BR 45

BRd 45(2)
Issued July 2017

Superseding BRd 45(2)
Dated May 2011
BRd 45(2)
UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED

ADMIRALTY MANUAL OF
NAVIGATION
VOLUME 2 – ASTRO NAVIGATION
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PREFACE
The Admiralty Manual of Navigation (BR 45) consists of nine volumes:
Volume 1 is in two Parts covering the principles of navigation. It deals with the essential
principles of marine navigation: position and direction on the Earth’s surface, map
projections, charts and publications, chartwork, fixing, aids to navigation, tides/tidal streams,
ocean navigation, coastal navigation, pilotage/blind pilotage, anchoring, navigational errors,
relative velocity, hydrographic surveys and bridge organisations. Volume 1 is also published

by the Nautical Institute and is available to the public.
Volume 2 covers astro-navigation (including time). Chapters 1 to 3 cover the syllabus for
officers studying for the Royal Navy Navigational Watch Certificate (NWC) and for Royal
Navy Fleet Navigator’s Courses. The NWC is equivalent to the certificate awarded by the
Maritime & Coastguard Agency (MCA) to OOWs in the Merchant Service under the
international Standardisation of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping (STCW)
agreements.) The remainder of the book covers the detailed theory of astro-navigation for
officers studying for the Royal Navy “Specialist ‘N’ Course”, but may also be of interest to
others who wish to research the subject in greater detail. Volume 2 is also published by the
Nautical Institute and is available to the public.
Volume 3 is a classified e-book, covering navigation equipment and systems (radio aids,
satellite navigation, direction finding, navigational instruments, logs and echo sounders,
gyros and magnetic compasses, inertial navigation systems, magnetic compasses and de-
gaussing, automated navigation and radar plotting systems, (W)AIS, and navigational
equipment fit summaries).
Volume 4 is a classified e-book covering the conduct of navigation in warships, submarines

and Royal Fleet Auxiliaries at sea.
Volume 5 contains exercises in navigational calculations (tides and tidal streams, astro-
navigation, great circles, rhumb lines, time zones and relative velocity). It also provides
extracts from most of the tables necessary to undertake the exercise calculations. Volume 5
(Supplement) provides worked answers to the exercises.
Volume 6 is an e-book covering generic principles of shiphandling (propulsion of RN ships,

handling ships in narrow waters, manoeuvring and handling ships in company,
replenishment, towing, shiphandling in heavy weather and ice).
Volume 7 is a classified e-book covering all aspects of class-specific shiphandling

characteristics of RN ships/submarines and RFAs. Turning data quoted in Volume 7 is
approximate and intended only for overview purposes; turning data for manoeuvring and
Pilotage should be taken from ships’ Navigational Data Books.
Volume 8 is a classified e-book covering the operation of WECDIS, ECDIS and ECS in the
Fleet.
Volume 9 is a classified book covering operational navigation techniques that are of

particular concern to the RN.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND COPYRIGHT
MOD and Royal Navy Staffs
The contribution of the navigation, hydrographic, meteorological and oceanographic

staffs of MOD DES, Navy Command, Flag Officer Sea Training, the Royal Navy’s Maritime
Warfare School (Navigation & Seamanship Training Unit and HM Training Group) is
acknowledged with thanks, particularly for the extensive validation of the material within this
book.

UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO)
Thanks are due to the UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) for its permission and
assistance in reproducing data contained in this volume. This data has been derived from
material published by the UKHO and further reproduction is not permitted without the prior
written permission of the British Ministry of Defence Department of Intellectual Property
Rights (DIPR) and UKHO. Applications for permission should be made to MOD DIPR at the
address shown on Page ii, and also to the Licensing Manager at UKHO, Admiralty Way,
Taunton, Somerset, TA1 2DN, United Kingdom.
The following pages contain data sourced from UKHO and HM Nautical Almanac
Office at UKHO. This data may not be reproduced without the further copyright permissions
stated on Page ii.
Page 1-13 (Fig 1-5a and Fig 1-5b), Page 2-4 (Fig 2-1), Page 2-5 (Fig 2-2), Pages 3-5 to 3-
15, Pages 3-31 to 3-41, Page 4-55, Page 5-17 (Fig 5-7), Page 5-19 (Fig 5-8), Pages 5-20 to
5-32, and Appendix 2.
Special Thanks
This new edition of BRd 45(2) builds heavily on the work of those responsible for the
earlier versions of the book. In particular, Lieutenant Commander Allan Peacock Royal
Navy, who as Fleet Staff Author wrote the 2004 and 2011 editions on which this book is
based. Miss Catherine Hohenker of HMNAO made crucial contributions to the 2011 edition,
including checking and advising on the mathematical content, which is carried forwards to
this edition. Lieutenant Commander A W J Jenks MBE Royal Navy contributed Annex 3A
and the photographs therein. Dr Susan Nelmes contributed with early access to NavPac V4
which was greatly appreciated.
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EQUALITY ANALYSIS
The sponsor of BRd 45(2) has undertaken an Equality Analysis to ensure that the outcome
does not have a disproportionate impact on those in the Protected Characteristics groups.
CONVENTIONS
The following conventions are used throughout this publication.

WARNING
AN OPERATING PROCEDURE, PRACTICE OR CONDITION THAT MAY

RESULT IN INJURY OR DEATH IF NOT CAREFULLY OBSERVED OR
FOLLOWED.
CAUTION
Caution. An operating procedure, practice or condition that may result

in equipment damage if not carefully observed or followed.
Note. An operating procedure, practice or condition that it is essential to

emphasise.
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RECORD OF CONFIGURATION CONTROL
Authored by Checked by Approved by

Edition/Change: Name: A PEACOCK Name: S P Rodgers Name: Foster, Cdr RN
2011
Tally: FPGO- Tally: FPGO-DOIC B2 Tally: FLEET CAP SC
Date of Edition/ AUTHOR10 SO NAVSEA SO1
Change:

Signature: Signature: Signature:
May 2011 Signed on File Copy Signed on File Copy Signed on File Copy
Date: 08 April 2011 Date: 25 April 2011 Date: 08 April 2011
The classification of this publication has been reviewed by the Desk Officer to reflect the new Government Security
Classifications IAW JSP 440 Part 4 Section 1 Chapter 1.
Name: D Donworth Tally: NAVY SHIPS - NAVSEA SO1 Signature: Signed on File Copy Date: 6 October 2015
Edition: Name: AM Harris Name: SP Rodgers Name: D Donworth
July 2017 Tally: NPGO-NA10 Tally: NPGO-OIC Tally: NAVY SHIPS-NAVSEA

SO1
Version:
Version 1 Signature: Signature: Signature:

Signed on file copy Signed on file copy Signed on file copy
Date: Date: Date:
August 2017 August 2017 August 2017
Edition/Change: Name: Name: Name:
Tally: Tally: Tally:
Date of Edition/
Change: Signature: Signature: Signature:
Date: Date: Date:
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Date: Date: Date:
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PROPOSALS FOR CHANGES
PROPOSAL FOR CHANGES
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CONTENTS - VOLUME 2
Chapter 1 The Celestial Sphere - Introduction
Chapter 2 Time Systems
Chapter 3 Practical Sights: Planning, Taking Reducing and Plotting
Chapter 4 The Celestial Sphere – Definitions, Hour Angles and Theory of Time

Chapter 5 Identification of Heavenly Bodies, Astronomical Position Lines, Observed
Position and Sight Reduction Procedures
Chapter 6 Meridian Passage and Polaris
Chapter 7 The Rising and Setting of Heavenly Bodies
Chapter 8 Refraction, Dip and Mirage
Chapter 9 Errors in Astronomical Position Lines
Appendices
Appendix 1 The Sky at Night
Appendix 2 Extracts from the Nautical Almanac (1997)
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CHAPTER 1
THE CELESTIAL SPHERE - INTRODUCTION
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 - BASIC DEFINITIONS AND STRUCTURE
Para
0101. The Celestial Sphere

0102. Angular Distance Between Stars
0103. Apparent Path of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
0104. The First Point of Aries
0105. Declination and Parallels of Declination
0106. Hour Angles
0107. Sunrise and Sunset
0108. Twilight
0109. Geographic Position of a Heavenly Body
0110. Great Circles and Small Circles
0111. Meridian
0112. Greenwich Meridian
0113. Rhumb Lines
0114. Observer’s Zenith (Z)
0115. Celestial Horizon (Rational Horizon)
0116. Visible Horizon
0117. Azimuth
0118. Altitude (of a Heavenly Body)
0119. Vertical Circles
SECTION 2 - THE MAGNITUDES OF STARS AND PLANETS
0120. The Solar and Stellar Systems

0121. Stellar Magnitudes
SECTION 3 - METHODS OF IDENTIFYING HEAVENLY BODIES
0122. The Identification of Heavenly Bodies

0123. Use of Computers for Identification of Heavenly Bodies
0124. Description of the Star Finder and Identifier (NP 323)
0125. The Nautical Almanac Planet Diagram
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CHAPTER 1
THE CELESTIAL SPHERE - INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1 - BASIC DEFINITIONS AND STRUCTURE
0101. The Celestial Sphere

To an observer on the Earth, the sky has the appearance of an inverted bowl, so
that the stars and other heavenly bodies, irrespective of their actual distance from the Earth,
appear to be situated on the inside of a sphere of immense radius described about the Earth

as centre. This is called the ‘celestial sphere’ (Fig 1-1). The Earth’s axis, if produced, would
cut the celestial sphere at the celestial poles (P, P’). The Earth’s equator, if produced, would
cut the celestial sphere at the celestial equator (Q, Q’).
Fig 1-1. Celestial Sphere, Celestial Poles and Celestial Equator
0102. Angular Distance Between the Stars

The appearance of the stars on the celestial sphere conveys no sense of their true
distances from the Earth. Two stars chosen at random may actually be at vastly different
distances from earth, but as both are deemed to reside on the surface of the celestial
sphere, the only practical method of measuring their relative positions is to measure the
angle between them. This angle is known as an angular distance. As the stars are
immensely far away, the angular distances of stars remain virtually constant within the
ordinary limits of time. The position of a heavenly body on the celestial sphere can be
defined by two angular distances - ‘declination’ and ‘hour angle’ which are explained more
fully in Para 0105, Para 0106 and Chapter 4.
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0103. Apparent Path of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
a. The Ecliptic. The Earth describes an elliptical orbit around the Sun which
takes one year to complete. The apparent path of the Sun in the celestial sphere is
known as the ecliptic. It is a great circle, and makes an angle of 23° 26' (23½°) with
the celestial equator because the Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted by that amount from
the perpendicular to the plane of the Earth’s orbit (Fig 1-2). The angle between the
plane of the celestial equator and that of the ecliptic is known as the obliquity of the
ecliptic.

Fig 1-2. Celestial Equator, Plane of the Ecliptic and First Point of Aries
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b. Seasons, Tropics, Solstices and Equinoxes. The existence of the Earth’s

23° 27' tilt is of fundamental importance to life on earth, as it defines the limits of the
tropics, causes the seasons to change and the length of daylight to vary during the
year (outside the equatorial region where very little change takes place). The extent
of the Sun’s apparent movement can be established by plotting the latitude of
positions on Earth where the noon sun is directly overhead at some time during the
year (Fig 1-3). The Sun is directly over the equator at the spring equinox (21
March), moves north to latitude 23½° at the summer solstice (21 June), back to the
equator at the autumn equinox (23 September), moves south to latitude 23½° at the
winter solstice (22 December) and back to the equator at the spring equinox (21

March). The seasonal changes caused by this apparent movement of the sun
through the year have a profound effect on ocean currents, weather systems and
overall climate. Many biological ecosystems in the world depend on these seasonal
changes for their existence (Fig 1-4).
Fig 1-3. Latitude of Positions on Earth where the Noon Sun is Directly Overhead
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0104. The First Point of Aries

To measure angular distances, a fixed point in space is needed as a datum; a star
located where the ecliptic cuts the celestial equator would be ideal for this. When the early
Greek astronomers started to make observations, the ecliptic cut the celestial equator at the
spring equinox (21st March) in the vicinity of the constellation of Aries; one star on the edge
of the constellation, known as the First Point of Aries (m), was perfectly aligned and so was
selected as this datum (Fig 1-2). Over time, due to slow precession of the earth’s tilt (see
Chapter 5 for a full explanation of precession), there has been a backward movement of the
point of intersection of the ecliptic and the celestial equator. As a result, Aries appears to
have moved away from this position. However, the name ‘First Point of Aries’ (normally

abbreviated simply to ‘Aries or m’) for the spring intersection of the ecliptic and the celestial
equator has been retained as the datum for calculations and tables ever since, even though
no star now occupies this position. The position of the autumn intersection of the celestial
equator and the ecliptic (23rd September) is known as the First Point of Libra.
Fig 1-4. Change of Seasons during the Year, Associated with Sun’s Movement
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0105. Declination and Parallels of Declination

Declination corresponds to terrestrial latitude projected onto the celestial sphere and
is the angular distance of the heavenly body north or south of the celestial equator (Fig 1-6).
A parallel of declination corresponds to a terrestrial parallel of latitude and is a small circle on
the celestial sphere, with its plane parallel to the plane of the celestial equator.
Note. Although the concept of projecting terrestrial latitude onto the celestial
sphere is a very good description, ‘declination’ should never be described as
‘celestial latitude’ because this term is used by astronomers to measure an
angular distance, referenced to the ecliptic rather than the celestial equator.

‘Celestial latitude’ has no use in the navigational problem.
0106. Hour Angles

Hour angles loosely correspond to terrestrial longitude projected onto the celestial
sphere, but the analogy is complicated by the easterly rotation of the Earth which continually
changes some angular distances with time. It was because of this fundamental link to time
that the term hour angles was used to describe this measurement. There are several
variants of hour angle which, depending upon which two bodies are to be referenced for
measurement, can be added or subtracted to calculate the required angular distance.
Further details of these are at Chapter 4 but do not concern students studying for the Royal
Navy NWC (Navigational Watchkeeping Certificate) except familiarity with the titles and
where to look up the data if using the Star Finder and Identifier (Para 0132 and Para 0324)
or the Nautical Almanac Planet Diagram (Para 0133). A brief summary of these terms is
given below.
a. Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA). The sidereal hour angle (SHA) is almost static for
stars and is tabulated once per 3 days for stars and planets in the Nautical Almanac.
b. Right Ascension (RA). Right ascension (RA) is the same as SHA except
measured eastwards (rather than westwards as in SHA). Thus RA = 360° - SHA.
c. Greenwich Hour Angles (GHA). The Greenwich hour angle (GHA) of the first
point of Aries (m) and the GHAs of the Sun, Moon and planets are tabulated hour-
by-hour (available to the second using Increment Tables) in the Nautical Almanac.
d. Local Hour Angle (LHA). The local hour angle (LHA) is GHA of the body +/-
the observer’s longitude.
Note. Although the concept of projecting terrestrial longitude onto the

celestial sphere is a useful analogy, ‘hour angles’ should never be described
as ‘celestial longitude’ because this term is used by astronomers to measure
an angular distance, referenced to the ecliptic rather than the celestial
equator. ‘Celestial longitude’ has no use in the navigational problem.
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0107. Sunrise and Sunset
a. Visible Sunrise or Sunset. Visible sunrise or sunset occurs when the Sun’s
upper limb (UL) appears on the visible horizon (ie. the apparent altitude of the Sun
(UL) is 0° 00'). The times of visible sunrise and sunset for latitudes 60°S to 72°N are
displayed on right hand pages of the Nautical Almanac. These times, which are
given to the nearest minute, are the UT of the sunrise/sunset on the Greenwich
Meridian for the middle day of the three days covered by each double page.
b. True (Theoretical) Sunrise or Sunset. True (theoretical) sunrise or sunset

occurs when the Sun’s centre is on the celestial horizon, but due to atmospheric
refraction the Sun’s lower limb appears to be one semi-diameter above the visible
horizon.
0108. Twilight
Twilight is the period of the day when the Sun is between 0° and 18° below the
celestial horizon. During twilight, although the Sun is below the celestial horizon, the
observer is still receiving light reflected and scattered by the upper atmosphere.
a. Civil Twilight (CT). The times of morning civil twilight (MCT) and evening civil
twilight (ECT) are tabulated in the Nautical Almanac for the moment when the Sun’s
centre is 6° below the celestial horizon. The times are shown in chronological order
and the terms ‘morning’ and ‘evening’ are omitted. This is roughly the time at which
the horizon becomes distinct (morning) or becomes indistinct (evening).
b. Nautical Twilight (NT). The times of morning nautical twilight (MNT) and
evening nautical twilight (ENT) are tabulated in the Nautical Almanac for the moment
when the Sun’s centre is 12° below the celestial horizon. The terms ‘morning’ and
‘evening’ are omitted as the times are in chronological order. Morning and evening
stars are usually taken between the times of civil twilight (CT) and nautical twilight
(NT).
c. Astronomical Twilight. The time of astronomical twilight (AT) is the moment

when the Sun’s centre is 18° below the celestial horizon. Whilst the Sun’s centre is
18° or greater below the celestial horizon, ‘total darkness’ (with respect to the Sun)
is deemed to exist and observations by astronomers may usefully take place. The
times of astronomical twilight (AT) have no significance in solving the astro-
navigation problem and so AT times are not tabulated in the Nautical Almanac.
0109. Geographic Position of a Heavenly Body

The Geographic Position of a heavenly body is the position where a line drawn from
the body to the centre of the Earth, cuts the Earth’s surface. To an observer at the
Geographic Position, the heavenly body would appear to be directly overhead, ie. at the
Observer’s Zenith(Z).
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0110. Great Circles and Small Circles

Great circles and small circles are defined and discussed in BRd 45(1). For the
convenience of readers their definitions are repeated here:
Great Circle. The intersection of a spherical surface and a plane which passes
through the centre of the sphere is known as a great circle. It is the shortest distance
between two points on the surface of a sphere.
Small Circle. The intersection of a spherical surface and a plane which does NOT
pass through the centre of the sphere is known as a small circle.

0111. Meridian
A meridian is a semi-great circle on the Earth’s surface which also passes through
both poles.

The Greenwich Meridian is also known as the Prime Meridian, and passes through
Greenwich. It is the starting point (0°) for the measurement of longitude, East and West
from this meridian.
0113. Rhumb Lines

Rhumb Lines are defined and discussed in BRd 45(1). For the convenience of
readers the definition is repeated here:
Rhumb Line. A line on the Earth’s surface which cuts meridians (of longitude) and
parallels (of latitude) at the same angles is known as a rhumb line. It appears on
Mercator projection charts as a straight line and equates to the (true) compass
course. It is NOT always the shortest distance between two points on the surface of a
sphere. See BRd 45(1) for information on meridians, parallels and Mercator
projection.

For the purposes of astro-navigation, the Observer’s Zenith (Z) may be regarded as
the ‘Geodetic Zenith’, which is the point projected onto the Celestial Sphere by a line normal
to the Earth’s Geodetic Spheroid (see BR 45 Volume 1 Para 0311) at the observer’s location
(ie a point directly above the observer). The Declination of this point (Z) on the Celestial
Sphere approximates to the observer’s Latitude.
0115. Celestial Horizon (Rational Horizon)

The celestial horizon (also known as the rational horizon) is a great circle on the
celestial sphere, every point of which is 90° from the observer’s zenith (Z). It corresponds to
the projection of the terrestrial horizon onto the celestial sphere, but without the errors
associated with optical refraction due to the atmosphere at the visible horizon.

The visible horizon is the position on the Earth’s surface where a straight line drawn
from an observer at a given height of eye, meets the Earth’s surface at a tangent to that
surface.
0117. Azimuth
Azimuth may be regarded (loosely) as the true bearing when using tables in the
Nautical Almanac. More precise definitions may be found at Para 0535 and Para 0536.
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Altitude is (loosely) described as the angle between a ‘horizon’ and the heavenly
body, but normally has to be qualified as sextant altitude, apparent altitude, observed (true)
altitude or calculated (tabulated) altitude depending on whether the ‘celestial horizon’ or
‘visible horizon’ is used and which corrections are applied.
a. Sextant Altitude. Sextant altitude of a heavenly body is the angle measured by

a sextant between the visible horizon and the body on a vertical circle towards the
observer’s zenith(Z) and must be corrected before use.

b. Apparent Altitude. Apparent altitude of a heavenly body is sextant altitude
corrected for index error and height of eye (dip).
c. Observed (True) Altitude. Observed (true) altitude is apparent altitude

corrected for atmospheric refraction errors. See Para 0348 sub para d.
d. Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude. See Para 0531.

All great circles passing through the observer’s zenith (Z) are necessarily
perpendicular to the celestial horizon and are known as vertical circles.
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SECTION 2 - THE MAGNITUDES OF STARS AND PLANETS
0120. Solar and Stellar Systems

The Earth rotates on its axis to the East, and thus the bodies in the celestial sphere
appear to rotate westward (ie. rise in the East and set in the West).
a. Planets. The planets reflect light from the Sun and only Venus, Mars, Jupiter
and Saturn are sufficiently bright for navigational use. There are at least 1,500 other
small satellites and asteroids orbiting the Sun but none of these are relevant for
navigational use. The ‘navigational planets’ move across the backdrop of stars in

the celestial sphere within a band of about 5° from the ecliptic. The speed and
volatility with which they move is irregular due to their widely changing ranges from
the Earth and care is needed to identify them. Further details of the ‘navigational
planets’ are at Appendix1.
b. Stars. The stars radiate their own light from immense distances, and because
of this distance remain apparently stationary in a fixed pattern in the sky, in terms of
the navigational problem. The stars are in fact in motion themselves, as is the Sun,
at velocities which, whilst still tiny fractions of the speed of light, are nevertheless
significant over long timescales. In 150,000 years from now the night sky will look
very different from today. Moreover, precession of the Earth’s axis over a 26,000
year cycle causes the ‘North Star’, Polaris, to describe a circle around North, such
that in 5000BC the star Thuban was in fact the North star, and in another 13,000
years it will be Vega. Of the 4,850 stars visible to the naked eye, only Polaris and
the 57 other stars tabulated in The Nautical Almanac are sufficiently bright for
navigational use. Further details of the ‘navigational stars’ are at Appendix 1.
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THE CELESTIAL SPHERE – MAGNITUDES OF STARS & PLANETS
0121. Stellar Magnitudes

Hipparchus (2nd century BC) and Ptolemy (2nd century AD) arbitrarily graded stars
and planets into six ‘magnitudes’ according to their brightness. Heavenly bodies of the first
magnitude were among the brightest in the sky and sixth magnitude were those just visible
to the naked eye. The discovery by Sir John Herschel in 1830 that a first-magnitude star
was about one hundred times brighter than a sixth-magnitude star, and that the brightness of
each magnitude of star varied to the next magnitude by a factor of about 2.5 (the fifth root of
100) caused the so-called Ptolemaic grading to be modified slightly. Stars are now classified
by brightness according to this definition:

A first-magnitude star is one from which the Earth receives exactly one hundred times
as much light as it receives from a sixth-magnitude star.
By this definition, the intervening magnitudes between first and sixth are found from a
logarithmic scale, so that, if ‘a’ is the numerical index of the quantity of light received:
a6 : a = 100 : 1
ie. a5 = 100
∴ a = 2.51
With numerically small magnitudes indicating the brightest objects, any object 2.51 times
brighter than a first-magnitude star must have a magnitude of 0 and any object brighter than
this must have a negative magnitude. Sirius is of magnitude -1.46, Venus at its brightest can
be -4.4, the Sun’s magnitude (as seen from earth) is −26.7, and the Moon when full is −12.5.
With brightness varying by a factor of 2.51 between each magnitude, it is simple to calculate
the relative brightness of heavenly bodies from the magnitude information given in The
Nautical Almanac: simply multiply 2.51 by the power of the difference between magnitudes.
Egs. Vega (0.1), Aldebaran (1.1) Vega:2.51(1.1-0.1) = 2.51(1) = 2.51 times brighter
Canopus (-0.9), Aldebaran (1.1) Canopus:2.51(1.1-(-0.9)) = 2.51(2) = 6.3 times brighter
Sirius (-1.6), Regulus (1.3) Sirius:2.51(1.1-(-1-6)) = 2.51(2.9) = 14.4 times brighter
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SECTION 3 - METHODS OF IDENTIFYING HEAVENLY BODIES
0122. The Identification of Heavenly Bodies

In the practice of astro-navigation, ‘star’ sights are usually taken at morning twilight
and evening twilight when the visible horizon and only a few bright stars/planets are visible
at the same time. This means that the background of constellations are not visible to assist
the navigator in star/planet identification, although an early start for ‘morning stars’ can
overcome this difficulty. However, in the main, other methods of identification must be used.
0123. Use of Computers for Identification of Heavenly Bodies

a. History. A variety of computer programs for star and planet identification
became available from 1980, and they also carried out rhumb line/great circle
passage planning and astro-navigation calculations. Between 1980 and 1996 the
Hewlett Packard HP41CV Hand-held calculator was used in the Royal Navy for this
purpose but was replaced in 1996 by a PC program produced by the Nautical
Almanac Office called ‘Compact Data for Navigation and Astronomy 1996-2000’
(short title NAVPAC 1), for star/planet identification, rhumb line/great circle passage
planning and astro-navigation calculations. An improved NavPac2.0, running in
Windows, was introduced for years 2001-2005, followed by NavPac 2.1 for years
2006-2010 and NavPac 3 for years 2011-2015. The latest version, NavPac 4, was
released in 2017, has a redesigned interface and additional functionality.
b. NAVPAC 4.0.12. NavPac 4 is the standard RN method for reducing sights and
further details of the software are at Chapter 3; it is available as a free download for
registered users of the latest edition of NavPac 3 (2016-2020) and RN users still
using anything older than v4.0.12 should ensure that they update as soon as
possible. NavPac 4 is capable of making calculations for dates from the year 1986
onwards until 31 Dec 2020 and so may be used for the historical calculations and
the (1997/98) worked exercises contained in BRd 45(5). Operating instructions for
NavPac 4 are contained at Chapter 3.
0124. Description of the Star Finder and Identifier (NP 323)

The Star Finder (NP323) is carried by all warships and affords a simple and speedy
means of identifying stars and planets which is also independent of power supplies and the
availability of NavPac/computer facilities. It consists of a double-sided 22cm x 22cm
cardboard star-chart (shown at Fig 1-5a at approximately half linear scale) and eight
transparent templates for latitudes 10°, 20°, 30°, 40°, 50°, 60° and 75° (Fig 1-5b)
respectively. One side of the star-chart is for use in the northern hemisphere and the other
for use in the southern hemisphere, although both have an overlap to allow equatorial stars
to be identified. The 57 navigational stars are printed on the star-chart, and the templates
show rings of altitude and curves of azimuth. The edge of the star-chart is marked in LHA
Aries for alignment with the meridian of the grids. Full instructions for use are printed on the
star-chart and are designed to allow a user with no prior experience of the Star Finder to
obtain immediate results.
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Fig 1-5a. Star Finder and Identifier - Star Chart (Underlay) (shown at half linear size)

Fig 1-5b. Star Finder and Identifier - Example Template (Overlay)
(shown at half linear size)
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0125. The Nautical Almanac Planet Diagram

The Nautical Almanac planet diagram (not illustrated) shows the local mean time of
meridian passage (see Para 0308 for explanation of meridian passage) of the Sun and the
five planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn in graphical form, together with lines
showing the local mean time (LMT) (see Para 04267 sub para a for explanation of LMT) of
meridian passage of even-hour circles of right ascension (for every 30° of SHA). The
horizontal argument on the page is date, and the vertical argument is LMT. A band on either
side of the time of transit of the Sun is shaded to indicate the bodies within this area which,
on a given date, are too close to the Sun for observation. The lines joining the times of
transit of the five planets are drawn in a distinctive manner to avoid confusion. The Nautical

Almanac planet diagram is mainly intended for planning purposes when neither NavPac 4
nor a star globe (see Para 0502 and Annex 5A) are available. Entering the Nautical
Almanac planet diagram with the date alone gives the following information:
a. Observable. The Nautical Almanac planet diagram shows whether a planet is

observable on that day or whether it is too close to the Sun (within the shaded area).
b. Meridian Passage. The Nautical Almanac planet diagram shows the local
mean time of meridian passage for each planet. The time of meridian passage of a
star may be found by inspection if its SHA is known. Users may also plot an
SHA/date line corresponding to any particular star if desired.
c. Morning and Evening Stars. The Nautical Almanac planet diagram shows
that when meridian passage is at about 24h the planet is observable from evening
twilight (in the east ), through the night until morning twilight (in the west). When
meridian passage falls just below the shaded area (ie before 11h), it is visible low in
the east during morning twilight. When meridian passage falls just above the
shaded area (ie after 13h), it is visible low in the west during evening twilight. In
broad terms, a body in the bottom half of the diagram is a morning star, and one in
the top half is an evening star.
d. Confusion with Other Planets. The Nautical Almanac planet diagram shows
whether other planets are in the immediate vicinity, in which case care must be
taken to avoid confusion.
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CHAPTER 2
TIME SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
Para
0201. Uniform Time System
0202. Standard Legal Time and Summer Time/Daylight Saving Time (DST)
0203. Standard Legal Time - Regional Designators

0204. Use of Standard Time and Zone Time
0205. Conversion between UT and LMT
0206. International Date Line
0207. Clock Zone Changes
0208. Zone Times of RVs and ETAs
0209. Universal Time (UT1 or abbreviated to UT)
0210. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
0211. Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC)
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CHAPTER 2
TIME SYSTEMS

The world is divided into 24 standard time zones. ‘Standard time zone’ is the
generic term for all time zones within the ‘Uniform Time System’, both on land and at
sea. Each zone is 15° wide and each zone is numbered and lettered. The Greenwich
Meridian is the centre of zone 0 and also the centre of the system. Zones to the east of zone
0 are numbered −1, −2 etc., and those to the west +1, +2 etc. The 12th zone is divided by

the International Date Line (IDL), the part to the west being −12 and that to the east +12.
The zone number indicates the number of hours by which standard (or zone) time must be
decreased or increased to obtain universal time UT (previously known as Greenwhich mean
team, GMT - see Para 0210). Time zones may also be indicated by letters; UT is Z (zero)
and the zones to the east are lettered A to M (omitting J) and those to the west N to Y. The
standard (or zone) time appropriate to longitude (see Fig 2-1 and Fig 2-2) is usually
referred to as ‘zone time’ and is the time zone normally kept at sea.
0202. Standard Legal Time and Summer Time/Daylight Saving Time (DST)
On land, countries may modify the standard (or zone) time to suit local needs. The
time zone kept on land is decided by national laws and is known as standard legal time (or
simply ‘legal time’). ADRS 2 (or ALRS Vol 2, NP282) gives standard legal time in each
territory (see Fig 2-1 and Fig 2-2). Within ADRS 2 a negative prefix denotes that legal time is
ahead of UT and positive behind it; details are given if there is a seasonal change from the
standard legal time to daylight saving time (DST) (summer time); an asterisk indicates that a
territory is not expected to observe DST in the current year (DST dates followed by the letter
‘E’ are estimates). The change from standard legal time to DST is normally effected before
0300 (local time) and the change from DST to standard legal time after 2200 (local time).
Certain Islamic countries that observe DST may revert to their standard legal time during the
29 days of Ramadan. The list is corrected in Section VI of the Weekly Edition of Admiralty
Notices to Mariners. Standard legal time (sometimes abbreviated to ‘legal time’) is the
time zone kept on land.
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0203. Standard Legal Time - Regional Designators

In countries extending over large east-west distances (eg USA), different standard
legal times may be kept in separate parts of a country and each part may have its own
regional designator. Regional designators may also be used to describe collectively a
common standard time adopted by a number of countries. Table 2-1 lists examples of
regional designators for standard time with their abbreviations and relationship to universal
time (UT). A negative prefix denotes standard times in advance of UT; a positive prefix
denotes those behind UT.
Table 2-1. Examples of Standard Time Designators

Designator Abbreviation Standard Time
Atlantic Standard Time (Canada) AST +04
Central European Time − −01
Central Standard Time (Canada and USA) CST +06
Eastern Standard Time (Canada and USA) EST +05
Mountain Standard Time (Canada and USA) MST +07
Newfoundland Standard Time (Canada) NST +03½
Pacific Standard Time (Canada and USA) PST +08
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Fig 2-1. Standard Time Zone Chart of the World
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Fig 2-2. Standard Time Zone Chart of Europe and North Africa
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UT is used as the standard time zone for worldwide reference books such as the
Nautical Almanac, is the time zone in which ship’s chronometers and deck watches are kept
and is also used for signal message date-time-groups (DTGs). UT was previously known
as GMT (see Para 0210). It should be noted that tide tables, which are specific to local
areas, normally provide information in standard legal time (See Para 0202) but care must be
exercised when any daylight saving time (DST) is in force.
0205. Conversion between UT and LMT

Applying the uniform time system (Para 0201), the following rules may be

established:
If a longitude is West, ADD the time equivalent of the longitude when changing from
local mean time to UT (and vice versa - SUBTRACT if changing from UT to LMT).
If a longitude is East, SUBTRACT the time equivalent of the longitude when changing
from local mean time to UT (and vice versa - ADD if changing from UT to LMT).
Examples. What are the LMT equivalents if UT is 23 hours 31 minutes 25 seconds on 14

September, (1) at 48° West, and (2) at 22½° East? Note that this is changing from UT to
LMT.
Examples. Converting UT (previously known as GMT) to LMT

(Note that the date has also changed in Example 2-2 at 22½° East)
Example 1: At 48° West Example 2: At 22½° East
Date Hrs Mins Secs Date Hrs Mins Secs
14 Sep UT 23 31 25 14 Sep UT 23 31 25
Long W. (-) 03 12 00 Long E. (+) 01 30 00
14 Sep LMT (48°W) 20 19 25 15 Sep LMT (22½°E) 01 01 25
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a. Reason for the International Date Line. Inspection of Fig 2-1 will show that a
traveller leaving the UK and heading East to make a trip around the world would
advance clocks by one hour on passing each successive meridian 15° further East
from Greenwich, in accordance with the standard (or zone) time arrangements of the
uniform time system (Para 0201). If this process were to continue until the traveller
circumnavigated the world and reached UK again, 24 hours would have been added
to the traveller’s clock and calendar, and thus the traveller would believe it to be the
same time as kept in UK but 1 day later (this fact was the key to the plot of Jules

Verne’s famous book, ‘Around the World in 80 Days’ which was later made into a
classic film). To avoid this difficulty, it has been agreed worldwide that at
approximately 180° East, on crossing the International Date Line, travellers would
advance or retard calendars by one day (retard when eastbound, advance when
westbound) and simultaneously apply the new time zone (-12hr to +12hr or vice-
versa) to the new date.
b. Co-ordinates of the International Date Line. To avoid populated areas, the

International Date Line does not follow the meridian of 180° East exactly. The
precise co-ordinates of the International Date Line may be found from appropriate
British Admiralty charts and are also tabulated in the ‘standard times’ section of the
Admiralty List of Radio Signals Volume 2 (NP 282).
Note. Notwithstanding its name, there is no international legal status or

definition of the international date line. Its location on a chart has thus never
been fixed by an international treaty or organisation; the position of the date
line on a UKHO product may thus differ from that on a product from another
source. Countries themselves are free to determine their own legal times,
which apply on land and in international waters. Nevertheless, the 180th
meridian is generally used as the date line as it mostly crosses open ocean
and thus does not cause the problems it might if it ran through a populated
continent such as Europe.
c. Calculation of Dates and Times when Crossing the International Date Line.
When calculating dates and times involving any crossing the International Date Line:
• Convert all dates and times (eg ETDs and ETAs) on both sides of the
International Date Line to UT. See Para 0205 for conversion procedure.
• Make all passage calculations in UT, including the total of days/hours
available, the speed over al (SOA) and associated fuel requirements.
• Re-convert the dates/times above to the new standard (zone) times and
dates required. The international date line will be incorporated. Note that
the sign of the time zone has to be applied in reverse when converting
from UT.
Note. The correct application of this procedure is essential to avoid

confusion and error, particularly when planning passages across the Pacific
Ocean when time and fuel constraints will often leave no room for mistakes.
See below for a worked example of the procedure for crossing the international date
line.
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Example. On 15th September at 0800(−12), a ship in position 30°N, 178°E travelling on a

course of 090° speed 16, crosses the International Date Line. What is the local time and
date, in standard (zone) time, eight hours later?
Example. Summary of the International Dateline Conversion Calculation
Zone Date & Time 150800M Sep

Zone (-12) −12
UT 142000Z Sep

Passage Interval +0800
UT 150400Z Sep
Zone (+12) -12
Zone Date & Time 141600Y Sep
0207. Clock Zone Changes

At sea, within the Royal Navy, it is normal to advance clocks (when travelling east)
at 2330 local time and retard clocks (when travelling west) at 1830 local time, assuming a
normal cruising watch system. In the Merchant Navy, clocks are often changed at 0200.
0208. Zone Times of RVs and ETAs

Care should be taken when arranging any rendezvous (RV) with other ships to
ensure correct time zones are applied by all participants. It is often more sensible to specify
UT to preclude the possibility of mistakes being made. Similarly, when making a port visit to
a foreign country, the ‘legal times’ section of ADRS 2 should be checked for the correct time
zone, making sure that any DST (Para 0202) is taken into account (and any amendments to
ADRS/NP 282 have been correctly applied). To prevent any possible embarrassment, the
visit letter (where applicable) should also be checked to confirm that this agrees with the
information in ADRS.
0209. Universal Time (UT1 or abbreviated to UT)

Universal time (UT1 or UT) is the mean solar time (MST) (see Chapter 4 for
definition of MST) of the prime meridian obtained from direct astronomical observation and
corrected for the effects of small movements of the Earth relative to the axis of rotation (polar
variation). Since these time scales correspond with the angular position of the Earth around
its axis of rotation, they are used for astro-navigation and form the time argument in the
Nautical Almanac.

GMT may be regarded as the general equivalent of UT/UT1.
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a. Requirement. Co-ordinated universal time (UTC) has been developed to meet

the needs of scientific users for a precise scale of time interval, and those of
navigators, surveyors and others who require a timescale directly related to the
Earth’s rotation (like UT1).
b. UTC - TAI - UT1 Linkage.
• UTC and TAI. UTC corresponds exactly in rate with International Atomic

Time (TAI), but TAI is based on atomic clocks (it is the averaged time of a
great many atomic clocks), and is thus independent of the Earth’s rotation,
so UTC differs from TAI by an integer number of seconds.
• UTC and UT1. The UTC scale is, at the time of writing, adjusted by the
insertion or deletion of seconds (positive or negative leap seconds) to
ensure that the departure of UTC from UT1 does not exceed +/- 0.9
seconds (but see Note below).
Further details of these time systems may be found in Radio Time Signals section of
the ADRS/NP 282.
Note. It may be that, at some point in the future, the practice of inserting
leap seconds to keep UT1 aligned to UTC is discontinued. The consequence
of this would be that UTC (used for civil purposes) would start to diverge from
UT1 (used for navigation); this divergence would increase with time, such
that over the course of half a century, UTC would diverge from UT1 by
approximately one minute. This would require an additional correction step
in sight reductions.
c. Time Signal Broadcasting Stations. Operational details of stations

broadcasting time signals are listed in Radio Time Signals section of ADRS/NP 282
and they broadcast in the UTC time scale unless otherwise indicated. Leap seconds
are notified in advance as corrections in a Table in the Radio Time Signals section
of NP 282. Changes to this Table are notified in Section VI of the Weekly Edition of
Notices to Mariners.
d. GPS Time-Transfer. Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) rely on

accurate time information as a fundamental part of the way they operate (see BRd
45(3) for a detailed discussion of the theory and operation of GNSS). GNSS, and in
particular GPS as the most ubiquitous GNSS, therefore provides a very accurate
source for time-transfer and may be the most convenient source of UT/UTC for time
checks and to establish any error in the chronometer time and any deck watch error
(DWE); indeed, it is probably the case that most GPS receivers in use today are not
being used to provide position data but are being used as a cheap and accurate
time source. Most GPS receivers display UTC.
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CHAPTER 3
PRACTICAL SIGHTS: PLANNING, TAKING, REDUCING AND PLOTTING
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 - SCOPE, ASSUMPTIONS & SOFTWARE
Para
0301. Assumptions Made and Scope of the Chapter

0302. NavPac Software Versions and Terminology
SECTION 2 - PLANNING ASTRO-SIGHTS
0303. Ship’s DR/EP Position for Sights

0304. NavPac 4: Calculating SS/SR, CT, NT and Compass Checks
0305. The Nautical Almanac - Calculating SS/SR, CT, NT
0306. NavPac 4: Prediction of a Body’s Azimuth (Bearing) & Altitude
0307. The Star Finder - Prediction of a Heavenly Body’s Altitude and Azimuth (Bearing)
0308. The Nautical Almanac - Calculating Time of Sun’s Meridian Passage
0309. NavPac 4: Calculating Time of Sun’s Meridian Passage
0310. Other Organisational and Material Preparations
SECTION 3 - DESCRIPTION, PREPARATION AND USE OF SEXTANTS
0311. Introduction to the Sextant

0312. The Royal Navy Sextant
0313. Measurements ‘On’ and ‘Off’ the Arc
0314. Positioning and Marking of the Index Bar and Arc
0315. Sextant Errors
0316. Sextant Calibration
0317. Care of a Sextant
0318. Using a Sextant
SECTION 4 - REDUCING SIGHTS
0319. Assumptions and Functions of Sight Reduction in NavPac

0320. NavPac 4 Preferences
0321. NavPac 4 Sight Reduction
0322. NavPac 4 Sun and Moon Sights
0323. NavPac 4 Sight Reduction Results
0324. NavPac 4 Printing, Loading and Saving Facilities
0325. The Nautical Almanac – Meridian Passage Polaris and Altitude Corrections
0326. NavPac 4 Almanac Facilities and Great Circle/Rhumb Line Calculations
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SECTION 5 - PLOTTING SIGHTS
0327. NavPac 4 Plotting of Astronomical Position Lines

0328. Manual Plotting of Astronomical Position Lines
ANNEX
Annex 3A Observing Astro Sights Using an Artificial Horizon (‘Syrup’ Method)
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CHAPTER 3
PRACTICAL SIGHTS: PLANNING, TAKING, REDUCING AND PLOTTING
SECTION 1 - SCOPE, ASSUMPTIONS & SOFTWARE
0301. Assumptions Made and Scope of the Chapter
a. Navigational Watchkeeping Certificate (NWC). This chapter provides a

practical guide for planning, taking, reducing and plotting of astro-sights for readers

studying for the Royal Navy Navigational Watchkeeping Certificate (NWC).
b. Assumptions. Chapter 3 assumes that NavPac 4 is available on-screen and

can be worked through, step by step, with the instructions in the chapter; it is not
intended that the NavPac elements of Chapter 3 should be read in isolation. This
chapter is based on NavPac v.4.0.12; incremental releases/updates may have
marginally different functionality. It is assumed that NavPac 4 will be used to carry
out most calculations; NavPac 3.4 (as supplied on the DP330 cd) contains the same
almanac data and so will produce the same results but has less additional capability
and does not benefit from the improved user interface.
c. Scope and Limitations.
(1) Methods. Although NavPac 4 is the primary method for solving

calculations, simple procedures using the Nautical Almanac are also covered.
(2) ‘Finder’. Although solutions of great circle and rhumb line sailings are
contained in NavPac 4 (Route Planner) only the mechanics of using the
software is explained in this book. The explanations of these sailings are at BR
45 Volume 1 Chapters 2 and 5.
(3) Astro Theory. Astro theory is covered in Chapters 4-9.
0302. NavPac Software Versions and Terminology
a. NavPac 2.0: 2001-2005. ‘NavPac 2.0’ was created for the years 2001-2005
and was issued to the RN/RFA in May 2000.
b. NavPac 2.1:2006-2010. ‘NavPac 2.1’ software was based on NAVPAC 2.0 and
updated for the years 2006-2010 with a number of additional or improved features,
including the addition of the time of Mer Pass on the ‘Rise/Set’ page.
c. NavPac 3: 2011-2015. ‘NavPac 3’ software was based on NavPac 2.1 and

updated for the years 2011-2015. Improvements include: the splitting of the
Options page into User Options and System Options pages (see Para 0320),
adding planet magnitudes, and adding an ‘AltAz’ plot to assist with identification
when observations are entered (see Para 0344). NavPac is only valid for
calculations for dates up to 31 Dec 2015 unless new ephemerides are included to
extend this period.
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d. NavPac 4: 2016-2020. The most recent issue of NAVPAC, from January

2017, is supplied from UKHO/NAO as NAVPAC v3 for 2016-2020. However, once
the software is registered, a free download is available from the NAO website to
upgrade to NavPac 4.0.12, which delivers a new interface, and a number of
improved features. In particular, each individual navigational function in NAvPac 4 is
displayed in one screen only, unlike the multiple interacting screens used by earlier
versions of NavPac. RN/RFA users should ensure they are using NavPac v4.
e. Terminology - ‘Heavenly Body’ and ‘Navigational Body’. NacPav uses the

astronomical term ‘navigational body’ throughout, instead of the traditional maritime
usage ‘heavenly body’. When describing NavPac and other publications, concepts
and methods, the appropriate convention is used as appropriate to the context,
although there is unlikely to be any confusion.
f. NavPac Updates. From time to time NAO will issue updates to NavPac. NOs
should check the status of NavPac periodically (www.astro.ukho.gov.uk/nao/
navpacfour/status.html) and ensure that any updates are applied as necessary.
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SECTION 2 - PLANNING ASTRO-SIGHTS
0303. Ship’s DR/EP Position for Sights
a. Star Sights. The starting point for all astro-sights is to establish an

approximate DR/EP position from the master WECDIS for the time of the planned
observation. Star sights must be taken between civil and nautical twilight, when
both the horizon and the brightest stars/planets are visible. This will require the
calculation of morning nautical twilight (MNT), morning civil twilight (MCT) and
sunrise (SR) or sunset (SS), evening civil twilight (ECT) and evening nautical twilight

