in both the number of leaves and the leaf
surface, and by 30% for the root.
When deficient levels of phosphorus and excessive levels of nitrogen occur

during flowering and fertilization, there is a reduction of up to 70% of the
flowering potential and a considerable decrease in the number of fertilized fruits.
A severe potassium deficiency during the flowering stage can cause a reduction
of up to 35% in the number of hermaphrodite flowers.
The action of secondary macronutrients (potassium, calcium, magnesium and

sulfur) on growth is limited, although the action they exert on cell elongation can
produce, in the case of prolonged deficiencies, a reduction in growth that can
lead to leaf necrosis.
Regarding the effects of nutrition on the development and maturation of fruits,

potassium and calcium play a determining role in relation to quality and
organoleptic qualities. When it comes to fertilizing, there is a very wide margin of
fertilization in which no substantial differences are seen in the crop, and very
diverse and contradictory "recipes" can be found within the same area, with the
same type of soil and the same variety. .
The most widely used fertilizers are simple fertilizers in the form of soluble solids
(calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, monopotassium
phosphate, monoammonium phosphate, potassium sulfate, magnesium sulfate)
and in liquid form (phosphoric acid, nitric acid), due to due to their low cost since
they allow easy adjustment of the nutrient solution, although there are complex
solid crystalline and liquid fertilizers on the market that adequately adjust, alone
or in combination with simple fertilizers, to the balances required in the different
phases of development. of the crop.

The contribution of micronutrients, which years ago had been largely neglected,
is vital for adequate nutrition, and a wide range of solids and liquids can be
found on the market in mineral form and in the form of chelates when it is
necessary to promote their stability in the environment. culture medium and its
absorption by the plant. Melon plant grown under micronutrient deficient
conditions does not produce any edible melon.
There are also numerous deficiency correctors available both in macro and
micro components that can be applied via foliar or drip irrigation, amino acids for
preventive and curative use, which help the plant at critical moments in its
development or under unfavorable environmental conditions, as well as as other
products (humic and fulvic acids, saline correctors, etc.), which improve the
conditions of the environment and facilitate the assimilation of nutrients by the
plant.
Harvest
Melons often crack around the stems when they

ripen and fall easily from the stems. If you have
experience, you can tap them: they sound
hollow when they are ripe.
Some experts place them between their hands

and knees and smell them to test them. You
should not touch the melons until you are ready
to cut them.
To harvest, the fruits of the melons must be

separated from the plants by means of sharp
cuts, made in such a way that the fruits carry
with them a good piece of peduncle.
Selection and transportation
The selection must be made according to the

size of the fruits, their state of maturity and their
presentation. Melons destined for export must be packaged correctly so that the
fruits are not hit during handling and transportation. Another way to preserve the
quality of the fruits is by placing them on layers of dry straw.
Seed production
Once the harvest is done, the most vigorous, healthy plants that respond exactly
to the cultivated variety should be marked. When the fruits acquire a diameter of
8 to 10 cm, it is advisable to thin them,

leaving one or two per plant, which should only be harvested when they reach
full maturity. At this point the peduncles will be cut and the fruits will be
transported to the shed where they will remain for two or three days before
opening them and removing the seeds.
Once the seeds have been extracted, they must be washed repeatedly with
clean water, then spread on canvas to dry in the shade. Practically, the
germination power of melon seeds lasts 3 or 4 years.
CULTIVATION OF SQUASH AND PUMPKIN

The cultivation of pumpkin requires fertile and
permeable soils, although originally it is from
warm temperate climates, the traditional varieties
are sensitive to frost, today with the protection of
greenhouses, hydroponic crops and resistant
varieties, pumpkins can be grown all year round.
anus.
Pumpkins or pumpkins are native to America, the

conquerors took this plant to the old world,
scientifically the pumpkin is called Cucúrbita and Cucúrbita
Pumpkin moschata. One of the best-known
varieties is Cucúrbita Pepo, this last name is given
by the Greek word pepon, which means soft or
ripe. Other varieties widespread in our country are
the IAN Hybrid, Angola, Cucúrbita Mixta y Maxima
and the Criolla.
Pumpkins and pumpkins are planted with seeds

preserved from the previous harvest, if they are
not hybrid varieties, which have been allowed to
dry. It is generally preferred
sowing from spring to autumn, taking into
account that most of them will finish the fruit
five months after sowing.
The stem of this plant is climbing or

creeping, very flexible and covered with
hairs. They have large, axillary orange-
yellow flowers. The fruits vary from

size, depending on the variety, and range from
green to intense yellow. The shell is in some
cases soft that allows it to be consumed and in
others it is hard and woody.
When planting, it is advisable to first treat the