(ENT) as appropriate.
b. Sun Sights. The Sun’s position in the sky is normally self-evident and
calculation to predict this is not required except for its meridian passage (mer pass).
NavPac can calculate the time of mer pass automatically via the Rise and Set
page (see Para 0304 sub para c and Para 0309 sub para b). The Nautical
Almanac may also be used to calculate the time of mer pass; if the ship’s longitude
is changing rapidly this may involve iterative processes.
0304. NavPac 4: Calculating SS/SR, CT, NT and Compass Checks
a. NavPac Home Page. On starting NavPac, the user is presented with the home
page. Navigational functions are accessed by the icons along the top left of the
screen. To calculate SS/SR, CT or NT times, click on the Rise and Set icon (third
from the left) on the Home page (see Fig 3-1 below). This brings NavPac to the rise
and set function.
Fig 3-1. NavPac 4 ‘Home’ Page
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b. Help Page. A standard Windows help function (see Fig 3-2 below) may be
displayed at any time by depressing the ‘F1’ key or by selecting the icon at the top
right. This page contains bookmarks and hyperlinks to all elements of the program,
where further guidance may be found.
Fig 3-2. NavPac 4 Help

c. Rise and Set. Rise and set allows the user to select a stationary DR/EP
position (observer’s latitude, North or South, longitude, East or West), zone
correction, ahead, behind UT, the observer’s height (height of eye) above sea level,
the date required, the number of days predictions required and the navigational body
(or bodies) for which rise/set data is needed. The number of days defaults to one
but may be increased as necessary (if the ship will remain in the same position for
more than one day for example), and only the ‘Sun’, ‘Civil Twilight’ and ‘Nautical
Twilight’ should be selected in the Navigational Bodies option (the ‘select all’ buttons
are helpful here). Two tabs are provided (see Fig 3-3 below) to allow either
rise/set/mer pass calculations or calculation of azimuths for compass checks, and
the user can switch between the two at will. Once a navigational body or bodies is
selected (see Fig 3-2) and the appropriate results are displayed (see Fig 3-3a or Fig
3-3c).
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Fig 3-3. NavPac 4 Rise and Set Function

(Rise, Set and Meridian Passage Times tab selected)

d. Rise and Set - Results. The results of the calculations are displayed in the
main window in the centre of the screen. Unlike previous versions of NavPac with
which readers may be familiar, all results for however many days are required are
displayed on a single page, which may be scrolled, but they are presented by
navigational body/phenomenon rather than in chronological order (i.e. all Sun
rise/set are then followed by all civil twilights then nautical twilights etc, rather than
the sequence of events being produced in a chronological order). The azimuths for
compass checks are based on the time when the calculated altitude of the object is
zero, with the exception of the Sun (time is when the lower limb appears to be one
semi-diameter above the horizon) and the Moon (when the centre is practically onn
the horizon). NavPac will indicate if a navigational body is above or below the
horizon and thus not available for a compass check. Selecting a line enables the UT
of rise, mer pass or set, or the original UT, to be transferred to other functions within
NacPac. The results can also be printed, either to a printer or to a file (there is no
longer a save function per se).
Note. The rise and set times calculated in the ‘Rise, Set and Meridian
Passage Times’ tab are the visible rise/set time, and should NOT be used
for compass checks. For compass checks, the user must use the ‘Azimuth
for Compass Checks’.
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Fig 3-4. NavPac 4 Rise, Set and Meridian Passage Times Results

e. Compass Checks - Use of True (Theoretical) Rise Set. A full explanation of
rising and setting phenomena is in Chapter 7; the NavPac azimuth for compass
checks results page is illustrated below.
(1) True (Theoretical) Rise Set. At true (theoretical) rise/set, the Sun’s lower
limb appears to be one Semi-Diameter above the visible horizon (see Fig 3-3b
below), and the Moon’s centre appears to be on the visible horizon.
(2) Compass Checks. For the above reason, the visible rise/set times
shown in the ‘Rise, Set and Meridian Passage Times’ page (see Para 0304
sub para d and Fig 3-4) SHOULD NOT BE USED FOR COMPASS CHECKS.
Instead, the ‘Azimuth for Compass Checks’ tab should be selected, which
provides the true rise/set data, to provide the information shown at Fig 3-36.
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Fig 3-5. Altitude of the Sun at True (Theoretical) Sunrise or Sunset

f. RiseSet -Times & Azimuths for Compass Check Page. The azimuth for
compass check page (see Fig 3-6 below) may be printed (to a printer or a file). The
transfer with, radio buttons in the ‘Use Results’ window may be clicked in order to
save the time for use in later calculations. Irrespective of any zone correction set, if
saved, the appropriate UT will be transferred to subsequent NavPac functions.
Fig 3-6. NavPac 4 Azimuth for Compass Check Results
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0305. The Nautical Almanac - Calculating SS/SR, CT, NT
a. Latitude Time. Using the ship’s DR/EP position from the master WECDIS,
from the Nautical Almanac obtain the ‘latitude time’ for the nearest latitude on the
mid-date for the page in question for ENT/ECT/SS or SR/MCT/MNT. The Nautical
Almanac displays this information in chronological order and so does not display the
prefix ‘evening’ or ‘morning’ with CT or NT. Because the tables only provide times at
various intervals of latitude, interpolation may have to take place. This is undertaken
either by mental arithmetic or by using ‘TABLE 1 - FOR LATITUDE’ at the end of the
yellow pages at the back of the Nautical Almanac.

b. Date Interpolation. Should the date not be the central date on the Nautical
Almanac double page, then interpolation by mental arithmetic will require to be
undertaken between the pages before or after the required date.
c. Longitude. The result of the data extraction and interpolation above is the UT
of ENT/ECT/SS or SR/MCT/MNT on the Greenwich Meridian. If the ship’s position
is not on the Greenwich Meridian, ie it is either East or West of the 0° line of
Longitude, a correction must be subtracted or added. Converting longitude to time
is undertaken by mental arithmetic or by using the ‘CONVERSION OF ARC TO
TIME’ table at the start of the yellow pages in the Nautical Almanac. A useful way to
remember whether to add or subtract is given by the rhymes:
East is Least - MINUS

West is Best - PLUS
Note. The Nautical Almanac Table II (at end of yellow pages) is for
additional Moon corrections, and is NOT for SR/SS corrections.
d. UT (GMT). If data from the Nautical Almanac has been extracted/interpolated

correctly and the observer’s longitude applied, the result will be the UT of
ENT/ECT/SS or SR/MCT/MNT as appropriate at the observer’s DR/EP position.
The time zone may be applied to obtain local mean time (LMT) (see Para 0205).
e. Summary and Example. The calculation is summarised below with an

example of SS (interpolated from the Nautical Almanac) at 1800, at 25° East, in time
zone B(-2). Worked examples of rising and setting calculations, and answers are
contained in BRd 45 Volume 5, pages 1B-2 to 1B-3.
Example. Summary of SS/SR/CT/NT Calculations
Interpolated SS (or SR/CT/NT) from NA 1800

Longitude (W+ or E-) (25°E) -0140
Local Mean Time UT(GMT) 1620Z
Zone(-2) (+ = subtract) (- = add) +0200
Zone Time 1820B
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f. Further Iterations. If the time of the DR/EP position from WECDIS was not
close to the time subsequently calculated for MNT (for ‘Morning Stars’) or ECT (for
‘Evening Stars’), iterations of the calculation may be required to refine the answer.
0306. NavPac 4: Prediction of a Body’s Azimuth (Bearing) and Altitude (Find It)
a. Use. The prediction of a heavenly body’s bearing and altitude is usually

associated with taking morning or evening stars, as the position of the Sun (and
sometimes the Moon) in the sky during the day is normally self-evident.

b. Transfer of Times and Positions. Assuming that the times of ENT/ECT/SS or
SR/MCT/MNT have been calculated in NavPac and the appropriate time transferred
(MNT for morning stars or ECT for evening stars), then that information will be
displayed when the Find It tab is selected. Otherwise it must be entered manually
into the date and time window in the top left of the screen.
c. Find It Page. From any function of NavPac, click the Find It icon; this brings
the screen to the Find It page (Fig 3-7). Confirm that date, time (UT), latitude
(North/South) and Longitude (East/West) have transferred correctly into the dialogue
boxes, and if not, correct them. By default, all navigational bodies are selected and
the ‘sky plot’ window (see below) will be in the ‘planning’ view.
Fig 3-7. NavPac 4 Find It Page
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d. Sky Plot. The results of the Find It calculations are displayed in the sky plot
window in the centre of the screen, and are linked to the ‘available objects’ displayed
in the window at the right-hand side of the results window. The sky plot has three
different views. In each view, the same conventions are followed for the display of
navigational bodies (a key is available if required); bodies in an orange circle are
part of the ‘seven best stars’ as found in NP 303. The icon for the Moon indicates
the approximate phase for the selected time. Navigational bodies selected in the
available objects are highlighted in blue in the available objects window and circled
in red in the sky plot; objects can be selected in either window. The sky plot may be
filtered in azimuth and altitude as desired; note that objects will still appear in the

available objects window if they are below the horizon but they will not be selectable
and will not appear in the sky plot.
(1) Planning. The planning view is similar to the traditional FindIt results view
from earlier versions of NavPac. It is a polar projection view, split into 36
sectors of 10 degrees each, and nine concentric rings representing 10 degrees
of altitude. The centre of the plot therefore indicate the zenith at 90°, and the
outermost range ring represents the horizon (at 0°). North (000) is at the top of
the plot. An example is in Fig 3-9 below.
Fig 3-8. Sky Plot - Planning View
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(2) Sweep. The ‘sweep’ view is a sinusoidal projection, in which the altitude is
on the vertical scale and azimuth on the horizontal; the horizon is at the bottom
of the plot and the zenith at the top (see Fig 3-9 below). The plot is split into
thirteen azimuth sectors of thirty degrees each; scales are non-linear to enable
the area of sky most likely to be of practical use for observations.
Fig 3-9. Sky Plot - Sweep View

(3) Ship’s View. The ship’s view is an Airy minimum error projection of the
sky, which can be manipulated by the user as required, including zooming,
rotating and moving the origin, in order to gain a more ‘realistic’ idea of what the
night sky will look like. The ship’s view is split into 36 ten-degree azimuth
sectors, and nine ten degree altitude rings. Additionally, to aid in practical star-
finding, in Ship’s View optional constellation stars and/or constellation lines may
be displayed to give a fuller impression of the ‘true’ night sky. See Fig 3-10
(upper image) below for an example of the ship’s view’s default display; Fig 3-
10 (lower image) shows an example of how the default display can be
manipulated to give a very different view.
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Fig 3-10. Sky Plot - Ship’s View (Upper – default, lower - manipulated)
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(4) Available Objects. The available objects window lists all the available
objects which are visible; NavPac never displays objects which are below the
horizon (negative altitude). The objects in the available objects list may be
sorted alphabetically by name, or in ascending or descending order of
magnitude, altitude, or azimuth.
Fig 3-11. Find It Available Objects List

(5) Seven Best Stars. The ‘Actions’ window on the right-hand side of the
screen allows the operator to select (or deselect) the seven best stars, which
aligns with those in NP 303, and which are indicated automatically in each of
the three views in the sky plot. It is also possible to transfer the selected stars
to the sight reduction function once the stars have been chosen. The seven
best stars are indicated on the sky plot by an orange circle; the three best of
those seven then have a white square at the centre of the icon to indicate their
status.
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e. Printing Find It Results. The results page may be printed by clicking the print
button either to a printer or to a file as required (there is no save option per se). Note
that the available objects list and the sky plot will both print automatically, as both are
needed for a sight.
Note. On printing a list of navigational bodies (see Para 0306 sub para e
above) additional symbols are included with the following meanings:
• 7 Selected Stars. > or < indicates one of the 7 selected stars.
• Solar System Body. * at either side of an entry indicates a solar
system body.

• NP 303 Star. * before ‘Altitude’ indicates an NP 303 star.
0307. The Star Finder - Prediction of Heavenly Body’s Altitude and Azimuth
(Bearing)
The ‘Star Finder and Identifier’ is described in full at Para 0124. Full instructions for
use are printed on the star-chart (shown at Fig 1-5a and and Fig 1-5b) and are designed to
allow a user with no prior experience of the Star Finder to obtain immediate results. In
summary, by placing one of the eight transparent templates over the star-chart underlay the
altitude and azimuth (bearing) of the heavenly bodies may be read off the template. The
‘Star Finder and Identifier’ provides a quick, cheap method of identifying heavenly bodies
and is independent of power supplies. However, it is less accurate than NavPac.
0308. The Nautical Almanac - Calculating Time of Sun’s Meridian Passage
a. Background. By taking the altitude of the Sun at meridian passage (mer pass),
when it crosses the observer’s meridian (ie due North or South of the observer) and
is near to its highest point in the sky (see Para 0325 sub para b), a simple manual
calculation will provide the observer’s latitude. However, it is necessary to know
what time this phenomenon will occur and recourse to the Nautical Almanac may be
necessary.
b. Method. The local mean time of the Sun’s mer pass on the Greenwich
Meridian is tabulated for each day at the bottom of the right hand daily pages of the
Nautical Almanac. No interpolation is necessary, but the observer’s longitude and
time zone in use need to be applied in the same way as in SR/SS calculations (see
Para 0305), in order to calculate the local mean time of mer pass on the observer’s
meridian. If the time of the DR/EP was not close to the time subsequently calculated
for mer pass, a further iteration of the calculation may be required to refine the
answer. The calculation is summarised below in an example with mer pass at 1210,
at 25° W, in time zone O(+2). Worked examples with answers are at BRd 45
Volume 5 pages 1B-7 and 1B-8.
Example 3-2. Summary of Mer Pass Calculations
Mer Pass Time from Nautical Almanac 1210

Longitude (W+ or E-) 25°W +0140
Local Mean Time UT(GMT) 1350Z
Zone(+2) (+ = subtract) (- = add) -0200
Zone Time 1150(O)
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0309. NavPac 4: Calculating Time of Sun’s Meridian Passage
a. Preferred Method - NavPac. Given the errors that may be induced (see Para
0325 sub para b by taking the mer pass sight at the moment of highest altitude
rather than at the time when the navigational body is on the observer’s meridian (ie
bearing 180° or 000°) using NavPac is the preferred method of calculating the time
of mer pass. NavPac provides the exact time of the Sun’s meridian passage
automatically via the Rise and Set function (see Para 0304 sub para c and Fig 3-
3). The position of mer pass may be run-on using the Sight Reduction or Find It
pages.

b. Tabular Method - The Nautical Almanac. The tabular Nautical Almanac
method (see Para 0308) may be used but is less accurate than NavPac
c. Limiting Accuracy. The limiting accuracy of both methods is the longitude

component of the ship’s DR/EP, which in turn affects both methods of calculation.
0310. Other Organisational and Material Preparations

Guidance on the care and use of the sextant is in Section 3.
a. Navigating Officer’s Assistant. For taking ‘Morning or Evening Stars’ and for
most sunsights, ideally a carefully briefed NO’s Assistant is needed. The NO’s
Assistant takes the deck watch time at the instant of observation, writes down the
sextant reading, holds the star plot/list and assists with the spotting of stars. In
extremis, an experienced NO can manage alone, but care is needed to avoid deck
watch time errors.
b. Deck Watch Time, Deck Watch Error and Mistakes. In practice, most sights
will be timed using GPS time in the modern age, as chronometers are not routinely
carried by RN vessels. If a traditional deck watch is used, then the following apply;
equally, care must be taken to note the correct GPS time noting that GPS time will
be in UTC not UT.
(1) Deck Watch Time (DWT). Deck watch time (DWT) should always be UT.
(2) Deck Watch Error (DWE). The difference between DWT and UT is the
deck watch error (DWE) and must be known precisely. DWT must be corrected
for DWE before inputting the resultant UT into NAVPAC.
(3) Analogue Clocks. Deck watches are 12-hour analogue clocks and care
must be taken not to confuse 0600 with 1800 and thus inject a 12 hour error into
the NAVPAC calculation. This error will cause excessive intercepts and/or a
refusal by NAVPAC to compute a sensible observed position.
(4) Errors in Recording Time. The second and minute hands of the deck
watch should be aligned precisely, so that there can be no possibility of an error
when the reading the minute hand. If times are being taken by the NO’s
Assistant, it is advisable for the minute hand to be checked by the NO as well.
Times should be read to the nearest second. It is useful to be able to count in
seconds so that, if there is no one else available to take times, the NO can
count the seconds until it is possible to read the deck watch.
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c. Mustering in Good Time. Both the NO and the NO’s Assistant should be up
on the Bridge in plenty of time for stars, particularly in the morning. For morning
stars there should be time to adjust to night vision to help spot the best stars while
they are really bright against a dark sky. As a general rule, the astro team should be
on the Bridge ready to go for taking stars just after sunset for evening stars and by
nautical twilight for morning stars. In the tropics the periods of twilight are much
shorter than in temperate Latitudes and an even earlier start is often prudent.
d. Rough Weather. Taking star shots in stormy conditions from a lively Bridge
wing, with spray flying and patches of cloud scudding past the stars giving only a

few seconds for a snatched observation can be a challenging experience. The NO
and the NO’s Assistant need to be correctly dressed, as wet clothes and cold hands
make accurate sextant work much harder. Similarly, the sextant mirrors and lenses
need to be protected from spray; if they become wet the sextant rapidly becomes
impossible to use accurately and any clumsy attempts to wipe the mirrors clean will
probably introduce unknown errors into an otherwise ‘zeroed’ sextant. Having a
suitably sized towel ready and keeping the sextant covered with it until immediately
before raising it to the eye often solves the problem in such conditions. If the
sextant does get wet, a damp chamois leather or a small, clean, dry, soft, absorbent,
lintless cloth should be immediately available to dry it quickly and carefully before
the next sight. Afterwards the sextant will need careful cleaning and oiling.
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SECTION 3 - DESCRIPTION, PREPARATION AND USE OF SEXTANTS
0311. Introduction to the Sextant

A sextant is a handheld navigational instrument which works on the principle of
‘double reflection’. If a ray of light is reflected twice in the same plane by two plane mirrors,
the angle between the first and the last ray is twice the angle between the mirrors. Tthe
sextant is named for the fact that it has a graduated arc of about 1/6th of a circle’s
circumference (60°- hence the name), but the arc is graduated to 120°; other instruments
both smaller and larger existed, such as the octant (1/8 of a circle) and the quadrant (1/4).
Because the sextant measures the relative angle between two objects (typically a

navigational body and the horizon), it is possible to use it at sea with a much higher degree
of accuracy than earlier instruments which required a steady aim. It is also possible to use a
sextant at night, whereas earlier instruments such as the backstaff were only usable when
the Sun was up.
0312. The Royal Navy Sextant.
a. Legacy (Obsolete) Royal Navy Marine Sextant. The previous micrometer

sextant in Royal Navy service (see Fig 3-12) (NSN 6605-99-522-6963) has been
withdrawn and should no longer be carried. NOs with the sextant illustrated below
should request a replacement and return the old model through the stores system.
Fig 3-12. The Legacy Royal Navy Marine Sextant (NOW WITHDRAWN)
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b. Current Royal Navy Marine Sextant. The current (issued from 2011) RN
sextant (see Fig 3-13 below), (NSN (W186) 6605-12-381-6552) replaced the legacy
sextant illustrated at Fig 3-12 above. Any NOs still holding the obsolete model
should order a replacement at the earliest possible opportunity, and return the
old sextant through the stores system.
Fig 3-13. The Royal Navy Marine Sextant.
c. Main Features of the Royal Navy Marine Sextant. The principal features of
the RN marine sextant are detailed below. Readers who were experienced in the
use of the obsolete traditional sextant will note that there are several differences.
(1) Full View Horizon Glass. The sextant has a ‘full view’ horizon glass
(sometimes referred to as an ‘all view’ horizon glass). It provides the equivalent
direct and reflected views of a traditional half-silvered version.
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(2) Low Light Usage. The full view horizon glass extends the field of vision
along the horizon but the light passing through and reflected from it is
attenuated and thus produces a dimmer image than produced by a traditional
half-silvered version. The manufacturer states that this makes it more difficult to
use in low-light conditions. Practical experience has confirmed that the direct
horizon image and the reflected image of heavenly bodies appear to be dimmer
than the traditional half-silvered equivalents.
(3) Horizontal Sextant Angles. The sextant may be used for horizontal
sextant angles (HSAs). When held horizontally with the index mark set to 0°,

the right-hand object will be sighted first. The manufacturer recommends slowly
opening the arc and simultaneously turning the sextant to the left to keep the
original right-hand object in the field of view. When the correct arc setting is
reached, the left-hand object should be superimposed on the right-hand object.
(4) Telescope. A single removable 4 x 40mm (or 6 x 30mm) telescope is

fitted via a slot mounting and a knurled knob; these fittings are vulnerable to
damage and particular care should be taken with them. The telescope
eyepiece may be focussed by rotating a knurled ring. Note that this is a
distinct difference from the old sextant, which was supplied with both a
‘Sun’ and a ‘star’ telescopes which admitted different amounts of light as
the names suggest.
(5) Index Bar and Micrometer Drum with Vernier Scale. The sextant
micrometer drum ‘Vernier scale’ has no numerical markings; the ‘zero’ end of
the Vernier scale is at its ‘top’ and is only distinguished by a small dot on the
end of the marking (the sextant altitude shown in Fig 3-7b is 73° 51.7', NOT 73°
56.2'). Particular care must be taken NOT to use the prominent mid-point
marking of the Vernier scale to read off the sextant altitude from the micrometer
drum, as this will cause an error of approximately 4.5'.
(6) Box, Handle and Frame. The sextant is fitted into its foam-lined box with
its handle uppermost. To fit into the box, the arc must be set to 0°, the horizon
glass shades must be in-line with the line of sight and the index glass shades
must be out-of-line with the line of sight. The sextant should ONLY be picked
up by its handle; readers familiar with the legacy RN sextant must be aware
that the current RN sextant should NOT be handled by the main frame.
(7) Reading Lamp. The handle contains two AA or R6 batteries and a switch
for operating the integral reading lamp, mounted inside the index bar.
(8) Mirror Adjusting Screws, Brush and Documents. The sextant box
contains a special wrench for the mirror adjusting screws, a cleaning brush,
calibration certificate and an instruction booklet.
(9) Summary. The RN sextant is a well made and versatile instrument, but it
does have a different ‘feel’ from the traditional version. Users who are
experienced and familiar with the traditional version may take a short time to
adjust to some of the operating differences and particularly to the different
characteristics of the full view horizon glass.
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0313. Measurements ‘On’ and ‘Off’ the Arc

The arc of the sextant is graduated in degrees of observed altitude and is arranged
such that when the index glass is parallel to the horizon glass, the index mark on the index
bar should point to the zero on the arc scale. Angles read on the main part of the scale part
are said to be ‘On’ the arc. The graduations are continued over a small arc on the other side
of the zero; this is called the ‘arc of excess’ and angles read on this part are said to be ‘off’
the arc. When establishing the index error of the sextant (see Para 0315), if the micrometer
drum reads ‘off’ the arc, this error must be added to subsequent sextant readings and if ‘on’
the arc the error must be subtracted. The sign of the correction can easily be remembered
by the rhyme:

“When its ‘Off’ its on (+), and when its ‘On’ its off (-)”
0314. Positioning and Marking of the Index Bar and Arc

The index bar can be set to any position on the arc by means of the clamp; this
releases or engages a worm thread in the teeth of a rack that extends along the entire
periphery of the arc. When clamped, the index bar’s motion along the arc can be controlled
in either direction by turning the micrometer Drum which rotates the worm in the rack. With
this arrangement, it is the worm and the rack that govern the accuracy of the setting. One
rotation of the micrometer drum moves the index bar one degree along the arc. When
reading the sextant, the engravings on the arc are read against the Index Bar to the nearest
whole degree, while the micrometer drum provides the intermediate reading for minutesnot
the important Vernier scale operating guidance at Para 0312c sub para (5).
0315. Sextant Errors

Apart from a lack of manual dexterity in using the sextant (which can only be
overcome by practice), the greatest single cause of inaccurate sights is the presence of
unknown errors in the sextant. There are three adjustable errors which must be corrected or
determined by the user and also two non-adjustable errors which if significant will require the
sextant to be returned for workshop repair. The adjustable errors must be adjusted or
established for each sight in the following order:
a. Perpendicularity. This is the perpendicular (90°) alignment of the index glass

to the plane of the arc and thus to the sextant. To check perpendicularity, remove
the telescope and set the index bar to about 60° (roughly the middle of the arc).
Hold the instrument horizontal at arm’s length with the index glass nearest to oneself
and look into the index glass as nearly as possible along the plane of the arc in
order to see the reflected image of the arc at the edge of the index glass mirror, in
line with the actual arc observed directly. The index bar may need to be moved
slightly to allow this to be seen. If the reflected image of the Arc is not absolutely
aligned with the directly observed part of the arc, bring the two in line by adjusting
the small screw in the centre of the index glass frame. This adjustment is critical
and must be carried out before any others.
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b. Side Error. Side error is a variation from the perpendicular alignment of the
horizon glass to the plane of the arc and thus to the sextant. Side error adjustment
cannot be carried out successfully unless perpendicularity of the index glass (see
Para 0315 sub para a above) has already been correctly set. Once the presence of
side error has been established (see below), it can be removed by turning one of the
two adjusting screws on the horizon glass. Side error may be established as shown
below and the screw used to correct it may be remembered by the linkage of the
word ‘side’: side error may be removed by adjusting the screw on the side of
the horizon glass. To check and adjust side error, follow the steps below.

(1) With the chosen telescope fitted, hold the sextant in the vertical plane (ie
as normal) and look at a well-defined distant object such as a medium-bright
star and move the index bar across the zero of the arc.
(2) As the index bar passes the zero of the arc (+/- any index error), the
reflected image should be exactly superimposed over the direct image of the
star. Very bright objects such as Venus or Saturn should be avoided, as it will
be found their very size and extreme brightness make them awkward to use for
this purpose.
(3) If the two images sit level, but to the left and right of each other, side error
is present and adjustment can be made until the images are superimposed.
c. Index Error. Index error is a variation from the parallel alignment of the plane
of the horizon glass to the plane of the index glass when the index bar is set to the
zero position on the arc. If index error is zero, when the sextant is pointed at a well-
defined distant object (eg a medium-bright star) it should show exactly 0° 00.0' on
the arc scale when the direct and reflected images of a distant heavenly body are
coincident. This seldom occurs in practice because the two glasses are rarely
adjusted so well that they are exactly parallel at this point. When this difference
occurs, the zero on the scale is not the true zero of the instrument and a small
correction has to be made (see Para 0313). Index error can be determined by four
methods, and once its presence has been established (see sub-paras below), it can
be removed by turning one of the two adjusting screws on the horizon glass. If the
index error is less than 3.0' of arc it may be left and allowed for mathematically (see
Para 0313). If the index error is larger than 3.0' of arc it should be removed or
reduced by turning the adjustment screw at the bottom of the horizon glass. If the
correct adjustment screw for side error is used (see Para 0315 sub para b above), it
is simple to ensure the other screw is used for index error.
(1) By Observing the Diameter of the Sun ‘On’ and ‘Off’ the Arc. To check
for index error set the sextant to about 0° 30', fit shades and adjust the
micrometer drum to make the edges of the two images of the Sun touch (Fig 3-
8a). Note the ‘on’ the arc reading. Reverse the images (Fig 3-8b) and note the
‘Off’ the arc reading. To obtain the index error, halve the difference in readings
and note the resultant sign from the larger reading. If index error exists either
correct it (see above) or make a note of its amount and whether it is ‘on’ or ‘off’
the arc.
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Fig 3-14a. Index Error ‘On’ the Arc Fig 3-14b. Index Error ‘Off’ the Arc

(2) Difficulties in Observing the Diameter of the Sun ‘On’ and ‘Off’ the
Arc. To check index error by the Sun ‘on’ and ‘off’ the arc method (see above)
is a particularly awkward procedure. For accurate results the adjacent images
have to be sighted exactly under each other (ie at the maximum tangential
reading). The slightest error in this vertical alignment will induce an additional
accidental error as shown by Fig 3-8c and Fig 3-8d.
Fig 3-14c. Correct Alignment of Images Fig 3-14d. Incorrect Alignment of Images
Note. The Sun’s semi-diameter (given for every third day in the Nautical
Almanac) will provide a check on accuracy - the sextant readings ‘on’ and
‘off’ the arc added together should equal four times the semi-diameter of the
Sun.
WARNING
NEVER OBSERVE THE SUN WITHOUT FIRST FITTING THE SEXTANT

INDEX GLASS SHADE AND (IF REQUIRED) THE HORIZON GLASS
SHADE; OTHERWISE SERIOUS INJURY WILL RESULT.
(3) By Observing a Star. The best method of checking for index error is to
set the index bar a few minutes of arc to one side of zero, then bring the two
images of a star together so that they are coincident. If any error exists either
correct it (see above) or make a note of its amount and whether it is ‘on’ or ‘off’
the arc.
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(4) By observing the Horizon (or other distant terrestrial object). This is a
variation on the ‘star’ method but is the least reliable method of checking for
index error. The reflected visible horizon (or distant object) is brought in line
with the directly observed visible horizon (or distant object). The accuracy of
this method depends on having a clearly defined, sharp visible horizon or a
sharply defined distant object; it is much preferable to observe a heavenly body
if one is available. Having aligned visible horizons/objects as carefully as
possible, if any error exists either correct it (see above) and or make a note its
amount and whether it is ‘On’ or ‘off’ the arc.

d. Collimation Error. Collimation error is a variation from the parallel alignment of
the axis of the telescope to the plane of the instrument. Collimation error
CANNOT be checked by the user in the current RN sextant.
e. Backlash in a Micrometer Sextant. The micrometer drum might wear over

time and develop an error due to ‘backlash’. The amount of backlash may be
determined by setting the index bar a few minutes of arc to one side of zero (as for
index error checks on a star), rotating the micrometer drum clockwise to bring a star
into coincidence and then repeating this, but turning anti-clockwise. The difference
in the two readings will reveal any backlash. It should be negligible in operational
sextants in ships but may exist in those used regularly by students for training. If
there is sufficient backlash to justify making a correction, either make two
observations by bringing the drum from opposite directions and mean the result, or
habitually turn the micrometer drum from one direction and apply any backlash
established as a ± correction to the sextant altitude.
0316. Sextant Calibration

Marine Sextants are calibrated when first supplied and on completion of repair or
refurbishment, either by a MoD Agency or a contractor. A calibration certificate (or
certificates), located in the sextant box, lists any small residual errors due to prismatic errors
in the mirrors and shade glasses, and aberrations in the lenses of the telescopes. These
corrections do not normally exceed a maximum if 0.8' of arc on any part of the arc, and may
be applied to sextant readings for absolute accuracy. However, in most Royal Navy
sextants these errors are so small as to be almost negligible. Once calibrated, these
characteristics should not change if the sextant is stored. When in regular use for
astronomical observations, the sextant’s general performance (perpendicularity, side error,
index error) can be checked and corrected by the navigator. Sextants should therefore only
be returned for re-calibration or repair if:
• They have been badly knocked, dropped, otherwise physically damaged or a

significant collimation error is suspected.
• The mirrors lose their reflective coating.
• There is a strong reason to suspect their accuracy (eg worm and racks errors in
the micrometer drum which change with wear and other mechanical defects).
• Parts of the equipment are missing.
• The calibration certificate is in excess of ten years old.
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0317. Care of a Sextant

Handle a sextant with care as any slight blow is liable to upset the adjustments.
Always lift the RN sextant by the handle, and, once lifted, hold it by the handle and never by
the arc or index bar. Micrometer sextants need care to avoid damage to the worm and rack;
press the clamp in fully to disengage the worm and never grind the worm on the rack. Keep
the rack free of dirt and corrosion by applying a little light oil from time to time, brushing it off
gently afterwards to ensure that it is evenly and thinly distributed. It is recommended that a
safety neck lanyard should be secured to the central handle of the instrument and the
lanyard warn around the neck; this will enable altitude information to be written down without
placing it on the deck. Bear in mind the following points when using a sextant:

• Telescope. When tightening the knurled knob on the sextant, take care not to
burr the threads.
• Lanyard. Always use a safety lanyard around the wrist or neck, in case the
Sextant slips from one’s grasp.
• Care. Never leave the sextant lying unattended out of its box. It is a valuable
and fragile instrument.
• Exposure to Sun. Never leave the sextant exposed to the Sun unnecessarily,
as the expansion caused by the Sun’s rays will alter the sextant’s errors in an
unpredictable manner.
• Preservation. If the sextant is to be stowed away for a long period, put a thin
coat of vaseline on the arc to preserve it.
• Stowage. When putting the sextant away, ensure it is completely dry, and
ensure it is stowed correctly in accordance with Para 0312b sub para 6. Keep
the sextant box in a safe place and, if possible, do not allow a sextant to travel
in the care of anyone except its custodian.
0318. Using a Sextant
a. Errors. Always test the sextant for perpendicularity, side error and index error
before taking sights. The first two errors should always be removed. If the index
error is under 3 , it may be left in and allowed for arithmetically. When possible,
take the index error after sights as well as before them.
b. Batteries. Batteries for the reading lamp should be fully charged and checked.
c. Glasses. After adjusting the index glass or horizon glass, see that they are firm
in their mountings and that no adjusting screws are loose. It is a good plan to flick
the glasses with a finger nail and then note if this produces any change in the errors.
d. Telescope. For convenience, mark the position of the infinity of the telescope
eyepieces for the personal focus of the observer. Take observations in the centre of
the field of view so that light rays from the object are parallel to the plane of the
instrument.
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e. Shades. Dazzle from the Sun can cause permanent damage to the eyes and
must be avoided (see WARNING).
WARNING
NEVER OBSERVE THE SUN WITHOUT FIRST FITTING THE SEXTANT

INDEX GLASS SHADE AND (IF REQUIRED) THE HORIZON GLASS
SHADE; OTHERWISE SERIOUS INJURY WILL RESULT.
f. Time of Sights. In daylight it is sometimes possible to obtain observations of

the Sun, Moon and Venus. Sights should be taken between civil and nautical
twilight when the horizon and heavenly bodies are visible. The visible horizon is
visible at twilight earlier in the east in the morning and later in the west at evening.
However, the best twilight observations are usually taken late at morning and early
at evening, when the visible horizon is best.
g. Visibility. Take observations from the highest convenient position in clear

weather as this will give the best view from the ship. Take observations from the
lowest convenient position in fog, haze or mist as the visible horizon will be closest.
h. Records. Record the name of the heavenly body (if known), the deck watch
time (DWT), sextant altitude and the approximate bearing of the body for each
observation.
i. Temperature Errors. If a cold sextant is taken from an air conditioned ship into
hot tropical temperatures all the previously zeroed errors will change rapidly as the
sextant components start to expand. In hot climates, either take sun-sights very
quickly indeed, or allow the sextant to warm up thoroughly and zero it when ‘hot’.
During starsights in hot damp climates, in addition to expansion errors, bringing a
‘cold’ sextant out into a balmy but very damp tropical morning can cause
condensation to form instantly on the optical surfaces of the sextant. In polar
conditions condensation will also form on a warm sextant and then freeze, making
the sextant unusable. To prevent this, place the sextant in an airtight plastic bag
while it cools (see Para 0529 for details).
j. Choice of Heavenly Bodies. When choosing stars, note the weather and the
direction in which the horizon is likely to be clearest. After obtaining a list and plot of
bearings and elevations of stars and planets from NAVPAC or the Star Identifier,
choose three or more stars and planets to give the best cuts. The best combination
is four stars at 90° apart in azimuth (grouped in pairs, in opposition) because any
abnormal refraction error will be eliminated by using opposite horizons. Stars should
be selected between 30° and 60° and where possible with approximately the same
altitude. At least four additional stars (and preferably all the available NAVPAC
Nautical Almanac selected stars) should also be selected as standbys, in case the
sky is partly clouded and the preferred stars are obscured.
k. Spray. When there is spray or after using the sextant in damp or rough
weather, use a chamois leather or an absorbent, clean lint free cloth to wipe away all
moisture, particularly on the arc and glasses.
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l. Swinging the Sextant. When taking the altitude of any heavenly body, the
sextant should be swung in an arc, in a plane perpendicular to the line of sight to the
heavenly body. When carried out correctly, this will cause the heavenly body to
appear to swing in an arc in the field of view. The micrometer drum should be
rotated at the same time until the heavenly body touches the horizon at bottom-
dead-centre of the arc. Taking the altitude at the instant of contact at either of these
dead-centre positions will ensure that the correct vertical angle has been taken. If
this ‘swinging’ procedure is not carried out correctly, significant errors will result
which may negate the entire sight.

m. Sextant - Normal Method. Set the elevation of the chosen star on the sextant
(for Polaris see Para 0615). Look through the telescope on the approximate bearing
and sweep the horizon at this point. The star will often be found before it is visible to
the naked eye while the horizon is still good (ie. take the brightest star early at
evening stars); this is the best way of finding dim stars. Familiarity with this method
is invaluable if there is broken cloud when a star may be visible for only a few
seconds.
n. Sextant - Inverting Method. In broken cloud conditions it can also be helpful

to invert the sextant and point the clear part of the horizon Glass at the star, and
bring the horizon to the star instead of the normal method (see above). Once an
approximate angle has been set on the sextant with the star in the field of view, the
sextant can be turned the right way up and normal sighting procedures resumed.
o. Rising and Falling onto the Horizon. An alternative method of sighting a

heavenly body is to bring it down to the horizon and note whether it is rising or
setting - if the body is west of the meridian it will be setting, if east of the meridian it
will be rising. If setting, move the micrometer drum until the object is slightly above
the horizon: then leaving the sextant set, swing it gently from sided to side until the
star/limb just touches the horizon. If rising, move the micrometer drum until the
object is slightly below the horizon, and carry out the same procedure.
p. Sets of Observations. When possible, take observations of a heavenly body

in sets of three or five at equal time or altitude intervals, which should provide evenly
changing results. This will provide a confidence check on the accuracy of the sights,
particularly if the horizon is poor. An uneven pattern of results will indicate whether
one or more of the sights are inaccurate (‘rogue’) sights.
q. Unknown Body. Having taken a set of observations of a star or planet, the

identity is uncertain, take a bearing of it.
r. Rolling. When the ship is rolling heavily, errors due to rapidly changing Dip
(see Chapter 8) may be reduced and more accurate observations obtained by
observing from a position close to the centre line of the ship.
s. Sights by Moonlight. On a clear night within about two days of full moon, star
sights can be taken by experienced Sextant users to a reasonable degree of
accuracy with a horizon illuminated by moonlight. This should only be attempted
when the Moon is high. The horizon on the bearing of the moon appears to dip and
is therefore suspect. The Moon itself and stars near it should not be used.
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SECTION 4 - REDUCING SIGHTS (PROCESSING SEXTANT READINGS)
0319. Assumptions and Functions of Sight Reduction Function
a. Assumptions. In procedures for reducing sights in this Section, the following

assumptions have been made:
• The DR/EP position for the fix time is known (see Para 0303).
• The deck watch error (DWE) is known.
• The sextant errors have been checked, adjusted where necessary and any

residual index error recorded (see Para 0315).
• The identity of the heavenly bodies observed is known, and the deck
watch time (DWT), the sextant altitude and the approximate bearing of the
body have been recorded for each observation.
• The other organisational and material preparations at Para 0310 and the
precautions when using the Sextant at Para 0318 have been observed.
• NavPac is available on a suitable PC and a printer is available.
• For morning and evening Stars, NavPac has been used to find the time of
twilight, for the prediction of the approximate bearings and altitudes of the
heavenly bodies, and that the data from these predictions has been
transferred across from other parts of the program.
• If NavPac is used for sun or star sights without having transferred data
across from other parts of the program, the body observed will be selected
manually.
b. Basic Operation of Sight Reduction. In earlier versions of NavPac, the sight

reduction function (Sights) was a complicated arrangement of sub-programmes and
sub-functions, which the operator needed to understand to get the maximum benefit
from the software. In NavPac v4, the sight reduction function, accessed via the
sextant icon, is much easier to understand and it follows the same logical flow as the
other functions in NavPac. In essence, the user enters the relevant data in the
inputs window on the left-hand side of the screen, which allows the ship’s course to
be entered, sextant errors, observations and so on to be entered.
0320. NavPac 4 Preferences

The NavPac preferences page, accessed via the spanner icon at the top of the
screen, allows the user to configure certain aspects of NavPac, either to reflect their
personal preferences or to ensure consistency and save time in certain aspects. For
example, the sextant details and atmospheric conditions (temperature and pressure) may be
entered in preferences and will then be automatically applied to all observations. Specific
configurations may be saved or loaded using the buttons at the top of the window.
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0321. NavPac 4 Sight Reduction
a. Accessing Sight Reduction. Sight reduction is accessed via the sextant icon
at the top of the screen, either from the home page or directly from another function.
Data can be transferred from other NavPac functions, such as the stars selected
from Find It.
b. Inputs. The inputs for the sight reduction are shown on the left-hand side of the
screen, in the inputs window. All information retaining to the sight can be entered on
the same screen, making it easy to change data if mistakes are made.

(1) Log. The log is a chronological list of all events relating to the fix. It
includes the base position (the DR/EP position at the time of the fix), the leg(s)
being steered, any and all observations, and of course the time of the fix.
(2) Options. In options, the selection box allows the user to choose whether
or not to model the ship’s course as a rhumb line on the WGS 84 spheroid; if
this option is unchecked, then NavPac models the ship’s motion as a rhumb line
on a true sphere. Additionally, in options it is possible to specify the required
confidence level; this does not affect the intercepts of the position of the fix but
does alter the confidence ellipse and associated parameters. RN users should
leave the WGS 84 box checked and confidence at 95% unless specified
otherwise by Command.
(3) Time of Fix. This is the time of the fix, in UT. Enter it here if not
transferred from elsewhere in NavPac.
(4) Base Position. The base position is the DR or EP position at a certain

point in time; it does not need to be the time of the fix but in practical usage it
normally will be.
(5) Add Leg. It is necessary to add at least leg, but as many as are needed
may be added. Ensure that times are entered in UT; no allowance is made for
advance and transfer and loss of speed in turns, but given the errors involved in
practical sights at sea, the loss of precision is trivial.
(6) Add Observation. In the add observation sub-window, the user enters
the details of the observation. Clicking on the down arrow next to ‘selection plot
at time of observation’ will reveal a simplified sky plot, similar to that in Find It,
which can be used to help identify a body if there is any need. The body can be
selected by clicking on its icon in the sky plot or by clicking its name on the list
below. In any case, the time (in UT) of the observation must be entered, and
the altitude, ensuring that the sextant radio button is selected (if ‘observed’ is
selected, NavPac will not make any corrections for dip, refraction and parallax
as it will be assumed they have already been made). Once the data for an
observation has been entered, click on ‘add observation’ to add it to the log.
.
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Notes:
1. The space bar acts as a separator for each element of the data fields,
irrespective of the punctuation displayed. After inputting the changes for
each complete data field, click the ‘Return’/‘Enter’ key. The punctuation will
then appear in the data field and helps check what has been entered at each
stage.
2. Care should be taken to ensure dates are input in the format
YYYY/MM/DD.

Fig 3-15. NAVPAC 4 Sight Reduction Page
0322. NavPac 4 Sun and Moon Sights

The procedure for Sun and Moon sights is as for stars/planets (see Para 0321),
except:
• Upper and Lower Limbs. In the add observation window, NavPac defaults to
selecting the lower limb. Care must be taken to ensure that the upper limb is
selected if it was the upper limb which was observed.
• Automatic Plotting. With single/running Sun-sights, NavPac will calculate an

observed position and plot the sight automatically after the observation is added
and the check box to use the sight ticked.
• Running Sun Sights - Fix Time. With astro running fixes (eg Sun-run-Sun, or
Sun-run-mer pass), update the time of fix for the later sight in the time of fix
window. If this is not done, NavPac will run-back the second sight to the
initial (first sight) time (as set initially in the time of fix window).
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0323. NavPac 4 Sight Reduction Results

Once the observations have been entered, the log in the top left corner will be
populated. The line for each observation will indicate the intercept for that navigational body,
which will give an early indication of the success or not of the sight; if intercepts are very
large or unreasonable, then the sight data should be checked for gross errors (incorrect star
selected, wrong altitude entered, wrong time etc). Once the user is satisfied that the data is
valid, then the tick box next to each observation should be selected to use that observation
for the sight. The results will then be displayed in the ‘results’ page in the centre of the
screen.

a. Results – Plot. The plot window displays a graphical representation of the fix,
including the leg(s), DR position, position lines and confidence ellipse, as shown in
Fig 3-X below. Also displayed, where relevant, is an approximate outline of the
coast although this is for situational awareness only and must not be used for
navigation. The plot can be switched between a Mercator and an XY projection as
required.
Fig 3-16. NavPac Sight Plot
Data is displayed on the plot in accordance with the following conventions:
• Initial DR/EP. The initial DR/EP position is marked by a large red cross.
The leg is shown in green.
• Transferred Position Lines. Position lines are shown as solid lines if

they have been run (transferred) on/back less than 15 minutes, and as
dashed lines if they have been run (transferred) on/back more than 15
minutes.
• Stars. Star Position Lines are shown in blue.
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• Sun and Moon. Sun and Moon position lines are shown in black.
• Venus. Venus position lines are shown in magenta.
• Mars. Mars position lines are shown in red.
• Jupiter. Jupiter position lines are shown in cyan.
• Saturn. Saturn position lines are shown in green.

• Confidence Ellipse. The confidence ellipse (equivalent to an error ellipse
- see Para 0902) is shown in magenta. It may be necessary to zoom in on
the plot in order to see the confidence ellipse; Fig 3-X below is a zoomed
in version of Fig 3-X showing the confidence ellipse. Note that a real world
fix is likely to result in a larger confidence ellipse!
Fig 3-17. NavPac Fix Confidence Ellipse
b. Results – Fix. The ‘fix’ window immediately below the fix plot displays the
‘headline’ fix position, highlighted for ease of reading. In Fig 3-X above, the fix result
is 03 25.4S, 017 31.2W.
Note. The fix results displayed in the ‘fix’ window does not contain any
quality control information about the fix, and thus should not be used on its
own without checking the fix plot in the window above, and the detailed
results in the window below. NavPac will still plot a fix even if some of the
information is significantly in error, but of course the resulting fix will itself be
in error.
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c. Results – Details. The fix details are displayed in the bottom window in the
centre, beneath the fix plot and fix results. It includes the details of all the
calculations for each navigational body, as well as the intercepts and the fix data.
This can be printed (to a file if necessary) if it is required to retain a copy of the data.
Fig 3-18. NavPac Fix Detailed Results

d. Update Position with Fix. If the fix is acceptable, then clicking ‘update position
with fix’ will adopt the fix position, and replace the DR/EP position. The fix position
will be used in the reduction of the sights, and the intercepts will thus change from
being relative to the DR/EP to being relative to the (calculated) observed position.
Fix 3-19. NavPac Sight Reduction Actions Window
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Note. If it is desired to record the original intercepts from the DR/EP (eg for
use with BR 45 Volume 5 worked examples and answers), take a print of the
various pages as required, before clicking on the ‘update position with fix’
button.
0324. NavPac 4 Printing, Loading and Saving Facilities
a. Printing. From any function within NavPac, the print icon is available at the top
right of the screen. This will bring up a standard Windows print dialogue box, from

which the user can print to a printer if connected and available, or a file if not. The
following points should be noted.
(1) Rise and Set Results. In Rise and Set, the page to be printed will be
determined by the tab selected in the results window. In other words, if the user
wishes to print both rise and set times and azimuths, both tabs must be printed.
(2) Find It Results. In Find It, selecting print will print the sky plot and the list
of available objects as displayed on screen (i.e. if the sweep view is selected in
the sky plot, then the sweep view will be printed). If printing to a file, the sky plot
and objects list will be generated as two separate files, so care must be taken to
give each an appropriate file name.
(3) Sight Reduction Results. When printing from Sight Reduction, the fix
plot and details windows will be printed. Note that, unlike in previous versions
of NavPac, it is not possible to print the log details, but all relevant information is
contained within the details pages. When printing to a file, the fix plot and
details will be generated as separate files, which must be given different file
names; care should be taken to ensure that the file names are appropriate and
easily understood.
(4) Almanac Data. When consulting the almanac, the data displayed in the
results window can be printed as displayed on screen. For the Sun, the semi-
diameter is given, whilst for Venus, Mars and the Moon the equatorial horizontal
parallax (HP) is given.
b. Saving. In Sight Reduction (and preferences) it is possible to save data to a file

for later recall. This is useful for training/education purposes, and also in cases
where the machine running NavPac is not dedicated to the task and so NavPac may
have to be used at different points of the day. Although data may be transferred
from the various functions within NavPac, unlike in previous versions it may only be
saved (and loaded) from within Sight Reduction. User preferences may be
saved/loaded from the preferences screen; note that the default file path for NavPac
4 is Documents\NavPac Saved Files but this can be changed in preferences.
c. Loading. In Sight Reduction, the user has the option of loading all data
(“everything”), or one or more individual aspects of the sight reduction, namely the
fix, position, legs, or sights themselves.
d. Loading Files from Previous Versions of NavPac. NavPac 4 is backwards

compatible with NavPac 3 files (*.dat) and so legacy data will remain readable;
select ‘NavPac 3’ files in the file type box of the ‘load’ dialogue.
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0325. The Nautical Almanac - Meridian Passage, Polaris and Altitude Corrections
a. Time for Observing the Sun’s Meridian Passage (Mer Pass). By taking the
altitude of the Sun at meridian passage (mer pass), a very simple manual calculation
will provide the observer’s latitude. The mer pass observation should be at the
moment when the Sun is in the observer’s meridian (ie. bearing 180° or 000°) as
calculated at Para 0308. For a stationary observer, mer pass will also be the Sun’s
highest altitude.
b. Mer Pass - Potential Errors of Timing. Although mer pass equates to the

Sun’s highest observed altitude for a stationary observer, if the observer is moving
with any appreciable north-south component, taking the altitude of the Sun at its
highest altitude rather than at the calculated time will induce an error (see Chapter
6). This error may of up to 5' of altitude (which equates to 5' of latitude) for a fast
moving ship on a north-south course. Thus it is important that the observation be
made at the time, to the nearest minute, as calculated at Para 0308, rather than at
the Sun’s highest altitude.
c. Mer Pass - Requirement for Deck Watch Time. If NAVPAC is used to

calculate the intercept and plot the sight as a normal Sun-sight, the precise deck
watch time (DWT) will also be needed. If a manual latitude calculation (of which
there are three variants) is made, provided the observation has been taken at the
time (to the nearest minute) calculated at Para 0308, the precise DWT is not
needed.
d. Correcting Sextant Altitude to Observed (True) Altitude. Before applying it

to the mer pass formulae below, or the Polaris formula at Para 0325 sub para j, the
sextant altitude must be corrected for index error (IE), height of eye (dip) and
‘altitude’ (semi-Diameter and parallax (as appropriate), plus refraction) to obtain the
observed (true) altitude:
• Index Error. Index error (IE) is added or subtracted as at Para 0313.
• Dip. The dip correction (obtained from a table in the inside front cover of
the Nautical Almanac at Page A2) is always subtracted. The resultant
(Sext. Alt ± IE - Dip) is known as the ‘apparent altitude’.
• Altitude. Altitude correction tables for the Sun, stars and planets are in
the front of the Nautical Almanac at pages A2/A3, while those for the Moon
are at the back on pages xxxiv/xxxv. The table for the stars and planets
correct for refraction only; those for the Sun (UL/LL) correct for refraction
and semi-diameter and thus depend on the time of year. Moon (UL /LL)
corrections are also dependant on HP (see note below). All altitude
correction tables must be entered with argument ‘apparent altitude’.
Note. The effect of parallax is included in The Nautical Almanac tables. For
the Moon, the HP (horizontal parallax) for the nearest hour is required. A
small ‘additional correction’ is required for Venus and Mars, which is listed in
the middle of page A2 of The Nautical Almanac. See Para 04281 ‘Parallax
and Horizontal Parallax’ for a more detailed explanation.
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• Temperature and Pressure. Additional (refraction) corrections tables for

unusual temperature and pressure conditions are found in the front of the
Nautical Almanac (Page A4) but these are very small and are only
significant at very low apparent altitudes.
e. Example Correction of Sextant Altitude to Observed (True) Altitude. An

example of this calculation for an observation in extreme conditions is given below.
Example. What is the observed (true) altitude for an observation with a sextant altitude of
10° 00.0' for the Sun (LL) in March, a temperature of -10°C, an atmospheric pressure of

1010 millibars, a height of eye of 6.2 metres and index error correction of -1.6'?
Example. Correcting Sextant Altitude to Observed (True) Altitude
Sextant Altitude 10° 00.0'

IE - 01.6'
Dip (-) - 04.4'
Sub-Total - 0° 06.0' - 06.0'
Apparent Altitude 09° 54.0'
Altitude Corrections. +0° 10.9'
Sub-Total 10° 04.9'
Temperature/Pressure - 0° 00.5'
Observed (True) Altitude 10° 04.4'
f. Mer Pass - Latitude Greater than Declination with ‘Same’ Names (N or S).
If observing mer pass when the observer’s latitude and the Sun’s (or other heavenly
body’s) declination have the SAME (ie. N or S) names and the latitude is greater
than the declination (Lat > Dec), then the observer’s latitude may be calculated by
applying the following formula (the proof of which is at Para 0612):
Latitude = Declination - Observed (True) Altitude + 90°
g. Mer Pass - Declination Greater than Latitude with ‘Same’ Names (N or S).
If observing mer pass when the observer’s latitude and the Sun’s (or other heavenly
body’s) declination have the SAME (ie. N or S) names and the declination is greater
than the latitude (Dec > Lat, ie. the opposite of Para 0325 sub para f above), then
the observer’s Latitude may be calculated by applying the following formula (the
proof of which is at Para 0612):
Latitude = Declination + Observed (True) Altitude - 90°
h. Mer Pass - Latitude and Declination with ‘Opposite’ Names (N or S). If

observing mer pass when the observer’s latitude and the Sun’s (or other heavenly
body’s) declination have CONTRARY (ie. N or S) names, then the observer’s
latitude may be calculated by applying the following formula (proof of which is at
Para 0612):
Latitude = 90° - Observed (True) Altitude - Declination

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i. Mer Pass - ‘Lower’ Transit. There is a further mer pass case in which the
heavenly body makes a lower meridian passage, some 12 hours before or after the
upper meridian passage for which the formulas are given at Para 0325 sub para f to
Para 0325 sub para h above. In the case of the Sun, this lower meridian passage
would take place at around midnight; the Sun is not visible at that time except in very
high latitudes at certain times of the year. However, certain stars do make lower
meridian passages in moderate latitudes at times when they are visible and if
observed, it is possible to derive the observer’s latitude by a simple calculation. In
practice, lower meridian passage sights are not normally observed as such and so
the appropriate formula is not provided here. However, the formula and a full

explanation of the calculation are at Para 0612 sub para e.
j. Polaris. NavPac can be used in the conventional way with an observation of

Polaris (the Pole Star) to produce the observer’s latitude and the direction of true
North. However, with a very simple manual calculation from Nautical Almanac data,
observation of Polaris (the Pole Star) will provide the same information even more
simply. The ability to obtain the direction of true North at any time of the night
(without needing a horizon) is particularly useful. The Polaris Tables are found in
the Nautical Almanac after the Daily Tabulated Pages and their Explanation Section,
but before the Sight Reduction Tables; they are usually on or around page 274/275.
The procedure is as follows:
• Initial. Correct sextant altitude to observed (true) altitude (see Para

0348d).
• a0. The upper Polaris Table is entered with LHA Aries (γ) (see Para
0106d) to determine the column of the Table to use; each column refers to
a range of 10° of LHA Aries (γ). With mental interpolation, correction a0 is
taken from the upper Polaris Table with LHA Aries (γ) as the argument in
units of degrees.
• a1 and a2. Corrections a1 and a2 are taken, without interpolation, from the
second and third Tables with arguments latitude and month respectively.
• Signs. Corrections a0, a1 and a2 are always +ve and are applied in the
formula:
Latitude = Observed (True) Altitude -1° + a0 + a1 + a1
• Final. The final table gives the azimuth (true bearing) of Polaris.
Example - Polaris. On 9 December 1997 in DR position 62° 17.0'N 030° 47.0'W Polaris
was observed. The observed (true) altitude (sextant altitude, corrected for Index Error,
Height of Eye and Refraction) was 62° 19.6' and the LHA of Aries at the moment of
observation was 314° 43.0'. What was the observed Latitude and true bearing of Polaris?
Example. Summary of Polaris Calculations

From Polaris Tables a0 = + 00° 53.4'
a1 = + 00° 00.8'
a2 = + 00° 00.9'
Sub-Total 63° 14.7'
Constant - 1° 00.0'
Latitude 62° 14.7' Bearing (by inspection) = 001½°
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0326. NavPac 4 Almanac Facilities and Great Circle/Rhumb Line Calculations
a. NavPac 4 Almanac. A necessary adjunct to the navigational capabilities of

NavPac is that it comes with basic almanac data for all navigational bodies, which
can be displayed on screen and printed if needs be. Unlike in the available bodies
windows elsewhere in NavPac, the almanac is tabulated in the order Sun, planets,
Moon and stars (in alphabetical order) and cannot be further sorted, although the
user has the choice of which bodies to include. For each body, the magnitude
(Mag.), GHA and Dec are tabulated, along with the semi-diameter (for the Sun) and
horizontal parallax (HP) for Venus, Mars and the Moon. The almanac also tabulated

an additional imaginary body called Aries, for which only the GHA is tabulated.
b. Almanac Inputs and Outputs. To obtain almanac data, input date and time (in
UT) into the appropriate dialogue boxes and click on select all or the navigational
bodies as required from the list. The required data is shown in the central results
window. If selecting all navigational bodies, note that Aries does not appear in
alphabetical order, but at the very end of the output list, after the Sun, Planets and
Moon. The almanac output can be printed if required.
Fig 3-20. NAVPAC 4 Almanac
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c. Great Circle and Rhumb Line Calculations. NavPac 4 provides

comprehensive great circle and rhumb line calculation facilities via the Route
Planner function, accessed via the chart icon at the top of the screen. This allows
the user to solve various speed, time and distance calculations, using either great
circles or rhumb lines, and displaying the results in graphical and tabular formats,
with coast outlines presented for situational awareness. The tabular format ‘route
report’ breaks down the passage by the number of legs, with times, course and
speeds, and positions of waypoints. The user can specify whether to use a rhumb
line or a great circle, and the distance between waypoints (choosing between linear
distances or waypoints on the meridians). The problems which can be solved are

detailed in Table 3-1 below.
Table 3-1. NavPac 4 Route Planner Options
PROBLEM INPUTS REQUIRED OUTPUTS

Course, total distance and Starting position and time (UT) Initial course
time using end position and End position Total distance
speed Speed (knots) Arrival time (UT)
Course, total distance and Starting position and time (UT) Speed (knots)
speed using end position and End position and time (UT) Initial course
time Total distance
End position and time using Starting position and time (UT) End position
course, total distance and Speed (knots) Arrival time (UT)
speed Initial course
Total distance
End position and speed using Starting position and time (UT) End position
course, total distance and time Initial course Speed required
Total distance
Arrival time
End position and total distance Starting position and time (UT) End position
using course, speed and time Speed Total distance
Initial course
Time
When the appropriate radio button for the calculation is checked, the appropriate
fields will be automatically made available for data entry, and the other fields made
unselectable.
Some of these functions are replicated in WECDIS, which may well be the NO’s first
port of call, but others are not and some users will find that the NavPac interface is
more intuitive and forgiving than the journey planner options in WECDIS.
Regardless, the NavPac calculations, although there is a representative coastline
displayed, are for guidance only and does not incorporate any form of route or safety
checking at all; the results must always be checked in WECDIS in the usual
manner (see BRd 45(8)).
WARNING
COASTAL OUTLINES DISPLAYED IN ROUTE PLANNER AND SIGHT

REDUCTION IN NAVPAC ARE FOR GUIDANCE ONLY AND MUST NOT
BE USED FOR NAVIGATION. ROUTES OR COURSES CALCULATED IN
NAVPAC MUST BE CHECKED IN WECDIS BEFORE USED FOR
NAVIGATION.
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Fig 3-21. NavPac Route Planner
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PRACTICAL SIGHTS: PLOTTING SIGHTS
SECTION 5 - PLOTTING SIGHTS
0327. NavPac 4: Plotting of Astronomical Position Lines
a. General. When using NavPac to reduce sights, the software automatically

carries out the calculations and plots the sight, so in ordinary use there will be no
requirement to carry out manual plotting, except for training purposes. Provided that
the appropriate procedures have been carried out, and the data entered correctly,
NavPac will display the fix on demand. Especially when conducting Sun-run-Sun

calculation or a full day’s run, it is important to be meticulous in entering the data
and updating each field correctly, as serious errors may result.
b. Transferred Position Lines. Position lines are shown as solid black lines if
they have been run (transferred) on/back less than 15 minutes, and as dashed
black lines if they have been run (transferred) on/back more than 15 minutes.
c. Saving of Data. If conducting a ‘day’s Run’ in NavPac it is valuable to save

each element as a file, which can be reloaded and updated for the next calculation.
d. NavPac Recording and Plotting Form. A convenient ‘NavPac Recording and

Plotting Form’ is at Fig 3-21 and may be reproduced locally, without further authority.
See Para 0328 sub para e for guidance on its use. The use of the form is entirely
optional but it does provide a place to make the important manual
DWT/DWE/UT (GMT) calculation prior to inputting UT (GMT) to NavPac for
each sight (see Para 0321).
0328. Manual Plotting of Astronomical Position Lines
a. Concept. An astronomical position line is actually a small element of the

circumference of a small circle (see Para 0110) centred on the geographic position
(see Para 0109) of the star with a radius equivalent to ‘90° - altitude’, converted into
nautical miles. This radius is usually between 1200nm (altitude 70°) and 4200nm
(Altitude 20°) in length, and is impossible to plot on any chart of a reasonable scale.
However, if the calculated (tabulated) altitude for the DR position is subtracted from
the observed (true) altitude and the result (converted into nautical miles and known
as the ‘intercept’) is plotted from the DR/EP either ‘To’ or ‘From’ the bearing of the
star, then plotting at a reasonable scale on a normal chart is possible. Given the
large radius of the small circle, it is accepted that for short distances the
astronomical position line may be considered to be a straight line.
b. Runs. Sights for a fix cannot all be taken at the same instant; typically, star
sights may take place over a 10 or 15 minute period. To plot an accurate fix, the
DR/EP for each sight must be ‘run-on’ or ‘run-back’ (transferred) along the ship’s
course and speed (allowing for any tidal stream or current), to a common time. In
the case of Sun-run-Sun sights or other similar running fixes, the earlier sight is
normally ‘run-on’ (transferred) to the time of the latter. Astronomical position lines
are displayed on paper charts with a single open arrowhead at each end and
transferred astronomical position lines with a double open arrowhead at each end.
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c. Procedure. The following procedure is used to plot astronomical position lines

manually from NavPac data:
• Time. Select the ‘fix time’ required (usually the nearest convenient quarter
hour).
• DR Position. NavPac automatically produces a DR position for each

sight, which is already ‘run-on’ or ‘run-back’ along the ship’s track (course

and speed) as set in the leg page (Fig 3-12), to the time set in the log
• Plotting Sheet. Select a suitable Mercator plotting sheet or draw up a

D6018 (‘Plotting Sheet for Astro Fixing’) (see Para 0526).
• Plot. Plot each astronomical position line from the NavPac

latitude/longitude which is set in the base position page (Fig 3-11) as a
straight line at right angles to the heavenly body’s azimuth (bearing), at an
‘intercept’ distance, either ‘To’ or ‘From’ from the direction of the heavenly
body’s azimuth (bearing).
Note. NavPac includes the ‘run’ in the DR position from which each sight is
plotted; it is important NOT to apply the ‘run’ manually when plotting, as this
will induce an error rather than correct it.
• ‘To’ or ‘From’ - NAVPAC. To establish whether to plot the intercept ‘To’

or ‘From’ from the direction of the heavenly body’s azimuth (true bearing),
check the NavPav printout for the sign of the ‘intercept’:
NAVPAC displays ‘To’ intercepts as +ve and ‘From’ intercepts as -ve.
• ‘To’ or ‘From’ - Manually. Another method of establishing whether to plot

the intercept ‘To’ or ‘From’ is to inspect the two altitudes (calculated
(tabulated) altitude and observed (true) altitude) on the NavPac printout,
using the rule:
‘TABULATED (Calculated) TINIER TOWARDS’
d. Potential Errors when Plotting Intercepts from NavPac. If it is intended to

plot sights manually (eg if presenting a ‘Day’s Run’ or when using BRd 45 Volume 5
worked examples and answers), it is essential to take a print (or record the details
manually) from the results windows before adopting the fix.
e. NavPac Recording and Plotting Form. A convenient ‘NavPac Recording and

Plotting Form’ is at Fig 3-22 below and may be reproduced locally, without further
authority. This form is intended for manual completion and may be used instead of,
or in addition to, the NavPac printouts and plot. The form itself contains
comprehensive instructions for the plotting procedure required. The use of the
form is entirely optional. See Para 0327 sub para d concerning calculation of UT
from DWT and DWE.
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Fig 3-22. NavPac Recording and Plotting Form

May be reproduced locally
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ANNEX 3A
OBSERVING ASTRO SIGHTS USING AN ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

(‘SYRUP’ METHOD)
1. Summary
In certain circumstances, the horizon may not be visible, and thus traditional methods of
taking observations will not be possible. When observing from a static position (i.e. not a
rolling and pitching ship), it is possible to use the artificial horizon or ‘syrup’ method to take
Sun sights. This method is appropriate for use on a ship alongside, or even on land itself

where topography and buildings prevent the true horizon from being visible; artificial horizon
methods were used extensively during polar and desert expeditions, including in the
Western Desert in World War II. The principal limitation of the method is that, other than
requiring a fixed observation position, it will only work for Sun sights and possible Moon
sights; stars and planets are almost never bright enough to be of any practical use.
2. Altitude Limitation
The sextant altitude observed with the method is twice the actual altitude of the Sun or
Moon (see Fig 3A-3), which therefore places upper limits on the observable altitude which
are defined by the arc of the sextant in use; with the standard issue Royal Navy sextant (arc
graduated to 125º) is limited to 62½º. In latitude 50ºN, the mer pass altitude of the Sun at the
summer solstice is approximately 63½°, so this limitation should not constrain observers on
the UK mainland from using this method for training, but it may pose practical limits
elsewhere on the globe.
3. Setup for ‘Syrup’ Artificial Horizon Method
a. Syrup and Container. Pour a suitable liquid (syrup, also known as ‘Golden Syrup’
in UK, has proved very suitable – see Para 7) into a shallow container (eg a jar lid or
dish) so that the bottom is fully covered. Place the container in a convenient position for
observing the reflection of the Sun on the surface of the liquid (see Fig 3A-1 below).
Fig 3A-1. Setup for the ‘Syrup’ Artificial Horizon Method
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b. Sextant Preparations. The sextant should be fully prepared for use as a matter of
course, with perpendicularity, side error and index error removed; accurate removal of
side error is particularly important. The eyepiece should be properly focused.
c. Advance on the Syrup Container. With sextant in hand but not to the eye, the
observer should now advance on the syrup container from a few metres away, keeping
the liquid in transit with the Sun, until the Sun’s reflection is seen on the surface of the
liquid at a distance of about 1 metre (dependent upon the Sun’s altitude). The reflection
of the Sun in the syrup is still very bright and sunglasses are recommended for this part
of the procedure.

WARNING
THE REFLECTION OF THE SUN IN THE SYRUP IS STILL VERY BRIGHT

AND SUNGLASSES ARE RECOMMENDED FOR THIS PART OF THE
PROCEDURE.
d. Introduction of the Sextant. Once the general position of the Sun’s reflection has
been established, the sextant should be introduced, with shades applied to both the
index and horizon glasses – (see Fig 3A-3 and WARNING below). The range from the
container is then reduced until the Sun’s image through the sextant is in the centre of
the liquid; the smaller the container, the closer this will be.
WARNING
NEVER OBSERVE THE SUN OR ITS REFLECTION BY SEXTANT

WITHOUT FIRST FITTING THE INDEX GLASS SHADES AND HORIZON
GLASS SHADES; OTHERWISE SERIOUS INJURY WILL RESULT.
e. Sextant Altitude. With the sextant index mark set to 0º, point the telescope at the
syrup container and locate the reflected image of the Sun through the horizon glass.
While holding this image, move the index bar away until the index glass image of the
Sun also appears (see Fig 3A-3 opposite). Note carefully the identity of each image of
the Sun, then observe timed sextant altitudes with the (reflected) index glass image on
top, just touching the edge of the (direct) horizon glass image directly beneath it (Case 1
in Fig 3A-2 below). Observing the images the other way round (Fig 3A-2 Case 2) is an
equally valid method. Observing both images of the Sun superimposed on each other
(Fig 3A-2 Case 3) is also valid in principle but, in practice, superimposition is much
harder to observe precisely and is not recommended.
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Fig 3A-2. Alignment and Superimposition of Sun’s Images

f. Equivalence to Sea Horizon. As shown at Paras 4 and 5 (below and overleaf),
the equivalences to sea horizons of ‘Cases 1-3’ at Fig 3A-2 (opposite) are:
• Case 1. Case 1 is the equivalent of observing the Sun’s lower limb (LL) against
a sea horizon.
• Case 2. Case 2 is the equivalent of observing the Sun’s upper limb (UL)
against a sea horizon.
• Case 3. Case 3 is the equivalent of the Sun’s centre on the sea horizon.
Fig 3A-3. Observation Technique for ‘Syrup’ Artificial Horizon Method
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4. Sextant Altitude Correction - By Hand

To correct the observed sextant altitude ‘by hand’, first apply any index error (minus if
‘on’ the arc, plus if ‘off’ the arc), then halve the observed sextant altitude (see Fig 3A-3); no
correction for dip is required. Once these corrections have been applied, make the following
further corrections, subject to ‘case’ type.
a. Case 1. The required observed (true) altitude occurs when the centre of both
images of the Sun are coincident (ie Case 3). It can be seen that if the observer were to
change from Case 1 to Case 3, this would require an increase of two Sun’s semi-
diameters. However, the Case 1 sextant altitude has already been halved, so one

Sun’s semi-diameter must now be added, followed by correction for refraction.
These two additional corrections can be applied by using the appropriate seasonal
column of the Nautical Almanac’s ‘altitude correction table’ for the Sun’s LL.
b. Case 2. As the inverse of Case 1, one Sun’s semi-diameter needs to be

subtracted, followed by correction for refraction. These two additional corrections can
be applied by using the appropriate seasonal column of the Nautical Almanac’s ‘altitude
correction table’ for the Sun’s UL.
c. Case 3. Refraction remains the only other correction to be applied. This may be
taken from the Nautical Almanac’s ‘altitude correction table for stars and planets’.
5. Sextant Altitude Correction - Using NAVPAC

To correct the observed sextant altitude using NAVPAC, first apply any index error
manually (minus if ‘on’ the arc, plus if ‘off’ the arc), then halve the observed sextant altitude
(see Fig 3A-3). In NAVPACs Sights-Astronomical Observations page, set both the ‘index
correction’ and ‘height’ (of eye) to zero. Once these corrections have been applied, make the
following further corrections, subject to ‘case’ type.
a. Case 1. Leave the NAVPAC default selections for ‘sextant’ (altitude) and ‘lower’
(LL of Sun); then enter the halved observed sextant altitude.
b. Case 2. Leave the NAVPAC default selection for ‘sextant’ (altitude) but change the
observed LL/UL of the Sun from ‘lower’ to ‘upper’; then enter the halved observed
sextant altitude.
c. Case 3. There are three options for Case 3, any one of which may be used.
• Option 1. Leave the NAVPAC default selections for ‘sextant’ (altitude) and
‘lower’ (LL of Sun); then enter the halved observed sextant altitude with a
semi-diameter subtracted from it. This step is necessary because, by
selecting LL, NAVPAC will add a semi-diameter that is not needed for this
calculation, which is the equivalent of an observation of the Sun’s centre. The
value of the Sun's semi-diameter for the day can be obtained either from the
last line of NAVPAC’s ‘observations’ page, or from NAVPAC’s almanac, or from
the right hand daily page of the Nautical Almanac.
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• Option 2. The UL may be selected and the semi-diameter added to the

halved observed sextant altitude.
• Option 3. Make corrections manually as in Para 4 and enter the result, having
first switched the ‘sextant’ (altitude) from ‘sextant’ to ‘observed’. This option
may also be applied to Case 1 and Case 2.
6. Sight Reduction
Once the appropriate observed sextant altitude corrections have been applied as
required from Para 4 and Para 5, the usual NAVPAC or manual sight reduction techniques

may be employed.
7. Choice of Liquid and Container

This method relies on the use of a liquid with sufficient viscosity in the ambient
temperature to create a truly horizontal reflective surface, without undue delay and without
being disturbed by wind or vibration. In many ways, mercury is the ideal fluid to use based
purely on its viscosity and behaviour, but in practice its toxicity and general unavailability
means that mercury will rarely if ever be used in practice. Water may be used but only
under conditions of absolute calm, with ambient temperatures comfortably above freezing;
water is however perfectly acceptable if training/practice rather than accuracy is the main
aim. Due to their large surface area, puddles may be used to locate the Sun’s reflection and
practice aligning the sextant’s index glass image of the Sun to it. As any wind ruffling the
surface of the water will render its used impracticable, for actual navigation the use of a
more viscous liquid is recommended; of those that should be readily to hand in a ship,
syrup/’Golden Syrup’ has been tested (HMS SCOTT, 2009) and found to provide the
optimum solution. If using a transparent liquid, a dark-colour container is recommended to
avoid secondary reflections from its side or bottom; for this reason, containers with shiny
metal interiors should be avoided (i.e. do not use the syrup tin itself).
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CHAPTER 4
THE CELESTIAL SPHERE - DEFINITIONS, HOUR ANGLES & THEORY OF TIME
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 - GLOSSARY OF DEFINITIONS
Para
04001. Celestial Sphere and Associated Terms - Definitions and References

04002. Abnormal Refraction
04003. Accuracy
04005. Altitude Difference (d)
04006. Angle of Incidence (φ)
04007. Angle of Refraction (θ)
04008. Angular Distance
04009. Apparent Altitude
04010. Apparent Solar Day/Time
04011. Aries (γ)
04012. Artificial Horizon
04013. Astronomical Day
04014. Astronomical Position Line/Position Line
04015. Astronomical Twilight (AT)
04016. Atmospheric Refraction
04017. Autumn Equinox
04018. Axis (of the Earth)
04019. Azimuth (of a Heavenly Body)
04020. Azimuth Angle (of a Heavenly Body)
04021. Bearing
04022. Calculated Longitude
04023. Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude
04024. Calculated (Tabulated) Azimuth
04025. Calculated (Tabulated) Co-Declination
04026. Calculated (Tabulated) LHA
04027. Calculated (Tabulated) Position Circle
04028. Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith Distance (CZD)
04029. Calculated Zenith Distance (CZD)
04030. Celestial Equator
04031. Celestial Horizon
04032. Celestial Latitude
04033. Celestial Longitude
04034. Celestial Meridian
04035. Celestial Poles
04036. Celestial Sphere
04037. Chosen Declination
04038. Chosen Latitude
04039. Chosen Longitude
04040. Chosen Position
04041. Circumpolar
04042. Civil Day
04043. Civil Twilight (CT)
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04044. Cocked Hat

04045. Co-Declination (also known as Polar Distance)
04046. Co-Latitude
04047. Collimation Error
04048. Common Equal Error (Corrections)
04049. Confidence Ellipse
04050. CONTRARY (name)
04052. Corrected Tabulated Altitude (Corr Tab Alt)
04053. ‘d’ (Altitude Difference (d) from NP 401)

04054. ‘d’/d corrn’ (Declination Correction from The Nautical Almanac)
04055. Daily Difference (suffixed with MP, MR or MS as appropriate)
04056. Day
04057. Daylight Saving Time
04058. Dead Reckoning
04059. Deck Watch
04060. Declination
04061. Declination Increment (Dec Inc)
04062. Depressed Pole
04063. Diamond of Error
04064. Difference “d”
04065. Difference of Time for Longitude (suffixed MP, MR or MS as appropriate)
04066. Dip
04067. Double Second Difference Correction
04068. DR (Dead Reckoning)
04069. DR Latitude
04070. Ecliptic
04071. Elevated Pole
04072. EP (Estimated Position)
04073. Epoch
04074. Equation of Time
04075. Equator
04076. Equinoxes – Spring and Autumn
04077. Error Ellipse
04078. Evening Civil Twilight (ECT)
04079. Evening Nautical Twilight (ENT)
04080. Execution (of Navigation)
04081. First Difference Correction (FDC)
04082. First Point of Aries (γ)
04083. First Point of Libra
04084. First Quarter (of the Moon)
04085. Fix
04086. Full Moon
04087. Geodetic Datum
04088. Geodetic Spheroid
04089. Geodetic Zenith
04090. Geographic Position
04091. Great Circle
04092. Greenwich Celestial Meridian
04093. Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA)
04094. Greenwich Hour Angle Increment (GHA Increment)
04095. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT
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04097. Ground Speed
04098. Ground Track
04099. Height of Eye
04100. High Latitude (Polar) Sights
04101. High Altitude (Tropical) Sights
04102. Horizon
04103. Horizon Glass
04104. Horizontal Parallax (HP)
04105. Horizontal Sextant Angle (HSA)

04106. Hour Angles
04107. Index Error (IE)
04108. Index of Refraction (µ)
04109. Intercept
04110. International Atomic Time
04112. Last Quarter (of the Moon)
04113. Latitude
04114. Least Squares Method
04115. Legal Time
04116. Libra
04117. Local Hour Angle (LHA)
04118. Local Mean Time (LMT)
04119. Local Sidereal Time (LST)
04120. Longitude
04121. Longitude by Chronometer (Time)
04122. Looming (Mirage)
04123. Lower Hemisphere
04124. Lower Limb (LL)
04125. Lower Mer Pass/Lower Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body)
04126. Lunar Day
04127. Lunar Month
04128. Lunar Units
04129. Lunation
04130. Mean Refraction
04131. Mean Solar Day
04132. Mean Solar Hour/Mean Solar Time
04133. Mean Sun
04134. Meridian
04135. Meridian Passage below the Pole
04136. Mer Pass/Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body)
04137. Midnight Sun
04138. Mirage
04139. Month
04140. Moonrise/Moonset
04141. Morning Civil Twilight (MCT)
04142. Morning Nautical Twilight (MNT)
04143. Most Probable Position (MPP)
04144. Nautical Mile
04145. Nautical Twilight (NT)
04146. Navigation
04147. NavPac
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04148. New Moon

04149. Nutation
04150. Obliquity of the Ecliptic
04151. Observed Position (Obs. Pos)
04152. Observed (True) Altitude
04153. Observed (True) Position
04154. Observed (True) Position Circle
04155. Observed (True) Zenith Distance
04156. Observer’s Meridian
04157. Observer’s Zenith

04158. Off/On the Arc
04159. Parallax/Parallax in Altitude
04160. Parallel of Declination
04161. Parallels of Latitude
04162. Perpendicularity (Error)
04163. Plane of the Celestial Horizon
04164. Polar (Regions)
04165. Polar Distance (PX)
04166. Polaris
04167. Polar Variation
04168. Pole Star
04169. Poles (of the Earth)
04170. Position Circle
04171. Position Line
04172. Precession
04173. Precession of Equinoxes
04174. Prime Meridian
04175. Probable Position Area (PPA)
04176. Projection
04177. PZX Triangle
04178. P’Z’X’ Triangle
04179. Rational Horizon
04180. Refraction
04181. Refractive Index (µ)
04182. Rhumb Line
04183. Right Ascension (RA)
04184. Rise/Rising
04185. Run/Run-on, Run-Back
04186. Running Fix
04187. SAME (Name)
04188. Save/Saved/Saving
04189. Scale
04190. Sea Horizon
04191. Semi-Diameter
04192. Set/Setting
04193. Sextant
04194. Sextant Altitude
04195. Sextant: Collimation Error
04196. Sextant: Index Error
04197. Sextant: Side Error
04198. Sextant: Perpendicularity (Error)
04199. Sidereal Day/Time
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04200. Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA)

04201. Sidereal Hours/Minutes
04202. Sinking (Mirage)
04203. Small Circle
04204. Solar Day
04205. Solar Time
04206. Solstice
04207. Spherical
04208. Spheroid/Spheroidal
04209. Spring Equinox

04210. Standard Deviation (method of calculation)
04211. Standard Legal Time
04212. Standard (or Zone) Time
04213. Standard Time Zones/Time Zones
04214. Station Pointer
04215. Stooping (Mirage)
04216. Summer Solstice
04217. Sun
04218. Sunrise, Sunset
04219. Supplementary Azimuth
04220. Tabulated Altitude (from HO 229/NP 303)
04221. Tabulated Declination (used with HO 220/NP 303)
04222. Tabulated Zenith Distance
04223. Terrestrial Refraction
04224. The Nautical Almanac
04225. Time
04226. Time Errors
04227. Time Zones
04228. Total Darkness
04229. Towering (Mirage)
04230. Transferred Position Lines
04231. True Altitude
04232. True Bearing (of a heavenly body)
04233. True Sun
04234. True (Theoretical) Moonrise and Moonset
04235. True (Theoretical) Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon)
04236. True Zenith Distance (TZD)
04237. Twilight
04239. Universal Time (UT or UT1)
04240. Upper Limb (UL)
04241. Upper Mer Pass/Upper Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body)
04242. “v corn”/”v” (velocity correction from The Nautical Alamanc)
04244. Vertical Sextant Angle (VSA)
04245. Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights
04246. Visible Hemisphere
04248. Visible Moonrise and Moonset
04249. Visible Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon)
04250. Visible Setting
04251. Visible Sunrise and Sunset
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04252. Waning (of Moon)

04253. Waxing (of Moon)
04254. WGS 84 (Geodetic Datum and Spheroid)
04255. Winter Solstice
04256. Zenith
04257. Zenith Distance
04258. Zone Time
SECTION 2 - HOUR ANGLES

04259. Hour Angles - Explanation and Definitions
04260. Hour Angles and Declination - Pictorial Representation & Standard
Nomenclature
04261. Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) and Local Hour Angle (LHA) of a Heavenly Body
SECTION 3 - SOLAR TIME
04262. Purpose
04263. The Solar Day and Solar Time
04264. The Apparent Solar Day
04265. The True Sun and the Mean Sun
04266. The Mean Solar Day/Time and UT, the Civil Day and the Astronomical Day
04267. Local Mean Time (LMT) and Universal Time (UT)/Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
04268. Longitude and Time
04269. Conversion between UT/GMT and LMT
04271. The Equation of Time
SECTION 4 - SIDEREAL TIME
04272. Purpose
04273. The Sidereal Day and Sidereal Time
04274. Length of the Sidereal Day
04276. Relationship between UT/GMT and GHA Aries (¡)
SECTION 5 - LUNAR AND PLANETARY TIME
04277. The Hour Angle of the Moon

04278. The Lunation or Lunar Month
04279. Phases of the Moon
04280. The Hour Angle of the Planets
SECTION 6 - PARALLAX AND HORIZONTAL PARALLAX
04281. Parallax and Horizontal Parallax
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CHAPTER 4
THE CELESTIAL SPHERE - DEFINITIONS, HOUR ANGLES & THEORY OF TIME
SECTION 1 - GLOSSARY OF DEFINITIONS
04001. Celestial Sphere and Associated Terms - Definitions and References

Some elements of the celestial sphere have already been introduced at Chapter 1.
For a full understanding of astro-navigation theory, precise definitions of all elements of the
celestial sphere and some associated terms are needed at the outset. A convenient

glossary of terms is included below (positioned at the start of the main ‘theory
chapters’), either containing their definitions or a brief explanation to support more
detailed study. This glossary is primarily intended for RN Specialist N Course
students. The main reference(s) are included in the glossary; ‘redundant’ entries are
retained for completeness. Terms in Para 04002 to Para 03208 are listed in alphabetical
orders; ebook readers are recommended to use the search function for ease of
finding specific terms.
04002. Abnormal Refraction

The atmosphere contains many irregularities which are erratic in their influence upon
atmospheric refraction; where these irregularities exceed the corrections contained in the
Nautical Almanac, conditions of abnormal refraction are deemed to exist. See Para 0318,
Para 0804 and Para 0807.
04003. Accuracy
Accuracy may be expressed in a number of ways, which have a number of different
meanings and interpretations. Common expressions of accuracy include root mean square
distance (drms), one, two or three Sigma (1σ, 2σ, 3σ) and circular error probable (CEP).
Equally and more simply, it may be expressed in terms of a ‘percentage (%) probability’.
See BR 45 Volume 1.
04004. Altitude (of a heavenly body)

When considering a heavenly body, the term altitude is not used in the conventional
sense (such as in aircraft altitude). Rather, the altitude of a heavenly body is (loosely)
described as the angle between a ‘horizon’ and the heavenly body, but normally has to be
qualified as apparent altitude, sextant altitude, etc, depending whether the ‘celestial horizon
or ‘visible horizon’ is used and which corrections are applied. See also Chapter 1, Chapter
3, and separate entrie below for:
Apparent altitude
Calculated (tabulated) altitude
‘d’ (Altitude Difference (d) from NP 401)
Observed (true) altitude
Sextant altitude
Tabulated altitude
Very high altitude (tropical) sights
04005. Altitude Difference (d)

See separate entry for ‘d’ (altitude difference (d) from NP 401).
04006. Angle of Incidence (φ)

The angle of incidence (φ) is the angle at which a ray of light travelling in one
medium meets the boundary of another medium (see Para 0802).
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04007. Angle of Refraction (θ)

The angle of refraction (θ) is the angle through which a ray of light is bent when
passing from one medium to another of different density. See Para 0802.
04008. Angular Distance

Heavenly bodies are deemed to reside on the surface of the (imaginary) celestial
sphere and the only method of measuring their relative positions is to measure the angle
between them, known as an angular distance. See Para 0102.
04009. Apparent Altitude

The apparent altitude of a heavenly body is sextant altitude corrected for index error
and height of eye (dip). See Para 0118 and Para 0302.
04010. Apparent Solar Day/Time

The interval that elapses between two successive transits of the Sun across the
same meridian is an apparent solar day. See Para 0432.
04011. Aries (γ)

The name ‘First Point of Aries’ (often abbreviated to ‘Aries’ or ‘γ’) is given to the
spring intersection of the ecliptic and the celestial equator and is used as the datum for
calculations and tables. See Para 0104 and Fig 4-1.
04012. Artificial Horizon

The artificial horizon method of observing astro sights provides an opportunity to
observe Sun sights when denied a sea horizon on a static platform. See Annex 3A.
04013. Astronomical Day

The astronomical day (which uses 24 hour notation) and the civil day (which uses
the am/pm notation) both contain 24 mean solar hours. See Para 04132.
04014. Astronomical Position Line/Position Line

An astronomical position line (often referred to simply as a position line in this
context’) is a small element of the circumference of a small circle centred on the geographic
position of the star with a radius equivalent to ‘90° - altitude’, converted into nautical miles.
See Para 0302 Para 0350, Para 0351 and Para 0521.
04015. Astronomical Twilight (AT)

The time of astronomical twilight (AT) is the moment when the Sun’s centre is 18°
below the celestial horizon. See Para 0108, and Para 0724 to Para 0726.