well-worked land with quicklime, so that the
cultivation site is disinfected. After 3 days,
remove with a rake and make some 50
centimeter holes to which a mixture of mountain mulch and surface soil is
added. About 2 centimeters of light is left between the well and the surface of
the ground. Irrigation is done with a preparation made from cow or chicken
manure, which is prepared in advance, 10 kilos of manure per 100 liters of
water. It is left to macerate for 10 or more days.
After the soil has settled, 2 or 3 seeds are placed in the middle of the hole at a
depth twice their size.
It is squeezed by hand and watered again with
the dung and water mixture. This wakes up the
seed and prevents air bubbles from remaining
between the seed and the soil. The others are
planted in the same way at a distance of 1.30
meters.
When the seedlings emerge, they are covered

with straw or dry elephant grass. This technique
prevents moisture leakage, the proliferation of
weeds and the permanent incorporation of
organic matter. In addition to preparing a bed for
the emergence of the stems when the crop is
creeping. In some cases when working with
climbing varieties, the guides are made with
tacuaras, wood or stretched wire. The coverage
also serves to protect the leaves if it is cold.
When the seedlings have true leaves, thinning is carried out by selecting the
most developed plant that has the most opportunities to produce better.
It must be remembered that growing pumpkin requires a lot of water, so you

must water it properly without flooding, taking this into account especially when
the fruits begin to thicken. In our environment, the harvest takes 3 to 5 months,
depending on the variety, it must be

Pay special attention to the change in color of
the leaves that coincides with the maturity of the
fruit, it obtains a more intense color and the
leaves become yellowish.
There are winter and summer varieties, which

allow the consumption of pumpkins all year
round.
The entire pumpkin plant is useful, the pulp is very nutritious. In addition, it can
be used to treat burns in the form of a previously
refrigerated or frozen puree. The seeds are very
useful in different applications. In the form of
tea, which is prepared by slowly boiling seed
powder in water for 20 minutes. It is left to rest
for 30 minutes and is used to treat gout, kidney
stones or burning urine.
The dry seeds ground and mixed with cane

honey, until forming a syrup, serves to keep the prostate in shape. The fresh
crushed leaves are applied in cases of strains or sprains. Powdered dried seeds
and freshly cut, lightly crushed pumpkin buds come together to heal minor
scrapes and wounds.
Pumpkin that is not sold can be used to prepare sweets or jams or used to feed
pigs or cattle. Home chickens like to be offered fresh where they can peck right
to the shell. As we can see, nothing is thrown away from the squash and
pumpkins.

General Horticulture

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General Horticulture

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1| Page HORTICULTURE

V Olericulture ; studies and gathers information about vegetables, whose flower,

> RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER SCIENCES

V Phytotechnics ; studies the cultivation of plants of economic interest.

> FOOD AND SOCIOECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES

V Nutritional importance ; vegetables are capable of producing great

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V Socioeconomic importance ; particular climate or market can be used to the

> THE CONTRIBUTION OF HORTICULTURE AS PART OF RURAL

1) It is a source of labor employment.

> CURRENT STATE AND PERSPECTIVE OF HORTICULTURE IN THE

Added to the problems that are currently being faced are:

o The deficiency of production elements such as; plot, irrigation system,

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Perspective ; Vegetables play a role very important in the

In the current trend of the liberalization of international trade, the situation of

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THE MAIN TYPES OF

> TYPES OF ORCHARD – Characteristics

1) Specialized commercial garden :

2) Diversified commercial garden : dedicated to the cultivation of different

3) Garden with industrial purpose : it has the particularity of supplying raw

4) Educational garden : also known as family or recreational, it has an

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d DIFFERENT TYPES OF HORTICULTURAL EXPLOITATION – Planning

> FACTORS TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT

2) Facilities : in a commercial garden, a shed will be needed as a storage facility

> FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE LOCATION OF THE ORCHARD

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V Topsoil or active soil : superficial

> WATER SOURCE

V Quantity ; Depending on the type of soil, there is a consumption of 0.5 to 1

> SHELTER AND PROTECTION OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

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1) GROUND COVER : in this method, dry stubble of grasses or other

The materials used for this purpose are:

either Dry stubble of grasses or other vegetables ; mainly grasses

either Plastic coverage ; the most used is black plastic, it is recommended

According to the purpose of use, several kinds of plastics are available on

either Transparent plastic ; Its main objective is to stimulate growth

either Silver plastic ; In addition to features such as

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3) Cultivation system for the conservation of T o : the structures

either The tunnel ; It is a small structure, its measurements

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or The glass greenhouse ; It has a good capacity to transmit sunlight and

o Protection against sunlight ; It consists of lowering the T or by controlling the

either Protection against rain and

Currently, vegetable production in our country has experienced an increase, but it

> Advantages of this method

either Reduction of damage caused by diseases ; can

tomato, bacterial spot, cucurbit downy mildew, phhitopthora rot, strawberry

either Reduction of damage to the fruit ; can reduce the appearance of

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o Increase in work efficiency ; Cultural tasks such as driving, spraying with

o Recommendations for adoption

either Once the system is established, with the succession of crops, it

> Construction of rain protection structure

The trend of progress in vegetable production must be pointing towards processes

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The seedbed must satisfy the particular

In most cases, a width of 90 to 110 cm, 15 to 20

Normally the production of vegetable seedlings is