The Earth’s atmosphere generally decreases in density with increased height and so
has a gradually changing refractive index. When a ray of light from a star approaching the
Earth enters the Earth’s atmosphere, this causes it to be bent progressively and thus to
follow a curved path; this gradual change of direction which occurs is called atmospheric
refraction. See Chapter 8.
04017. Autumn Equinox

See separate entry for equinoxes - spring and autumn.
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04018. Axis (of the Earth)

The Earth’s axis is its shortest diameter (the Earth not being a sphere but rather an
oblate spheroid), about which it rotates in space. See BR 45(1) Chapter 1.
04019. Azimuth (of a heavenly body)

The azimuth (Z) of a heavenly body is defined as the angle between the observer’s
meridian and the vertical circle through the heavenly body. Azimuth can be measured and
expressed in different ways. See Paras 0117, 0302, 0535, 0536 & also separate entries
for: azimuth angle (of a heavenly body), calculated (tabulated) azimuth, supplementary
azimuth, true bearing (of a heavenly body)

04020. Azimuth Angle (of a heavenly body)
The azimuth angle (Z) is the azimuth of a heavenly body when measured. It will be
either East or West from the observer’s meridian (if LHA of body <180° azimuth is West, if
LHA of body > 180° Azimuth is East). Azimuth is either North or South from the elevated
pole. See Chapter 5.
04021. Bearing
See separate entry for true bearing (of a heavenly body).
04022. Calculated Longitude

The meridian used in the calculation of the ‘longitude by chronometer (time)’
method. It comprises a combination of the celestial body’s ±LHA and ±GHA (signs
depending on whether East or West of the Greenwich meridian), and in the case of a
transferred position line, the addition of d’long. See Para 0525
04023. Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude

The calculated (tabulated) altitude is the altitude of a heavenly body calculated from
the chosen position at the exact time of observation, based on ephemeral data (from the
Nautical Almanac or computer information). It is also known as calculated altitude or
tabulated altitude and therefore for the avoidance of doubt it is expressed in this book as
calculated (tabulated) altitude. See Para 0118 and Para 0511
04024. Calculated (Tabulated) Azimuth

The calculated (tabulated) azimuth is the azimuth (or azimuth angle) of a heavenly
body calculated from the chosen position at the exact time of observation, based on
ephemeral data (from the Nautical Almanac or computer information). It is also known as
calculated azimuth or tabulated azimuth and therefore for the avoidance of doubt it is thus
expressed in this book as calculated (tabulated) azimuth. See Para 0511 and Para 0512.
04025. Calculated (Tabulated) Co-Declination

The calculated (tabulated) co-declination is the angular distance of a heavenly body
from the elevated pole calculated from the chosen position at the exact time of observation,
based on ephemeral data (from the Nautical Almanac or computer information). See Para
0512 and separate entry for co-declination (‘polar distance’).
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04026. Calculated (Tabulated) LHA

The calculated (tabulated) LHA is the LHA of a heavenly body calculated from the
chosen position at the exact time of observation, based on ephemeral data (from the
Nautical Almanac or computer information). It is also known as calculated LHA or tabulated
LHA and thus for the avoidance of doubt is hereafter referred to in this book as calculated
(tabulated) LHA. See Para 0512.
04027. Calculated (Tabulated) Position Circle

The calculated (tabulated) position circle is the position crcle of a heavenly body
calculated from the chosen position at the exact time of observation, based on ephemeral

data (from the Nautical Almanac or computer information). It is also known as calculated
position circle or tabulated position circle thus for the avoidance of doubt is hereafter referred
to in this book as calculated (tabulated) position circle. See Para 0522 and Para 0524 and
also separate entry for position circle.
04028. Calculated (Tabulated) Zenith Distance (CZD)

The calculated (tabulated) zenith distance is the zenith distance of a heavenly body
calculated from the chosen position at the exact time of observation, based on ephemeral
data (from the Nautical Almanac or computer data). It is also known as calculated zenith
distance or tabulated zenith distance. To avoid confusion between abbreviations for true
zenith distance (TZD) and tabulated zenith distance, the latter term is not used in in this
book where for the avoidance of doubt it is expressed either as calculated (tabulated) zenith
distance (CZD) or calculated zenith distance (CZD). See Para 0508 and also separate
entry for zenith distance.
04029. Calculated Zenith Distance (CZD)

See separate entry for calculated (tabulated) zenith distance (CZD).
04030. Celestial Equator

The Earth’s Equator, if produced, would cut the celestial sphere at the celestial
Equator. See Para 0101.
04031. Celestial Horizon

The celestial horizon (also known as the rational horizon) is a great circle on the
celestial sphere, every point of which is 90° from the observer’s zenith (Z). It corresponds to
the projection of the terrestrial horizon onto the celestial sphere, but without the errors
associated with atmospheric optical refraction at the visible horizon. See Para 0115.
04032. Celestial Latitude

‘Celestial latitude’ is a term used by astronomers to define an angular distance
referenced to the plane of the ecliptic rather than the celestial equator. Celestial latitude as
understood by astronomers has no use in solving the navigational problem and should not
be confused with ‘declination’. See Para 0105.
04033. Celestial Longitude

‘Celestial longitude’ is a term used by astronomers to measure an angular distance
referenced to the plane of the ecliptic rather than the celestial equator. ‘Celestial longitude’
as used by astronomers has no use in solving the navigational problem and should not be
confused with ‘hour angle’. See Para 0106.
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04034. Celestial Meridian

A celestial meridian is a semi-great circle joining the north and south celestial poles
and corresponds exactly to a terrestrial meridian. See Fig 4-1.
04035. Celestial Poles

The Earth’s axis, if produced, would cut the celestial sphere at the celestial poles.
See Para 0101 and Fig 4-1.
04036. Celestial Sphere

To an observer on Earth, the sky has the appearance of an inverted bowl, so that

the stars and other heavenly bodies, irrespective of their actual distance from the Earth,
appear to be situated on the inside of a sphere of immense radius described about the Earth
as centre. This is called the celestial sphere. See Para 0101 and Fig 4-1.
04037. Chosen Declination

To avoid having to print page after page of tables, which would be costly and bulky,
NP 303 uses integer ‘chosen declinations’ rather than the exact values. Tabular
interpolation for the actual declination is then required to compensate for this initial
approximation. See Chapter 5.
04038. Chosen Latitude

See separate entry for chosen position below.
04039. Chosen Longitude

See separate entry for chosen position below.
04040. Chosen Position

The chosen position is a position, usually close to or at the DR/EP, and consisting of
a chosen latitude and chosen longitude, selected by the Navigator for mathematical
convenience in reducing the sight. It will vary for each sight, and can be adjusted for time
difference of observations by running it ‘on’ or ‘back’ along the ships course or course made
good (allowing for tidal stream/ ocean current). See Chapter 5
04041. Circumpolar
Although strictly speaking every heavenly body is circumpolar (in that to an observer
on Earth it describes a circle about the celestial pole), the term ‘circumpolar’ is normally used
to refer to a heavenly body never sets and is always above the observer’s visible horizon; its
declination is greater than (90°- latitude). See Para 0727.
04042. Civil Day

The so-called civil day (which uses ‘am/pm’ notation) and the astronomical day
(which uses 24 hour notation) both contain 24 ‘mean solar hours’. See Para 04132.
04043. Civil Twilight (CT)

See separate entries for evening civil twilight (ECT) and morning civil twilight (MCT)
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04044. Cocked Hat

As with any fix, which by definition relies on multiple position lines, a fix using
astronomical position lines obtained from three observations (which, for simplicity are
considered as being taken simultaneously) is unlikely to result in all three lines passing
precisely through a common point. With astronomical position lines, the most likely reason
for a cocked hat being formed is that the zenith distances are incorrect. See Para 0906 and
Para 0907, as well as BR 45 Volume 1.
04045. Co-Declination (also known as Polar Distance)

The co-declination is the angular distance of a heavenly body from the elevated

pole. The co-declination is also the polar distance (PX) and can be calculated from the
declination of the body, depending on whether the elevated pole and declination have same
or opposite ‘names’ (i.e. they are north or south), as follows:
Elevated Pole and Declination have SAME names: PX = (90° - Declination)

Elevated Pole and Declination have OPPOSITE names: PX = (90° + Declination)
See Para 0515 sub para b and also separate entry for calculated (tabulated) co-declination.
04046. Co-Latitude
The co-latitude is (90° - latitude). See Para 0512.
04047. Collimation Error

See separate entry for sextant-collimation error.
04048. Common Equal Error (corrections)

If it is believed that there is a common equal error in magnitude and sign for each
sextant sight (as in an incorrect index error), then simple constructions or iterations will allow
the true observed position to be plotted. The most common use of this technique is among
experienced and skilled sextant users who consistently have a small ‘personal error’ caused
by always ‘cutting’ the heavenly body deep (or shallow) on the horizon. See Para 0906 and
multiple CAUTIONS at Para 0907.
04049. Confidence Ellipse

Within NAVPAC, the term ‘confidence ellipse’ is used to refer to what is otherwise
(and with equal validity) known as an ‘error ellipse’. See Para 0346 sub para C and
separate entry for error ellipse.
04050. CONTRARY (name)

Term used within NP 303 to indicate that declination and latitude within the
calculation have opposite (North/South) names. See also separate entry for SAME
(name).
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Co-ordinated universal time (UTC) is the principal time standard in use around the
world. It is based on international atomic time, TA1, adjusted by an integer number of
seconds to correct for the gradual slowing of the Earth’s rotation (as of 31 December 2016
when the most recent leap second was added, UTC is precisely 37 seconds behind TA1).
UTC is itself adjusted by the insertion (or deletion) of whole numbers of leap seconds
(positive or negative leap seconds) to ensure that UTC is maintained within ±0.9 seconds of
UT1. Proposals have been made to suppress the leap seconds, which would mean that
UT1 would slowly diverge from UTC and TA1 over the centuries, but no decision was made
at the 2015 World Radiocommunication Conference, and the proposals are now due to be

reconsidered in 2023.
04052. Corrected Tabulated Altitude (Corr Tab Alt)

Corrected tabulated altitude (corr tab alt) is the result of applying first difference
corrections (FDC) (±) to tabulated altitude in NP 401 calculations to solve the PZX triangle.
04053. ‘d’ (Altitude Difference (d) from NP 401)

Altitude difference (d) or ‘d’ is the difference of altitude in minutes of arc of one
declination entry and that for the next higher degree, and is used with the interpolation table
to establish the exact calculated altitude. See Chapter 5
04054. “d”/“d corrn” (Declination correction from The Nautical Almanac)

The “d”/“d corrn” is the hourly difference in declination, tabulated in the Nautical
Almanac and is used with the yellow ‘increments and corrections’ tables at the back of the
Nautical Almanac to calculate the precise declination of the Sun, Moon or Planets with a
sight form and NP 401/HO 229 method of solving the PZX triangle. See Chapter 5.
04055. Daily Difference (suffixed with MP, MR or MS as appropriate)

The LMT of the Moon’s mer pass and visible Moonrise/Moonset is not constant for
all longitudes and must be corrected for the daily difference between consecutive Moon’s
mer pass, visible moonrises or visible moonsets at the latitude considered. See Para 0607
sub para c (and note) and Para 0714 sub para b (and note).
04056. Day
A ‘day’ is the term used for the period of time that elapses between two successive
transits of a heavenly body across the same meridian. See also separate specific entries for
apparent solar day/time, astronomical day, civil day, lunar day/month, mean solar day,
sidereal day/time and solar day.
04057. Daylight Saving Time

Daylight saving time (DST) is a seasonal change from the standard legal time to
make the best use of the available light, usually in summer. See Para 0202.
04058. Dead Reckoning

See separate entry for DR (dead reckoning).
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04059. Deck Watch

A deck watch is an accurate timepiece (now issued as a quartz wristwatch),
normally kept in time zone 0 (UT), and used to take the precise times of astro observations.
In practice today most observers will use their own watch synched to GPS time, if not taking
the time directly from GPS. See Para 0903.
a. Deck Watch Error (DWE). This is the exact difference between the deck watch
time of an individual deck watch and UT. It must be applied to deck watch time
(DWT) before the latter is used for sight reduction purposes. See Para 0327, Para
0903 and also below.

b. Deck Watch Time (DWT). This is the time kept on individual deck watches and
used to record the exact time of astronomical observations.
04060. Declination
Declination corresponds to terrestrial latitude projected onto the celestial sphere and
is the angular distance of the heavenly body north or south of the celestial equator. It should
NOT be confused with ‘celestial latitude’ .See also separate entries for: chosen
declination, parallels of declination, and tabulated declination.
04061. Declination Increment (Dec Inc)

The declination increment (dec. inc.) is the amount, measured in minutes, by which
the actual declination exceeds the the integer declination tabulated in the main NP 303
tables. This ranges from 0.0' to 59.9'. See Chapter 5.
04062. Depressed Pole

The depressed pole is the pole located in the lower hemisphere.
04063. Diamond of Error

When a position is decided by the result of two position lines or astronomical
position lines, and they are given an ‘assessed possible error’, the ship may or may not lie
within a parallelogram (diamond of error) with sides parallel to the position lines and spaced
at the ‘assessed possible error’ distance from them. See Para 0902 and also the separate
entry for error ellipse.
04064. Difference “d”

See separate entry for “d” (altitude difference from NP 401/HO 229).
04065. Difference of Time for Longitude (suffixed MP, MR or MS as appropriate)

The difference of time for longitude (suffixed MP (mer pass), MR (Moonrise) or MS
(Moonset) as appropriate) is the proportion of the relevant daily difference which is applied to
the tabulated time for the Greenwich Meridian. See Para 0607 sub para d.
04066. Dip
Dip is the angle by which the line of sight to the visible horizon differs from the
horizontal for an observer who is at some ‘height of eye’ above the Earth’s surface. See
Para 0806.
04067. Double Second Difference Correction

The ‘double second-difference (DSD) correction is an additional tabular interpolation
correction used in NP 401/HO 229 on the occasions when the rate of change of altitude is
large relative to a 1° change in declination. See Chapter 5.
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04068. DR (Dead Reckoning)

The expression used to describe the position obtained solely from measuring the
true course steered and the ship’s speed through the water, taking into account no other
factors. In WECDIS, this is the Fix + DR (auto) or Fix + DR modes. See BRd 45 Volume 1.
04069. DR Latitude
The parallel of latitude used in the calculation of the ‘longitude by chronometer
(time)’ method. It is the parallel of latitude which passes through the DR position or EP for
the time required. See Para 0525.

04070. Ecliptic
The apparent path of the Sun across the celestial sphere is known as the ecliptic. It
is a great circle, and makes an angle of 23° 27' with the celestial equator because the
Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted by that amount from the perpendicular to the plane of the
Earth’s orbit. See Para 0103 sub para a.
04071. Elevated Pole

The elevated pole is the celestial pole above the observer’s horizon (ie located in the
visible hemisphere).
04072. EP (Estimated Position)

This is the most accurate position that can be obtained by calculation and estimation
alone. It is derived from the DR position (course and speed steered) adjusted for the effects
of leeway, tidal stream, currents and surface drift. On a paper chart, an EP symbol may also
be used to update a DR/EP if only one position line is available. See Para 0905 and also
BR 45 Volume 1.
04073. Epoch
Epoch is the term given to a period (usually a specific year ± 5 years) for which the
positions of heavenly bodies have been calculated taking into account the precession and
nutation of the Earth into account. It applies specifically to NP 303, the star globe and some
other star charts. The use of these tables/aids outside the (usually ± 5 year) epoch will
result in some errors, but results may still be acceptable for ‘big handfuls’ purposes. See
Chapter 5.
04074. Equation of Time

The ‘equation of time’ is the difference between mean solar time and apparent solar
time:
equation of time = LHA Mean Sun - LHA True Sun
See Para 0439.
04075. Equator
The equator is the line traced out on the Earth’s surface by the mid points of the
meridians. See Para 0903 and also BR 45 Volume 1 Chapter 1.
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04076. Equinoxes - Spring and Autumn

The equinox is the moment when the position of the Sun is directly over the equator
(ie when the ecliptic crosses the celestial equator). This event occurs twice per year, at the
spring equinox (21 March), and the autumn (or vernal) equinox (23 September). The word
‘equinox’ is derived from Latin, meaning ‘equal periods of day and night’; at the equinoxes
the time difference between Sunrise and Sunset is 12 hours and the Sun rises due east and
sets due west. See Para 0103 sub para b.
04077. Error Ellipse

An error ellipse is formed when position lines or astronomical position lines cross

and standard deviation calculations are used to provide a more useful measurement of
probable error than a simple diamond of error. NAVPAC produces an error ellipse (which is
referred to within the program as a confidence ellipse), when three or more observations are
made. See Para 0902 and BR 45 Volume 1 Chapter 16.
04078. Evening Civil Twilight (ECT)

The times of evening civil twilight (ECT) are tabulated in the Nautical Almanac for
the moment when the Sun’s centre is 6° below the celestial horizon. The times of morning
and evening civil twilights are shown in chronological order and thus the term ‘evening’ is
omitted. This is roughly the time at which the horizon becomes clear (in the morning) or
becomes indistinct (in the evening). See Para 0108, Para 0724, and Para 0725.
04079. Evening Nautical Twilight (ENT)

The times of evening nautical twilight (ENT) are tabulated in the Nautical Almanac
for the moment when the Sun’s centre is 12° below the celestial horizon. The times of
morning and evening nautical twilights are shown in chronological order and thus the term
‘evening’ is omitted. Star sight observations are normally taken between civil twilight and
nautical twilight. See Para 0108, Para 0724, and Para 0725.
04080. Execution (of Navigation)

Execution is the act of putting something into effect (CO’s orders, the navigation
plan etc). See BR 45 Volume 1.
04081. First Difference Correction (FDC)

The first difference correction is a tabular interpolation correction used in NP 401/HO
229 to obtain the corrected tabulated altitude (corr tab alt) from tabulated altitude. Chapter
5.
04082. First Point of Aries (γ)

See separate entry for “Aries (γ)”.
04083. First Point of Libra

See separate entry for “Libra”.
04084. First Quarter (of the Moon)

The first quarter (of the Moon) is the description given to the Moon when it is one
quarter of the way round its orbit of the Earth, starting from a new Moon. It appears as a ‘D’
shape to an observer on Earth with only the westerly side of the Moon being illuminated.
This occurs about seven days after a new Moon and about seven days before a full Moon.
See Para 04249.
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04085. Fix
A fix is the point or area at which two or more position lines intersect. See BR 45
Volume 1. Of course, a fix only tells the Navigator where the ship was at the time of the fix,
not where it is now…
04086. Full Moon

The full Moon is the description given to the Moon when it is half way round its orbit
of the Earth, starting from a new Moon. It appears fully illuminated as a ‘O’ shape to an
observer on Earth. This occurs about 14 days after and before a new Moon. See Para
04249.

04087. Geodetic Datum
A geodetic datum is a reference system against which positions are referred. See
Para 0114 and BR 45 Volume 1.
04088. Geodetic Spheroid

A geodetic spheroid is an ellipse rotated about its minor axis. See Para 0114 and
BR 45 Volume 1 Para 0311.
04089. Geodetic Zenith

For the purposes of astro navigation, the observer’s zenith (Z) may be regarded as
the ‘geodetic zenith’, which is the point projected onto the celestial sphere by a line normal to
the Earth’s geodetic spheroid at the observer’s location (ie a point directly above the
observer). The declination of this point (Z) on the celestial sphere approximates to the
observer’s latitude. See Para 0114.
04090. Geographic Position

The geographic position of a heavenly body is the position where a line drawn from
the body to the centre of the Earth cuts the surface of the Earth. To an observer at the
geographic position, the heavenly body would appear to be directly overhead, ie. at the
observer’s zenith(Z). See Para 0109.
04091. Great Circle

A great circle is the intersection of a spherical surface and a plane which passes
through the centre of the sphere. It is the shortest distance between two points on the
surface of a sphere. See Para 0110.
04092. Greenwich Celestial Meridian

The Greenwich celestial meridian is the projection of the terrestrial Greenwich
meridian onto the celestial sphere. See Fig 4-1.
04093. Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA)

The Greenwich hour angle (GHA) is the angular distance, measured westwards
from the projection of the Greenwich meridian on the celestial sphere and the meridian of the
heavenly body. See Para 0106 and Fig 4-1.
04094. Greenwich Hour Angle Increment (GHA Increment)

In the Nautical Almanac, GHAs are only tabulated for whole hours, and the
additional amount of GHA corresponding to the minutes and seconds after the whole hour
are obtained by looking in the yellow ‘Increment and Correction’ pages at the back of The
Nautical Almanac. This additional GHA is known as the GHA increment.
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Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) may be regarded for all practical purposes as the
general equivalent of UT/UT1. See Para 0210, Para 04237, and also separate entry for
universal time (UT).

The Greenwich meridian is also known as the prime meridian, and passes through
Greenwich. It is the starting point (000°) for the measurement of longitude, East and West
from this meridian. See Para 0112.

04097. Ground Speed
Ground speed is a term used to describe ‘speed over the ground’ or ‘speed made
good’ (SMG). See BR 45 Volume 1.
04098. Ground Track

Ground track is a term used for ‘course over the ground’ or ‘course made good’
(CMG). See BR 45 Volume 1.
04099. Height of Eye

The height of an observer’s eye (or the instrument used to take the observation)
above the Earth’s surface. See Para 0806 and also the separate entry for dip.
04100. High Latitude (Polar) Sights

High latitude (polar) sights may be considered as those taken in latitudes above 75°
N or S, at which point plotting on a Mercator projection chart becomes impracticable. They
may be reduced by NAVPAC or the normal use of NP 303, but when in very high latitudes
above 87½° an abbreviated method of reduction and plotting is possible using the pole as
the chosen position. In practice, this latter method is only likely to be taken by submariners,
unless an overland expedition is contemplated. See Para 0560 to Para 0562.
04101. High Altitude (Tropical) Sights

See separate entry for very high altitude (tropical) sights; note that there is a
possible source of confusion between high latitude and high altitude sights.
04102. Horizon
The term ‘horizon’ is used in a number of contexts; see the separate entries for:
celestial horizon (also known as the rational horizon), plane of the celestial horizon, sextant
horizon glass, and the visible horizon (also known simply as the ‘horizon’ or ‘sea horizon’)
04103. Horizon Glass

See separate entry under sextant.
04104. Horizontal Parallax (HP)

Horizontal parallax (HP) is the special case of parallax when the heavenly body is on
the horizon (ie it has an altitude of zero); the quantity ‘HP’ is tabulated in almanacs. HP is
only significant for the Moon and is insignificant for more distant objects; the maximum
correction to be added to a sextant altitude of the Moon is about 30 minutes of arc. See
Para 04281 and also separate entry for parallax.
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04105. Horizontal Sextant Angle (HSA)

The use of horizontal sextant angles is still relevant in modern navigation, especially
for situations in which GPS is unavailable or unreliable and high precision/accuracy is
required. See BR 45 Volume 1.
04106. Hour Angles

See separate entries for:
Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA)
Local Hour Angle (LHA)
Right Ascension (RA)

Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA)
04107. Index Error (IE)

04108. Index of Refraction (μ)

See separate entry for refractive index.
04109. Intercept
An intercept is the angular difference, converted into nautical miles, between the
calculated (tabulated) altitude of a heavenly body for the DR/EP at the exact time of
observation and the observed (true) altitude of that body. See Chapter 5.
04110. International Atomic Time

International atomic time (TAI) is determined by the comparison of a number (more
than 400) of very accurate (better than one microsecond a day error) atomic clocks located
at national observatories throughout the world. Due to the averaging involved, TAI is an
order of magnitude more stable than even the best possible atomic clock could be on its
own. Unlike UT/UT1, TAI does not change with variations in the rate of the Earth’s rotation.
TAI provides the most accurate and uniform unit of time interval for scientific purposes. See
Para 0211 sub para b.

The International Date Line is an internationally agreed line on the Earth’s surface at
approximately 180° East (but varying from this longitude to avoid populated areas). On
crossing the International Date Line travellers advance (westbound) or retard (eastbound)
calendars by one day and simultaneously apply the new time zone (-12hr to +12hr or vice-
versa) to the new date. See Para 0201 and Para 0206.
04112. Last Quarter (of the Moon)

The last quarter (of the Moon) is the description given to the Moon when it is three
quarters of the way round its orbit of the Earth, starting from a new Moon. It appears as a ‘D’
shape to an observer on Earth with only the easterly side of the Moon being illuminated.
This occurs about seven days after a full Moon and about seven days before a new Moon.
See Para 04248
04113. Latitude
The latitude of a place on the Earth’s surface (also called the geodetic, geographical
or true latitude) is the angle that the perpendicular at that place makes with the plane of the
Equator and is measured from 0° to 90° North or South of the Equator. See BR 45 Volume
1.
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04114. Least Squares Method

The least squares method is a standard statistical methodology which has long been
used in the navigation problem (since at least the early 19th century). Its name derives from
the fact that the optimum solution is found when the sum of the squares of the residuals is
minimised. In the astro navigation context, the least squares method is used to derive the
most probable position from three or more position lines. See Para 0904 and Para 0906, as
well as BR 45 Volume 1.
04115. Legal Time

See separate entry for standard legal time.

04116. Libra
The name ‘first point of Libra’ (often abbreviated simply to ‘Libra’) is the point on the
celestial sphere where the ecliptic and celestial equator intersect at the Autumn Equinox.
See Para 0104.
04117. Local Hour Angle (LHA)

The local hour angle (LHA) is the angular distance, measured westwards, of the
projection of the observer’s meridian onto the celestial sphere and the meridian of the
heavenly body. It equates to the GHA of the body +/- the observer’s longitude. See Para
0106, and Fig 4-1.
04118. Local Mean Time (LMT)

Local mean time (LMT) is the mean time kept at any place when the local hour angle
of the mean Sun is measured from meridian of that place. However, as the local hour angle
of the mean Sun is measured from the Greenwich Meridian and the civil/astronomical day
are both measured from 180° (12 hours) from the Greenwich Meridian, LMT is defined as
follows:
LMT at any instant is the local hour angle of the mean Sun at that instant, measured
westwards from the meridian of that place, +/- 12 hours.
See Para 0308 and Para 04237

Local sidereal time (LST) is equivalent to the LHA of first point of Aries (γ). See
Para 04245.
04120. Longitude
The longitude of a place on the Earth’s surface is the angle between the Greenwich
(Prime) Meridian and the meridian of that place measured from 0° to 180° East or West of
Greenwich. See BR 45 Volume 1 Chapter 1.
04121. Longitude by Chronometer (Time)

The longitude by chronometer (time) method (sometimes referred to colloquially as
‘long by chron’) is an alternative technique for finding a calculated longitude and DR latitude
through which an astronomical position line may be plotted. See Para 0525.
04122. Looming (Mirage)

Looming is a particular type of mirage, in which the object appears elevated and the
visible horizon farther away. See Para 0808 sub para b.
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04123. Lower Hemisphere

The celestial horizon divides the celestial sphere into hemispheres; the upper
(containing the observer’s zenith ‘Z’) is the known as the visible hemisphere, and the other
as the lower hemisphere. Subject to atmospheric refraction and general visibility, all
heavenly bodies in the visible hemisphere are visible to the observer but bodies in the lower
hemisphere cannot be seen. See Para 0502 and note.
04124. Lower Limb (LL)

The lower limb of the Sun or Moon is the portion of its circumference nearest to the
visible horizon, as seen from an observer on the Earth’s surface. See Para 0704.

04125. Lower Mer Pass/Lower Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body)
Lower meridian passage occurs when the heavenly body is on the meridian that
differs in local hour angle from the observer’s meridian by 180°.
04126. Lunar Day

A lunar day is 29½ divided by 28½ mean solar days, which equates to
approximately 24 hours 50 minutes (mean solar time). This is the reason why tides
generally advance at about 50 minutes per day. See Para 04248.
04127. Lunar Month

The lunation or lunar month is the interval between two successive new Moons
(when the Moon lies in a straight line between the Earth and the Sun and therefore not
visible) and is important in tidal prediction. A lunation or lunar month is equivalent to 29½
Mean Solar Days. See Para 04248.
04128. Lunar Units

The units derived from lunar days are lunar units. See Para 04247.
04129. Lunation
See separate entry for lunar month.
04130. Mean Refraction

Mean refraction is the average condition of atmospheric refraction for which ‘altitude
correction tables’ (which also include semi-diameters for the Sun and Moon) are given at the
front and back of the Nautical Almanac respectively. See Para 0803 and Para 0805.
04131. Mean Solar Day

The interval between two successive transits of the mean Sun across the same
meridian is called the mean solar day. See Para 04236.
04132. Mean Solar Hour/Mean Solar Time

Mean solar time is based on the mean solar day. The mean solar day is divided into
24 mean solar hours. See Para 04236.
04133. Mean Sun

The mean Sun is an imaginary body which is assumed to move in the celestial
equator at a uniform speed around the Earth and to complete one (360°) revolution in the
time taken by the true Sun to complete one (360°) revolution in the ecliptic. See Para
04235.
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04134. Meridian
A meridian is a semi-great circle on the Earth’s surface which also passes through
both poles. See Para 0111 and separate entries for:
Celestial meridian
Greenwich Meridian
Greenwich celestial meridian
Lower mer pass/lower meridian passage/meridian passage below the pole
Mer pass/meridian passage/upper mer pass/upper meridian passage
Observer’s meridian
Prime meridian

04135. Meridian Passage Below the Pole
‘Meridian passage below the pole’ is another name for lower meridian passage, but
the usage is now increasingly rare. See separate entry for lower mer pass/lower
meridian passage.
04136. Mer Pass /Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body)

Meridian passage (mer pass) occurs when a heavenly body is in the observer’s
meridian or in the meridian 180° from the observer’s meridian. Mer pass can occur as either
‘upper’ or ‘lower’, but common usage of ‘meridian passage/mer pass’ normally refers only to
upper meridian passage. See Chapter 6.
04137. Midnight Sun

If the Sun’s declination remains above the celestial horizon, the Sun can never set
and this effect is known colloquially as the ‘midnight Sun’. In the Northern Hemisphere, the
limiting latitude for the midnight Sun to occur is:
90° minus the Sun’s greatest northerly declination (90°−23½°)N = 66½° N.
This is the Arctic Circle. See Para 0726, Figs 7-2 and Fig 7-4.
04138. Mirage
A mirage is an optical phenomenon (often referred to as an optical illusion) in which
objects appear displaced, distorted, magnified, multiplied or inverted, owing to varying
atmospheric refraction in layers close to the surface of the Earth due to large air density
differences. This may occur when there is an erratic or irregular change of temperature or
humidity in the Earth’s atmosphere with changes in height. See Para 0808 and separate
entries for looming, stooping, sinking and towering.
04139. Month
See separate entry for lunar day/month.
04140. Moonrise, Moonset

See separate entries, which co-ordinate all variants, for: true (theoretical) rising and
setting (of both the Sun and the Moon), and visible rising and setting (of both Sun and
Moon).
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04141. Morning Civil Twilight (MCT)

The times of morning civil twilight (MCT) are tabulated in the Nautical Almanac for
the moment when the Sun’s centre is 6° below the celestial horizon. The times of morning
and evening civil twilights are shown in chronological order and thus the term evening is
omitted as redundant. This is roughly the time at which the horizon becomes clear (morning)
or becomes indistinct (evening). See Para 0108, Para 0724 and Para 0725.
04142. Morning Nautical Twilight (MNT)

The times of morning nautical twilight (MNT) are tabulated in the Nautical Almanac
for the moment when the Sun’s centre is 12° below the celestial horizon. The times of

morning and evening nautical twilights are shown in chronological order and thus the term
‘evening’ is omitted as unnecessary. Star sight observations are normally taken between
civil and nautical twilight. See Para 0108, Para 0724 and Para 0725.
04143. Most Probable Position (MPP)

The most probable position may be derived mathematically from three or more
position lines by the least squares method of calculation. The MPP lies within the probable
position area (PPA). See Para 0904 to Para 0906 and also BR 45 Volume 1.
04144. Nautical Mile

A nautical mile is 1852 metres. See BR 45 Volume 1.
04145. Nautical Twilight (NT)

Evening Nautical Twilight (ENT)
Morning Nautical Twilight (MNT)
04146. Navigation
Navigation is the process of planning and executing the movement of ships from one
place to another. Navigation includes ocean movements, coastal movements and pilotage,
giving due consideration to problems of shiphandling and collision avoidance. See BR 45
Volume 1 and BRd 45(4).
04147. NAVPAC
NAVPAC is a computer software package designed to support astro navigation at
sea, produced by the UK Nautical Almanac Office (NAO). The current version is NAVPAC
4.0.12, which replaces NAVPAC v3.4.0 which is supplied on CD to customers as DP 330.
NAVPAC accurately and rapidly calculates very accurate sight reductions, rising, setting and
twilight times, the location of all heavenly (navigational) bodies, great circle and rhumb line
problems. Fleet units are to ensure that if they have not already done so they upgrade to
NAVPAC 4 at the earliest practicable opportunity. See Chapter 3.
04148. New Moon

The new Moon is the description given to the Moon when it lies in a straight line
between the Earth and the Sun during its orbit of the Earth. At this time the Moon is not
visible to an observer on Earth. The time of a New Moon is the starting point for lunar
calculations. See Para 04248.
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04149. Nutation
Nutation in this context is the small, continuous but slightly erratic sinusoidal
oscillation of the Earth’s rotational axis superimposed about the larger precession motion.
Nutation is caused by continual changes in the tidal forces experienced by the Earth as
(principally) the Sun and Moon change positions relative to one another as the Earth orbits
the Sun. See Para 0522 sub para f.
04150. Obliquity of the Ecliptic

The obliquity of the ecliptic is the angle between the plane of the celestial equator
and that of the ecliptic. See Para 0103 sub para a.

04151. Observed Position (Obs. Pos)
The observed position (obs. pos) is the point on the Earth’s surface at which two or
more astronomical position lines cross, after adjustments have been made for the differing
times of observations and errors. See Para 0346 sub para d and also separate entry for
observed (true) position.
04152. Observed (True) Altitude

The observed (true) altitude of a heavenly body is its sextant altitude, corrected for
index error, dip (height of eye), and refraction corrections. It is also known as observed
altitude or true altitude and thus for the avoidance of doubt is expressed in this book as
observed (true) altitude. See Para 0118 and Para 0348 sub para d.
04153. Observed (True) Position

The observed (true) position is a point through which an observed (true) position
circle passes. See Para 0524 and separate entries for:
Observed position (obs. pos)
Observed position
Observed (true) position circle
Position Circle
04154. Observed (True) Position Circle

The observed (true) position circle is the position circle based on the observed (true)
altitude of a heavenly body. See Chapter Five and separate entry for position circle.
04155. Observed (True) Zenith Distance (TZD)

The observed (true) zenith distance (TZD) is also known as the observed zenith
distance or the true zenith distance (TZD), and thus for the avoidance of doubt is referred to
in this book as observed (true) zenith distance (TZD). See Para 0508 and separate entry
for zenith distance.
04156. Observer’s Meridian

The observer’s meridian is the celestial meridian which passes through the
observer’s zenith (Z). See Para 04230 and Fig 4-1.

For the purposes of astro navigation, the observer’s zenith (Z) may be regarded as
the ‘geodetic zenith’, which is the point projected onto the celestial sphere by a line normal to
the Earth’s geodetic spheroid (see BR 45 Volume 1) at the observer’s location (ie a point
directly above the observer). The declination of this point (Z) on the celestial sphere
approximates to the observer’s latitude. See Para 0114.
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04158. Off/On the Arc

See separate entries under sextant.
04159. Parallax/Parallax in Altitude

In astro navigation, parallax is the difference in apparent direction when observing a
heavenly body from two different locations: from the Earth’s surface (ie when observed with
a sextant) and from the Earth’s centre (ie the position given in the Nautical Almanac). The
correction for the effect of parallax on sextant observations is known as the ‘parallax in
altitude’ (normally abbreviated simply to ‘parallax’) and depends on the apparent altitude and
the horizontal parallax. Horizontal parallax (HP) is the special case of parallax when the

heavenly body is on the horizon (ie the altitude is zero); the quantity ‘HP’ is tabulated in
almanacs. Parallax is only significant for relatively ‘nearby’ heavenly bodies (eg Sun, Moon
and some planets); it is insignificant for ‘distant’ objects (eg stars etc). See also separate
entry for horizontal parallax.
04160. Parallel of Declination

A parallel of declination corresponds to a terrestrial parallel of latitude and is a small
circle on the celestial sphere. The plane of this small circle is parallel to the plane of the
celestial equator. See Para 0105.
04161. Parallels of Latitude

See separate entry for latitude.
04162. Perpendicularity (error)

04163. Plane of the Celestial Horizon

Where it is convenient to show the whole visible sky, it may be drawn on the plane
of the celestial horizon, as if the celestial sphere was seen from a position directly above the
observer’s zenith (Z). Z appears in the centre of a circle which is the visible horizon. The
celestial equator appears as a curve offset from the centre by an amount equal to the
observer’s latitude. See Para 0503 and note.
04164. Polar (regions)

Polar regions may be defined as those within the Arctic or Antarctic Circles (66½° N
or S). This latitude is delineated by the Sun not being visible during the day at some point in
the year. See also separate entry for high latitude (polar) sights.
04165. Polar Distance (PX)

See separate entry for alternative title of ‘co-declination’.
04166. Polaris
See separate entry for alternative title of ‘pole star’.
04167. Polar Variation

Polar variation is a small movement of the Earth relative to the axis of rotation. Its
effects are corrected within UT/UT1 and it is not directly involved in the solution of the
navigation problem.
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04168. Pole Star

Polaris is the (current) northern pole star and is located almost exactly at the
celestial North pole, although this will not always be the case. Observation of the pole star
provides latitude and a bearing of true North after very simple calculations. There is no
useful equivalent to Polaris in the southern sky. See Para 0348 sub para j and Chapter 6.
Note. Polaris only became the pole star in about 500AD, and by about
3000AD it will have been replaced as the closest start to the pole by Gamma
Cephei. Gamma Cephei will most closely approximate the North pole from
about 4000AD, and will in turn be replaced as pole star in about 7500AD by

Alderamin. There is a 26,000 year cycle of pole stars caused by precession
of the Earth.
04169. Poles (of the Earth)

The geographic poles are the extremities of the axis of the Earth (not to be confused
with the magnetic poles).
04170. Position Circle

A position circle is a small circle on the celestial sphere projected onto the Earth’s
surface about a centre of the geographical position of a heavenly body. The radius of the
position circle is 90°- altitude of the heavenly body, converted to nautical miles (1° = 60nm).
See Chapter 5 and also separate entries for observed (true) position circle and
calculated (tabulated) position circle.
04171. Position Line

A position line may be based on observation or detection of some terrestrial or
astronomical information and represents a line on the Earth’s surface on which the observer
is believed to lie (indeed, must lie, provided that the observation is correct and the external
reference was correctly identified). Within the context of astro navigation the term ‘position
line’ is frequently used as a shorthand for ‘astronomical position line’, and this abbreviation is
used in this book where confusion is not likely to occur. See separate entry for
astronomical position line.
04172. Precession
Precession is the conical motion of the Earth’s rotational axis about the vertical to
the plane of the ecliptic. The result of precession is a slow westward movement of the
intersection between the plane of the celestial equator and the plane of the ecliptic, and thus
the equinox. For this reason precession is sometimes called precession of the equinoxes.
The time for one complete rotation of precession is approximately 25,800 years. See Para
0104 and Para 0522 sub para f.
04173. Precession of Equinoxes

See separate entries for precession (above) and equinoxes (spring and autumn).
04174. Prime Meridian

The Greenwich Meridian (0° longitude) is also called the prime meridian. See Para
0112.
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04175. Probable Position Area (PPA)

The probable position area (PPA) is the area derived from a combination of
appropriate position lines obtained from available navaids or astronomical observations,
after applying the relevant statistical error correction to each position line in turn. The PPA
may be shown on the chart as an ellipse and within the PPA a most probable position (MPP)
may be determined. See Para 0905 and also BR 45 Volume 1.
04176. Projection
A projection is a method of representing a spheroidal surface on a plane. See BR
45 Volume 1.

04177. PZX Triangle
The ‘PZX’ triangle is the abbreviation commonly used to refer to the spherical
triangle on the celestial sphere bounded by the elevated pole (P), the observer’s zenith (Z)
and the heavenly body (X). See Para 0501 and Para 0531.
04178. P'Z'X Triangle

The P’Z’X triangle is the mirror image of the PZX triangle, lying completely below the
celestial horizon (ie in the lower hemisphere) and is thus geared to the depressed pole. See
Para 0741.
04179. Rational Horizon

See separate entry for celestial horizon.
04180. Refraction
Refraction is the bending of light (or any other wave energy) when it passes from a
less dense to a more dense medium, or vice versa. See Para 0801 and also separate
entries for:
Abnormal refraction
Angle of incidence
Angle of refraction
Atmospheric refraction
Mean refraction
Refractive index (also known as the index of refraction)
Terrestrial refraction
04181. Refractive Index (μ)

The refractive index (μ) of a substance is a physical property of the substance,
which can be represented by a mathematical constant which allows calculation of the
amount by which light will be bent when it passes from that medium to another medium.
See Para 0802.
04182. Rhumb Line

A rhumb line is a line on the Earth’s surface which cuts meridians (of longitude) and
parallels (of latitude) at the same angle. It appears on Mercator projection charts as a
straight line and equates to the (true) compass course steered. It is not always the shortest
distance between two points on the surface of a sphere. See Para 0113.
04183. Right Ascension (RA)

Right ascension (RA) is the angular distance, measured eastwards (rather than
westwards as in SHA), from the meridian of the First Point of Aries (γ) to the meridian of the
heavenly body. ie RA = 360° - SHA. See Para 0106 and Para 0420.
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04184. Rise/Rising
See separate entries for true (theoretical) rising and setting (Sun and Moon) and
visible rising and setting (Sun and Moon).
04185. Run/Run-on, Run-back

Astro sights for a fix cannot in reality all be taken at the same instant; typically, star
sights will take place over a 10 or 15 minute period. To plot an accurate fix, the DR/EP for
each sight must be ‘run-on’ or ‘run-back’ (transferred) along the ship’s course and speed
(allowing for any tidal stream or current), to a common time; WECDIS will do this
automatically when the TOV of the fix is entered, as will NAVPAC provided the course and

speed is entered correctly). In the case of Sun-run-Sun sights or other similar running fixes,
the earlier sight is normally ‘run-on’ (transferred) to the time of the latter. Astronomical
position lines are displayed on paper charts with a single open arrowhead at each end and
transferred astronomical position lines with a double open arrowhead at each end. See
Para 0351 and note.
04186. Running Fix

A running fix involves transferring one position line to cross another. See BR 45
Volume 1 Para 0805.
04187. SAME (name)

Term used within HO 229 and NP 303 to indicate that declination and latitude within
the calculation have the same (North/South) ‘names’. See Para 0542 sub para b and also
separate entry for CONTRARY (name).
04188. Save/Saved/Saving
Save/saved/saving in the context of NAVPAC/WECDIS is the process of recording
data for future use. See Chapter 3.
04189. Scale
Scale is the ratio of units in a numerical system.
04190. Sea Horizon

See separate entry for visible horizon.
04191. Semi-Diameter
The semi-diameter of a heavenly body is half its angular diameter as viewed from
the Earth. See Chapter 3 and Chapter 7
04192. Set/Setting
See separate entries for true (theoretical) rising and setting (Sun and Moon), and
visible rising and setting (Sun and Moon).
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04193. Sextant
A sextant is the precision navigational instrument used for measuring the angle
between a heavenly body and the visible horizon, from the viewpoint of an observer. See
Para 0330 to Para 0339 for a full discussion of the marine sextant. The following
specific terms which define parts of the sextant are explained at Para 0331 to Para
0334 as indicated below:
Sextant: Arc. See Para 0331.
Sextant: Arc of Excess. See Para 0332.
Sextant: Clamp (Index Bar). See Para 0331.
Sextant: Collar. See Para 0331.

Sextant: Horizon Glass. See Para 0331.
Sextant: Index Bar. See Para 0331.
Sextant: Index Glass. See Para 0332 and Para 0334 sub para d.
Sextant: Index Mark. See Para 0331.
Sextant: Main Frame. See Para 0331.
Sextant: Micrometer Drum. See Para 0331 and Para 0336 sub para f.
Sextant: Milled Head. See Para 0334b.
Sextant: Off the Arc. See Para 0332.
Sextant: On the Arc. See Para 0332.
Sextant: Reading Lamp. See Para 0331.
Sextant: Shades. See Para 0331, Para 0336c, Para 0339e.
Sextant: Star Telescope. See Para 0335.
Sextant: Sun Telescope. See Para 0335.
Sextant: Telescope. See Para 0331.
Sextant altitude and sextant errors (various) are under separate entries.
04194. Sextant Altitude

The sextant altitude of a heavenly body is the angle measured by a sextant between
the visible horizon and the body, on a vertical circle towards the observer’s zenith (Z) and
must be corrected before use. See Para 0118 and separate entries for apparent altitude
and observed (true) altitude.
04195. Sextant: Collimation Error

Sextant collimation error is the variation from the parallel alignment of the axis of a
sextant telescope to the plane of the instrument. See Para 0336.
04196. Sextant: Index Error

The index error of a sextant is a variation from the parallel alignment of the plane of
the horizon glass to the plane of the index glass when the index bar is set to the zero
position on the arc of a sextant. See Para 0336.
04197. Sextant: Side Error

The side error of a sextant is a variation from the perpendicular alignment of the
horizon glass to the plane of the arc of the sextant. See Para 0336.
04198. Sextant: Perpendicularity (error)

Sextant perpendicularity is the perpendicular (90°) alignment of the index glass to
the plane of the arc of a sextant and the ‘error’ is any variation from this. See Para 0336.
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04199. Sidereal Day/Time

A sidereal day is the interval between two successive transits of the First Point of
Aries across the same meridian. The sidereal day is sub-divided into hours, minutes and
seconds. See Para 04243.
04200. Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA)

The sidereal hour angle (SHA) is the angular distance, measured westwards, from
the meridian of the First Point of Aries (γ) to the meridian of the heavenly body. It is almost
completely static for stars and is tabulated once per 3 days for each star and planet in the
Nautical Almanac. See Para 0106 and Fig 4-1.

04201. Sidereal Hours/Minutes
Sidereal hours/minutes are units derived directly from a sidereal day, using the
same divisions (24 hours/60 minutes) as in normal time. See Para 04243.
04202. Sinking (Mirage)

When a mirage is experienced, if the object appears lower and the visible horizon
seems closer to the observer, it is termed sinking. See Para 0808 sub para c.
04203. Small Circle

A small circle is the intersection of a spherical surface and a plane which does NOT
pass through the centre of the sphere. See Para 0110.
04204. Solar Day

Apparent Solar Day
Mean Solar Day
Day
04205 Solar Time

See separate entry for mean solar hour/mean solar time.
04206. Solstice
The summer solstice (21 June) and the winter solstice (22 December) are the
names given to the dates/times when the Sun’s position in the celestial sphere is directly
over the Tropic of Cancer (latitude 23½°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (latitude 23½°S)
respectively. At mer pass, an observer on the appropriate tropic would see the Sun directly
overhead and these dates correspond to the shortest and longest days in the appropriate
hemispheres. See Para 0103 sub para b.
04207. Spherical
The Earth’s physical surface does not have a perfectly spherical shape, but is
slightly flattened in the polar regions and its shape approximates to an ‘oblate’ spheroid.
Spherical Earth models assume a perfectly spherical Earth and position calculations are
based on spherical trigonometry which leads to variable errors from positions on the ‘real’
Earth. See Para 0342 and BR 45 Volume 1.
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04208. Spheroid/Spheroidal
Spheroidal Earth models are the closest approximation to the ‘true’ Earth shape (see
entry for ‘spherical’ above), although they are only an approximation. Numerous spheroid
(ellipsoid) Earth models are in existence, having been developed for various purposes; the
preferred NATO ‘geodetic datum’ and spheroid for mapping and charting products is
WGS 84. See Para 0342 and BR 45 Volume 1.
04209. Spring Equinox

See separate entry for equinoxes - Spring and Autumn.

04210. Standard Deviation (method of calculation)
Standard deviation is a mathematical treatment which is particularly useful in
processing error data. It uses ‘root mean square’ techniques to obtain a more useful output
of errors. See Para 0902 and also BR 45 Volume 1.
04211. Standard Legal Time

Standard legal time (often known simply as ‘legal time’) is the time zone kept on land
and is decided by national laws. In countries extending over large east-west distances (eg
USA), different standard legal times may be kept in separate geographical areas within a
country. Such variations may have their own regional designators. See Para 0201 and Para
0202, as well as Figs 2-1 and Fig 2-2 and separate entries for time zones and zone
time.
04212. Standard (or Zone) Time

The standard (or zone) time appropriate to longitude is usually referred to as ‘zone
time’ and is the time zone normally kept at sea (with the exception of submarines). It should
NOT be confused with standard legal time/legal time. See Chapter 2 and separate entries
for:
Standard legal time (sometimes abbreviated to ‘legal time’)
Standard time zones (sometimes abbreviated to ‘time zones’)
Zone time
04213. Standard Time Zones/Time Zones

Standard time zone is the generic term given to all time zones within the uniform
time system, both on land and sea. A chart showing these zones is published by the UK
Hydrographic Office (UKHO) and is reproduced at Figs 2-1 and 2-2. See Chapter 2.
04214. Station Pointer

A station pointer was a large navigational instrument (now obsolete) for plotting
angles and bearings on a paper chart. It has been rendered redundant in RN usage by the
introduction of WECDIS but may still be encountered elsewhere. See BR 45 Volume 1
Para 0808.
04215. Stooping (Mirage)

When a mirage is experienced, if the lower part of an object observed is raised more
than the top and the object appears shorter overall, it is termed stooping. See Para 0808
sub para b.
04216. Summer Solstice

See separate entry for solstice.
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04217. Sun
See separate entries for mean Sun and true Sun.
04218. Sunrise, Sunset

See separate entries, which co-ordinate all variants, for: true (theoretical) rising and
setting (Sun and Moon), and visible rising and setting (Sun and Moon).
04219. Supplementary Azimuth

Supplementary azimuth is the geometric ‘supplement’ of azimuth (ie azimuth +
supplementary azimuth = 180°). See Para 0742.

04220. Tabulated Altitude (from HO 229/NP 303)
On entering HO 229/NP 303, the table provides tabulated altitude (Hc). Tabulated
altitude (Hc) results from using ‘round-figure’ integer arguments of LHA, latitude and
declination. Although the differences from the exact LHA and the exact DR/EP latitude can
be resolved by plotting, interpolation for declination is required to establish the exact
calculated altitude. See Para 0522 and separate entries for:
Calculated (tabulated) altitude
Corrected tabulated altitude (corr tab alt)
04221. Tabulated Declination (used with HO 229/NP 303)

The tabulated declination is the declination figure for the whole number of hours of
the observation and must be corrected by the “d”/“d corrn” (declination correction from The
Nautical Almanac) for the outstanding minutes and seconds. See Para 0522 sub para b
and also separate entry for “d”/“d corrn” (declination correction from the Nautical
Almanac).
04222. Tabulated Zenith Distance

See separate entry for calculated (tabulated) zenith distance (CZD).
04223. Terrestrial Refraction

The bending of the light which is approaching the observer on or near the surface of
the Earth is called terrestrial refraction and affects the dip of the visible horizon. See Para
0802.
04224. The Nautical Almanac

The Nautical Almanac, published by HM Nautical Almanac Office (itself part of
UKHO) contains ephemeral data for the Sun, Moon, Aries, Stars and Planets (including
rising/setting data), plus direct computation sight reduction procedures and concise sight
reduction tables.
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04225. Time
Apparent Solar Day/Time
Astronomical Day
Civil Day
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
Daylight Saving Time (DST)
Deck Watch Time
Equation of Time
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

International Atomic Time (TAI)
International Date Line (IDL)
Legal Time - see separate entry for Standard Legal Time
Local Mean Time (LMT)
Local Sidereal Time (LST)
Lunar Day
Mean Solar Day
Mean Solar Hour/Minute/Time
Sidereal Day/Time
Sidereal Hour/Minute
Solar Day
Solar Time
Standard Legal Time
Standard (or Zone) Time Standard Time Zones
Summer Time - see separate entry for Daylight Saving Time (DST)
Time Errors
Time Zones - see separate entry for Standard Time Zones
Uniform Time System
Universal Coordinated Time - see Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
Universal Time (UT or UT1)
Zone Time - see separate entry for Standard (or Zone) Time
All variations of hour Angle will be found listed separately under hour angles.
04226. Time Errors

Time errors in calculating astronomical position lines are generally infrequent or
minor, given the current generation of digital deck watches and time standard equipment
embarked in most naval ships. The most likely errors are to misread the deck watch by a full
minute at the time of observation (particularly if the analogue minute and second hands are
not perfectly aligned), or to apply any known deck watch error with the incorrect sign. Any
error in time will give rise to an error in the calculated (tabulated) altitude, equivalent to a
displacement in longitude by an amount equal to the error in hour angle expressed in
minutes of arc. When the azimuth of the body observed is 0° or 180° this error is zero (ie
position line is East-West), and is a maximum when the azimuth of the body observed is 90°
(ie position line is North-South). When converting the longitude error to nautical miles, the
same error in time will have a greater effect in distance at the Equator than in high latitudes
due to the compression of meridians with latitude. This error distance may be plotted or
calculated. See Para 0903.
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04227. Time Zones

See separate entry for standard time zones.
04228. Total Darkness

Total darkness occurs when the centre of the Sun is more than 18° below the
celestial horizon (ie beyond astronomical twilight). See Para 0108 and Para 0725.
04229. Towering (Mirage)

When a mirage is experienced, if the object appears taller than usual, it is termed
towering. See Para 0808 sub para b.

04230. Transferred Position Lines
See separate entry for run/run-on, run-back.
04231. True Altitude

See separate entry for observed (true) altitude.
04232. True Bearing (of a heavenly body)

The true bearing of a heavenly body is its direction seen from an observer and this is
measured conventionally as the angle from the meridian of True North measured clockwise,
ie. 0° to 360°. See Para 0117 and Chapter 5.
04233. True Sun

The true Sun is the body which gives light and heat to the Earth. However,
variations in the apparent speed of the true Sun along the ecliptic make the hour angle of the
true Sun an impractical unit of measurement. To overcome this and yet retain a link to the
true Sun (which in reality governs much of life on Earth), a ‘mean Sun’ is used instead.
See Para 04265 and also separate entry for mean Sun.
04234. True (Theoretical) Moonrise and Moonset

See separate entry for true (theoretical) rising and setting (Sun & Moon) below.
04235. True (Theoretical) Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon)

The time of true (theoretical) rising and setting occurs when the centre of a
heavenly body is on the observer’s celestial horizon, to the east or west of his meridian. At
these times the true zenith distance is 90°. Except in the case of the Moon, this
phenomenon cannot be observed directly from the Earth’s surface due to atmospheric
refraction raising the image of the body appreciably above the visible horizon.
True (theoretical) Sunrise/Sunset must NOT be confused with visible Sunrise Sunset
The special cases affecting the Sun and Moon are as follows:
a. The Moon. When the Moon’s centre lies on the celestial horizon, due to
horizontal parallax, the Moon’s centre appears practically on the visible horizon.
See Para 0702.
b. The Sun. When the Sun’s centre lies on the celestial horizon, the Sun’s lower
limb appears one semi-diameter above the visible horizon. See Para 0107, Para
0702 and Para 0723.
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04236. True Zenith Distance (TZD)

See separate entry for observed (true) zenith distance (TZD).
04237. Twilight
Astronomical Twilight (AT)
Evening Civil Twilight (ECT)
Evening Nautical Twilight (ENT)
Midnight Sun
Morning Civil Twilight (MCT)

Morning Nautical Twilight (MNT)
Total Darkness

At sea the world is divided into twenty-four time zones. Each zone is 15° wide and
in each zone is numbered and lettered; this arrangement is known as ‘standard (or zone)
time’. The 12th zone is divided by the International Date Line (IDL), the part to the west
being -12 and that to the east +12. The zone number indicates the number of hours by
which zone time must be decreased or increased to obtain universal time (UT). On land,
countries may modify the standard (or zone) time to suit local needs. The time zone kept on
land is decided by national laws and is known as standard legal time (or ‘legal time’). See
Chapter 2.
04239. Universal Time (UT or UT1)

Universal time (UT or UT1) is the mean solar time (MST) of the prime meridian
obtained from direct astronomical observation and corrected for the effects of small
movements of the Earth relative to the axis of rotation (polar variation). See Chapter 2.
04240. Upper Limb (UL)

The upper limb of the Sun or Moon is the portion of its circumference furthest from
the visible horizon, as seen from an observer on the Earth’s surface. See Para 0704.
04241. Upper Mer Pass/Upper Meridian Passage (of a heavenly body)

Upper mer pass/upper meridian passage is normally called mer pass/meridian
passage. See Chapter 6.
04242. “v corrn”/“v” (velocity correction from The Nautical Almanac)

“v”/“v corrn” is a velocity correction to the hourly difference in Greenwich hour angle,
tabulated in the Nautical Almanac and is used with the (yellow) ‘increments and corrections’
tables at the back of the Nautical Almanac to calculate the precise Greenwich hour angle of
the Sun, Moon or Planets with NP 400 (Sight Form) and HO 229 method of solving the PZX
triangle. See Para 0543 sub para b.

All great circles passing through the observer’s zenith (Z) are necessarily
perpendicular to the celestial horizon and are known as vertical circles. See Para 0119.
04244. Vertical Sextant Angle (VSA)

See BR 45 Volume 1.
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04245. Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights

Very high angle (tropical) sights are those observations of heavenly bodies where
the zenith distances (90° - observed (true) altitudes), when converted to nautical miles, are
so small as to make it necessary to plot them as circles, centred on the geographic positions
of the bodies. In practice, very high altitude (tropical) sights may only be usefully observed
between sextant altitudes of about 88½°-89½° and in these circumstances, it is possible to
obtain a three position line fix around the time of the Sun’s mer pass in a period of about 10
minutes. There are also some practical difficulties in observing a heavenly body with a
sextant at an altitude approaching 90°. See Chapter 5.

04246. Visible Hemisphere
The celestial horizon divides the celestial sphere into hemispheres; the upper
(containing the observer’s zenith ‘Z’) is known as the visible hemisphere and the other as the
lower hemisphere. Subject to atmospheric refraction, all heavenly bodies in the visible
hemisphere are visible to the observer but bodies in the lower hemisphere cannot be seen.
See Para 0502.

The visible horizon (also known as the ‘horizon’ or ‘sea horizon’) is the position on
the Earth’s surface where a line of sight from an observer, at a given height of eye and in
given conditions of refraction, meets the Earth’s surface at a tangent to that surface. The
visible horizon appears as a circle bounding the observer’s view at sea. See Para 0116 and
separate entries for celestial horizon, and the plane of the celestial horizon.
04248. Visible Moonrise and Moonset

See separate entry for visible rising and setting (Sun and Moon).
04249. Visible Rising and Setting (Sun and Moon)

Visible rising and setting occur when the upper limb of a heavenly body is just
appearing above or disappearing below the observer’s visible horizon. In the cases of the
Sun and Moon, the tables in the Nautical Almanac give the times at which these phenomena
occur.
True (theoretical) rising/setting must NOT be confused with visible rising/setting
See Chapter 7.
04250. Visible Setting


04252. Waning (of Moon)

‘Waning’ is the name given to the change in the Moon’s phases when it moves from
a full Moon, through the last quarter to a new Moon. During this period, the part of the Moon
visible to an observer on Earth decreases day-by-day. See Para 04249.
04253. Waxing (of Moon)

‘Waxing’ is the name given to the change in the Moon’s phases when it moves from
a new Moon, through the first quarter to a full Moon. During this period, the part of the Moon
visible to an observer on Earth increases day-by-day. See Para 0452.
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04254. WGS 84 (Geodetic Datum and Spheroid)

WGS 84 is the preferred NATO geodetic datum and spheroid for mapping and
charting products. Most command systems, and all WECDIS/ECDIS, will operate in WGS
84. Full details of WGS 84 are in BR 45 Volume 1.
04255. Winter Solstice

See separate entry for solstice.
04256. Zenith
See separate entry for observer’s zenith (Z).

04257. Zenith Distance
The zenith distance is the angular distance between the observer’s zenith and the
position of a heavenly body. See Para 0524 and separate entries for calculated
(tabulated) zenith distance, and observed (true) zenith distance.
04258. Zone Time

See separate entry for standard (or zone) time.
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SECTION 2 - HOUR ANGLES
04259. Hour Angles - Explanation and Definitions

Hour angles and their specific variants were introduced at Para 0106 but may be
defined more precisely as follows:
a. Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA). The sidereal hour angle (SHA) is the angular
distance, measured westwards, from the meridian of the first point of Aries (γ) to the
meridian of the heavenly body (Fig 4-1). It is almost completely static for stars and
is tabulated once per three days for each star and planet in the Nautical Almanac.

The SHA of a planet is only used when using the Nautical Almanac planet diagram
or setting a star identifier or star globe (see Para 0124, Para 0307 and Annex 5A).
Note. At Fig 4-1, the SHA of star X is labelled and is also represented by the
Angular Distance γ X (measured westwards).
b. Right Ascension (RA). Right ascension (RA) is the angular distance,

measured eastwards (rather than westwards as in SHA), from the meridian of the
first point of aries (γ) to the meridian of the heavenly body, ie. RA = 360° - SHA.
This measurement is mostly used by astronomers but has a navigational application
when using the star identifier and star globe (see Para 0307 and Annex 5A). RA is
not labelled on Fig 4-1 to Fig 4-3.
Note. At Fig 4-1, the RA of star X is NOT labelled but is represented by the
Angular Distance γ X measured eastwards (ie 360°-γ X measured
westwards).
c. Greenwich Hour Angles (GHA). The Greenwich hour angle (GHA) is the
angular distance, measured westwards from the projection of the Greenwich
meridian onto the celestial sphere and the meridian of the heavenly body. The GHA
of the first point aries (γ ) and the GHAs of the Sun, Moon and planets are tabulated
second-by-second in the Nautical Almanac. Adding SHA of the body to the GHA of
Aries (γ ) (minus 360° if required) gives the GHA of the body. See Fig 4-1 and Para
0421-0422.
Note. At Fig 4-1, the GHA of star X and the GHA of γ are both labelled and
are also represented by the Angular Distances GX and Gγ respectively (both
measured westwards).
d. Local Hour Angle (LHA). The local hour angle (LHA) is the angular distance,
measured westwards, of the projection of the observer’s meridian onto the celestial
sphere and the meridian of the heavenly body. It equates to the GHA of the body
+/- the observer’s longitude. See Fig 4-1 and Para 0421-0422.
Note. At Fig 4-1, the LHAs of star X measured westwards from the observer
O at H and K are labelled, and are also represented by the Angular
Distances O(H)X and O(K)X respectively.
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04260. Hour Angles and Declination - Pictorial Representation & Standard

Nomenclature
Key celestial sphere definitions from above are shown in pictorial form at Fig 4-1
below, which is viewed from the Greenwich celestial meridian. Fig 4-1 also adopts the
standard nomenclature convention for lettering astro navigation diagrams which will be
followed through the remainder of this book. Reading from the celestial poles and then left
to right, the nomenclature is as follows:
P, P’ The north and south celestial poles
Q, Q’ The celestial equator
O Observer’s meridian - may be suffixed K or H as appropriate, see O(H),

O(K)
O(H) Observer’s meridian when observer is at H (longitude West)
X Celestial meridian of a heavenly body (may be either side of G)
G Greenwich celestial meridian
γ Celestial meridian of the first point of aries (γ)
O(K) Observer’s meridian when observer is at K (longitude East)
Z The observer’s zenith (Z) is not shown in Fig 4-1
RA The right ascension (360°- SHA) is not shown in Fig 4-1
Fig 4-1. Hour Angles and Declination

(Viewed from Greenwich Celestial Meridian)
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04261. Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) and Local Hour Angle (LHA) of a Heavenly Body
a. GHA. From the definition at Para 04257 sub para c, it can be seen at Fig 4-1
and Fig 4-2 that the angular distance GX represents the GHA of the heavenly body.
While the GHA is tabulated in the Nautical Almanac second-by-second for the Sun,
Moon, planets and Aries (γ ), to do so for all 57 stars would produce an
unacceptably large publication, running to several volumes. However, the GHA of a
star can easily be found instead, by adding the SHA of the star (which is an almost
fixed value and represented by the angular distance γX), to the tabulated GHA of
Aries (GHA γ ), represented by the angular distance Gγ ).

b. LHA. By adding or subtracting (+E,- W) the Angular Distance of the Longitude
of the Observer’s Meridian (either O(H) or O(K) at Fig 4-2; for simplicity abbreviated
to H or K below), to the Greenwich Hour Angle GX, the Local Hour Angle (HX or
KX) of the heavenly body, measured westwards, is found (see example).
Fig 4-2. GHA and LHA of a Heavenly Body.
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c. LHA Calculation - Observer East of Greenwich. In the case of an observer

east of the Greenwich meridian at O(K) - for simplicity abbreviated to K below - the
calculation for a star is as follows (GHA of Sun, Moon and planets are tabulated):
GHA γ = Gγ (Stars only) (measured clockwise)

SHA of X = γX (Stars only) (measured clockwise)
GHA of X = GX = γX + Gγ (-360° if req) (measured clockwise)
Longitude = GK (measured anti-clockwise)
LHA of X = KGX = GX +KG (measured clockwise)
= GHA + Longitude (East)

d. LHA Calculation - Observer West of Greenwich. In the case of an observer
west of the Greenwich meridian at O(H) - for simplicity abbreviated to H below - the
calculation is as follows:
GHA γ and SHA of X calculations for GHA of stars as at Para 0422c above.
GHA of X = GX (measured clockwise. 360° may be added if required)
Longitude = GH (measured clockwise ie. the long way round)
LHA of X = HX (measured clockwise ie. the long way round)
= GX + (360° - GH)
= GX - GH (since any sum greater than 360° is unaffected
if 360° is subtracted)
= GHA - Longitude (West)
e. LHA Calculation - Summary. The above calculations can be summarised as

follows:
GHA of the Sun, Moon and Planets is Tabulated in The Nautical Almanac.
GHA of a Star = GHA γ + SHA of X, + or - 360° if required
LHA of a heavenly body (X) = GHA of X + Observer’s Longitude (East)
or, = GHA of X - Observer’s Longitude (West)
Example. If the SHA of a star in Fig 4-2 is 166° 19.2', the GHA of γ is 256° 20.0', the
Longitude of the Meridian through H is 164° 47´W, and that of the Meridian through K is 121°
13É then the LHA can be calculated as follows:
Example 4-1. Summary of LHA Calculation
At H At K
GHA of γ 256° 20.0' GHA of γ 256° 20.0'
SHA of X + 166° 19.2' SHA of X + 166° 19.2'
*GHA of X 422° 39.2 GHA of X 422° 39.2
- 360° 00.0'
GHA of X 422° 39.2 GHA of X 062° 39.0'
Longitude (W) - 164° 47.0' Longitude (E) + 121° 13.0'
LHA of X 257° 52.2' LHA of X 183° 52.0'
Note. If the GHA of a body is less than the numerical value of the observer’s
Longitude (W), then 360° may be added to the GHA when calculating LHA.
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SECTION 3 - SOLAR TIME
04262. Purpose
Sections 3-5 of Chapter 4, concerning solar, sidereal and lunar time, are primarily for
Royal Navy officers holding or studying for the ‘Specialist N’ qualification. Due to the advent
of time systems based on atomic-standard clocks (see Chapter 2), computer programs
capable of instantaneous reduction of astro navigation sights (see Chapter 3) and the
withdrawal of the sidereal stop watch (previously used for one variant of manual rapid sight
reduction), a knowledge of solar, sidereal and lunar time is of less significance now than
hitherto. However, solar time information is still extant in the maritime domain and is

published in the daily pages of the Nautical Almanac. Implicit with their ‘expert’ status, it
remains relevant for the Navigation Specialists of the Royal Navy to retain a knowledge of
the astronomical factors involved in ‘time’ as part of their general understanding of the
workings of the celestial sphere. The following paragraphs provide a readily available
reference for this subject.
04263. The Solar Day and Solar Time

The basis of time measurement in astro navigation is the period of rotation of the
Earth. The rotation of the Earth results in the apparent rotation of the celestial sphere with
relation to a fixed observer, so that heavenly bodies appear to be crossing and returning to
the observer’s meridian once a day. A ‘day’ is the interval that elapses between two
successive transits of a heavenly body across the same meridian. All heavenly bodies
are thus timekeepers but some are more useful than others. The Sun is not a perfect
timekeeper as it is relatively close to the Earth and its apparent speed along the ecliptic is
not constant. However, the Sun is central to life on Earth and because of this, throughout
history it has been used for timekeeping purposes. These range from the simple constraints
of only being able to work in the fields during daytime, to the complex sundials of the type
built by Henry VIII at the Royal Palace of Hampton Court.
04264. The Apparent Solar Day

The interval that elapses between two successive transits of the Sun across the
same meridian is an apparent solar day. By the time the Earth has made one revolution
(360°) measured against a star crossing the observer’s meridian, the Earth will have moved
along its orbit and its position relative to the Sun will have altered by a measurable amount.
Thus for the Sun to cross the observer’s meridian for a second time the Earth will have
rotated slightly more than one 360° rotation. Depending on its position in the annual orbit,
this difference can be up to 1° of rotation (ie. 361°). This is complicated by the Earth not
moving along its elliptical orbit around the Sun at a constant speed. Its speed is greatest
when nearest the Sun and least when furthest from the Sun; thus the difference is a variable
amount both in quantity and sign (see Para 04241). Due to these factors the apparent
solar day is NOT a time interval of fixed length.
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04265. The True Sun and the Mean Sun

The apparently ‘irregular’ movement of the Sun (see Para 04262) is revealed to an
observer on Earth by variations in the apparent speed of the Sun along the ecliptic. If this
motion is projected on to the celestial equator, the hour angle of the Sun (referred to
hereafter as the ‘true Sun’) may be measured, and as expected, this shows a non-uniform
rate of change. The hour angle of the true Sun does not therefore give a practical unit of
measurement. To overcome this difficulty, and yet retain a link to the true Sun (which in
reality governs much of life on Earth), a ‘mean Sun’ is introduced, defined as follows:
The mean Sun is an imaginary body which is assumed to move in the celestial

equator at a uniform speed around the Earth and to complete one (360°) revolution in
the time taken by the true Sun to complete one (360°) revolution in the ecliptic.
04266. The Mean Solar Day/Time and UT , the Civil Day and the Astronomical Day
a. The Mean Solar Day. The interval between two successive transits of the
mean Sun across the same meridian is called the mean solar day. In one mean
solar day the mean Sun moves westwards from the meridian and completes one
circuit of 360° in longitude in the 24 mean solar hours into which the mean solar day
is divided. The rate of travel of the mean Sun is thus 15° of longitude per hour,
and thus 1° of longitude is equivalent to 4 minutes of time.
b. Mean Solar Time, UT and GMT. The mean solar hour is divided into minutes
and seconds; it equates exactly to the UT/UT1 and GMT hour (Para 0209 and Para
0210).
c. The Civil Day and the Astronomical Day. The civil day (which uses the
am/pm notation) and the astronomical day (which uses 24 hour notation) both
contain 24 mean solar hours (abbreviated hereafter ‘hours’). The civil day and the
astronomical day are deemed to start at midnight (when the sun is at its lower transit
of the observer’s meridian - ie its hour angle is exactly 12 hours before/after its
upper transit of the observer’s meridian when the mean Sun is at its highest point in
the daytime sky).
04267. Local Mean Time (LMT) and Universal Time (UT) /Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
a. Local Mean Time (LMT). Local mean time (LMT) is the mean time kept at any
place when the local hour angle of the mean Sun is measured from meridian of that
place. However, as the local hour angle of the mean Sun is measured from the
Greenwich meridian and the civil/astronomical day are both measured from 180° (12
hours) from the Greenwich meridian (see Para 04264 sub para c), LMT is defined as
follows:
LMT at any instant is the local hour angle of the mean Sun at that instant, measured
westwards from the meridian of that place, +/- 12 hours.
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b. Universal Time (UT)/Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Greenwich mean time

(GMT) is the local mean time on the Greenwich meridian, but has been largely
replaced by the term UT. However, as the local hour angle of the mean Sun is
measured from the Greenwich meridian and the civil/astronomical day are both
measured from 180° (12 hours) from the Greenwich meridian (see Para 04264 sub
para c), GMT (and also UT) are defined as follows:
UT/GMT is the Greenwich hour angle of the mean Sun at that instant, +/- 12 hours.
04268. Longitude and Time

Since all places on earth are identified by reference to the Greenwich meridian,
longitude must provide the connection between LMT at any place and UT/GMT. Take for
example, New York which is roughly 75° west of Greenwich. The mean Sun, travelling west
at 15° per hour covers this angular distance in five hours, thus New York is ‘five hours west
of Greenwich’. When the mean Sun reaches New York’s meridian, its local hour angle with
reference to this meridian is zero hours, but with reference to the Greenwich meridian it is
five hours, because that is the period since the mean Sun crossed the Greenwich meridian.
Similarly, when the mean Sun crosses the Greenwich meridian, the local hour angle in New
York is (24 hours - 5 hours) = 19 hours. It can be seen that this calculation may also trigger
a date change. What has been shown for this example of New York holds good in principle
for any other place, and leads to the rule at Para 04267 of applying longitude (expressed in
time) to convert the LMT on one meridian to/from the LMT on the Greenwich meridian
(UT/GMT).
04269. Conversion between UT/GMT and LMT

Applying the principle at Para 04267, the following rules (also at Para 0205) are
established:
If a longitude is West, ADD the time equivalent of the longitude when changing from
local mean time to GMT (and vice versa - SUBTRACT if changing from UT/GMT to LMT).
If a longitude is East, SUBTRACT the time equivalent of the longitude when changing
from local mean time to GMT (and vice versa - ADD if changing from UT/GMT to LMT).
Examples. What are the LMTs if UT/GMT is 23 hrs 31 mins 25 secs on 14 September, (1)
at 48° West, and (2) at 22½° East. Note that this is changing from UT/GMT to LMT.
Examples. Worked Examples of Converting UT/GMT to LMT

(Note that the date has also changed in the second example at 22½° East)
Example 1: at 48° West Example 2: at 22½° East
Date Hrs Mins Secs Date Hrs Mins Secs
14 Sep UT/GMT 23 31 25 14 Sep UT/GMT 23 31 25
Long W. (-) 03 12 00 Long E. (+) 01 30 00
14 Sep LMT (48°W) 20 19 25 15 Sep LMT (22½°E) 01 01 25
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It is clearly impracticable for each place to keep the time in its own meridian, nor is it
practicable for places all over the world to keep the same time. Thus the system of
‘standard (or zone) time’ which includes dates has been agreed internationally (see Para
0201 to Para 0204). UT/GMT is used as the standard time zone for worldwide reference
books such as the Nautical Almanac, is the time zone in which ship’s chronometers and
deck watches are kept and is also used for signal message date-time-groups (DTGs). It
should be noted that tide tables, which are specific to local areas, normally provide
information in standard legal time (see Para 0202) but care must be exercised when any
daylight saving time (DST) is in force.

04271. The Equation of Time
Although the assumption of an imaginary mean Sun makes the ordinary clock
possible, this same assumption also gives rise to a problem. The navigator, seeking to fix
the vessel’s position by the Sun, necessarily measures the altitude of the true Sun, and the
true Sun keeps apparent solar time (Paras 04262 to Para 04264). The instant of this
observation is from a deck watch which keeps mean solar tme. The navigator must be able
to connect mean solar time with apparent solar tme. The connection is the ‘equation of time’
which is defined as:
The equation of time is the difference of mean solar time from apparent solar time
Equation of time = LHA mean Sun - LHA true Sun
The value of the equation of time varies in size and sign depending on the seasonal position
of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun (Para 04262). On about 15 April, 14 June, 1
September and 24 December it becomes zero and changes sign; its extreme values are +14
and -16 minutes. The value of the equation of time is tabulated in the Nautical Almanac
twice daily. To overcome these difficulties, the tables in the Nautical Almanac allow for the
equation of time and are entered with the argument of UT(GMT). No further correction is
needed.
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SECTION 4 - SIDEREAL TIME
04272. Purpose
See Para 04260 for an explanation of the purpose of Sections 3-5 of Chapter 4.
04273. The Sidereal Day and Sidereal Time

It was stated at Para 04261 that a ‘day’ is the interval that elapses between two
successive transits of a heavenly body across the same meridian. All heavenly bodies are
thus timekeepers but some are more convenient than others. If the heavenly body selected
for observation is a star, the interval between successive transits across the same meridian

is known as a ‘sidereal day’, to distinguish it from a ‘solar day’ (or more fully, an apparent
solar day or a mean solar day - see Para 04262 to Para 04264). The sidereal day is sub-
divided into hours, minutes and seconds. For convenience, the first point of Aries (γ) is
taken instead of an actual star (see Para 0104) and the sidereal day is therefore defined as
follows:
A sidereal day is the interval between two successive transits of the first point of
Aries across the same meridian.
04274. Length of the Sidereal Day

It was established at Para 04262 that the Earth rotates through about 361° during
one apparent solar day, whereas during a sidereal day the Earth completes exactly one
revolution (360°), measured against any distant star crossing the observer’s meridian.
Although the sidereal day provides a precise and regular time interval, due to variations in
the length of the apparent solar day of between +14 and -16 minutes (see Para 04262 and
04269), the numerical difference between the sidereal day and the apparent solar day is also
a variable amount both in quantity and sign. However, the difference between the sidereal
day and the mean solar day is reasonably constant at about four minutes, which is the extra
time taken by Earth to turn through the extra amount.
In summary, the sidereal day is not a practical unit of time in a world governed by the
Sun, and except in observatories where it has uses in providing time intervals, it may
be ignored for clock purposes but see Para 04273 below for its important use as an
angular distance.

Notwithstanding its limitations of use as a clock system, sidereal time as an angular
distance is of real importance to the navigator because it enters the problem of establishing
a star’s hour angle and thus helps solve the navigational problem. The navigator is not
concerned with the duration of time which has elapsed since the first point of Aries (γ)
crossed the local meridian, otherwise the sidereal hour and the sidereal minute - time units
derived from the sidereal day and differing slightly from mean solar day/hour/minute - would
become involved and the connection between the two sets of units would have to be
investigated more thoroughly. This labour, however, is avoided when the navigator treats
sidereal time as an angular distance, because the units of arc in which he expresses it are
constant units suitable for expressing the angular distance of any heavenly body from his
meridian. To express the angular distance of the first point of Aries (γ) from an observer’s
meridian, ‘local sidereal time’ is defined as follows:
Local sidereal time (LST) is defined as the LHA of first point of Aries (γ).
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04276. Relationship between UT/GMT and GHA Aries (γ )

The movement of the mean Sun in the celestial equator (see Para 04263) enables a
relation to be established between the UT/GMT at which a star is observed and its
Greenwich hour angle at that instant.
a. Relationship of Mean Sun’s GHA and SHA, and its UT/GMT. The mean
Sun’s uniform movement in the celestial sphere, along which path the sidereal hour
angles are measured, implies an equally uniform decrease in the mean Sun’s
sidereal hour angle during the year. Point X, which lies on the celestial equator in
Fig 4-3, may therefore be taken as the mean Sun at the moment under

consideration. Just as a star’s Greenwich hour angle and a star’s sidereal hour
angle are related (see Para 04257 sub para c), it is apparent from Fig 4-3, that the
mean Sun’s Greenwich hour angle and the mean Sun’s sidereal hour angle are
similarly related as follows:
GHA Aries (γ ) = GHA Mean Sun - SHA Mean Sun + (360° if req)
But as shown at Para 04265 sub para b:
GHA Mean Sun = UT +/- 12 hours
∴ GHA Aries (¡ ) = UT +/- 12 hours - SHA Mean Sun + (360° if req)
b. Tabulation of GHA Aries (γ) Against UT. The SHA mean Sun decreases at a
constant rate and can be predicted for any instant. It is thus possible to calculate
GHA Aries at any instant. GHA Aries (γ) is tabulated against UT in the Nautical
Almanac.
Fig 4-3. Mean Sun’s SHA, GHA of (γ) and Mean Sun’s GHA
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SECTION 5 - LUNAR AND PLANETARY TIME
04277. The Hour Angle of the Moon
a. Relationship of Moon’s GHA, Moon’s SHA and UT/GMT. If two successive

transits of the Moon were observed across the same meridian, the interval between
them would be one lunar day. As shown at Fig 4-4, since the Moon itself is
describing an orbit around the Earth in the same direction as the Earth’s spin, the
interval between the two transits of the same meridian would be longer than the
mean solar day.

Fig 4-4. The Orbit of the Moon during a Mean Solar Day (Not to Scale)
At Fig 4-4, AA´ is a measure of the mean solar day, but while the Earth has moved
from A to A´, the Moon has reached C, and so the Earth will have to turn through a
further angle approximately equal to BÁĆ before it is on the Observer’s meridian
again. (Distances in Fig 4-4 are not to scale; as the Sun is so far away, the lines
shown as ‘observer’s meridian’ at A and A’ are in reality almost parallel.) The time
taken to turn the extra angle BÁĆ varies between 39 and 64 minutes but averages
50 minutes. The units derived from the lunar day are lunar units. It is not
necessary, however, to work in lunar units to find the hour angle of the Moon. The
formula for the hour angle of a heavenly body (see Para 04257 sub para c and Para
04264) applies equally to the Moon, thus:
GHA Aries (γ ) = GHA Moon - SHA Moon + (360° if req)

But as shown in Para 04265 sub para b:
GHA Moon = UT +/- 12 hours
∴ GHA Aries (γ ) = UT +/- 12 hours - SHA Moon + (360° if
req)
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b. Tabulation of GHA Moon Against UT/GMT. The SHA of the Moon can be
predicted and when combined with GHA Aries (γ) as above, gives GHA Moon. As a
result of such calculations, GHA Moon is tabulated against UT in the Nautical
Almanac.
04278. The Lunation or Lunar Month
a. Length of the Lunar Month. The lunation or lunar month is the interval
between two successive new moons (when the Moon lies in a straight line between

the Earth and the Sun and therefore appears ‘black’) and is important in tidal
prediction. The Moon makes one complete revolution about the Earth in 27⅓ mean
solar days, but if the Moon were a new moon at the beginning of this period, when
the Earth is at A in Fig 4-5, it would not be a new moon at the end of the period,
because it would not lie in a straight line with the Sun and the Earth, which is now at
B. To achieve this position it must move along its orbit round the Earth, and while
this is happening, the Earth continues along its own orbit round the sun to a position
C. A further 21/6 mean solar days (approximately) elapse before the Moon is again a
new moon, and a lunation or lunar month is therefore equivalent to (271/3 + 21/6) or
29½ mean solar days.
Fig 4-5. The Lunar Month
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b. Time Difference of Lunar Day and Mean Solar Day. During a lunar month the
Moon must cross the observer’s meridian once fewer times than the Sun, and this
fact establishes the 50-minute difference between the mean solar day and the lunar
day because:
28½ Lunar Days = 29½ Mean Solar Days

∴ 1 Lunar Day = 29½ Mean Solar Days divided by 28½
∴ 1 Lunar Day = 24 hours and 50 minutes (Mean Solar Time)
04279. Phases of the Moon

a. Tabulated Data in Nautical Almanac. On each three-day double tabular page,
the Nautical Almanac tabulates the semi-diameter of the Moon for each day, the age
of the Moon in days, its percentage illuminated each day and a symbol indicating the
phase for 1200 (UT) on the middle day. Full moons are indicated by a white circle
and new moons by a black circle, with intermediate phase diagrams indicating the
proportion of the Moon which is illuminated. These intermediate phase diagrams do
not indicate which side of the Moon is illuminated from all latitudes but are set for UK
and other (mostly northerly) latitudes where the Sun passes to the south at meridian
passage (see Para 0325 sub para a). The dates and times of the Moon’s phases for
the entire year are given in UT on Page 4 of the Nautical Almanac.
b. Changes of the Moon’s Phases. Fig 4-6 provides a simplified diagram of the
Moon’s orbit around the Earth in relation to the mean Sun (ignoring the movement of
the Earth in its orbit around the Sun). From this it can be seen that at new Moon the
illuminated side of the Moon is not visible from the Earth. However as the Moon’s
orbit progresses to the first quarter, an observer on Earth first sees a thin crescent of
illuminated Moon which increases (waxes) to half the Moon being illuminated. It
then waxes to three-quarters of the Moon being illuminated before reaching a full
Moon when the whole surface of the Moon is illuminated. The illuminated sector of
the Moon progressively decreases (wanes) to the last quarter and to the new moon.
It should be noted that although Fig 4-6 gives an accurate picture of the Moon’s
phases from a position outside the Solar System, it does NOT make clear how the
Moon’s crescent will appear to an observer on the Earth’s surface. For an
understanding of which way the crescent faces during waxing and waning, and thus
an instant appreciation of the Moon’s phase by a single observation, an analysis of
the Sun’s and Moon’s hour angles is needed (see below).
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Fig 4-6. Phases of the Moon during Lunar Month (simplified)

c. Hour Angles of the Sun and Moon at the Time of New Moon. It can be seen
from Fig 4-6 that the Moon always has its illuminated ‘convex’ edge nearest to the
Sun. It is also apparent that at the time of a new moon, the Moon and the Sun
occupy positions in the sky very close to each other and thus will have very similar
local hour angles (LHA); a quick look at the Nautical Almanac’s GHA column (see
note below) for the Sun and Moon at the time of new moon will confirm this. It is for
this reason that the Moon cannot be seen from Earth at new moon; partly because
the other side of the Moon is being illuminated and partly because being so close to
the Sun, the Moon is only above the horizon in daylight.
Note. Longitude must be applied to both GHAs to obtain LHAs (see Paras
04257 sub para d and 04258), but as it will be the same longitude in both
cases and only the relative LHAs are needed, it is sufficient to compare
GHAs.
d. Change in Hour Angles of the Sun and Moon: New Moon to Full Moon. As
the Moon moves towards the first quarter and thence to full moon, the Sun’s LHA
advances more rapidly than the Moon’s. As hour angle is always measured
westwards (see Para 04257 and Para 04258) this means that as the Sun’s LHA
increases relative to the Moon’s LHA, its WEST side will be illuminated, until at full
moon the whole Moon is illuminated. At this time, the Sun’s LHA is 180° (12 hours)
ahead of the Moon’s LHA, which explains why at the equinoxes the Moon rises at
the time the Sun sets (the ‘harvest Moon’ phenomenon). A glance at the Nautical
Almanac’s GHA column for the Sun and Moon (see note above) from the time of
new moon to full moon will confirm these relative changes of LHA.
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e. Change in Hour Angles of the Sun and Moon: Full Moon to New Moon. As
the Moon moves towards the last quarter and thence to new Moon, the Sun’s LHA
continues to advance more rapidly than the Moon’s LHA, but as it is now MORE
than 180° AHEAD of the Moon’s LHA, it is more convenient to think of it as LESS
than 180° BEHIND and thus eastward of the Moon. This means that from full Moon
onwards it will illuminate the EAST side of the Moon until, at new moon, none of the
Moon is illuminated. At this time, the Sun’s LHA is once again synchronised with the
Moon’s LHA, and the cycle repeats itself. Another glance at the GHA column for the
Sun and Moon in the Nautical Almanac (see Para 04257 sub para d) from the time
of full moon to new moon will confirm these relative changes of LHA.

f. Moon’s Phases, Waxing and Waning: Identification by Single Observation.
The implications of the relative movement of the Sun’s LHA compared to the Moon’s
LHA are that the phase of the Moon (and whether it is waxing or waning) can be
established by a single glance at the Moon without recourse to tables. The Moon
always has its illuminated ‘convex’ edge nearest to the Sun (see above). When
waxing the Moon has its west side illuminated (see above) and when waning has its
East side illuminated. From this a simple rule for the Moon’s phases emerges:
The Moon’s illuminated ‘convex’ edge is at the West when waxing;

The Moon’s illuminated ‘convex’ edge is at the East when waning.
This can be neatly summarised as: ‘West when waxing; East when eaning’.
04280. The Hour Angle of the Planets

The planets belong to the solar system and for the purpose of finding their hour
angles, their motion in the celestial sphere may be treated in exactly the same way as for the
Moon (see Para 04270) and thus:
GHA Aries (γ ) = GHA Planet - SHA Planet + (360° if req)

But as shown in Para 04265 sub para b:
GHA Planet = UT +/- 12 hours
∴ GHA Aries (γ ) = UT +/- 12 hours - SHA Planet + (360° if
req)
The SHA of the planets can be predicted and when combined with GHA Aries (γ) as above,
gives ‘GHA Planet’. As a result of such calculations, ‘GHA Planet’ for Venus, Mars, Jupiter
and Saturn are tabulated against UT in the Nautical Almanac.
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THE CELESTRIAL SPHERE - PARALLAX AND HORIZONTAL PARALLAX
SECTION 6 - PARALLAX AND HORIZONTAL PARALLAX
04281. Parallax and Horizontal Parallax

Parallax is the difference in apparent direction when observing a heavenly body from
two different locations; from the Earth’s surface (ie when observed with a sextant) and from
the Earth’s centre (ie the position given in the Nautical Almanac). The correction for the
effect of parallax on sextant observations is known as the ‘parallax in altitude’ (normally
abbreviated to just ‘parallax’) and depends on the apparent altitude and the horizontal
parallax. Horizontal parallax (HP) is the special case of parallax when the heavenly body is

on the horizon (ie the altitude is zero); the quantity ‘HP’ is tabulated in almanacs. Parallax is
only significant for ‘nearby’ heavenly bodies (eg Sun, Moon and some planets); it is
insignificant for ‘distant’ objects (eg stars etc).
a. Parallax/Horizontal Parallax Diagram. Fig 4-7 below provides an exaggerated

representation of parallax and horizontal parallax, where ‘X’ and ‘X'’ are heavenly
bodies, ‘O’ is the location of an observer with observer’s zenith ‘Z’, ‘H’ represents the
horizontal tangent plane at ‘O’ and ‘R’ is the same plane transferred to the centre
‘C’.
Fig 4-7. Diagrammatic Representation of Parallax and Horizontal Parallax
b. Explanation of Fig 4-7. The ‘parallax in altitude’, normally abbreviated to

‘parallax’ (angle OXC in Fig 4-7) is the difference between the apparent altitude
angle HOX and the true altitude angle RCX. Consider the triangle OCX; since the
external angle VCX is equal to the sum of the two internal and opposite angles COX
and OXC, it can be shown that the difference above the horizontal tangent plane at
‘O’ between the true altitude RCX and the apparent altitude HOX is the angle OXC.
This angle (OXC) is the ‘parallax’ and, when relevant, is a correction added to the
sextant altitude. It may also be shown that the parallax of a heavenly body ‘X’
diminishes to zero as it approaches the observer’s zenith ‘Z’ and greatest when it is
on the horizon (represented by the angle OX'C in Fig 4-7), when it is known as
‘horizontal parallax’ (HP).
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c. Parallax and Horizontal Parallax Corrections. The Nautical Almanac ‘Altitude

Correction Tables’ for the Sun and Moon include corrections for parallax (plus semi-
diameter [UL/LL] and standard refraction). For Venus and Mars, a small parallax
correction is tabulated at page A2 of the Nautical Almanac. For the Moon, the
tabulated horizontal parallax (HP) for the nearest hour to the time of observation is
also needed as an argument to extract the total altitude correction. NAVPAC
includes all relevant parallax corrections, including those for the Moon (which can be
over a degree).
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CHAPTER 5
IDENTIFICATION OF HEAVENLY BODIES, ASTRONOMICAL POSITION LINES,

OBSERVED POSITION AND SIGHT REDUCTION PROCEDURES
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 - IDENTIFICATION OF HEAVENLY BODIES
Para

0501. The Mathematics of Identifying Heavenly Bodies
0502. The Star Globe
0503. The Star Identifier and the Nautical Almanac Planet Diagram
SECTION 2 - ASTRONOMICAL POSITION LINES
0504. Introduction
0505. Concept
0506. The Position Circle
0507. Plotting Position Circles - Ordinary Sights and Very High Altitude (Tropical)
Sights
0508. The Intercept (Marq St Hilaire) Method
0509. Assumptions made when an Astronomical Position Line is Plotted
0510. Plotting Sheets and Diagrams
SECTION 3 - CALCULATING ALTITUDE, AZIMUTH AND TRUE BEARING
0511. Introduction
0512. Means of Solving the PZX Triangle
0513. Solution of PZX Triangle for Zenith Distance - Cosine Method
0514. Solution of PZX Triangle for Azimuth - Cosine Method
0515. Solution of PZX Triangle for Azimuth - Other Methods
0516. Azimuth and True Bearing of a Heavenly Body (RN and UK Maritime Usage)
0517. Differences in Meaning of ‘Azimuth’, ‘Azimuth Angle’ and ‘True Bearing’
SECTION 4 - SIGHT REDUCTION PROCEDURES AND METHODS
0518. Summary of Methods Available for Sight Reduction and their Accuracies
0519. Use of NAVPAC
0520. Marine Navigation Sight Reduction Tables (HO 229)
0521. Use of Nautical Almanac Formulae and Procedures for Programmable
Calculators
0522. Use of Concise Nautical Almanac Reduction Tables
0523. Use of ‘Longitude by Chronometer’ Method
0524. Blank Sight Form NP 400/400a
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SECTION 5 - VERY HIGH ALTITUDE (TROPICAL) SIGHTS
0525. Practical Observation at all Altitudes

0526. Planning, Taking and Reducing Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights
0527. Plotting Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights
SECTION 6 - HIGH LATITUDE (POLAR) SIGHTS
0528. Taking High Latitude (Polar) Sights

0529. Reducing High Latitude (Polar) Sights

0530. Plotting High Latitude (Polar) Sights
ANNEX
Annex 5A Description and Setting of the Star Globe
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CHAPTER 5
IDENTIFICATION OF HEAVENLY BODIES, ASTRONOMICAL POSITION LINES,

OBSERVED POSITION AND SIGHT REDUCTION PROCEDURES
SECTION 1 - IDENTIFICATION OF HEAVENLY BODIES
0501. The Mathematics of Identifying Heavenly Bodies

Methods of identifying heavenly bodies are covered at Para 0122 to Para 0125 as
well as Para 0306 and Para 0307. However, the mathematics of these methods were not

explained, although this is essential if the means by which they operate is to be understood.
Fig 5-1 shows the celestial sphere with a heavenly body ‘X’ with an observer on the meridian
of ‘Q’. The figure is oriented so that the celestial horizon is horizontal and thus the
observer’s zenith (Z) is at the 12 o’clock position.
Fig 5-1. Obtaining SHA and Dec
a. The identity of a star (X) can be established when its sidereal hour angle (or
360°-RA) and declination (shown as dashed lines at Fig 1-13) are known. The
observer must deduce these from the star’s true bearing and altitude. So, in Fig 5-1
it is required to find mX’ (SHA of X) and X’X (declination of X), from AX (altitude of
X), the angle PZX (the azimuth of X) and the angle ZPX (which is the LHA of X
found from the deck watch time). ZPX is represented by QX’ (when the observer is
on the meridian at Q).
b. Since mX’ (SHA) = QX’ (LHA of X )−QΥ (LHA of m), the LHA of X is known and
LHA of Aries (m) = GHA of Aries (m) ± longitude, the SHA of X may be calculated.
c. In the triangle PZX, PZ (co-latitude), ZX (90° − altitude of X) and the angle PZX
(the azimuth of X) are known, so the angular distance PX may thus be calculated.
However, X’X = 90°- PX, so X’X (the declination of X ) may be easily calculated.
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0502. The Star Globe
a. Solution of Heavenly Body’s SHA and Declination. Para 0501 demonstrates

how the SHA of X and the declination of X may be found, provided that the time of
observation or prediction is known, and given its altitude, true bearing and access to
the Nautical Almanac or equivalent. It is of course possible to run this calculation in
reverse to calculate the predicted altitude and true bearing of a known heavenly
body at any time.
b. Mechanical Model of the Celestial Sphere. While studying the celestial

sphere, most students find it infinitely preferable to refer to a dynamic three-
dimensional model rather than a series of two-dimensional diagrams. For many
years, such a model, the Star Globe, was issued to all ships to provide a simple and
speedy mechanical solution to the problem of star/planet identification at morning
and evening stars. However, with the advent of NavPac, this expensive and delicate
instrument was rendered obsolete and has now been withdrawn from naval service.
c. Use of the Star Globe for Teaching Astro Navigation Theory. The Star
Globe is easy to use and provides a very clear demonstration of the orientation of
the visible hemisphere (see note below) of the celestial sphere for any time and
position on the earth’s surface. Although this instrument has been declared
obsolete for general use in the Royal Navy, a small number of Star Globes (Epoch
1975) have been preserved at the Navigation Training Unit of the Maritime Warfare
School HMS COLLINGWOOD, and are now used for the sole purpose of teaching
astro navigation theory. A full description and instructions for use are at Annex 5A.
Note. The celestial horizon divides the celestial sphere into hemispheres,
the upper one of which (containing the observer’s zenith ‘Z’) is the known as
the visible hemisphere, and the other one as the lower hemisphere.
Subject to atmospheric refraction, all heavenly bodies in the visible
hemisphere are visible to the observer but bodies in the lower hemisphere
cannot be seen. The Star Globe displays the visible hemisphere and the first
6° of the lower hemisphere below the celestial horizon. The remainder of the
lower hemisphere is covered by the Star Globe’s box and mounting
arrangements.
0503. The Star Identifier and The Nautical Almanac Planet Diagram
The Star Identifier (NP 323) works in a similar manner to the Star Globe and is
described in full at Para 0124. It displays heavenly bodies drawn on the plane of the
celestial horizon (see note below.) The Nautical Almanac planet diagram is explained at
Para 0125.
Note. Where it is convenient to show the whole (visible) sky, it may be

drawn on the plane of the celestial horizon, as if the celestial sphere was
seen from a position directly above the observer’s zenith (Z). Z appears in
the centre of a circle which is the visible horizon. The celestial equator
appears as a curve offset from the centre by an amount equal to the
observer’s latitude.
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SECTION 2 - ASTRONOMICAL POSITION LINES
0504. Introduction
Instructions on how to plot astronomical position lines are at Para 0328, but only
with an outline explanation of why plotting is carried out in this way. For the convenience of
readers, the explanation from Para 0328 sub para a is repeated at Para 0505 below and a
full explanation of this concept follows.
0505. Concept
An astronomical position line is actually a small element of the circumference of a

small circle (see Para 0110) centred on the geographic position (see Para 0109) of the star
with a radius equivalent to ‘90° - altitude’, converted into nautical miles. This radius is
usually between 1200nm (altitude 70°) and 4200nm (altitude 20°) in length, and is
impossible to plot on any chart of a reasonable scale. However, if the calculated (tabulated)
altitude for the DR position is subtracted from the observed (true) altitude and the result
(converted into nautical miles and known as the ‘intercept’) is plotted from the DR/EP either
‘to’ or ‘from’ the true bearing of the star, then plotting at a reasonable scale on a normal chart
is possible. Given the large radius of the small circle, it is accepted that for short distances
the astronomical position line may be considered to be a straight line.
0506. The Position Circle

It can be seen from Fig 5-2 that the observer’s position is at ‘z’ on the circumference
of the small circle radius ZX, when it is projected onto the Earth’s surface at ‘zx’ about a
centre ‘x’ (geographic position of heavenly body X). The radius ZX = 90°- AZ, when AZ is
the observed (true) altitude of the heavenly body. The angular distance ‘zx’( which equals
ZX) may be converted to nautical miles (1° = 60nm). The circles ZX and ‘zx’ are known as
position circles.
Fig 5-2. The Position Circle
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0507. Plotting Position Circles - Ordinary Sights & Very High Altitude (Tropical)
Sights
The difficulty of plotting most position circles ‘zx’ on a chart is explained at Para
0505. However, in the case of very high altitude (tropical) sights around 89° (see Para 0509,
and Para 0526 to Para 0528), the position circle is very small and this method is a realistic
option. With most ordinary sights even if it were decided to attempt to plot such large
distances on a normal Mercator chart, the necessary accuracy would be very difficult to
achieve due to the distortion of the latitude scale in this projection. Thus another method of
plotting most astro sights is needed.

0508. The Intercept (Marq St Hilaire) Method
a. Zenith Distances. The zenith distance is the angular distance between the
observer’s zenith and the position of a heavenly body. The observed (true) zenith
distance ZX and the calculated (tabulated) zenith distance Z2X are shown at Fig 5-3.
The observed (true) position circle is shown as the outer circle and the calculated
(tabulated) position circle as the inner circle. In order to keep Fig 5-3 simple, both
circles are shown on the surface of the celestial sphere but should be imagined as
having been projected down onto the Earth’s surface (in a similar manner to Fig 5-
2). The intercept is the angular difference between zenith distances ZX and Z2X.
Fig 5-3. True and Calculated Zenith Distances and their Position Circles
b. Difference Between Zenith Distances. Fig 5-3 shows that if the tangents to
both position circles near the chosen position (see Chapter 4) are plotted ( vicinity of
Z /Z2 in Fig 5-3), they will approximate the position circles and the result will be two
straight parallel lines (see Para 0508 sub para d). Importantly, the calculated
(tabulated) position circle will always pass through the chosen position
(DR/EP). The observed (true) position circle will pass through the observed (true)
Position.
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c. Example. A similar situation is at Fig 5-4 where an example of a calculated

(tabulated) altitude of 40° 00.0' and an observed (true) altitude of 40° 05.0' has been
used. These give zenith distances (90°-Alt) of 50° 00.0' and 49° 55.0' respectively.
Fig 5-4. Zenith Distances, Intercept and the Astronomical Position Line

d. Use of the Intercept. At Fig 5-4, the astronomical position line (on which the
observer’s position lies), and the chosen position line (on which the chosen position
(DR/EP) lies) are tangents to the circumference of the position circle and so are
oriented at right angles to the direction of the centre (X) of the position circle. Thus
they are plotted at their zenith distances, as rhumb lines at right angles to the true
bearing of X. Rather than plot tangents from both position circles, it is only
necessary to plot the astronomical position line at the ontercept distance from
chosen position (DR/EP), if it can be established whether to plot it ‘io’ or ‘from’ the
direction of X.
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e. Direction of Plotting of Intercept. To establish whether to plot the intercept in

the direction ‘to’ or ‘from’ the direction of X, consider the example at Fig 5-4. Here
the observed (true) zenith distance (normally abbreviated to TZD) was less than
the calculated (rabulated) zenith distance (normally abbreviated to CZD) and it is
clear that the intercept has to be plotted towards the true bearing of X. However,
zenith distances are defined as 90° - altitude (see Para 0506) as shown below:
Calculated (Tab) Zenith Distance of 50° 00.0' = Calculated (Tabulated) Altitude of 40°
00.0'

Observed (True) Zenith Distance of 49° 55.0' = Observed (True) Altitude of 40° 05.0'
Thus, as in this case, when the calculated (tabulated) altitude (40° 00.0') is smaller
(tinier) than the observed (true) altitude (40° 05.0'), the intercept is plotted ‘to’ the
direction of the heavenly body ‘X’. This gives rise to the rule for plotting intercepts
normally remembered by the rhyme quoted at Para 0328 sub para c
‘TAB TINIER TOWARDS’
The converse also applies, as shown in Fig 5-3, where TZD > CZD, so the
calculated altitude > true altitude. The rhyme refers to the altitudes, not the
zenith distances.
f. Azimuth. The azimuth of the heavenly body X is given by the angle PZX (see
Para 0501 and Fig 5-1, and also Fig 5-2 and Fig 5-3).
0509. Assumptions made when an Astronomical Position Line is Plotted

Four assumptions are made when an astronomical position line is plotted as a
(straight) rhumb line on a Mercator chart, but all three are justified in normal circumstances
because the error induced is negligible. Only in the case of very high altitude (tropical)
sights, when the observed (true) zenith distance (TZD) and thus the associated position
circle are very small (see Para 0506 and Para 0507), are these assumptions inadmissible.
The solution for plotting very high altitude (tropical) sights is to plot the TZD directly from the
geographic position of the heavenly body as an arc of a circle. The detailed procedures for
taking, reducing and plotting this are at Para 0526 to Para 0528. The four admissible
assumptions for normal use are:
a. True Bearing. The true bearing of the geographic position of the heavenly body
is the same at all points in the vicinity of the chosen position (DR/EP) and the
observed position (obs pos).
b. Intercept Direction. The direction of the intercept, which is laid off as a

(straight) rhumb line, coincides with the great circle forming the actual line of true
bearing ‘to’ (or ‘from’) the heavenly body.
c. Astronomical Position Line. The astronomical position line itself, which is

plotted as a (straight) rhumb line, coincides with the arc of the observed (true)
position circle over the short plotting distances involved on the chart.
d. Run-on/Run-back. When plotting multiple astronomical position lines, they are

all run-on/run-back to a common time (see Para 0328 sub para b). NavPac will do
this automatically if a course and speed is entered (see Para 0328 sub para c).
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0510. Plotting Sheets and Diagrams

Theoretically, an astronomical position line can be plotted on any chart which
provides coverage of the required area. However, this is often impractical because the scale
of the available chart(s) may be unsuitable. In addition, the construction of intercepts and
individual position lines may seriously detract from other information, particularly if astro
navigation is being carried out for training or comparison. The manual plotting of sights is
therefore usually carried out on a separate sheet which may also be retained to provide a full
record of the sights being taken. If necessary, the observed position may be transferred
onto the chart being used for navigation. The UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) produces a
series of Mercator plotting sheets D6321-D6343 covering latitudes from 0° to 69°. These

may be used by marking on meridians for East or West longitudes as required, but in
southerly latitudes the sheet must first be inverted. Additionally, ‘Plotting Sheets for
Astro Fixing - D6018’ may be obtained from UKHO in pads of 25 sheets. These may be
used at any latitude, but additional meridians and a separate scale of longitude need to be
constructed, following the instructions printed on the form. These sheets are ideal for
plotting the results of simultaneous sights or a Sun-run-Sun, but are generally too limited in
coverage for a full ‘day’s run’.
CAUTION
Care must be taken on plotting sheets to label the sequence of

meridians of latitude and parallels of longitude correctly, particularly if
recent work has been carried out in the other hemisphere where
opposite conventions apply.
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SECTION 3 - CALCULATING ALTITUDE, AZIMUTH AND TRUE BEARING
0511. Introduction
Section 3 deals with the methods of determining the calculated (tabulated) altitude,
the calculated (tabulated) azimuth and its associated true bearing. Once these are
established, the intercept may be calculated by subtraction, and the astronomical position
line plotted.
0512. Means of Solving the PZX Triangle

In order to determine the calculated (tabulated) altitude, the calculated (tabulated)

azimuth and its associated true bearing, it is necessary to solve the spherical triangle PZX.
From Fig 5-5 it can be seen that two sides and the included angle are known, as follows:
• The angle ZPX is the calculated (tabulated) LHA of the heavenly body.
• The side PZ is the co-latitude of the chosen (DR /EP) position.
• The side PX is the calculated (tabulated) co-declination of the heavenly body.
Fig 5-5. PZX Triangle and Other Tabulated Angular Distances based on Chosen
Position
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0513. Solution of PZX Triangle for Zenith Distance - Cosine Method

As two sides (PZ, PX) and the included angle (ZPX) of the spherical triangle PZX
are known, it can be solved by the cosine formula (see BR 45(1) App 1), although other
methods are possible. The side ZX (the calculated (tabulated) zenith distance CZD) is given
by:
Cos ZX = Cos PZ . Cos PX + Sin PZ . Sin PX . Cos ZPX

However:
Cos ZX = Cos (90°-tab alt) and may be expressed as Sin tab alt (see BR 45(1)
App1).

Cos PZ = Cos (90°- lat), and may be expressed as Sin lat (see BR 45(1) App 1).
Cos PX = (90°-dec), and may be expressed as Sin dec (see BR 45(1) App 1).
Angle ZPX is the LHA of X (see Para 0422), so Cos ZPX may be expressed as Cos
LHA.
Thus the above cosine formula may be more conveniently expressed as:
Sin Tab Alt = Sin Lat . Sin Dec + Cos Lat . Cos Dec . Cos LHA
0514. Solution of PZX Triangle for Azimuth - Cosine Method

Having established the value of the side ZX (see Fig 5-5 above), the cosine formula
can conveniently be used to determine the angle PZX (the azimuth of X), as follows:
Cos PX = Cos PZ . Cos ZX + Sin PZ . Sin ZX . Cos PZX
∴ Cos PZX = Cos PX - Cos PZ . Cos ZX

Sin PZ . Sin ZX
This expression may be modified in a similar way to the ‘calculated (tabulated) zenith
distance/calculated (tabulated) altitude’ formula at Para 0513 to read:
Cos azimuth = Sin dec - Sin lat . Sin alt

Cos lat . Cos alt
Azimuth may be converted to true bearing as described at Para 0516 and shown at Fig 5-6.
0515. Solution of PZX Triangle for Azimuth - Other Methods

Calculation of azimuth using NAVPAC or a calculator and the formula at Para 0514
is simple, accurate and effective. However, for historical reasons dating from pre-calculator
times, other methods exist and are described briefly below for completeness. See also Para
0518 to Para 0523.
a. Weir’s Azimuth Diagrams. Two diagrams (Charts 5000 and 5001) exist and
cover latitudes 0°-65° and 65°-80°. They comprise of superimposed latitude ellipses
and hour angle hyperbolas and an outer azimuth (true bearing - see Para 0517) ring
on a full size Admiralty chart-sized diagram. The diagrams are entered with
arguments of latitude, hour angle and declination, and after a small amount of
plotting a reasonably accurate azimuth (true bearing - see Para 0517) can be read
off. Full instructions for the rather complex plotting procedures are printed on each
diagram.
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b. ABC Tables. The ABC Tables are contained in NP 320 (Nories Nautical
Tables) which also contain a brief explanation of the use. The basis of the
computation of these tables is the Four-Part Formula which connects adjacent parts
of a spherical triangle. In this case these are co-declination (sometimes referred to
as polar distance), hour angle, co-latitude and azimuth. The Four-Part Formula
expressed in its most convenient form and related to each ABC Table becomes:
Tan dec . Cosec hour angle - Cot hour angle . Tan lat = Cot azimuth. Sec lat
(Table B) (Table A) (Table C)

Table A is entered with latitude and hour angle to obtain ‘correction A’, Table B is
entered with declination and hour angle to obtain correction B’, which are added or
subtracted depending on their respective names and the rules on each page. The
resultant ‘correction (A ± B)’ and latitude are used to enter Table C in order to
extract the azimuth. Table C uses a variant of the Four Part Formula which can be
expressed as:
Correction (A ± B) . Cos Lat = Cot Azimuth
Example. Latitude 47°N, Declination of Star 52° N and Hour Angle 50°.
• From Table A (Lat 47° & hour angle 50°) Corrn A = 0.90 S (ie OPPOSITE to Lat)
• From Table B (Dec 52°N) and hour angle 50° Corrn B = 1.67N (see rule at
Table)
• From summation rule at Table C (the DIFFERENCE between Corrns A & B as
their NAMES are DIFFERENT), Corrn (A ± B) = 0.77N = Corrn C
• From Table C (Corrn C 0.77N and Lat 47°), Azimuth = N62.3° W (see rule at
Table)
• True Bearing is thus 360° - 62.3° = 297.7° (see Para 0535 and Fig 5-6)
0516. Azimuth and True Bearing of a Heavenly Body (RN and UK Maritime Usage)
a. True Bearing. The direction of a heavenly body seen from an observer is its
true bearing and this is measured conventionally as the angle from the meridian of
true North measured clockwise, ie. 0° to 360° (see Para 0517 below).
b. Azimuth. The azimuth (of a heavenly body) is the angle between the
observer’s meridian and the vertical circle through the heavenly body (see Para
0517 below).
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c. Conversion of Azimuth to True Bearing. Azimuth is measured and named

East or West from the observer’s meridian (if LHA of body <180° azimuth is West, if
LHA of body > 180° azimuth is East). Azimuth is named ‘N’ or ‘S’ from the elevated
pole. Azimuths are always less than 180° and are linked to the true bearing as
shown in the two cases at Fig 5-6 (see Para 0517 below).
Fig 5-6. Conversion of Azimuth to True Bearing

0517. Differences in Meaning of ‘Azimuth’, ‘Azimuth Angle’ and ‘True Bearing’
Some differences of meaning and usage of the terms ‘azimuth’, ‘azimuth angle’ and
‘bearing/true bearing’ have evolved between astronomers and some mariners as follows:
a. RN and UK. In the RN and other UK maritime communities, in astro

navigation, the meaning of ‘azimuth’ and ‘true bearing’ are as at Para 0516.
b. Astronomers. Astronomers use the term ‘azimuth’ in the sense that Para 0516
uses ‘true bearing’ (ie measured clockwise from north from 0° to 360°).
c. USN and US. In the USN and other US maritime communities, in astro
navigation, the term ‘azimuth’ is used in the same way as astronomers use it, and
another term ‘azimuth angle’, is used to take the meaning of ‘azimuth’ at Para 0516.
d. NAVPAC. NAVPAC uses the astronomer’s version of ‘azimuth’ to mean ‘true

bearing’.
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SECTION 4 - SIGHT REDUCTION PROCEDURES AND METHODS
0518. Summary of Methods Available for Sight Reduction and their Accuracies
Six methods for sight reduction calculations are available to the mariner; their
accuracy and the degree of labour involved vary. Details of the procedures for each method
(except for NavPac which is at Chapter 3) are Para 0519 to Para 0525. Details of meridian
passage and Polaris calculations are in Chapter 3 and Chapter 6. The six available methods
are:
• NAVPAC. The program will calculate an observed position to an accuracy of

0.15 nautical miles (see Para 0519) (subject to the skill of the sextant operator).
• Marine Navigation Sight Reduction Tables (HO 229). These tables are
arranged in six volumes, each of which covers 15° of latitude. They will
calculate an observed position to an accuracy of 0.2-0.3nm (see Para 0520).
• Rapid Sight Reduction Tables for Navigation (NP 303 series). Vol 1 of NP
303 covers all latitudes and is the only volume of the series used within the RN.
NP 303 will calculate an observed position to an accuracy of 0.5nm (see Para
0521).
• Nautical Almanac Formulae and Procedures for Programmable

Calculators. The potential accuracy of these formulae is comparable to
NAVPAC (ie within 0.15nm) but will in practice depend on the precision of the
ephemeral data entered and the capability and use of the calculator (see Para
0522).
• Concise Nautical Almanac Reduction Tables. These concise tables will

calculate an observed position to an accuracy of 1.0nm, although this could
increase to 2.0nm in certain circumstances (see Para 0523).
• Longitude by Chronometer. This is an alternative technique for finding a

calculated longitude/DR latitude position, through which a position line can be
constructed (see Para 0524).
0519. Use of NavPac

Procedures for using NavPac for sight reduction calculations are in Chapter 3.
Further information can be found in the help file accessed from within NavPac.
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0520. Explanation of Marine Navigation Sight Reduction Tables (HO 229)

Up until the mid-2010s, the UKNAO, via UKHO, issued the NP 401 series of Sight
Reduction Tables for Marine Navigation (in six volumes). These have now been withdrawn
and replaced by the three volume series of NP 303 ‘Rapid Sight Reduction Tables for
Navigation’ which are suitable for air or maritime navigation. The data in any legacy copies
of NP 401 remains valid, and the US National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)
continues to publish exactly the same data as HO 229 (which is available online from the
NGA website). HO 229 remains a perfectly valid document and the techniques for using it
remain current; nevertheless, it has been superseded in RN service by NP 303 and so it will
not be covered further in these books. For officers who consider they may need to use HO
229 for any reason, contact should be made with the Navigation Training Unit at HMS
COLLINGWOOD or the author of this book who holds archive copies of the instructions for
using NP 401/HO 229.
0521. Use of Rapid Sight Reduction Tables for Navigation (NP 303 series)
NP 303 is the officially issued publication to be used by Royal Navy and Royal Fleet
Auxiliary navigators for astro navigation. It replaces NP 401 which some experienced
readers may be familiar with (see above).
a. Description. NP 303 Volume 1 is designed for the rapid reduction of sights in

air navigation, but is suitable for use at sea and covers all latitudes for seven
selected stars. All NP 303 volumes have the same theoretical basis as HO 220. NP
303 Volumes 2 and 3 have similar content to NP 401 but with a different layout
optimised for air navigation and so are not used in the RN. An extract from NP 303
Volume 1 is at Fig 5-14 and shows the selection of the seven best stars available for
observation according to the observer’s position and time. Use of NP 303(1) is
much faster than HO 229 if the selected stars can be observed. The sight reduction
form is available in PDF format from the UKNAO website (www.astro.ukho.
gov.uk/nao/publicat/ap3270.html) and the NO should ensure that soft copies are
held onboard, with sufficient hard copies printed and ready to go should the need
arise. Traditional sight forms should also be held by RN units as part of the
standard chart outfit (see NP 104).
b. Arguments. The entry ‘arguments’ (the data used to drive the tables) for NP
303(1) are chosen latitude and the LHA of Aries (), and the resulting outputs are
the tabulated altitude (Hc) and the tabulated true bearing (Zn) of seven selected
stars. The LHA of Aries () is based on a chosen longitude to bring the LHA to a
whole number of degrees. For the best accuracy, a correction for the Earth’s
precession and nutation (See Para 0521 sub para e and Para 0521 sub para f
below) is needed. The layout of NP303(1) is given below.
(1) First Argument. The first argument is by page; pages are headed by
whole degrees of latitude (North or South). From 69°N to 69°S the tabulations
for a single degree of latitude occupy a complete opening of two facing pages.
From 70° to 89° (N and S), tabulations for a single latitude occupy one page
only.
(2) Second Argument. The second (vertical) argument is LHA Aries () from
0° to 360° at intervals of 1°, except between latitudes 70° and 89° where the
intervals are at 2°. Each page is divided into two columns of LHA Aries () in
order to maximise the information on each page.
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c. Layout. The 7 selected stars are grouped in blocks of 15 lines of LHA Aries (ϒ)
(see Fig 5-14). In latitudes up to 69° this equates to 15° of LHA Aries (ϒ) and in
higher latitudes to 30° of LHA Aries (ϒ). In all cases, the seven selected stars
remain the same for each 15-line group. This grouping can be seen in Fig 5-14,
which also shows typical changes in the selection of stars from one group of entries
to the next. Each selection of seven stars is arranged from left to right in clockwise
order of true bearing, and three stars in each selection are marked with an asterisk
as being suitable in obtaining an observed position. A total of 41 stars are used in
Volume 1, of which 19 are first magnitude (brighter than magnitude 1.5). First
magnitude star names are shown in capital letters.

d. Results. On entering the correct page, column and line of NP 303 (1), the
outputs are tabulated altitude (Hc) and true bearing (Zn). From these the intercept is
plotted from the chosen position.
e. Corrections. As NP 303(1) is tailored for a specific ‘epoch’ year (epoch 2020

for the March 2017 edition of NP 303(1)), in surface navigation a small correction to
the observed position should be made to allow for the Earth’s precession and
nutation (see Para 0521 sub para f) if the tables are used in the five years either
side of the epoch year. The correction is based on the LHA of Aries (ϒ) and latitude,
and is applied as a true bearing and distance to the observed position (or
astronomical position line). An approximate correction (designed for aircraft use)
may be obtained from Table 5 of NP 303(1) but a more accurate version for surface
navigation is provided as a separate pull-out supplement to NP303(1).
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Fig 5-7. Extract of NP 303(1) Showing Choices of the Seven Selected Stars

f. Precession, Nutation and Epoch. The Earth is not a true sphere but an oblate
spheroid, an irregular ellipsoid with an equatorial ‘bulge’. The gravitational
attractions of the Sun, Moon and planets acting on the Earth cause a conical motion
(precession) of the Earth’s rotational axis about the vertical to the plane of the
ecliptic and a further very much smaller continuous but slightly erratic sinusoidal
oscillation (nutation) superimposed about the precession motion. Nutation is caused
by the varying relative positions of the bodies (especially the Moon) within the solar
system. The result of precession is a slow westward movement of the intersection
between the plane of the celestial equator and the plane of the ecliptic, and thus the
equinox. This causes the positions of the First Point of Aries and First Point of Libra
to move slowly with time, and for this reason precession is sometimes called
precession of the equinoxes. The duration of one complete rotation of precession is
25,800 years. Thus the SHA and declinations of stars are subject to small variations
over time, and it is for this reason NP 303 (and the Star Globe) are set for an epoch
year but may be used for five years before and after that year. Small annual
corrections may be applied from the epoch year for maximum accuracy.
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g. Planning and Reduction of Observations. A chosen latitude is selected at

the whole degree nearest to the DR/EP latitude of the planned time of observation.
The GHA of Aries (ϒ) is extracted from the Nautical Almanac and a chosen longitude
applied to it to obtain LHA of Aries (ϒ) as a whole number of degrees. The tables
are then entered with the chosen latitude and LHA of Aries (ϒ) to find the seven
selected stars.
Example. It is proposed to take stars at about 1720(+2) on 13th July, 1997 in DR 42° 12´S,
30° 55´W. Find the stars available for working by NP 303(1).
Example. Summary of LHA Calculation

Chosen Latitude 42° S
Tabulated GHA Aries(UT 17h) 186° 36´.7
Increment (20m) 5° 00´.8
GHA Aries 191° 37´.5
Chosen Longitude 30° 37.5W
LHA Aries 161°
Entering the table for latitude 42°S, LHA Aries 161° (see Fig 5-14), the selected stars are
found to be: Regulus, *Spica, Rigil Kent, *Achernar, Canopus, Sirius and *Procyon.
Example. At about 1720Z on 13th July, 1997, in DR 42° 12´S, 29° 47´W, the following
observations were taken:
Body DWT Sextant Altitude

Canpous 05 22 05 45° 38.5'
Rigil Kent 05 25 22 51° 49.7'
Height of Eye 10.9 metres (36 feet), Index Error +1.2', DWE 10 secs fast. Assume the ship
is stopped and thus there is no run-on or run-back between sights. Find the intercepts and
true bearings of the heavenly bodies. [Items within double quotation marks indicates
their exact notation on the sight reduction form]
• The working of the sight is at Fig 5-15. “Corr. Tab Alt” and “True Bearing”
are obtained from NP 303(1) (see Fig 5-14).
• A correction to allow for the effects of precession and nutation (see Para
0521 sub para e and Para 0521 sub para f) must be applied as a true
bearing and distance to an observed position (or astronomical position
line) for star sights worked out by NP 301(1). In the example, the position
must be moved 1.6 miles towards 120°.
• An extract from the Nautical Almanac (1997) is at Appendix 2 and will allow
the reader to check inputs to worked examples.
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Fig 5-8. Use of Sight Form (NP 400/400A) to Calculate Intercepts from the Example
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0522. Use of Nautical Almanac Formulae and Procedures for Programmable

Calculators/Spreadsheets
The instructions contained in the Nautical Almanac for reducing sights using a
programmable calculator or computer and basic formulae (also to be found in BR 45(5)
Chapter 4A, pages 4A-52 to 4A-58) are reproduced verbatim as follows:
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0523. Use of Concise Nautical Almanac Reduction Tables

The instructions contained in the Nautical Almanac for reducing sights using the
Nautical Almanac concise sights are reproduced verbatim as follows. (This explanation and
a copy of the tables themselves may also to be found in BR 45(5) Chapter 4A, pages 4A-59
to 4A-93.)
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Two extracts of ‘The Nautical Almanac Concise Reduction Tables’

are at Fig 5-9a/b UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED
The full Concise Reduction Table is also at BR 45(5) Annex 4A Pages 4A-62 to 4A-93.
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Fig 5-9a. Extract of Nautical Almanac Concise Reduction Tables

(Latitudes 6°-10°, LHAs 0° - 45°)
The full Concise Reduction Table is also at BR 45(5) Annex 4A Pages 4A-62 to 4A-93,
and in the current edition of The Nautical Almanac
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Fig 5-9b. Extract of Nautical Almanac Concise Reduction Tables

(Latitudes 6°-10°, LHAs 45° - 90°)
The full Concise Reduction Table is also at BR 45(5) Annex 4A Pages 4A-62 to 4A-93,
and in the current edition of The Nautical Almanac
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0524. Use of ‘Longitude by Chronometer’ Method
a. Summary. The ‘longitude by chronometer’ method (also known as the

‘longitude method’ or ‘long by chron’ method) is an alternative technique for finding a
calculated longitude/DR latitude position, through which a position line can be
constructed. When the observed body lies due east or west, the position line will
form a meridian, and only in this case will the method provide a true longitude.
b. Advantages. When limited to one or two observations, the longitude method

has an advantage in that plotting is simplified. It is the preferred method of some

navigators when working a morning Sun sight, because it is unnecessary to plot the
result from a single observation as the calculated results form the observed position
(which is treated as an EP due to its reliance on a single position line). This means
the ‘morning Sun’ need not be plotted prior to taking the ‘noon’ (meridian passage)
sight.
c. Disadvantages. The method is not suitable for a body approaching the

meridian because a large displacement of longitude is generated by a small
intercept (see Fig 5-10).
Fig 5-10. Large Displacement of Longitude is generated by a Small Intercept
d. Derivation of the Formula. The longitude by chronometer method has been

traditionally worked using haversines, with the formula:
Hav LHA = [Hav (90°-Altitude) - Hav (Lat ± Dec)] Sec Lat . Sec Dec
However, this expression can also be derived from the cosine formula and solved
using a hand-held calculator. To do so, it is necessary to calculate the local hour
angle (LHA), based on the zenith distance, co-latitude and polar distance. Thus for
convenience, the formula can be simplified using complementary values of true
altitude, latitude and declination, as follows.
Cosine LHA = Sine Altitude - (Sine Declination . Sine Latitude)

Cosine Declination . Cosine Latitude
For the purposes of this explanation, the above ‘simplified’ cosine formula will be
used in examples, although the more labourious havesine formula could equally well
be used instead.
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e. Order of Work (Single Observation). The task should be carried out in the
following order:
• Work out the ship’s DR position (straightforward with WECDIS)..
• Obtain the sextant altitude and a precise time of the sight.
• Find the declination and GHA of the body from the Nautical Almanac.
• Correct the sextant altitude for index error, dip and refraction (including

semi-diameter when required).
• Calculate the LHA by formula.
• Find the calculated longitude by one of the following calculations:

East Longitude = LHA - GHA
West Longitude = GHA – LHA
Note. Provided southerly latitudes and southerly declinations are entered in

the formula for calculating LHA as negative angles, the resultant angle of
LHA will be measured east or west from north, as follows:
Body west of the meridian - LHA lies between 0° and 180°.
Body east of the meridian - LHA lies between 180° and 360°.
• Calculate the azimuth (true bearing) by the following formula (from Para
0514), or by another method (eg ABC Tables, Weir’s Azimuth Diagram
etc):
Cosine Azimuth = Sine Declination - (Sine Latitude . Sine Altitude)

Cosine Latitude . Cosine Altitude
• Note the results, together with log reading in readiness for the next
observation.
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f. Example. (Question B53 taken from BR45(5) Page 1B-8)
At about 0945(+9) 0n 17 Jun 97 in DR position 45° 05'N, 130° 30'W, the following
observation was made using the Sun's LL
Body DWT Sextant Alt

SunLL 18:47:26 57° 59.8'
Height of Eye 10.5 metres, IE 1.2' off the arc, no DWE.

GMT 1847 26 Sext Altitude 57° 59.8'
GHA Sun (1800) 089° 45.9' IE
+1.2'
Inc (47m 26s) 11° 51.5' Dip -5.7'
GHA Sun 101° 37.4' Correction -4.5'
Tab Dec(1800) N23° 23.6' d(0.1) Apparent alt 57°
55.3'
Dec corr +0.1' Alt correction
+15.4'
Dec. Sun N23° 23.7' True Alt 58° 10.7'
Latitude 45° 05.0'N
TO FIND THE LHA
Cosine LHA = Sine 58° 10.7' - (Sine 23° 23.7' . Sine 45° 05.0')
Cosine 23° 23.7' . Cosine 45° 05.0'
= 0.568516 = 0.877298
0.648030
LHA (from formula) = 28° 40.9' but as the Sun lies to the east of the
Meridian, the actual LHA is 360° - 28° 40.9' = 331°
19.1'
Thus, LHA = 331° 19.1'
TO FIND THE AZIMUTH
Cosine Azimuth= Sine 23º 23.7' - (Sine 45° 05.0' . Sine 58° 10.7' )
Cosine 45° 05.0' . Cosine 58° 10.7'
= -0.204629 = -0.549638
0.372299
Thus, Azimuth = 123.3°
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TO FIND THE CALCULATED LONGITUDE
West Longitude = GHA Sun - LHA Sun
GHA Sun = 101° 37.4' + 360° 00.0' = 461° 37.4'

LHA Sun = 331° 19.1'
Longitude = 461° 37.4' - 331° 19.1' = 130° 18.3
Thus, Calc. Longitude = 130° 18.3

ANSWER: Position line runs 213°-033° through 45° 05'N, 130° 18.3'W.
PLOTTING
If plotted (which is not necessary), the answer would appear as in Fig 5-11 below:
Fig 5-11. Plotted Results of Example Calculations
g. Combining a Longitude Position Line with a Meridian Altitude. Position

lines obtained by the longitude method can be combined with a latitude by the
meridian passage of the Sun. In practice, the sequence would be:
(1) Morning Sun. Given a DR position, the precise time of the observation
and observed (true) altitude:
• Calculate the longitude and azimuth of the ‘morning Sun’ position line
• Take a meridian passage observation of the Sun, calculate the latitude
and plot it (if required) as an east-west line.
• Calculate the vessel’s course and distance from the first observation to
obtain the d'long.
• The sum of calculated longitude for the first sight and the d'long gives
the calculated longitude of the transferred position line.
• The sum of calculated longitude of the transferred position line and the
departure gives the longitude of the fix.
• The result may be plotted, but this is not absolutely necessary.
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(2) Afternoon Sun. Given the precise time of the observation of the
‘afternoon Sun’ and the observed (true) altitude:
• Take a meridian passage observation of the Sun, and calculate the

latitude.
• Use the vessel’s course and distance to obtain the DR position at the
time of the ‘afternoon Sun’ sight and obtain the d'lat so that the
transferred meridian passage (east-west) position line can be plotted.
• With the ‘afternoon Sun’ sight’s DR position, and its precise time of
observation, work out the calculated longitude and azimuth of the

position line.
• The transferred meridian passage latitude and the calculated longitude
of the ‘afternoon Sun’ sight provide the Observed Position.
• The result may be plotted.
h. Example. (Question B53 taken from BR45(5) Page 1B-8, continued).
Between the 0945(+9) Sun sight and noon, the ship sailed 160° at 16 knots. At
Meridian Passage, the Sun LL was recorded as 68° 49.8'. What was the time and
observed position for Meridian Passage? The time of Sun’s Meridian Passage
(Greenwich) was 1201 + 0840 = 2041Z or 1141(+9). The distance steamed was
31.0nm
BY PLANE SAILING
D'lat = distance . cosine course = 31 . cosine 160° (-0.939693) = -29.1nm

Departure = distance . sine course = 31 . sine 160° (0.342020 = 10.6nm
(eastwards)
D'long = departure/cosine mean latitude = 10.6/cosine 44° 50' (0.709161) = 14.9'
DR at Meridian Passage 45° 05'N - 29.1' = 44° 35.9'N
130° 30'W - 14.9' = 130° 15.1'W
By inspection, DR Longitude is 15' west of estimated (130°W)

so Meridian Passage occurs at 1142(+9).
LATITUDE AT MERIDIAN PASSAGE
Sextant Altitude 68° 49.8'

IE +1.2' Zenith Distance 20° 59.1'
Dip -5.7' Tab Dec (2000) N23° 23.7' d(0.1)
Correction -4.5' Dec corr +0.1'
Apparent alt 68° 45.3' Dec. Sun N23° 23.8'
Alt correction +15.6' Dec + ZD +20° 59.1'
True Alt 69° 00.9' Latitude 44° 22.9' N
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PLOTTING SHIP'S 1142 (+9) POSITION
Observed Latitude 44° 22.9'N

DR Latitude 44° 35.9'N
Difference 13.0'S
Calculated Longitude for first sight ................................................... 130° 18.3'W

D'long ................................................................................................. -14.9'
Calculated Longitude of transferred Position Line at 1142 ............... 130° 03.4'

Departure = 13.0 x tan 33° = 8.4nm or D'long = 8.4/cos 44° 30' = 11.8'
Therefore, Observed Longitude of Fix = 130° 03.4 + 11.8' = 130° 15.2'W
If plotted the answer would appear as in Fig 5-12 below:
Fig 5-12. Plotted Results of Example Calculations
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0525. Blank Sight Form NP 400/400a

For the convenience of readers, a blank Sight Form NP 400/400a is at Fig 5-13.
Other sight reduction forms are available and may be used according to the user’s
preference.
Fig 5-13. Blank Sight Form NP 400/400a
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SECTION 5 - VERY HIGH ALTITUDE (TROPICAL) SIGHTS
0526. Practical Observation at All Altitudes
a. Use of Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sextant Observations. At sextant

altitudes near 90° it is possible to obtain a three position line fix at the Sun’s
meridian passage..
b. Normal Range of Sextant Altitude Observations. The normal range of

observations of sextant altitudes of heavenly bodies is between 30°- 60° (Para 0318

sub para j). It is possible to observe heavenly bodies outside this range of altitudes,
but inexperienced sextant users in particular will find it progressively more difficult to
do so accurately towards the extremes of altitude. In practice, for the reasons
explained below, heavenly bodies are normally observed within the range of 30° to
60°, with occasional observations between sextant altitudes of 10° - 30° and 60° -
70° when there are no alternative bodies for observation (see Para 0526 sub para c
and Para 0526 sub para d). In addition ‘very high altitude (tropical) sight’
observations of the Sun at sextant altitudes of 88½°- 89½° may be taken (see Para
0526 sub para e), but considerable skill with a sextant is need to achieve accurate
results.
c. Low Altitude Sextant Observations. At sextant altitudes below 30°, the arc
through which the star ‘moves’ when the sextant is ‘swung’ (see Para 0339m)
becomes constrained and thus it becomes progressively more difficult to judge the
instant at which the heavenly body’s arc of movement becomes tangential to the
horizon. At sextant altitudes below 10° this effect is very pronounced, and in
addition the altitude corrections for refraction become more difficult to predict
accurately. However, the large radius of the position circle generated by a low
sextant altitude does mean that the associated position line approximates a straight
line very closely (see Paras 0328 sub para a and Para 0505) and thus minimises
any ‘intercept’ method plotting errors in this respect.
d. High Altitude Sextant Observations. At sextant altitudes above 60°, the arc
through which the star ‘moves’ when the sextant is ‘swung’ (see Para 0318 sub para
m) becomes increasingly large and it becomes progressively more difficult to judge
the direction at which the heavenly body has reached its maximum altitude in the
sextant field of view. Above sextant altitudes of 70°, the small radius of the position
circle means that the associated position line no longer approximates a straight line
(see Paras 0328 sub para a and Para 0505 if long intercepts are used, plotting
becomes progressively less accurate.
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e. Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sextant Observations. At sextant altitudes

approaching 90°, the true bearing effect at Para 0528 sub para d is so marked that it
is possible to keep the Sun in the sextant’s field of view while the observer makes a
360° turn on the spot. Such extreme circumstances make it difficult to ‘swing’ the
sextant and look down the correct true bearing to observe the maximum altitude of
the Sun. However, a skilful sextant operator will find it possible to make an accurate
observation of the Sun at a sextant altitude of up to 89½°, and in practice, this is the
only body which can be observed in this way. The resultant position circle has such
a small radius that it has to be plotted on the chart as a circle, centred on the
geographic position of the Sun. This method introduces a further error, due to the

distortions of plotting a true circle on a Mercator chart. In practice this method of
plotting can only be used without significant error for an observed (true) altitude (ie
sextant altitude corrected for errors) of 88½° and above. The maximum plotting
errors for various observed (true) altitudes of the Sun using this method are: 2.8'
error at 86°, 0.5' error at 87°and 0.25' error at 88½°. Due to the combination of
the plotting and sextant errors, very high altitude (tropical) sights may only be
usefully observed between sextant altitudes of about 88½°-89½°.
0527. Planning, Taking and Reducing Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights
a. Occurrence of Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights. Very high altitude

(tropical) sights of the Sun only occur when the observer’s latitude is within about
1½° of the Sun’s declination. This limits these observations to tropical latitudes (ie
between 23½° North and South). Very high altitude (tropical) sights of the Sun
taken around the time of mer pass give a three position line astro fix over a period of
six to 10 minutes.
b. Planning of Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights. If the ship will pass within
1½° of the Sun’s declination at mer pass, a calculation should be made to establish
the optimum time interval between the ‘triple’ three Sun sights, so that the middle
(mer pass) sight provides a latitude, and the other two provide good cuts of about
45° to the latitude. Depending on the angular difference between the observer’s
latitude and the Sun’s declination this time interval will vary, but is likely to be
between three and five minutes. It is also prudent to plan two further observations,
one before and one after the ‘triple’ observation, at the same time interval. This will
be invaluable to help the observer’s eye and hand to become familiar with the
peculiar difficulties of taking sights at such very high altitudes and also to provide
spare backup readings in case an error is made with one of the primary ‘triple’
sights.
c. Avoiding a Mirror Image of the True Fix. It is also important to note whether
the ship is to pass to the North or South of the Sun when it crosses the observer’s
meridian and plot the results accordingly, as it is perfectly possible to plot the mirror
image of the true fix on the wrong side (North or South) of the Sun’s geographic
position. This error is most likely if the observer is very close to the geographic
position of the Sun at the time of observation, but it is possible with any very high
altitude (tropical) sight unless particular care is taken.
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d. Calculation of the Sun’s Predicted Geographic Positions. Start by

calculating the time of the Sun’s mer pass (see Para 0308, Para 0309 and Para
0606) and use this as the preferred time for the middle observation. The use of the
chart method described at Para 0606 will be found to be the most convenient
method of doing this. With the exact mer pass time, establish the Sun’s geographic
positions for the other observations and their optimum times. The whole planning
procedure is as follows:
(1) The Sun’s declination equates to the geographic position’s latitude

(2) The Sun’s geographic position’s longitude equates to:
• Sun’s GHA (± 360° if required) + longitude (E) = 360°
• Sun’s GHA (± 360° if required) - longitude (W) = 360°
(3) Having established and plotted the Sun’s geographic position for mer pass,
from the chart select two further longitudes (at the same latitude) which would
provide a good cut of position lines. From the longitudes of these geographic
positions, carry out the same (above) calculation in reverse, to establish the
optimum times for the first and third observations of the ‘triple’ observation.
(4) Repeat this procedure to establish times for two further observations (one
before and one after the ‘triple’) both as practices and backup readings.
(5) These five times are the planned times of observation.
(6) Do NOT use these ‘planning’ geographic positions for plotting the fix.
e. Taking Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights.
(1) Closing Up. The observation team should close up in good time and start
tracking the Sun through the sextant to allow the observer’s eye and hand to
become familiar with the difficulties of taking sights at such very high altitudes.
(2) True Bearing Shift and Field of View. As the Sun’s altitude increases it
will become increasingly difficult to determine the direction in which to point the
sextant in order to achieve the maximum altitude in the sextant’s field of view.
This is particularly the case as the time of mer pass is reached; in this phase the
Sun’s true bearing shifts very rapidly from the East, through North or South to
West and the observer needs to be very alert to keep up. The ship’s course
may need to be adjusted (if safe to do so) to give the observer a clear field of
view over the required range of true bearings.
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(3) Countdown and Records. The observer’s assistant should give a regular
countdown of time to the planned moments of observation. It is not essential to
take the observations at the exact moment planned, but is better to take them
when the observer is happy with the sextant altitude at a time close to the
planned moment for observation. Differences of up to 15-30 seconds in the
actual time of observation from the planned time of observation can be
accommodated in the plotting of results without too much penalty, but any
greater differences will result in progressively worse cuts of the position lines.
The exact deck watch time of each observation must be recorded, together with
the sextant altitude.

(4) Hot Sextant Errors. By their very nature, observations of very high
altitude (tropical) sights of the Sun take place in very hot conditions and (unlike
a simple mer pass sight) it is not possible to avoid exposing the sextant to the
direct heat of the Sun for a long period. It is thus essential to allow the sextant
time to heat up to the ambient temperature (especially if it has been stored in an
air conditioned area) and to remove all the errors while it is in the ‘hot’ state.
Failure to do so will result in sufficiently large errors in the observed sextant
altitude to negate the accuracy of the fix, which in turn will bring the whole
procedure into disrepute.
f. Reduction of Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights. The reduction of very

high altitude (tropical) sights of the Sun is very simple and requires the following
steps; an example of these calculations and a plot of the results follows.
(1) Correct sextant altitude for index error, height of eye and altitude
corrections (altitude corrections include semi-diameter and refraction).
(2) Correct deck watch time for deck watch error to arrive at UT.
(3) Calculate the geographic positions for each sight (see Table 5-1).
(4) Calculate the run on/run back for each sight.
(5) Calculate the true zenith distance (90° - altitude) for each sight (see Table
5-2).
(6) Plot the TZD from the ‘run’ geographic position for each sight (see Table 5-
2), taking care NOT to plot a mirror image of the true fix.
(7) Read off the observed position.
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Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sight Example. At zone time 1225( -6), on 20 January
1997, in DR position 20° 55.0'S 86° 45.0'E, course 300°, speed 18, the following
observations of the Sun (LL) were taken (deck watch error, index error, height of eye and
refraction corrections have already been applied to these results).
Sun LL DWT Observed (True) Altitude True Bearing

(1) 06 20 02 UT 88° 42.1' 046° approx
(2) 06 24 02 UT 89° 05.9' 000° approx
(3) 06 28 02 UT 88° 41.9' 313° approx

Table 5-1. Calculation of Geographic Positions
Obs. 1 06 20 02 UT Dec S 20° 05.9' GHA Sun 272° 15.1'

Long (E) 087° 44.9'
Total 360° 00.0'
Geographic Position (1) 20° 05.9'S 087° 44.9'E
Long (E) 086° 44.9'
Total 360° 00.0'
Long (E) 085° 45.0'
Total 360° 00.0'
The three geographic positions must be run on/run back to a common time (0625 UT) on
course 300° speed 18, as follows: Obs (1) - 06 20 02 UT run on 1.5 n miles, Obs(2) - 06 24
02 UT run on 0.3 n miles, Obs (3) - 06 28 02 UT run back 0.9 n miles.
From the observed (true) altitude, the true zenith distance (90° - altitude) is calculated (see
Table 5-2 below).
Table 5-2. Calculation of True Zenith Distances, with Summary of Approximate True
Bearings of Sun, Geographic Positions and Runs
Observation Obs (1) Obs (2) Obs (3)
Approx Bearing of Sun 046° 000° 313°
90° 90° 00.0' 90° 00.0' 90° 00.0'

Observed (True) Altitude 88° 42.1' 89° 05.9' 88° 41.9'
TZD (angle) 01° 17.9' 00° 54.1' 01° 18.1'
TZD (n miles) 77.9 n miles 54.1 n miles m 78.1 n miles
Geographic Position 20° 05.9'S 20° 05.8'S 20° 05.8'S

(from Table 5-1) 087° 44.9'E 086° 44.9'E 085° 45.0'E
Run on/back On 1.5 n miles On 0.3 n miles Back 0.9 n miles

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0528. Plotting Very High Altitude (Tropical) Sights

The true zenith distances (see Table 5-2) are plotted as the arcs of circles from their
respective ‘run’ geographic positions. Care must be taken NOT to plot a mirror image of
the true fix. The results of Table 5-2 are plotted at Fig 5-14 below.
Fig 5-14. Plot of Very High Angle (Tropical) Sight Example 5-14 Results
(see Table 5-2)
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SECTION 6 - HIGH LATITUDE (POLAR) SIGHTS
0529. Taking High Latitude (Polar) Sights
Note. There is a risk of confusion between high altitude and high latitude
sights. This section refers to high latitude sights i.e. polar sights. There is
no strict definition of a high latitude sight but generally anything above the
Arctic circle would start to be considered a high latitude sight.
a. Use of a Sextant in Polar Temperatures. When a sextant is brought from the

warmth of the ship or submarine into the open air at high latitudes, condensation will
form on the mirrors and glasses. This will freeze almost instantaneously, making the
sextant unusable. To prevent this happening, place the sextant inside an airtight
polythene container before taking it outside. Then allow it to cool down in the open
air. On removal from the container, about ten minutes will be available for taking
observations before the mirrors ice over.
b. Abnormal Refraction. Conditions of abnormal refraction sometimes cause

errors of 2′ or 3′ in lower latitudes. In polar regions, abnormal refraction errors
measured in degrees are not uncommon and an extreme value of 5° has been
reported. This error would cause the Sun to rise ten days earlier than expected and
would produce an error of 300 miles in a position line.
c. Temperature and Pressure. If conditions of temperature and pressure appear

to be other than standard, the additional correction shown in Table A4 in The
Nautical Almanac must be used (Table A3 gives the normal altitude corrections to
apparent altitude of 10̊ down to zero for the Sun, stars and planets). If more
extreme conditions are likely to be encountered application should be made to
UKHO (NAO) for additional tables.
d. False Horizons and Dip. When navigating close to ice, the estimated height of
ice above water at the horizon must be subtracted from own height of eye before
applying dip. Corrections tabulated for dip allow for standard refraction, but when
conditions are abnormal the correction will be wrong.
e. Time Zones. Time zones have little width or indeed meaning near the poles, so
UT (GMT) is normally kept.
0530. Reducing High Latitude (Polar) Sights

High latitude (polar) sights may be reduced by NavPac or the normal use of NP 303,
but when in latitudes above 87½° an abbreviated method of reduction (see Para 0533 sub
para b below) and plotting is possible using the pole as the chosen position. This latter
method is only likely to be taken by submariners, unless overland expeditions are
anticipated.
a. NAVPAC. NavPac is the simplest and easiest method for reducing high
latitude (Polar) sights. The DR/EP may be used as the basis for the calculation, but
if it is preferred to plot intercepts from the pole, the latitude to be used on the
NavPac page may be set to the pole (but see the caveat at Para 0530 sub para c).
However, NavPac will not accept 90°00.0' (it resets to 00° 00.0'); the latitude should
be set to 89° 59.9' instead. The accuracy of the calculation is unaffected by either of
these options.
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b. Using the Pole as the Chosen Position. NP 303 is not required for this
method and the reduction calculation is less laborious. Provided the DR/EP is within
2½° of the pole and the sextant altitude is less than 70̊, the pole itself can be used
as the chosen position. An example of this calculation is in the example below,
using the same data as the previous example; the resulting plot is shown at Fig 5-15
below.
(1) The GHA is the direction of the intercept from the pole (chosen position).
(2) Above sextant altitudes of 70°, the small radius of the position circle

generated means that the associated position line no longer approximates a
straight line; if long Intercepts are used, plotting becomes progressively less
accurate.
c. NP 303 Volume I. For selected stars, high latitude (Polar) sights may be
reduced with NP 303. The accuracy of reduction is sacrificed slightly compared with
use of the HO 229 tables, for the sake of speed (see Para 0521).
Fig 5-15. Plot of High Latitude (Polar) Sights Examples
Note. Fig 5-22 above shows the sight plotted for the ‘Polar’ method from the
results of Figs 5-21 and 5-22. True bearings for the NP 401 method are
plotted by drawing a line from the chosen position through the Pole and
taking this as the 000° line. A protractor, centred on the chosen position and
aligned with the 000° line is used to plot the Intercepts.
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High Latitude (Polar) Sights Example: Using the Pole as Chosen Position. At 1235(Z)
on 17 April 1994, in DR position 88° 48.0'N 014 18.0'E, stopped in the water, the following
observations were taken. What was the observed position at 1235(Z)?
Body DWT Sextant Alt
Sun LL 12 31 27 UT 11° 35.0'
Moon LL 12 35 29 UT 19° 17.9'
Deck watch error 1 minute 5 seconds slow, index error +0.5, height of eye 6.1 metres,
thickness of ice on horizon 1.0 metre, temperature -7°C, pressure 990 mb.
Fig 5-16. High Latitude (Polar) Sights Example, Using Pole as Chosen Position

Nautical Almanac extract (1994) is at Para 0530 sub para e.
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d. Extract of The Nautical Almanac (1994) for use with Examples.
Fig 5-17. Extract from The Nautical Almanac (1994) for use with Examples

0531. Plotting High Latitude (Polar) Sights
a. Mercatorial Plotting Sheets. These are available up to 69̊, after which plotting
sheet 5004 should be used up to 75°. It is of note that the intercept is, in reality, a
great circle (Para 0508) and the position line itself is a small circle (Para 0505),
although they are normally approximated to straight lines without significant error at
moderate latitudes. In high latitudes, due to the errors associated with the
convergence of meridians at the pole, for the best accuracy, intercepts and position
lines should be plotted as curves; this is especially so if the intercept is long. This is
impracticable on a Mercator projection plotting sheet and so other methods are
needed above latitude75°.
b. USHO 5600. Between 75°of latitude and the pole, a polar stereographic
projection (see BR 45(1) Chapter 4) is required. The US Hydrographic Office
(USHO) polar plotting sheet USHO 5600 is ideal and can be obtained from USHO
by UKHO. There is no British equivalent.
c. Form RNS 376. Use of Form RNS 376 (Manoeuvring Form) is recommended
between 88° of latitude and the pole. An example of the use of Form RNS 376 for
this purpose is at Fig 5-2. USHO 5600 portrays only a quadrant, which may be
inconvenient so close to the pole.
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d. True Bearings on Polar Projections. True bearings must be measured by

protractor (or station pointer if one is held on board) from the relevant point of
reference on polar stereographic projections. When the ‘polar’ method is used true
bearings are plotted from the pole and thus the printed graticule may be used for
true bearings. If using the HO 229 method and plotting from the chosen position (or
any other position) the procedure at the note with Fig 5-15 should be used instead.
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ANNEX 5A
DESCRIPTION AND SETTING OF THE STAR GLOBE
1. Description of the Star Globe

The star globe (see Fig 5A-1 below) is now only used to explain astro navigation theory
(see Para 0502); it is extremely unlikely that one will be encountered at sea. It consists of a
sphere on which the stars, parallels of declination, the celestial equator, the ecliptic and the
celestial meridians at 15° intervals are shown. Approximately one visible hemisphere can be
seen at a time. The celestial equator carries two scales: on the north side RA in degrees so

that LHA can be set onto it directly, and on the south side, RA in units of time. The globe
revolves about the axis through the celestial poles, in a vertical brass ring which is graduated
in degrees and represents the observer’s meridian. The pole can be elevated for setting
latitude. The outer edge of the azimuth ring is graduated in degrees. A four-quadrant
hemispherical cage graduated in degrees is fitted over the globe; the observer’s zenith lies
at the point of intersection of the quadrants. In summary, the star globe can be easily set to
show the visible hemisphere at the correct orientation for any time and place of observation.
Fig 5A-1. Star Globe
2. Setting the Star Globe

The elevated pole is set to the altitude on the quadrant corresponding to the observer’s
latitude. The globe is revolved until the computed LHA of Aries appears under the meridian
ring; this quantity is the same as the RA. Planets may be marked on the globe in chinagraph
using their tabulated declination and right ascension RA (which is 360°- SHA). The brass
cage is turned until one of the altitude quadrants lies along the true bearing of the body on
the azimuth ring, and then move the small cursor to the required altitude. The cursor will
indicate the star that has been observed, or, if no star is indicated, the position of the planet.
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Example 1. At ZT 0600(+1) on 21st October, 1997, in DR position 45°N, 15°W, the altitude
of a bright body bearing 200° is 26°. What is it?
Example 1. Summary of LHA Calculation
ZT 0600 21st October

Zone +1
UT/Date 0700 21st October

Longitude 15° 00´.0W
LHA Aries 120° (to nearest whole degree)
1. Elevate the north celestial pole on the globe to correspond to latitude 45°.
2. Revolve the globe in the ring until meridian 120° appears under the meridian
ring.
3. Turn the brass cage until one of the altitude quadrants lies along true bearing
075° and then move the cursor along this quadrant to 26°. Sirius lies under the
cursor.
Example 2. At ZT 1900(−4) on 21st October, 1997, in DR position 30°S, 55°E, the altitude
of the brightest of two bodies close together bearing 260° is 40°. What is it?
Example 2. Summary of LHA Calculation
ZT 1900 21st October

Zone −4
UT/Date 1500 21st October
Longitude 55°E
LHA Aries 310° (to nearest whole degree)
1. Elevate the south celestial pole on the globe to correspond to latitude 30°.
2. Revolve the globe in the ring until the meridian 310° appears under the
meridian ring.
3. Adjust the brass cage to bearing 260° and the cursor to altitude 40°. No bright
star appears in the position indicated, the position lies close to the ecliptic and the
body must therefore be a planet. From the scale along the celestial equator, its right
ascension is seen to be 252°. The SHA is therefore 108° and its declination is about
25°S. The Nautical Almanac shows that Venus and Mars have SHAs and
declinations approximating to these values on the day. Venus, being known to be
the brightest of the two, was the body observed.
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CHAPTER 6
MERIDIAN PASSAGE AND POLARIS
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 - MERIDIAN PASSAGE
Para

0601. Definition and Use of Meridian Passage
0602. Upper Meridian Passage
0603. Lower Meridian Passage
0604. The Moment of Meridian Passage - Maximum Altitude and Time
0605. Reason for Possible Difference in Maximum Altitude and Time of Mer Pass
0606. Meridian Passage of the Sun
0607. Meridian Passage of the Moon
0608. Meridian Passage of Aries
0609. Upper Meridian Passage of Stars
0610. Lower Meridian Passage of Stars
0611. Meridian Passage of Planets
0612. Calculation of Latitude at Meridian Passage
SECTION 2 - POLARIS
0613. Position and Movement of Polaris around the North Celestial Pole
0614. Obtaining Latitude by the Altitude of Polaris
0615. Obtaining True North by the Bearing of Polaris
0616. Observation of Polaris at Twilight
0617. NAVPAC: Polaris
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CHAPTER 6
MERIDIAN PASSAGE AND POLARIS
SECTION 1 - MERIDIAN PASSAGE
0601. Definition and Use of Meridian Passage

The ‘meridian passage’ (Mer Pass) of a heavenly body occurs when it is in the
observer’s meridian or in the meridian 180° from the observer’s meridian. At that moment,

the local hour angle of the heavenly body will be either 0° or 180°, and the heavenly body is
either due North or due South (ie. bearing 180° or 000°) from the observer. The position line
obtained, being at right-angles to the bearing, will instantly give the observer’s latitude.
Although sights can be taken for the meridian passage of any heavenly body, it is normally
only observed for the Sun. Occasionally, Jupiter and Venus may also be usefully observed
by day.
0602. Upper Meridian Passage

Upper meridian passage occurs when the heavenly body is on the observer’s
meridian. The local hour angle of the body is then 0°. In the northern hemisphere, the true
bearing of the heavenly body is 180° or 000° depending on whether the latitude is greater or
less than its declination (both with the SAME name); when the latitude and declination have
CONTRARY names the bearing away from the North pole and thus is 180° (in the southern
hemisphere these bearings are reversed). A diagram showing an example of upper
meridian passage for the northern hemisphere with latitude greater than declination and both
with SAME names is at Fig 6-1 below. A further example for the southern hemisphere with
latitude less than declination and both with SAME names is at Fig 6-2. These diagrams also
show the lower meridian passage (see Para 0603 below).
Fig 6-1. Mer Pass (Northern Hemisphere): Latitude > Declination, SAME Names
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0603. Lower Meridian Passage
a. Occurrence. Lower meridian passage occurs when the heavenly body is on the
meridian that differs in local hour angle from the observer’s meridian by 180°. A
limited explanation of lower meridian passage is also contained at Para 0325 sub
para i for those readers who do not require to study the theory of the phenomenon.
b. Bearing. The local hour angle of the heavenly body is 180° at lower meridian
passage and in the northern hemisphere, when the body is visible, the bearing is

always towards the North pole and so 000°, irrespective of whether the declination
or the latitude has the larger value. In the southern hemisphere the bearing is
always the bearing is always away from the North pole and so 180°. A diagram
showing an example of lower meridian passage for the northern hemisphere with
latitude greater than declination and both with SAME names is at Fig 6-1. A further
example for the southern hemisphere with latitude less than declination and both
with SAME names is at Fig 6-2 below. These diagrams also show the upper
meridian passage (see Para 0602 above).
Fig 6-2. Mer Pass (Southern Hemisphere): Latitude < Declination, SAME Names
c. Limitations. When the latitude and declination have CONTRARY names, the
lower meridian passage can never be observed, because the body is below the
horizon. Except in very high latitudes in summer, the Sun’s lower meridian passage
cannot be observed. A few stars may be observed at lower meridian passage. For
these reasons, the mariner is chiefly concerned with the upper meridian passage.
d. Nomenclature. Unless otherwise stated, within BRd 45 the term ‘meridian

passage’/Mer Pass always refers to upper meridian passage. The lower meridian
passage is also known as the ‘meridian passage below the pole’ but this usage is
rare.
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0604. The Moment of Meridian Passage - Maximum Altitude and Time
a. Misconception about Mer Pass Sights. There is a widely held misconception

that the moment of meridian passage always occurs at the highest observed
altitude of the heavenly body. This concept is true for a stationary observer, or one
travelling due east or west. However, if the observer’s movement has any
appreciable north/south component, then taking the Mer Pass sight at the moment
of highest altitude rather than when it is in the observer’s meridian (ie bearing 180°
or 000°), will induce an error of up to 5 nautical miles. An explanation of the reasons

for this potential error is give in Para 0605 below.
b. Timing of Mer Pass Sights. Attempting to establish the moment of Mer Pass
by taking an accurate bearing of a high heavenly body has practical difficulties and
introduces risk of error due to compass inaccuracies. Thus the accepted method
is to take Mer Pass at the exact time predicted for this phenomenon. This time
may be established to the nearest second in NavPac (see Para 0304 sub para c and
Para 0304 sub para d). Alternatively, it may be calculated manually to the nearest
minute from the Nautical Almanac (see Para 0308 sub para b). The use of
NavPac is the preferred method in the RN for the reasons given in Para 0309. See
also Para 0325.
0605. Reason for Possible Difference in Maximum Altitude and Time of Mer Pass
To a stationary observer, the altitude of a heavenly body at Mer Pass is the
maximum altitude observed, and to obtain an accurate sextant altitude, it is only necessary
to watch the body over a short period and record the maximum altitude observed. Three
factors govern the change in a heavenly body’s altitude to a greater or lesser degree: the
rotation of the Earth, the declination of the heavenly body and any component of North-
South movement.
a. Rotation of the Earth. The rotation of the Earth ensures that a body appears to
rise in the East, attains a maximum altitude and sets in the West. This gives rise to
the normal movement of the Sun and other heavenly bodies across the sky and with
which everyone is familiar.
b. Declination of the Heavenly Body. The effect of declination is not of concern

in practice, as the error induced is too small to be significant. In theory, any change
in the time of observation induces a change in declination which alters the position
of X or X’ (Fig 6-1 and Fig 6-2) in relation to Z and thus alters the altitude. However,
the short time difference between Mer Pass and the moment of greatest altitude is
too small to change the declination of the heavenly body significantly and this error
may be ignored.
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c. North-South Component of Movement. Any North-South component of

movement introduces a small but significant error, because it is equivalent to a
movement of Z (see Fig 6-1 and Fig 6-2). The Earth’s rotation by itself would give
the altitude its greatest value when the heavenly body reached the observer’s
meridian. If the ship is moving towards the body (ie North or South), the
altitude will increase for a further period until the rate at which the body’s
altitude is decreasing due to the Earth’s rotation becomes equal to the rate at
which the movement of the ship is increasing the altitude. The greatest altitude
therefore occurs after Mer Pass. Conversely, if the ship is moving away from the

heavenly body, the greatest altitude occurs before Mer Pass. The time difference
between the two altitudes may lead to an error of up to 5 nautical miles for a ship
with a North-South course component, depending on course and speed. There is
no error for a ship on an East-West course.
0606. Meridian Passage of the Sun
a. Background. No appreciable error is introduced if it is assumed that the Sun’s

apparent motion to the westward is exactly 15° of longitude per hour. The tabulated
GHA of the Sun in the Nautical Almanac shows that the hourly change in GHA is
almost exactly 15° throughout the year.
b. Calculation Method. The time of the Sun’s mer pass may thus easily be
calculated as shown at Para 0308 sub para b. The example below, which is
repeated from Para 0308 (Mer Pass at 1210, at 25° W, in Time Zone O(+2)), shows
this calculation.
Example (Repeated from Para 0325). Summary of Sun Mer Pass Calculation
Mer Pass Time from Nautical Almanac 1210
Longitude (W+ or E-) 25°W +0140
Local Mean Time UT (GMT) 1340Z
Zone Time 1140(O)
c. Chart Method. The time of Mer Pass calculated above may need to be refined
with a second approximation. Successive approximations can be avoided altogether
when the ship’s track is plotted on the chart. The zone times of Mer Pass for a few
meridians in the vicinity of the ship’s position are written against the charted
meridians. The time when the Sun and the ship are on the same meridian can then
be obtained to the nearest half minute by inspection. If unexpected alterations of
course or speed occur before mer pass, the new Mer Pass time is read off the chart.
A plot of the example above is at Fig 6-3 with Mer Pass at 1140 and the ship on
course 295°, 20 kn. If the ship alters to course 025° at 1050, by inspection, Mer
Pass is at 1138½.
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Fig 6-3. Plotting of Mer Pass Times by the Chart Method

0607. Meridian Passage of the Moon
a. Background. The meridian passage of the Moon is important in tidal

prediction, but is otherwise unlikely to be of importance to the navigator. Unlike the
Sun (see Para 0606), an appreciable error is introduced if it is assumed that the
Moon’s apparent motion to the westward is exactly 15° of longitude per hour. The
GHA of the Moon in the Nautical Almanac shows that the hourly change in GHA has
quite wide variations.
b. Moon’s Mer Pass at Greenwich Meridian. It was shown at Para 04248 that a
lunar day is longer than a mean solar day by between 39 minutes and 64 minutes,
averaging 50 minutes. The exact difference in the time of the Moon’s Mer Pass at
the Greenwich Meridian is obtained by subtracting the time of Mer Pass on one day
from the time of Mer Pass on the next.
c. Moon’s Mer Pass at Observer’ Meridian - the ‘Daily Difference’. To

calculate the time of the Moon’s Mer Pass at the observer’s meridian it is first
necessary to take account of:
• The observer’s longitude.
• The time it has taken the Earth to rotate through this angle of longitude.
• As the Moon moves around its orbit of the Earth, in the time it has taken the
Earth to rotate through the angle of longitude, the Moon turns through an
additional angle as it orbits the Earth. This can be seen more clearly over a
24 hour period at Fig 6-4.
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Fig 6-4. The Orbit of the Moon during a Mean Solar Day (Not to Scale)

At Fig 6-4, AA´ is a measure of the mean solar day (ie 360° change in longitude), but
while the Earth has moved from A to A´, the Moon has reached C, and so the Earth
will have to turn through a further angle approximately equal to BÁĆ before it is on
the observer’s meridian again. (Distances in Fig 6-4 are not to scale; as the Sun is
so far away, the lines shown as ‘observer’s meridian’ at A and A’ are in reality
almost parallel.) The time taken to turn the extra angle BÁĆ varies between 39
and 64 minutes and is known as the ‘daily difference (MP)’. The value of the daily
difference for any particular day can be established by comparing the times of Mer
Pass for the Moon in The Nautical Almanac for that day and for the day before/after
it.
Note. The term ‘daily difference’ is also used for Moonrise and Moonset, but
that value is the difference between consecutive Moonrises/Moonsets, rather
than consecutive Mer Pass’ as in this case. To avoid confusion, when the
term ‘daily dfference’ is used in BRd 45(2), it is suffixed (MP), (MR) or (MS)
as appropriate.
.
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d. Calculation of ‘Difference of Time for Longitude’ for Moon’s Mer Pass. To

calculate the time of Mer Pass for the Moon it is necessary to establish the
proportion of the daily difference (MP) which must be applied to the tabulated Mer
Pass time for the Greenwich Meridian: this is known as the ‘difference of time for
longitude (MP)’. From Fig 6-4 it can be seen that:
Difference of Time for Longitude(MP) = Observers Longitude x Daily Difference(MP)

360°

Example. If an observer was at 75° W and the Daily Difference (MP) was 54 minutes, what
is the Difference of Time for Longitude(MP):
Difference of Time for Longitude (MP) = 75° x 54 = 11¼ minutes

360°
e. Method of Calculation of the Moon’s Mer Pass at Observer’s Meridian. The

zone time of the Moon’s Mer Pass at the observer’s meridian is obtained as follows.
Two examples of this calculation are below.
(1) The local mean time of the Moon’s Mer Pass on the Greenwich meridian is
established from the tabulated value for each day at the bottom of the right
hand daily pages of The Nautical Almanac.
(2) Comparison to the preceding day (longitude East) or to the following day
(longitude West) allows the daily difference (MP) to be established by simple
subtraction.
(3) From the daily difference (MP) and observer’s longitude, the difference of
time for longitude (MP) may be established by the calculation at Para 0607 sub
para d above or by using TABLE II - FOR LONGITUDE at the back of the
Nautical Almanac using the same arguments. The difference of time for
longitude (MP) is added (longitude West) or subtracted (longitude East) to the
local mean time of the Moon’s Mer Pass.
(4) The observer’s longitude is applied in the usual way (add if West or
subtract if East).
(5) The time zone in use is applied in the same way as in SR/SS calculations
(see Para 0305). This results in the local mean time of Mer Pass on the
observer’s meridian.
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Example. What is the zone time (+4) of the Moon’s Mer Pass in 63° 30'W? The time of the
Moon’s Mer Pass at the Greenwich meridian is 1834 and the daily difference (MP) to the
following day (because longitude is West) is 46 minutes:
Example. Summary of Moon Mer Pass Calculations
Mer Pass time (LMT) from Nautical Almanac 1834
Difference of time (following day) for longitude (from

TABLE II or 63½ x 46÷360) (W+ or E-) +8
Corrected time of Mer Pass at 63° 30'W 1842
Longitude (W+ or E-) 63° 30'W +0414
Local mean time UT (GMT) at 63° 30'W 2256Z
Zone time of Mer Pass 1856(+4)
Example. What is the zone time (-9) of the Moon’s Mer Pass in 128° 15'E? The time of the
Moon’s Mer Pass at the Greenwich meridian is 1834 and the daily difference (MP) to the
preceding day (because longitude is East) is 44 minutes:
Example. Summary of Moon Mer Pass Calculations
Mer Pass time (LMT) from Nautical Almanac 1834
Difference of time (preceding day) for longitude (from

TABLE II or 128½ x 44÷360) (W+ or E-) -16
Corrected time of Mer Pass at 128° 15'E 1818
Longitude (W+ or E-) 128° 15'E -0833
Local mean time UT (GMT) at 128° 15'E 0945Z
Zone time of Mer Pass 1845(-9)
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0608. Meridian Passage of Aries

The time of meridian passage of the first point of Aries (ϒ) over the Greenwich
meridian is given in The Nautical Almanac for the middle day of the three days on the double
page. The interval between successive meridian passages is 23h 56m, so that the times for
intermediate days and other meridians can easily be derived. The method of calculating the
precise time of the meridian passage of Aries (ϒ) on any day for any meridian is to find the
UT (GMT) at which the LHA of Aries (ϒ) is zero (or 360°). There are two other points to
note:

• When converting the ‘difference’ (see examples) from arc to time, The Nautical
Almanac ‘Increments and Correction’ tables for Aries must be used (in reverse)
and not the ‘Arc to Time’ table (which is for the Mean Sun).
• In certain cases it may be doubtful which day should be used for extracting the
GHA of Aries from The Nautical Almanac; this can easily be resolved by first
finding the approximate UT of Mer Pass of Aries at the required longitude (see
the example below). See extracts of The Nautical Almanac at Appendix 2.
Example. What is zone time (+4) of the Mer Pass of Aries in 57° 51'W on 13 July 1997?
Example. Summary of Mer Pass of Aries Calculations
LHA Aries (ϒ) 000° 00.0'

Longitude (W+ or E-) 057° 51.0'W
GHA Aries (ϒ) 057° 51.0'
Nearest GHA Aries (ϒ) for UT in whole hours (08) 051° 14.5' = 8 hours
Difference (from ‘Increments and Correction’ Tables) 006° 36.5' = 26 min 22 secs
Local Mean Time of Mer Pass of Aries (ϒ) 0826 22 (Z) 13 July
Zone(+4) (+ = subtract) (- = add) - 0400
Zone Time of Mer Pass of Aries (ϒ) 0426 22 (+4) 13 July
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Example. What is zone time (-10) of the Mer Pass of Aries in 154° 05'E on 13 July 1997?
Example. Summary of Mer Pass of Aries Calculations
Approx LMT Mer Pass of Aries (ϒ) 0436 13 July

Longitude 154° 05'E (W+ or E-) 1016
Approx UT (GMT) Mer Pass of Aries (ϒ) 1820 12 July
LHA Aries (ϒ) 000° 00.0'

Longitude (W+ or E-) 154° 05.0'E
GHA Aries (ϒ) 205° 55.0'
Nearest GHA Aries for UT in whole hours (18) 200° 40.0' = 18 hrs (12 July)
Difference (from‘Increments and Correction’ Tables) 005° 15.0' = 20 min 56 secs
Local Mean Time of Mer Pass of Aries (ϒ) 1820 56 (Z) 12 July
Zone Time of Mer Pass of Aries (ϒ) 0420 56 (-10) 13 July
0609. Upper Meridian Passage of Stars

The method of calculating precise time of the meridian passage of a star on any day
for any meridian is to find the UT (GMT) at which the sum of the LHA Aries and the SHA of
the star is zero (ie. LHA Star = 0° or 360°). There are two other points to note:
• When converting the ‘difference’ (see examples) from arc to time, The Nautical
Almanac ‘Increments and Correction’ Tables for Aries must be used (in
reverse) and not the ‘Arc to Time’ Table (which is for the Mean Sun).
• In certain cases it may be doubtful which day should be used for extracting the
GHA of Aries from The Nautical Almanac; Mer Pass of the star occurs after that
of Aries by 360°- SHA and can be resolved as in the second example below.
See Appendix 2.
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Example. What is zone time (+4) of Mer Pass of Aldebaran in 57° 51'W on 13 July 1997?
Example. Summary of Mer Pass of Aldebaran Calculations
LHA Aldebaran (= LHA Aries + SHA Aldebaran) 360° 00.0'

SHA Aldebaran 291° 03.6'
∴ LHA Aries (LHA Aldebaran - SHA Aldebaran) 068° 56.4'
Longitude (W+ or E-) 057° 51.0'W

GHA Aries (ϒ) 126° 47.4'
Nearest GHA Aries (ϒ) for UT in whole hours (13) 126° 26.8' = 13 hours
Local Mean Time of Mer Pass of Aldebaran 1301 22 (Z) 13 July
Zone(+4) (+ = subtract) (- = add) - 0400
Zone Time of Mer Pass of Aldebaran 0901 22(+4) 13 July
Example. What is Zone Time(-10) of Mer Pass of Aldebaran in 154° 05'E on 13 July 1997?
Example. Summary of Mer Pass of Aldebaran Calculations
Approx LMT Mer Pass of Aries (ϒ) 0436 13 July

360° - SHA Aldebaran = 360°-291° = 069° 0436
Approx UT (GMT) Mer Pass Aldebaran 0912
Longitude 154° 05'E (W+ or E-) -1016
Approx UT (GMT) Mer Pass of Aldebaran 2256 12 July
LHA Aldebaran (= LHA Aries + SHA Aldebaran) 360° 00.0'
SHA Aldebaran 291° 03.6'
∴LHA Aries(LHA Aldebaran - SHA Aldebaran 428° 56.4'
Longitude (W+ or E-) 154° 05.0'E
GHA Aries (ϒ) 274° 51.4'
Nearest GHA Aries (ϒ) for UT in whole hours (22) 260° 49.9' = 22 hrs (12 July)
Local Mean Time of Mer Pass of Aldebaran 2257 57 (Z) 12 July
Zone Time of Mer Pass of Aldebaran 0857 57 (-10) 13 July
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0610. Lower Meridian Passage of Stars

Should the time of a star’s lower meridian passage be required, it can be calculated
in the same way as the upper meridian passage except that the LHA of the star is 180°
instead of 0° or 360°.
0611. Meridian Passage of Planets

The times of meridian passages of the four navigational planets over the Greenwich
meridian are given in the daily pages of The Nautical Almanac for the middle day of the three
days on the double page. Times for intermediate days and meridians can readily be

derived and for normal navigational practice this approximation is sufficient (see the
example below). However, in some cases this approximation may be up to 3 minutes in
error according to the daily differences in times of the meridian passages. If a precise time
of meridian passage is required, the same procedure should be followed as for Aries (ie
finding the UT (GMT) at which the LHA of the planet is zero - see Para 0608 and the second
example below).
Example. What is the approximate zone time (+5) of Mer Pass of Venus in 76° 10'W on 13
July 1997? See extracts of The Nautical Almanac at Appendix 2.
Example. Summary of Approximate Mer Pass of Venus Calculations
Mer Pass Time (LMT) from Nautical Almanac 1358
Longitude (W+ or E-) 76° 10'W +0505
Local Mean Time UT (GMT) at 76° 10'W 1903Z
Zone Time of Mer Pass 1403(+5)
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Example. What is the precise Zone Time (+5) of Mer Pass of Venus in 76° 10'W on 13
July 1997? See extracts of The Nautical Almanac at Appendix 2.
Example. Summary of Precise Mer Pass of Venus Calculations
Approx LMT Mer Pass of Venus 1358 13 July
Longitude 76° 10'W (W+ or E-) +0505
Approx UT (GMT) Mer Pass of Aries 1903Z 13 July

LHA Venus 000° 00.0'
Longitude 076° 10'(W+ or E-) 076° 10.0'
GHA Venus 076° 10.0'
Nearest GHA Venus for UT in whole hours (18) 075° 30.9' = 19 hrs (13 July)
Local Mean Time of Mer Pass of Venus 1902 36 (Z) 13 July
Zone(+5 ) (+ = subtract) (- = add) -0500
Zone Time of Mer Pass of Venus 1402 36 (-10) 13 July
0612. Calculation of Latitude at Meridian Passage
a. The Four Cases of Meridian Passage Calculations. As stated at in Chapter

3, there are three possible cases for the calculation of latitude from the upper
meridian passage of a heavenly body and one additional case for the lower meridian
passage of a heavenly body. Once the sextant altitude has been corrected for
refraction etc, latitude may be calculated very simply in each case from the
declination and the observed (true) altitude of the heavenly body .
• Upper Mer Pass: latitude > declination with SAME names (N/S)
• Upper Mer Pass: latitude < declination with SAME names (N/S)
• Upper Mer Pass: latitude and declination with CONTRARY names (N/S)
• Lower Mer Pass: independent of values of declination, latitude and

NAME.
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b. Upper Mer Pass: Latitude > Declination with SAME Names. Fig 6-5 shows
an upper Mer Pass situation in the northern hemisphere with latitude > declination
and SAME names. It can be seen by inspection that:
O(H)X= observed (true) altitude (ie sextant altitude, corrected for errors etc)
ZX = 90° - observed (true) altitude (ie 90° - O(H)X )
XQ = declination
ZQ = latitude

It may also be seen by inspection that:
ZX = ZQ (latitude) - XQ (declination) = 90° - O(H)X (observed (true) altitude)

∴ latitude = 90° - observed (true) altitude + declination
or latitude = declination - observed (true) altitude + 90° (see Para 0325 sub
para f)
Fig 6-5. Upper Mer Pass: Latitude > Declination with SAME Names
(Latitude = Declination - Observed (True) Altitude + 90°)
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c. Upper Mer Pass: Latitude < Declination with SAME Names. Fig 6-6 shows
an upper Mer Pass situation in the northern hemisphere with latitude < declination
and SAME names. It can be seen by inspection that:
XQ = declination
ZQ = latitude

ZX = XQ (declination) - ZQ (latitude) = 90° - O(H)X (observed (true) altitude)

∴ latitude = declination + observed (true) altitude - 90° (see Para 0325 sub
para g)
Fig 6-6. Upper Mer Pass: latitude < declination with SAME Names
(latitude = declination + observed (true) altitude - 90°)
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d. Upper Mer Pass: latitude and Declination with CONTRARY Names. Fig 6-7
shows an upper mer pass situation in the northern hemisphere. It should be noted
that the heavenly body X is below the celestial equator (ie declination CONTRARY
name to latitude) but above the celestial horizon. It can be seen by inspection that:
QX = declination
ZQ = latitude

ZX = ZQ (latitude) + QX (declination) = 90° - O(H)X (observed (true) altitude)
∴ Latitude = 90° - observed (true) altitude - declination (see Para 0325 sub
para h)
Fig 6-7. Upper Mer Pass: Latitude and Declination with CONTRARY Names
(Latitude = 90° - Observed (True) Altitude - Declination)
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e. Lower Mer Pass: Independent of values of Declination, Latitude and Name.

The lower mer pass of the Sun is rarely encountered as it occurs at around midnight,
some 12 hours before or after the upper mer pass transit. The Sun is not visible at
midnight except in very high latitudes at certain times of the year. However, certain
stars do make lower meridian passages in moderate latitudes at times when they
are visible, and if observed, it is possible to derive the observer’s Latitude by a
simple calculation. In practice, lower meridian passage sights are not normally
observed as such and so the appropriate formula is not provided at Para 0348 sub
para i. However, the formula and a full explanation of the calculation is shown at Fig

6-8 below. It can be seen by inspection that:
O(H)X= observed (true) altitude (ie sextant altitude, corrected for errors
etc)
XQ = declination
ZQ = latitude
It may also be seen by inspection that based on the Celestial Equator as a baseline:
ZX = 180° - ZQ (latitude) - XQ’ (declination) = 90° - O(H)X (observed (true) altitude)

∴ latitude = 180° - 90° + observed (true) altitude - declination
or latitude = 90° + observed (true) altitude - declination
Fig 6-8. Lower Mer Pass: Independent of values of Declination, Latitude and Name
(Latitude = 90° + Observed (True) Altitude - Declination)
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POLARIS
SECTION 2 - POLARIS
0613. Position and Movement of Polaris around the North Celestial Pole
a. Position and Use of Polaris. Polaris (Alpha Ursae Minoris, more commonly
the Pole Star or North Star) is the name given to the second-magnitude star which
currently lies close to the North celestial pole. If its position coincided exactly with
the North celestial pole, a sextant observation of Polaris would provide an
instantaneous measurement of latitude, because the observed (true) altitude of the

North celestial pole would equal the latitude of the observer (see Fig 6-9). In
addition, a compass bearing of Polaris would provide an instantaneous check for
true North and thus any compass error. As Polaris is not in fact located precisely at
the celestial North pole these measurements are not possible directly, but with
small, easily applied corrections, both can be achieved.
Fig 6-9. Daily Movement of Polaris around the North Celestial Pole
b. Daily Movement of Polaris. To be in coincidence with the North celestial pole

the declination of Polaris would have to be precisely 90°N; in fact the declination of
Polaris is approximately 89°N. The polar distance (co-declination) is thus
approximately 1°, and in the course of a day, Polaris describes a small circle about
the North celestial pole with an angular radius of approximately 1°. This is shown by
the (exaggerated for clarity) small circle (displayed as a ‘dashed’ line) centred about
the North celestial pole in Fig 6-9 above. The observed (true) altitude of Polaris is
thus not quite equal to the latitude of the observer and the compass bearing of
Polaris is not always exactly due North.
Note. The small circle shown in Fig 6-9 above, described by Polaris and
centred about the North celestial pole, has been expanded in Fig 6-10 below
so that further detail may be shown with sufficient clarity.
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POLARIS
0614. Obtaining Latitude by the Altitude of Polaris

The small circle centred about the North celestial pole in Fig 6-9 has been expanded
at Fig 6-10 below, so that further detail can be shown.
a. Construction of Point Y. If a point Y is constructed on the Observer’s Meridian

O(H)P at an Angular Distance equal to AX (the Observed (True) Altitude of Polaris
(X) measured from the Celestial Horizon) so that O(H)Y = AX, then the observer’s
Latitude PO(H) can be established as follows:

Latitude PO(H) = Observed (True) Altitude (AX) ± Angular Difference PY
Fig 6-10. Daily Movement of Polaris around the North Celestial Pole
Expanded Scale (see Fig 6-9). Viewed from directly above the Pole
b. Effect of LHA of Polaris on Sign of PY. In the example shown at Figs 6-9 and
6-10, by inspection, the Angular Distance PY is positive (+). However, depending
on the position of X on the Small Circle during any 24 hour period, it could be
negative (-). The sign of Angular Distance PY is thus dependent on the LHA of
Polaris (X), and that LHA is also the angle XPY (known as “h”).
c. First Approximation of the Correction PY. A point Y' is constructed on the

Observer’s Meridian O(H)P so that the perpendicular to O(H)P passes through X.
As Polaris describes a Small Circle about the North Celestial Pole with an angular
radius of approximately 1°, the arc XY closely approximates the perpendicular XY’.
Thus as a first approximation PY almost equals PY'. As both the LHA (h) of Polaris
and the angular radius (PX) of Polaris’ movement around the North Celestial Pole
are known, PY' can be established by the formula:
PY'= PX Cos h
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POLARIS
d. Second and Third Approximations of the Correction PY. The Nautical

Almanac makes two further approximations to refine the calculation and tabulates
the three corrections which are called a0, a1 and a2. For mathematical convenience ,
constants are included in these tabular corrections to make them positive(+) at every
value of Polaris’ LHA (h). The constants are arranged so that their sum is exactly
1°, thus:
PY = +a0 + a1 + a2 - 1°

e. Latitude from Polaris’ Altitude. The formula at Para 0621a may thus be re-
written as:
Latitude = Observed (True) Altitude + a0 + a1 + a2 - 1°
f. Use of The Nautical Almanac Polaris Tables. The method of using the
Nautical Almanac Polaris tables is explained at Para 0325 sub para j which includes
a worked example of the procedure. An extract of the Nautical Almanac Polaris
tables can be found in Appendix 2.
0615. Obtaining True North by the Bearing of Polaris

The same principles used for latitude (Para 0613 to Para 0617 and Para 0325 sub
para j) may be used to establish the difference between the bearings of Polaris and true
North. The Nautical Almanac has a further table, which is entered with the arguments LHA
of Aries and approximate latitude between 0° and 65°. The output of the table is termed
“azimuth” but this term is used in astronomical sense (see Para 0517 sub para b) and
actually equates to the true bearing of Polaris. A worked example of the procedure for using
the Polaris azimuth tables is at Para 0325 sub para j. Above latitude 65° North,
observational errors in obtaining a bearing of Polaris become significant and it is no longer a
sufficiently accurate method for navigational use.
0616. Observation of Polaris at Twilight

Polaris is not a particularly bright star (magnitude 2.1) and it does not appear to the
naked eye until the horizon has become indistinct in the gathering dusk. An effective way of
over-coming this difficulty is to subtract a0 from the DR latitude and add 1°. If this
approximate altitude is set on the sextant, the star will be visible in the telescope long before
the naked eye can detect it, enabling an observation to be taken while the horizon is still
good.
0617. NavPac
NavPac provides all the data necessary for Polaris calculations and will carry them
out automatically. If available, the use of NavPac is strongly recommended if astro
techniques are being used in an operational context (i.e anything other than training).
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CHAPTER 7
THE RISING AND SETTING OF HEAVENLY BODIES
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 - REQUIREMENT AND GENERIC DEFINITIONS
Para

0701. Operational Requirement
0702. True (Theoretical) Rising and Setting
0703. Visible Rising and Setting
0704. Semi-Diameter, Upper and Lower Limb of the Sun or Moon
SECTION 2 - SUNRISE, SUNSET AND TWILIGHTS

0706. True Altitude at Visible Sunrise and Sunset
0707. Times of Visible Sunrise and Visible Sunset
0708. Time and Altitude of True Theoretical Sunrise and Sunset
0709. Twilight
0710. Duration of Twilights
0711. The Midnight Sun
0712. Circumpolar Bodies
SECTION 3 - MOONRISE AND MOONSET
0713. Tabulated Times of Moonrise and Moonset

0714. Calculation of Moonrise and Moonset
SECTION 4 - HIGH LATITUDES
0715. Rising and Setting in High Latitudes - Methods of Prediction Available
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CHAPTER 7
THE RISING AND SETTING OF HEAVENLY BODIES
SECTION 1 - REQUIREMENT AND GENERIC DEFINITIONS
0701. Operational Requirement

A thorough understanding of the rising and setting of heavenly bodies is essential for
Navigators. This is not only in order to plan the time at which star sights may be taken, but

perhaps more importantly, for planning operations which require total darkness, twilight or
moonlight. Today, a number of sources of this information are available, but it remains
essential that specialist navigators understand the theory and are able to complete the
calculations manually.
0702. True (Theoretical) Rising and Setting

The time of true (theoretical) rising and setting occurs when the centre of a
heavenly body is on the observer’s celestial horizon, to the east or west of his meridian. At
these times the true zenith distance is 90°. Except in the case of the Moon, this
phenomenon cannot be observed directly from the Earth’s surface due to atmospheric
refraction raising the image of the body appreciably above the visible horizon.
a. The Sun. It is shown at Para 0708 below, that when the Sun’s centre lies on
the celestial horizon (ie at the moment of true (theoretical) rising and setting), the
Sun’s lower limb appears one semi-diameter above the visible horizon. It is for this
reason that sunrise/sunset compass checks are taken when the Sun’s lower limb is
one semi-diameter above the visible horizon.
b. The Moon. However, it is also shown at Para 0713 below, that when the
Moon’s centre lies on the celestial horizon (ie at the moment of true (theoretical)
rising and setting), due to horizontal parallax, the Moon’s centre appears practically
on the visible horizon. See Para 04281 for explanation of parallax/horizontal
parallax.
0703. Visible Rising and Setting

Visible rising and setting occur when the upper limb of a heavenly body is just
appearing above or disappearing below the observer’s visible horizon. In the cases of the
Sun and Moon, the tables in The Nautical Almanac give the times at which these
phenomena occur.
0704. Semi Diameter, Upper and Lower Limb of the Sun or Moon
a. Semi-Diameter. The semi-diameter of a heavenly body is half its angular

diameter as viewed from the Earth.
b. Upper Limb (UL). The upper limb of the Sun or Moon is the portion of its
circumference furthest from the visible horizon, as seen from an observer on the
Earth’s surface.
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c. Lower Limb (LL). The lower limb of the Sun or Moon is the portion of its
circumference nearest to the visible horizon, as seen from an observer on the
Earth’s surface.
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SECTION 2 - SUNRISE, SUNSET AND TWILIGHTS

Visible sunrise or sunset occurs when the Sun’s upper limb appears on the visible
horizon. At this moment, the apparent altitude (equivalent to sextant altitude corrected for
index error and height of eye) of the Sun’s upper limb is 0° 00.0'.
0706. True Altitude at Visible Sunrise and Sunset

a. True Zenith Distance of Sun at Visible Sunrise or Sunset. By correcting this
apparent altitude of 0° 00.0' for the Sun’s upper limb at visible sunrise or sunset, first
the observed (true) altitude and then the true zenith distance of the Sun’s centre
may be calculated. Thus if the observer is assumed to have no height of eye, and
the Sun’s semi-diameter on the day in question is 16.0', then:
Table 7-1. True Zenith Distance of Sun at Visible Sunrise or Sunset

Refraction −34.0'
Sub-Total −0° 34.0'

Semi-Diameter −16.0'
Observed (True) Altitude −0° 50.0'

90° 90° 00.0'
True Zenith Distance 90° 50.0'
b. Sequence of Visible Sunrise/Sunset and True Theoretical Sunrise/Sunset.

From Table 7-1 (above) it can be seen that the Sun’s centre is 50.0' below the
celestial horizon when its upper limb is just visible above the visible horizon, and the
true zenith distance of the Sun’s centre is 90° 50.0'. For this reason, visible sunrise
occurs before true theoretical sunrise, and visible sunset occurs after true
theoretical sunset.
0707. Times of Visible Sunrise and Visible Sunset

The Nautical Almanac gives the times of visible sunrise and visible sunset for a
range of latitudes from 60°S to 72°N on the right hand side of the three-day double pages.
These times, which are given to the nearest minute, are strictly the UT of the phenomena on
the Greenwich meridian for the middle day of the three on each page. They are
approximately the LMT of the corresponding phenomena on any other meridian and may be
used, with interpolation, for any of the three days on the double page. The use of these
tables to calculate the zone time of visible sunrise and visible sunset (and twilights) is
explained at Para 0305.
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0708. Time and Altitude of True Theoretical Sunrise and Sunset
a. Times of True Theoretical Sunrise and Sunset. The times of true theoretical
sunrise and sunset are not usually required in the execution of navigation, but if they
should be, they can be found by solving the spherical triangle for the angle at the
celestial pole when the true zenith distance is 90°. This angle is the LHA of the Sun
at true theoretical sunrise or sunset.
b. Altitude of the Sun at True Theoretical Sunrise and Sunset. The apparent

altitude of the Sun at true theoretical sunrise and sunset is important for compass
checks. At Fig 7-1, the real and apparent positions of the Sun at true theoretical
sunrise and sunset are shown. From Fig 7-1 it will be seen that the Sun appears to
be approximately a semi-diameter above the visible horizon at that moment.
(ie 34.0' refraction - 16.0' semi-diameter = 18.0' = approximately one semi-diameter).
It is for this reason that Nories Nautical Tables provide amplitude tables to calculate
the true compass bearing of the Sun when the Sun’s lower limb is one semi-
diameter above the visible horizon.
Fig 7-1. Altitude of the Sun at True (Theoretical) Sunrise or Sunset
0709. Twilight
Twilights were defined at Para 0108, but for the convenience of the reader the
definitions are repeated here. The use of The Nautical Almanac to calculate the zone time of
twilights is at Para 0305.
a. Civil Twilight (CT). The times of morning civil twilight (MCT) and evening civil
twilight (ECT) are tabulated in The Nautical Almanac for the moment when the Sun’s
centre is 6° below the celestial horizon. The times are shown in chronological order
and the terms ‘morning’ and ‘evening’ are omitted. This is roughly the time at which
the horizon becomes clear (morning) or becomes indistinct (evening).
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b. Nautical Twilight (NT). Times of morning nautical twilight (MNT) and evening
nautical twilight (ENT) are tabulated in The Nautical Almanac for the moment when
the Sun’s centre is 12° below the celestial horizon. The terms ‘morning’ and
‘evening’ are omitted as the times are in chronological order. Morning and evening
stars are usually taken between the times of civil twilight (CT) and nautical twilight
(NT).
c. Astronomical Twilight. The time of astronomical twilight (AT) is the moment

when the Sun’s centre is 18° below the celestial horizon. Whilst the Sun’s centre is

18° or greater below the celestial horizon, absolute darkness (with respect to the
Sun) is deemed to exist and observations by astronomers may usefully take place.
The times of astronomical twilight (AT) may be useful operationally, but they have no
significance in solving the astro-navigation problem and so AT times are not
tabulated in The Nautical Almanac.
0710. Duration of Twilights
a. Morning Twilight. Morning twilight, whether civil, nautical or astronomical,

begins when the Sun’s centre is at the appropriate angular depression (6°, 12° or
18° respectively) below the celestial horizon, and lasts until visible sunrise.
b. Evening Twilight. Evening twilight begins at visible sunset and lasts until the
Sun has reached the appropriate depression (6°, 12° or 18°) below the celestial
horizon.
c. Twilight and Total Darkness. The relative positions of the Sun at true
theoretical sunset (position X), visible sunset (position X'), and end of twilight
(position X'') are shown at Fig 7-2.
(1) Position X'' can represent civil twilight, nautical twilight or astronomical
twilight depending on the angular depression below the celestial horizon.
(2) The angles ZPX, ZPX' and ZPX'' are the corresponding hour angles of the
Sun for these positions, and ZX (90°), ZX' (90° 50´) and ZX'' (96°, 102° or 108°
as required) the respective true zenith distances.
(3) If the circle of declination of the Sun does not fall 18° below the horizon,
astronomical twilight does not end until visible sunrise and there is no ‘total
darkness’ overnight. This situation occurs when the observer’s latitude and the
Sun’s declination the SAME name and their sum is greater than 72° (ie Lat +
Dec > 72° ∴90°-(Lat +Dec) < 18°).
(4) Similar limits for civil twilight and nautical twilight are obtained by using
circles of Declination of the Sun of 6° and 12° respectively, instead of 18°.
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Fig 7-2. Positions of the Sun at Sunsets and Twilights

d. Duration of Twilight. The actual duration of twilight depends on the angle
which the Sun’s path makes with the Celestial Horizon. If the angle which the Sun’s
path makes with the celestial horizon is small, as it must be in high latitudes (Fig 7-
3a), twilight lasts considerably longer than it does in low latitudes where the angle is
large (Fig 7-3b). Thus nautical twilight in the tropics usually lasts just under an hour,
in the south of England at midsummer it lasts through most of short night and off
northern Scotland in midsummer it lasts all night.
Fig 7-3a High (Northern) Latitude Fig 7-3b Low (Northern) Latitude
Sun’s Angle of Descent Small Sun’s Angle of Descent Large
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e. Calculation of Twilight and Total Darkness Times.
(1) Civil Twilight and Nautical Twilight. The times of civil twilight and
nautical twilight can be obtained from the dedicated tables in The Nautical
Almanac (see Para 0305).
(2) Astronomical Twilight and Total Darkness. If necessary for operational

purposes, astronomical twilight and thus the times of total darkness may be
calculated by the angle X´PX'' (in Fig 7-1), which is the difference between the

hour angles in the two triangles PZX' and PZX''. From the time of visible
sunset/sunrise note the GHA of the Sun, add/subtract 18°, read back into the
GHA table and note the times of astronomical twilight. Alternatively, NAVPAC
will provide the times of astronomical twilight on demand.
f. Need for Artificial Light. Artificial light becomes necessary for most purposes
when the Sun is 6° or more below the visible horizon (ie after civil twilight).
0711. The Midnight Sun

If the circle of declination (Fig 7-2) remains above the celestial horizon, the Sun can
never set and this effect is known colloquially as the ‘midnight Sun’. From Fig 7-4 it can be
seen that in the northern hemisphere, the limiting latitude for the ‘midnight Sun’ to occur is:
90° minus the Sun’s greatest northerly Declination (90° − 23½°) N = 66½° N.
In that latitude the Sun will remain above the visible horizon all night on one occasion only
during the year, although as the observer’s latitude increases, the number of days in a year
that the Sun never sets also increases, because smaller declinations satisfy the condition.
For a similar reason, astronomical twilight will last all night on one night of the year in (90°−
23½° − 18°) N = 48° N. These limits, with their names altered to South, also apply in
southern latitudes.
Fig 7-4. The Midnight Sun
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0712. Circumpolar Bodies

Although every heavenly body is ‘circumpolar’ (in that to an observer on Earth it
describes a circle about the celestial pole), the term ‘circumpolar’ is normally used to denote
that a heavenly body never sets and is always above the observer’s visible horizon; its
declination is greater than (90°- Latitude).
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SECTION 3 - MOONRISE AND MOONSET
0713. Tabulated Times of Moonrise and Moonset
a. Tabulated Times. The precise times of moonrise and moonset may be found
by solving the triangle PZX for the LHA in the same way as it can be solved for the
Sun, but the calculation is even more laborious, the Moon’s declination and SHA are
both changing so rapidly that a method of successive approximation must be
employed in order to obtain the proper declination and GHA at the instant of

moonrise or moonset. To avoid this, tables are incorporated in The Nautical
Almanac giving the times, to an observer on the Greenwich meridian with no height
of eye, when the Moon’s upper limb is just touching the visible horizon (ie visible
moonrise and visible moonset).
b. Position of the Moon at Visible Rising or Setting. At this instant of visible

moonrise/moonset, when the Moon’s upper limb touches the visible horizon, the
observed (true) altitude of the Moon’s centre is given by the following calculation.
This shows that the Moon’s centre is then roughly on the celestial horizon:
Table 7-2. Observed (True) Altitude of Moon at Visible Moonrise or Moonset

Refraction −34.0'
Semi-Diameter −16.0'
Horizontal Parallax (Average)+ + 0° 57.0'
0714. Calculation of Moonrise and Moonset
a. Layout of Moonrise and Moonset Tables. The exact LMT of visible

moonrise/moonset on the Greenwich Meridian is given for four days on the right-
hand of the three-day double pages of the Nautical Almanac for a range of latitudes
between 72°N and 60°S. The data for fourth day is tabulated on the same page to
aid interpolation without having to turn to the page. Where no phenomenon occurs
during a particular day (as happens once a month) the time of the phenomenon on
the following day, increased by 24 hours, is given. For example, there is no visible
Moonrise in latitude 40°S on 21st December 1997 (see Appendix 2). The time 2408
refers to the rising at 0008 on 22nd December.
b. Interpolation Requirements. The LMT of visible Moonrise/Moonset is not

constant for all longitudes and must be corrected for the daily difference between
consecutive visible Moonrises or visible Moonsets at the latitude considered. The
correction for longitude must be applied to the LMT at the Greenwich meridian in the
same way as the correction is applied to the Moon’s mer pass (see Para 0607).
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Note. The term ‘daily difference’ is also used for mer pass of the Moon, but
that value is the difference between consecutive mer pass, rather than
consecutive Moonrises/Moonsets as in this case. To avoid confusion, when
the term ‘daily difference’ is used in BRd 45(2), it is suffixed (MP), (MR) or
(MS) as appropriate.
c. Longitude Interpolation Formula. It is also of note that the method of

interpolating for difference of time for longitude(MR/MS) correction for visible
Moonrise/Moonset uses the same formula as for the mer pass of the Moon’s

difference of time for longitude (MP) correction (see Para 0607 sub para d), only
with the daily difference (MR/MS) instead of daily difference (MP). The Nautical
Almanac Table II (Page xxxii), referred to at Para 0714 sub d below, is thus based
on the following formula:
Difference of Time for Longitude(MR/MS) = Observer’s Longitude x Daily Difference(MR/MS)

360°
d. Method of Calculation of the Moonrise or Moonset at Observer’s Meridian.

The zone time of the visible Moonrise/Moonset at the observer’s meridian is
obtained as follows. Demonstrations of two of these calculations (Longitudes East
and West) are below.
(1) The local mean time of the visible Moonrise/Moonset on the Greenwich
meridian is established from the tabulated value for each day at the nearest
latitudes at the right hand daily pages of the Nautical Almanac.
(2) Interpolation for Latitude required is carried out by using the Nautical
Almanac Table I (Page xxxii) at the back of the book, for the times on
consecutive latitudes on the day wanted and also on the preceding day
(longitude East) or to the following day (longitude West). The result should be
times for the exact latitude on two consecutive days. In extreme conditions near
□ or ■ symbols, interpolation for latitude may be possible in only one direction;
accurate times are of little value in such circumstances.
(3) Taking the difference between the times for the exact latitude on two
consecutive days (see immediately above), interpolate for difference of time for
longitude(MR/MS) using the Nautical Almanac Table II (Page xxxii) at the back
of the book. The correction obtained from Table II should be applied to the time
for the day wanted. It is normally added if West or subtracted if East, but if, as
occasionally happens, the times become earlier each day instead of later, the
signs of the corrections must be reversed. In extreme conditions near □ or ■
symbols, interpolation for difference of time for longitude(MR/MS) may be
possible only in one direction; accurate times are of little value in such
circumstances.
(4) The observer’s longitude is applied in the usual way (add if West or
subtract if East).
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(5) Time zone in use is applied in the same way as in SR/SS calculations (see
Para 0305). This results in the local mean time of visible Moonrise/Moonset on
the observer’s meridian.
Example. Visible Moonrise/Moonset. What are the zone times of visible

Moonrise/Moonset on 20th January 1997 at:
(1) 33° 27.0'S 125° 00.0'E in Zone (-8)

and (2) 33° 27.0'S 076° 31.0'W in Zone (+5)
Example. Summary of Visible Moonrise/Moonset Calculations
(1) 33° 27.0'S 125° 00.0'E (2) 33° 27.0'S 076° 31.0'W
Moonrise Moonset Moonrise Moonset
LMT in 30°S 1636 (20 Jan) 0239 (20 Jan) 1636 (20 Jan) 0239 (19 Jan)
La. Corrn +7 -7 +7 -7
Long Corrn -18 -17 +11 +10
Corrected LMT 1625 (20 Jan) 0215 (20 Jan) 1654 (20 Jan) 0242 (20 Jan)
Long (-E or +W) -0820 E -0820 E +0506 W +0506 W
UT (GMT) 0805 (20 Jan) 1755 (19 Jan) 2200 (20 Jan) 0748 (20 Jan)
Zone +8 +8 -5 -5
Zone Time 1605(-8) 20 Jan 0155(-8) 20 Jan 1700(+5) 20 Jan 0248(+5)20 Jan
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SECTION 4 - HIGH LATITUDES
0715. Rising and Setting in High Latitudes - Methods of Prediction Available

There are three methods available for predictions of rising and setting times in high
latitudes.
a. The Nautical Almanac. The Nautical Almanac provides dedicated visible

rising/setting and twilight data for the Sun, and visible rising/setting data for the
Moon between 72° North and 60° South.

b. NavPac. NavPac will instantly calculate rising and setting data for all heavenly
bodies, plus twilight data, accurately to latitude 89° 59.9'. NavPac 4 is by far the
quickest and most convenient method of calculating rising/setting/twilight
data. See Chapter 4 for details.
c. Nautical Almanac and HO 229. However, if desired, it is possible to use a

combination of the Nautical Almanac and Sight Reduction Tables for Marine
Navigation (HO 229 series) to achieve similar results. As HO 229 is not issued to
Royal Navy units, this method is not discussed further here.
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CHAPTER 8
REFRACTION, DIP AND MIRAGE
CONTENTS
Para
0801. Introduction to Refraction
0802. Refraction Angles and Indices

0804. Abnormal Conditions of Atmospheric Refraction - Abnormal Refraction
0805. Air Temperature and Atmospheric Pressure Correction Tables
0806. Dip
0807. Other Methods of Correcting for Abnormal Refraction
0808. Mirages
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CHAPTER 8
REFRACTION, DIP AND MIRAGE
0801. Introduction to Refraction

Light, or other wave energy, is assumed to travel in a straight line at uniform speed,
provided the medium through which it is travelling has uniform properties. Thus the speed of
light in a vacuum is ‘c’, but a light ray travelling through water will travel at an appreciably
lower velocity, and in some peculiar forms of matter it is possible for light to travel at only a

few meters per second. This reduction in velocity does not apply equally to all parts of the
light wave, meaning that when light passes from a less dense to a more dense medium at an
angle to the surface, it will be bent towards the normal in the more dense medium as it is
slowed down; this change of direction is called refraction. This is illustrated in Fig 8-1a and
Fig 8-1b; note that the light ray in Fig 8-1a which enters normal to the denser medium will
still be reduced in velocity, but it will not refract. Refraction applies to all wave phenomena,
including other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, sound waves, and waves in water.
0802. Refractive Index

The amount of change in direction is directly proportional to the angle between the
direction of travel and the normal to the surface (angle ABN in Fig 8-1b). The ratio of this
angle to the similar angle after refraction (angle CBN´ in Fig 8-1b) is constant, so as one
increases, the other increases at the same rate. Thus, the difference between them (the
change in angle) also increases at the same rate. The closer the incident ray is to
parallelling the surface, the greater the refraction. A given material has an index of refraction
(μ) which strictly depends on a number of factors, but for practical purposes can be regarded
as a constant related to the density of the medium. In Fig 8-1b, the angle ABN is called the
angle of incidence (φ) and angle CBN´ the angle of refraction (θ). See Chapter 4 for
definitions of these terms, related by Snell’s Law, which states that:
‘The sines of the angle of incidence and angle of refraction (at a boundary between
two media) are inversely proportional to the indices of refraction of the media in
which they occur’.
Thus, if μ1 is the index of refraction in which N occurs, and μ2 is the index of refraction of the
substance in which θ occurs, then:
Sin φ μ2
=
Sin θ μ1
If the change in refraction is sudden, as in Fig 8-1b, the change in direction will also be
sudden. However, if a ray of light passes through a medium of gradually changing index of
refraction, then its path is curved. This is the situation in the Earth’s atmosphere, which
generally decreases in density with increased height. This gradual change of direction is
called atmospheric refraction. For a ray of light which is approaching the observer on or
near the surface of the Earth, the bending of the light is called terrestrial refraction and
affects the dip of the visible horizon.
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Fig 8-1a. Light Normal to the Surface Fig 8-1b. Light at an Angle to the Surface

a. Effect of Atmospheric Refraction. When a ray of light from a star

approaching the Earth enters the Earth’s atmosphere it is ‘bent’ by atmospheric
refraction (see Para 0802). The effect of atmospheric refraction is to make a
heavenly body appear higher in the sky than it otherwise would, and this is shown in
Fig 8-2 below.
b. Size of Atmospheric Refraction Errors. If a heavenly body is at the

observer’s zenith (ie approaching the atmosphere at 90°), its light is not refracted (ie
the error is zero) except for a very slight amount if the various layers of the
atmosphere are not exactly horizontal. As the zenith distance increases, the
atmospheric refraction becomes greater. At an apparent altitude of 20° the error is
about 2.6'; at 10° it is 5.3'; at 5° it is 9.9', and at the Horizon 34.5'.
c. Atmospheric Refraction Correction Tables. ‘Altitude Correction Tables’ for

atmospheric refraction (including semi-diameters for the Sun and Moon) are given at
the front and back of the Nautical Almanac respectively. The values given in these
tables are for mean refraction which are average conditions; these correction values
are entirely reliable provided that abnormal conditions do not apply (see Para
0804).
Fig 8-2. Atmospheric Refraction (Scales Exaggerated for Clarity)
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0804. Abnormal Conditions of Atmospheric Refraction - Abnormal Refraction

The atmosphere contains many irregularities which are erratic in their influence upon
atmospheric refraction; where these irregularities exceed the corrections contained in the
Nautical Almanac, conditions of abnormal refraction are deemed to exist. Almost by
definition it is not normally possible to correct for abnormal refraction conditions, but the
mariner should be aware when they may occur and be prepared for incorrect results.
a. Meteorological and Oceanographic Conditions. The following

meteorological and oceanographic conditions are known to create abnormal

refraction errors:
• After the passage of a squall.
• After the passage of a weather front.
• When there is a large difference between air and sea temperatures.
• On very calm days, when air forms in layers, a mirage condition might
exist.
b. Geographic Areas. The following geographic areas around the world are
known to be particularly vulnerable to abnormal refraction errors:
• The vicinity of the Grand Banks.
• The West Coast of Africa from Mogador to Cap Blanc and from the Congo
to Cape of Good Hope.
• The Red Sea.
• The Persian Gulf.
• Over ice-free water in Polar regions.
• When offshore winds blow from high snow-covered mountains to nearby

tropical seas, as along the west coast of South America.
• When cold water from large rivers flow into a warm sea, when a strong
current flows past a bay or coast, causing colder water to be drawn to the
surface, as in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro or off Santos (both Brazil), the
west coast of Africa from Cape Palmas to Cape Three Points during the
time of the southwest monsoon, or the east coast of Africa in the vicinity of
Capo Gardafui during the summer.
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0805. Air Temperature and Atmospheric Pressure Correction Tables
a. The Nautical Almanac - Altitude Correction Tables. The ‘Altitude Correction

Tables’ for mean refraction in the Nautical Almanac are based on an air temperature
of 50°F (10°C) an atmospheric pressure of 1010mb (29.83 inches of mercury) at sea
level on the Earth. At other temperatures the value of the mean refraction error is
changed, becoming larger at lower temperatures/higher atmospheric pressures and
smaller at higher temperatures/lower atmospheric pressures.

b. The Nautical Almanac - Additional Correction Table. An ‘Additional
Correction Table’ is at Table A4 in the front of the Nautical Almanac, and is used to
allow for the combined effects of non-standard temperature and pressure.
c. Norie’s Nautical Tables - Refraction Correction Tables. Separate refraction

Correction Tables for temperatures and pressure are also available in Norie’s
Nautical Tables.
d. Use of Correction Tables. Variations from the mean refraction will result in
changes of the refractive index, but unless the changes are great, the differences
are likely to be small. The Nautical Almanac ‘Additional Correction’ Table A4 is
normally only used in extremely low temperatures or at very low apparent altitudes
or a combination of both. In polar regions, however, particularly near the surface
and for altitudes of less than 5°, variations of several minutes are not uncommon.
0806. Dip
a. Definition of Dip. The dip of the visible horizon (in minutes of arc) is the angle
by which the visible horizon differs from the horizontal at the eye of the observer. It
is represented by angle DOH in Fig 8-3a below (see explanation at Para 0806 sub
para c below).
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b. Application of Dip. Dip therefore only applies when the visible horizon is used
as a reference and must be applied to sextant observations of all heavenly bodies
c. Calculation of Dip - Without Refraction. If the observer’s eye were at the

surface of the Earth, the visible horizon and the horizontal plane tangential to the
Earth’s surface at the observer’s position would coincide, and there would be no dip.
This is shown at Fig 8-3a, where the observer is on the Earth’s surface at O', and
the angle H'O'X is the apparent altitude of heavenly body X. However, as the
observer’s height of eye rises to position O, it can be seen that the angle DOX (the

apparent altitude of heavenly body X when at height of eye O'O) is greater than
angle H'O'X, by an amount equal to angle DOH. Angle DOH is the angle of dip. OX
and O'X are deemed to be parallel.
d. Calculation of Dip - With Refraction. The principle of dip, explained above

remains the same, but terrestrial refraction (atmospheric refraction at the Earth’s
surface - see Para 0802) bends the observer’s line of sight as shown at Fig 8-3b.
While the observer would expect the visible horizon to be at position T, due to
terrestrial refraction, it is actually at position T'. So instead of seeing the line OTD,
the observer actually sees the tangent to the curved line OT', which is the straight
line OD'. Thus the angle of dip (with refraction) is reduced by the angle D'OD when
compared to angle of dip (without refraction). Thus the effect of terrestrial refraction
is to decrease the angle of dip. The angle of dip (with refraction) may be computed
by:
Angle of Dip (minutes) = 0.97 √Height of Eye (feet) = 1.758 √Height of Eye (metres)
In practice, The Nautical Almanac tables of dip include terrestrial refraction and so
the user does not need to allow for it separately.
0807. Other Methods of Correcting for Abnormal Refraction

In addition to correction for atmospheric refraction by tables, in cases of abnormal
refraction there are two other methods which may be used to help overcome the problem,
including a solution for any abnormal terrestrial refraction. However, sights taken with
abnormal refraction should be used with the utmost caution.
a Pairs of Stars 180° in Opposition. If it is believed that the abnormal refraction

is the same in both directions, one straightforward method of overcoming abnormal
refraction is to select pairs of stars for observation on opposite sides of the horizon
(ie 180° of bearing apart). When the position lines are plotted, halve the distance
between them, thus taking the mean. By choosing pairs of stars 180° of bearing
apart, any an abnormal refraction of whatever sort will cancel out. Select a further
pair of stars 90° different in bearing from the original pair and repeat the process.
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b. Over the Shoulder Sights. Another method of overcoming abnormal

refraction, but one which requires considerable skill with a sextant, is to take the
sextant altitude of a reasonably high star normally, and then repeat the observation
‘over the shoulder’ (ie at an angle greater than 90°, above the ‘back’ horizon, 180°
from the normal bearing). The difference between the sum of the two sextant
altitudes (corrected for index error) and 180° is the sum of the dip and refraction to
the horizon in the two directions. If it is believed that the abnormal refraction is the
same in both directions, this sum is twice the dip and refraction to the horizon in
each direction.

0808. Mirages
a. Definition. Whenever refraction is not normal, some form of mirage may occur.
A mirage is defined as ‘an optical phenomenon in which objects appear displaced,
distorted, magnified, multiplied or inverted, owing to varying atmospheric refraction
in layers close to the surface of the Earth due to large air density differences.’ This
may occur when there is an erratic or irregular change of temperature or humidity in
the Earth’s atmosphere with changes in height.
b. Effects - Temperature Increase with Height. Increased temperature with

height (a temperature inversion) will make the refraction greater than normal,
particularly if accompanied by a rapid decrease in humidity. The effects of mirage
may then be:
• If the object appears elevated and the visible horizon seems farther away,
it is termed looming.
• If the object appears taller than usual, it is termed towering.
• If the lower part of a object is raised more than the top and the object
appears shorter overall, it is termed stooping.
c. Effects - Temperature Decrease with Height. If the temperature decrease

with height is much greater than normal, refraction is less than normal. The effects
of mirage may then be that objects will appear lower, and the visible horizon will
seem closer to the observer. This is called sinking.
d. Geographic Areas where Mirages are Possible. Geographic areas

vulnerable to abnormal Atmospheric Refraction errors, including mirages are at Para
0804 sub para b.
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CHAPTER 9
ERRORS IN ASTRONOMICAL POSITION LINES
CONTENTS
Para
0901. Contributory Errors to Astronomical Position Lines
0902. Errors in the Observed (True) Altitude

0903. Time Errors
0904. Errors Inherent in the Method by Which the Sight is Reduced
0905. Errors in Course/Speed Made Good (CMG/SMG) Between Observations
0906. The Cocked Hat formed by Astronomical Position Lines
0907. Caution in Applying Common Equal Error Corrections to Cocked Hats
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CHAPTER 9
ERRORS IN ASTRONOMICAL POSITION LINES
0901. Contributory Errors to Astronomical Position Lines

Errors may be introduced in to the astronomical position lines by contributory errors
which are of four types:
• Altitude. Errors in the observed (true) altitude (see Para 0902 below).

• Time. Time errors (see Para 0903).
• Method. Errors inherent in the method by which the sight is reduced (see Para
0904).
• CMG/SMG. Errors in the assessment of ‘course made good’ (CMG) and ‘speed
made good (SMG) between observations (see Para 0905).
0902. Errors in the Observed (True) Altitude
a. Sources of Error. When the sextant altitude of a heavenly body has been
corrected for perpendicularity, side error, index error, dip, refraction, semi-diameter
and parallax, the observed (true) altitude may still be incorrect owing to a
combination of sextant errors, errors of observation and incorrect values of the dip
and refraction. This resultant error is reflected in the intercept which may be either
too large or too small, and so the astronomical position line itself will be plotted
incorrectly.
b. Limiting Areas of Error. When a position is decided by two astronomical

position lines and they are given an ‘assessed possible error’, the vessel may or
may not lie within a parallelogram (diamond of error) with sides parallel to the
position lines and spaced at the ‘assessed possible error’ distance from them, as
shown at Fig 9-1 below. Using standard deviation calculations a more useful error
elipse may be calculated (see Fig 9-1 below and BR 45 Volume 1 Chapters 8 and
16). NAVPAC produces an error ellipse when three or more observations are made.
These estimates of position rely on making a realistic assessment of the
possible errors.
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Fig 9-1. Position Lines, Diamond of (Possible) Error and Error Ellipse

c. Reason for Large Errors. The errors most likely to increase the size of the
overall error budget, in order of probability, are:
(1) Operator Error in ‘Cutting’ the Heavenly Body onto the Horizon. The
ubiquity of GPS and digital navigation systems in the modern era means that,
across the Fleet, the general skill levels at operating a sextant have reduced
compared with say 30 years ago. Sextant skills are highly perishable, and so
officers should attempt to keep practiced at using a sextant, so that when the
time comes to rely on astro they are able to do so. This can be achieved
relatively easily with the use of NAVPAC to reduce and plot sights.
(2) Incorrect removal of Perpendicularity Error. Failure to understand the

procedure for identification of perpendicularity error (see Chapter 3) and inability
to remove it accurately produces sextant altitudes with significant errors. This
error is typically especially prevalent in the sights of inexperienced junior officers
training for the Navigation Watchkeeping Certificate (NWC). Sextant errors
should checked by an experienced officer before sights are taken, until these
young officers are able to detect and remove this error accurately themselves.
(3) Incorrect allowance for Refraction and Dip. Errors in sextant altitude
arising from incorrect allowance for refraction and dip when abnormal refraction
exists can give rise to significant errors. These errors are particularly
insidious as the user may not even suspect their presence. See Chapter 8
for explanation and countermeasures.
(4) Incorrect removal of Side and Index Errors. Side and index errors (see
Chapter 3) are much less likely to cause errors in the sextant atitude than
undetected perpendicularity error. This is because they are easy to identify and
their removal is normally addressed, even by inexperienced users. Side and
index errors must be corrected after removing perpendicularity error, otherwise
there is little point.
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0903. Time Errors
a Sources of Error. Time errors in calculating astronomical position lines are

infrequent, given the current generation of digital deck watches and time standard
equipment embarked in most naval ships. The most likely errors are to misread the
deck watch by a full minute at the time of observation (particularly if the analogue
minute and second hands are not perfectly aligned), or to apply any known deck
watch error with the incorrect sign.

b. Size of Error. Any error in time will give rise to an error in the calculated
(tabulated) altitude, equivalent to a displacement in longitude by an amount equal to
the error in hour angle expressed in minutes of arc. When the azimuth of the body
observed is 0° or 180° this error is zero (ie position line is East-West), and is a
maximum when the azimuth of the body observed is 90° (ie position line is North-
South). When converting the longitude error to nautical miles, the same error in time
will have a greater effect in distance at the equator than in high latitudes due to the
compression of meridians with latitude. This error distance may be plotted or
calculated. The relationships between the error distance, hour angle error (ie
longitude error) and latitude is given by:
Error distance = error in hour angle (ie longitude error) x cosine latitude
c. Direction of Error. The direction of displacement depends on whether the time

used for the observation is ‘too large’ (ie time late) or ‘too small’ (ie time early) when
compared to UT (GMT).
• If the time used is too large (ie time late) then the astronomical position
lines will be shifted to the West and must be moved East to correct the
error.
• If the time used is too small (ie time early) then the astronomical position
lines will be shifted to the East and must be moved West to correct the
error.
0904. Errors Inherent in the Method by Which the Sight is Reduced
a. NAVPAC. NAVPAC produces a very accurate sight reduction process based

on extremely precise ephemeral data and employs iterative processes not practical
for manual methods. Where there are three or more observations NAVPAC
employs a least square method of calculation to obtain the most probable position
(See BR 45 Volume 1 Annex 16A) and can provide an observed position to an
accuracy of 0.15 nautical miles (see Chapter 5).
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b. Manual Methods with the Sight Form (NP 400). When using the Nautical
Almanac and sight reduction tables (DP 330 series) or other similar publications,
there are unavoidable errors due to rounding up or down of values in the tables and
interpolation between them. These errors are cumulative. There is also the further
risk of error through mistakes in the manual process of transcribing data from the
tables into the sight reduction form, and also in any mistakes in manual addition and
subtraction while working the form. See Chapter 5 for the accuracies that the
various tabular methods of sight reduction can provide.

c. Manual Methods with Formulae. If the basic ephemeral data from the
Nautical Almanac is entered into a formula (eg the cosine formula or haversine
formula), then the method employed to solve the equation will have an effect on the
accuracy of the answer. If using five-figure logarithms the resulting error will be
minimal, but logarithm tables using smaller numbers of significant figures will
increase the error budget. Programmable calculators or spreadsheets can be used
to carry out these calculations to a high degree of accuracy (which can, I theory at
least, approach that of NAVPAC), but this accuracy does depend on the source and
accuracy of the ephemeral data used, and the specification and performance of the
calculator in use (see Chapter 5).
d. General Error Information. Attention is drawn to the general information on

calculating navigational errors at BR 45 Volume 1 Chapter 16.
0905. Errors in Course/Speed Made Good (CMG/SMG) Between Observations

Whenever some time elapses between observations of heavenly bodies (eg. Sun-
run-Sun), there is a likelihood that the first astronomical position line will be incorrectly
transferred, either because the course laid off on the chart may differ from the actual CMG,
or the estimated SMG may differ from actual SMG. A full explanation of the procedures for
constructing an estimated position (EP), a probable position area (PPA) and the most
probable position (MPP) which allows for ground track/ground speed errors, may be found in
BR 45(1).
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0906. The Cocked Hat formed by Astronomical Position Lines
a. Reasons for a Cocked Hat. In general, the astronomical position lines

obtained from three observations (which, for simplicity are considered as being
taken simultaneously) are no more likely to pass through a common point than for
three terrestrial position lines to do so, although for different reasons, as explained
below.
(1) Terrestrial. With terrestrial position lines, the error is true bearing, and if

the same constant error applies to each true bearing (ie the result of a
compass error of lubber’s line misalignment) the bearing differences can be re-
plotted (with a station pointer if using a paper chart) and the constant error
quantified and corrected (see BR 45 Volume 1 Chapter 8). The corrected true
bearings may then be re-plotted and will result in a different fix position with true
bearings ‘skewed’ slightly from the original ones.
(2) Astronomical. With astronomical position lines, the usual reason for a
cocked hat is that the zenith distances are wrong. Correction to the zenith
distance displaces the position line parallel to itself.
b. Correction for Errors Causing a Cocked Hat. There are two general groups of
errors in astronomical position lines relating to the observed (true) altitude itself:
(1) Common Equal Error. If it is believed that there is a common equal

error in magnitude and sign for each sight (eg as in incorrect index error), then
simple iterative constructions will allow the true observed position to be plotted.
This is useful for skilled sextant users who have a consistent small ‘personal
error’ caused by ‘cutting’ the heavenly body deep (or shallow) on the horizon.
See CAUTIONS at Para 0907.
(2) Individual Random Errors. If individual random errors exist for each
sight, then the true observed position cannot be found with certainty.
However, assuming that any constant errors (eg incorrect index error) have
been removed, but a cocked hat still remains, then a derivation of the most
probable position is possible using a least squares calculation. The least
squares mathematical technique is explained in full in BR 45(1). Where there
are three or more observations NAVPAC employs a least square method of
calculation to obtain the most probable position (See BR 45 Volume 1 Annex
16B).
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c. Methods of Applying Common Equal Error Corrections. If it is believed that

there is a common equal error in magnitude and sign for each sight, it is possible
to re-plot the fix in two ways, as follows. See CAUTIONS at Para 0907.
(1) Mathematical Construction. Re-plot the intercepts as if for a new index

error. With a ‘new line’, join the original intersection of any two position lines to
the intersection of their ‘adjusted’ position lines. Repeat this procedure with the
same index error for each pair of sights. Produce each ‘new line’ so constructed
until they meet; this is the true observed position. Care must be taken to plot

‘adjusted’ position lines in the correct intercept (‘to’ or ‘from’) direction, otherwise
serious errors will result. Examples of this method are at Fig 9-2 and Fig 9-3.
Fig 9-2. Applying Common Equal Error Corrections -Mathematical Construction

(All intercepts ‘towards’ - True Obs Pos inside original Cocked Hat)
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Fig 9-3. Applying Common Equal Error Corrections - Mathematical Construction

(Mixed intercepts ‘from and ‘towards’ - True Obs Pos outside original Cocked Hat)

(2) Iterative Method. A similar but simpler method of achieving the same
result as the ‘mathematical construction’ method above is merely to re-plot the
intercepts as if for a different index error (taking care to plot the intercepts in the
correct ‘to’ or ‘from’ direction). Having plotted all three ‘adjusted’ position lines, it
can be determined by inspection whether this has made the fix better or worse.
The process can be repeated on an iterative basis with different ‘adjustment’
values and signs until the true observed position is determined. See
CAUTIONS at Para 0907.
(3) NAVPAC Version of the Iterative Method. With NAVPAC, the quickest
way to achieve the ‘iterative method’ is to alter the index error setting for each
sight, re-calculate and observe the computer generated plot. See CAUTIONS
at Para 0907.
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0907. Caution in Applying Common Equal Error Corrections to Cocked Hats

The following important CAUTIONS should be borne in mind when considering the
use of the above constructions (Para 0906 sub para c) for applying common equal error
corrections to observed (true) altitudes.
CAUTIONS
1. VALIDITY. Common equal error correction constructions are valid

only when the errors in the zenith distances obtained are equal in

magnitude and sign, as they are when the index error is inaccurate.
2. FALSE PRECISION. Common equal error correction constructions

can be made whether or not other errors are taken into consideration
and may thus give a false sense of precision.
3. RELIANCE. For the above reasons, no reliance should be placed on

common equal error correction constructions unless it is firmly
believed that the TOTAL errors in each intercept are equal in magnitude
and sign.
4. TRUE OBSERVED POSITION. The true observed position lies

outside the original cocked hat ONLY if all three bearings can be
enclosed by 180°.
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APPENDIX 1
THE SKY AT NIGHT
1. The Navigational Stars

The 58 ‘navigational stars’ are illustrated in Fig App 1-1 below. The red line indicates
the most convenient route for identifying one star from another, if observing them without
instruments.
Fig App 1-1. The 58 Navigational Stars
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2. The Navigational Planets

The declinations of the four navigational planets rarely exceed the limits of 26°N and
26°S and therefore are seen near the ecliptic (the apparent path of the Sun across the
celestial sphere). Nevertheless, against the backdrop of stars, the planet’s movements in
the sky are relatively large, as they are very much closer to the Earth. The mean distances
of the five main planets from the Sun are:
Venus — 67,000,000 miles

Earth — 93,000,000 miles

Mars — 142,000,000 miles
Jupiter — 483,000,000 miles
Saturn — 886,000,000 miles
a. Venus. Venus lies between the Earth and the Sun, and is therefore said to be an
‘inferior’ planet. To an observer on the Earth, it is never more than 47° removed from the
Sun, for which reason it cannot be seen throughout the night in temperate latitudes. It is
thus a ‘morning or evening’ planet. Its magnitude varies slightly but, on average, it is of
magnitude −3.4, making it the brightest star or planet (other than the Sun) in the sky. Its
brightness makes it readily visible and identifiable when it is above the horizon.
b. Mars. Mars has an average magnitude of about −0.2, but varies appreciably in
brilliance. On good nights, Mars can be readily identified due to its reddish light, but this
may require the use of optics rather than naked eye observations.
c. Jupiter. Jupiter has an average magnitude of −2.2 and is next to Venus in

brilliance.
d. Saturn. Saturn has an average magnitude of 1.4 and is not readily identified.
Whilst Saturn has a distinctive ring system, these are not visible with the naked eye and
indeed are not visible when using the optical devices normally used on the bridge.
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3. The Constellations
Due to their enormous distance from the Earth (the closest to Earth, Proxima Cetauri, is
four lightyears away), stars maintain an almost static position relative to each other in the
short run, although they do move over geologic timescales and the night sky in 100,000
years will look different to that observed today. The bright ‘navigational’ stars, which almost
by definition are identifiable visually on good nights, appear mostly within 88 formally
identified and internationally recognised constellations. Once these constellations have
been memorised, it is possible with practice to identify the stars by eye from the relative
positions which they maintain. Even today the constellations retain the names given to them
by ancient (mostly Greek) astronomers, although to modern eyes the links between the

names of the constellations and the shapes they describe in the night sky are tenuous at
best. The star charts in the Nautical Almanac show all the navigational stars, as does
NAVPAC.
a. Ursa Major (The Great Bear). The constellation of Ursa Major, the Great Bear, is
also commonly known as ‘the Plough’ or the ‘Big Dipper’ in North America, and it is
extremely useful because it is readily identifiable due to its distinctive shape and
relatively bright component stars, and once identified a line drawn through its ‘pointers’
aims towards Polaris (the Pole Star). Fig App 1-1 shows the position of the Plough in
relation to other constellations. In the latitude of UK, the entire constellation is
circumpolar (ie a heavenly body that never sets) and thus remains above the
observer’s horizon; when the constellation is above the pole it will look as in Fig App1-2
whereas when below the pole it will appear as in Fig App 1-3. It can also be seen in
Figs App1-2 and App1-3 why the stars Dubhe and Merak are referred to as ‘the
pointers’.
b. Ursa Minor (The Little Bear). Ursa Minor is not unlike the Plough in shape but is
much smaller and fainter. Its stars form a saucepan shape reminiscent of the Plough
though with the curve in its ‘handle’ reversed. Ursa Minor’s main claim to distinction lies
in its possession of Polaris at its extreme end, nearest to the celestial pole.
App 1-3
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Fig App 1-2. The Plough (Above the Pole, Observer Looking North)

Fig App 1-3. The Plough (Below the Pole, Observer Looking North)
App 1-4
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c. Cassiopeia. This constellation, sometimes known as ‘the Chair’, is found on the

side of the pole opposite to Ursa Major and about the same distance away. It is
relatively straightforward to identify because of its characteristic ‘W’ shape. It does not
contain any stars of first-magnitude, but it is fairly prominent in the sky, and is useful in
identifying Pegasus (Fig App 1-4).
d. Pegasus. This constellation (Fig App 1-4), named after the mythical winged horse
and sometimes known as ‘the Square’ due to the shape formed by four of its most
prominent stars (it takes considerable imagination to see the shape of a flying horse
even in the full constellation). It is useful to anybody wishing to obtain some idea of

sidereal time, because the side formed by Alpheratz and Algenib lies almost on the
meridian through the First Point of Aries.
e. Aries(ϒ). This constellation (Fig App 1-4) is not is itself particularly significant
except that it lends its name to a position where the ecliptic once cut the celestial
equator at the Spring Equinox (21st March). The name ‘First Point of Aries’ (ϒ) has
been retained for this position, even though Aries itself has moved away and no longer
occupies this ‘prime site’ in the celestial sphere. See Para 0104.
Fig App 1-4. Pegasus or the Square (Below the Pole, Observer Looking North)
App 1-5
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f. Orion. This constellation (Fig App 1-5), contains stars of North and South
declination and important ‘signposts’ to others. It is supposed to resemble the mythical
hunter and his bow, and the three close stars in the centre of the constellation (which
are probably the most readily identifiable part with the naked eye) are referred to as
Orion’s Belt. The ‘belt’ points almost directly at Sirius (the Dog star), in the constellation
of Canis Major (the Great Dog); a line through Rigel and its centre ‘button’ leads to
Castor in the constellation of Gemini (the Twins). The constellations of Canis Minor
(The Little Dog) which contains Procyon, and of Taurus (the Bull) which contains
Aldebaran, lie nearby.

g. The Southern Cross (Crux). This constellation (Fig App 1-6) forms a cross if the
observer imagines diagonal lines joining the four stars. Its significance is more poetic
than navigational, and it is too far removed from the South Celestial Pole to be useful in
finding the observer’s latitude directly, as may be done with Polaris in the northern
hemisphere. Two bright stars in the constellation Centaurus help the observer to find it.
Fig App 1-5 Orion (Observer Looking South)
Fig App 1-6. The Southern Cross (Observer Looking South)
App 1-6
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4. Specific Navigational Stars

If the constellations are known, then provided they are above the observer’s horizon, an
observer should be able to pick out the navigational stars by referring them to imaginary
lines in the celestial sphere. The major ones are listed below, with their common names,
Bayer catalogue name (which refers to the constellation in which the start is located) and
magnitude.
a. Achernar (α Eridani, Mag. 0.6). This star lies midway between Canopus and
Fomalhaut on the line joining them (Fig App 1-1)

b. Aldebaran (α Tauri, Mag. 1.1). This star can be fixed in relation to Orion’s belt,
which points roughly at it in one direction and at Sirius in the other and lies almost
midway between them (Fig App 1-5). Aldebaran is further distinguished by a reddish
tint.
c. Altair (α Aquilae, Mag. 0.9). A line from Capella through Caph in Cassiopeia
points to Altair, which also lies between two less bright stars in a line with Vega (Fig App
1-1).
d. Antares (α Scorpii, Mag. 1.2). This, another reddish star, lies at the centre of a
small bow which points directly at another bow (Fig App 1-1).
e. Arcturus (α Bootis, Mag. 0.2). This is one of the brightest stars, and is found by
continuing the curve of the Great Bear’s ‘tail’ (Fig App 1-1).
f. Bellatrix (γ Orionis, Mag. 1.7). This is one of the three bright stars that mark
corners of the quadrilateral in the constellation of Orion (Figs App 1-1 and App 1-5).
g. Betelgeuse (α Orionis, Mag. 0.5 - 1.1). This is another of the three bright stars
that mark corners of the quadrilateral in the constellation of Orion. It may be identified
by its reddish colour (Figs App 1-1 and App 1-5).
h. Canopus (α Carinae, Mag. −0.9). Next to Sirius, Canopus is the brightest star. It
lies about half-way between Sirius and the South Celestial Pole, and on the line joining
Fomalhaut and Achernar (Fig App 1-1).
i. Capella (α Aurigae, Mag. 0.2). This bright star forms a rough equilateral triangle
with Betelgeuse and Castor, about half-way between Orion and Polaris (Fig App 1-1).
j. Castor (α Geminorum, Mag. 1.6). A line from Rigel through the middle star of
Orion’s Belt points to Castor (Figs App 1-1 and App 1-5).
k. Rigil Kent (α Centauri, Mag. 0.1) and Hadar (β Centauri, Mag. 0.9). These are
two bright stars on the line joining Antares and Canopus (Fig App 1-1).
l. Fomalhaut (α Piscis Australis, Mag. 1.3). The line joining Scheat and Markab in
Pegasus, produced away from Polaris, passes through Fomalhaut (Fig App 1-1).
m. Polaris [The Pole Star] (α Ursae Minoris, Mag. 2.1). A line through ‘the Pointers’
of the Plough (Ursa Major or the Great Bear) leads to the Pole Star and the observer
can easily verify whether the correct star has been chosen by measuring its altitude,
which is roughly the observer’s latitude (Figs App 1-1, App1-2 and App1-3).
App 1-7
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n. Pollux (β Geminorum, Mag. 1.2). This as the name of the constellation suggests,
will be seen close to Castor (Figs App 1-1 and App 1-5).
o. Procyon (α Canis Minoris, Mag. 0.5). Procyon, Betelgeuse and Sirius form an
equilateral triangle (Figs App 1-1 and App 1-5).
p. Regulus (α Leonis, Mag. 1.3). A line from Bellatrix through Betelgeuse points to
Regulus, which is about 60° from Betelgeuse (Fig App 1-1).
q. Rigel (β Orionis, Mag. 0.3). This is the third of the three bright stars that, together

with κ Orionis, form the quadrilateral in the constellation of Orion (Figs App 1-1 and
App 1-5).
r. Sirius (α Canis Majoris, Mag. −1.6). Sirius is the brightest star. It lies to the south-
east of Orion, approximately in a line with the ‘Belt’ (Figs App 1-1 and App 1-5).
s. Spica (α Virginis, Mag. 1.2). This bright star may be found by continuing the curve
of the Great Bear’s ‘tail’ through Arcturus, which lies about midway between the ‘tail’
and Spica (Fig App 1-1).
t. Vega (α Lyrae, Mag. 0.1). Vega is found by extending the line joining Capella to
Polaris about an equal distance on the opposite side of the Pole. Near Vega is a
distinct ‘W’ of small stars (Fig App 1-1).
App 1-8
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APPENDIX 2
EXTRACTS FROM THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC (1997)
1. Explanation. The following extracts from the Nautical Almanac (1997) are provided to
enable readers to work through the main example calculations contained elsewhere in this
book.
App 2-1
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Issued July 2017

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By Command of the Defence Council

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NAVY SHIPS-NAVSEA SO1

Navy Author (NA) 10

All correspondence concerning this publication is to be forwarded to the NPGO Author

© UK MOD Crown Copyright, 2017

The Admiralty Manual of Navigation (BR 45) consists of nine volumes:

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Volume 4 is a classified e-book covering the conduct of navigation in warships, submarines

Volume 6 is an e-book covering generic principles of shiphandling (propulsion of RN ships,

Volume 7 is a classified e-book covering all aspects of class-specific shiphandling

Volume 9 is a classified book covering operational navigation techniques that are of

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MOD and Royal Navy Staffs

The contribution of the navigation, hydrographic, meteorological and oceanographic

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The following conventions are used throughout this publication.

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AN OPERATING PROCEDURE, PRACTICE OR CONDITION THAT MAY

Caution. An operating procedure, practice or condition that may result

Note. An operating procedure, practice or condition that it is essential to

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Authored by Checked by Approved by

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Edition: Name: AM Harris Name: SP Rodgers Name: D Donworth

July 2017 Tally: NPGO-NA10 Tally: NPGO-OIC Tally: NAVY SHIPS-NAVSEA

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PROPOSALS FOR CHANGES

PROPOSAL FOR CHANGES

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Chapter 1 The Celestial Sphere - Introduction

Chapter 2 Time Systems

Chapter 3 Practical Sights: Planning, Taking Reducing and Plotting

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Chapter 6 Meridian Passage and Polaris

Chapter 7 The Rising and Setting of Heavenly Bodies

Chapter 8 Refraction, Dip and Mirage

Chapter 9 Errors in Astronomical Position Lines

Appendix 1 The Sky at Night

Appendix 2 Extracts from the Nautical Almanac (1997)

THE CELESTIAL SPHERE - INTRODUCTION

SECTION 1 - BASIC DEFINITIONS AND STRUCTURE

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SECTION 2 - THE MAGNITUDES OF STARS AND PLANETS

0120. The Solar and Stellar Systems

SECTION 3 - METHODS OF IDENTIFYING HEAVENLY BODIES

0122. The Identification of Heavenly Bodies

THE CELESTIAL SPHERE - INTRODUCTION

SECTION 1 - BASIC DEFINITIONS AND STRUCTURE

0101. The Celestial Sphere

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Fig 1-1. Celestial Sphere, Celestial Poles and Celestial Equator

0102. Angular Distance Between the Stars

0103. Apparent Path of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere

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