BR 45

UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE BRd 45(3)
Issued February 2017
Superseding BR 45(3)
Dated May 2011
BRd 45(3)
UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED

ADMIRALTY MANUAL OF
NAVIGATION – VOLUME 3
NAVIGATION SYSTEMS, EQUIPMENT
AND INSTRUMENTS
February 2017 Version 1

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UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE i
BRd 45(3) UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE
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ii UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE
PREFACE
The Admiralty Manual of Navigation (BR 45) consists of nine volumes:
Volume 1 is an A4 book in two Parts covering ‘the Principles of Navigation’. It deals with the
essential principles of marine navigation: position and direction on the Earth’s surface, map
projections, charts and publications, chartwork, fixing, aids to navigation, tides/tidal streams,
ocean navigation, coastal navigation, pilotage/blind pilotage, anchoring, navigational errors,
relative velocity, hydrographic surveys and Bridge organisation. . Volume 1 is also published
by the Nautical Institute and is available to the public.

Volume 2 is an A4 book covering astro navigation (including time). Chapters 1 to 3 cover
the syllabus for officers studying for the Royal Navy ‘Navigational Watch Certificate’ (NWC)
and for Royal Navy Fleet Navigator’s Courses. The NWC is equivalent to the certificate
awarded by the Maritime & Coastguard Agency (MCA) to OOWs in the merchant service
under the international Standardisation of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping (STCW)
agreements. The remainder of the book covers the detailed theory of astro navigation for
officers studying for the Royal Navy “Specialist ‘N’ Course”, but may also be of interest to
others who wish to research the subject in greater detail. Volume 2 is also published by the
Nautical Institute and is available to the public.
Volume 3 is a classified e-book, covering navigation equipment and systems (radio aids,
satellite navigation, navigational instruments, logs and echo sounders, attitude and heading
references, inertial navigation systems, magnetic compasses and de-gaussing, automated
navigation and radar plotting systems, AIS, and navigational equipment fit summaries).
Volume 4 is a classified e-book covering the conduct of navigation in warships, submarines

and Royal Fleet Auxiliaries at sea.
Volume 5 is an A4 book containing exercises in navigational calculations (tides and tidal

streams, astro navigation, great circles, rhumb lines, time zones and relative velocity). It
also provides extracts from most of the tables necessary to undertake the exercise
calculations. Volume 5 (Supplement) provides worked answers.
Volume 6 is an e-book covering generic principles of shiphandling (propulsion of RN ships,

handling ships in narrow waters, manoeuvring and handling ships in company,
replenishment, towing, shiphandling in heavy weather and ice).
Volume 7 is a classified e-book covering all aspects of class-specific shiphandling

characteristics of RN ships/submarines and RFAs. Turning data quoted in Volume 7 is
approximate and intended only for overview purposes; turning data for manoeuvring and
pilotage should be taken from ships’ Navigational Data Books.
Volume 8 is classified e-book, covering the operation of WECDIS, ECDIS and ECS in the
Naval Service.
Volume 9 is a protectively marked A4 book covering operational navigation techniques that

are of particular concern to the RN.
UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND COPYRIGHT
MOD and Royal Navy Staffs

The contribution of the navigation, hydrographic, meteorological and oceanographic
staffs of MOD DE & S (Sea Systems Directorate), Navy Command, Flag Officer Sea
Training, the Royal Navy’s Maritime Warfare School (Navigation & Seamanship Training Unit
and HM Training Group) is acknowledged with thanks, particularly for the extensive
validation of the material within this book.

CONVENTIONS
The following conventions are used throughout this publication.
WARNING
AN OPERATING PROCEDURE, PRACTICE OR CONDITION THAT MAY

RESULT IN INJURY OR DEATH IF NOT CAREFULLY OBSERVED OR
FOLLOWED.
CAUTION
Caution. An operating procedure, practice, or condition that may

result in equipment damage if not carefully observed or followed.
Note. An operating procedure, practice or condition that it is essential to

emphasise.
EQUALITY ANALYSIS
The sponsor of BRd 45(3) has undertaken an Equality Analysis to ensure that the outcome
does not have a disproportionate impact on those in the Protected Characteristics groups.
iv UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE
RECORD OF CONFIGURATION CONTROL
Authored by Checked by Approved by

Edition: Name: A M Harris Name: S P Rodgers Name: D Donworth
February 2017
Tally: NPGO-NA10 Tally: NPGO-OIC Tally: NAVY SHIPS-
Version: NAVSEA SO1

Version 1 Signature: Signed on file Signature: Signed on file Signature: Signed on file
copy copy copy
Date: Feb 2017 Date: Feb 2017 Date: Feb 2017
The classification of this publication has been reviewed by the Desk Officer to reflect the new Government Security
Classifications IAW JSP 440 Part 4 Section 1 Chapter 1.
Name: D Donworth Tally: NAVY SHIPS-NAVSEA SO1 Signature: signed on file copy Date: Feb 2017
Edition/Change: Name: Name: Name:
Tally: Tally: Tally:
Date of Edition/
Change: Signature: Signature: Signature:
Date: Date: Date:
Date of Edition/
Date: Date: Date:
Date of Edition/
Date: Date: Date:
UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE v
PROPOSALS FOR CHANGES
vi UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Terrestrial Radio Aids to Navigation
Chapter 3 Satellite Aids to Navigation
Chapter 4 Echo Sounders and Speed Logs

Chapter 5 Attitude and Heading References and Inertial Navigation Systems
Chapter 6 The Magnetic Compass and Degaussing
Chapter 7 Digital Chart Systems, Radars and AIS
Chapter 8 Miscellaneous Navigational Instruments
Chapter 9 Small Craft RN/RM Navigational Equipment
Chapter 10 Asset Tracking
UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE vii
UK OFFICAL-SENSITIVE BRd 45(3)
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CONTENTS
Para
0101. Scope of Book
0102. What is an Aid to Navigation?
0103. Basis of Instructions and Guidance in the Book

0104. What is Not in the Book
0105. The Precautionary Principle
0106. What the Navigator Needs to Know about their Equipment
UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE 1-1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
0101. Scope of the Book

The modern warship or submarine contains a vast amount of navigational
equipment, which is related either directly to the navigation of the ship or submarine itself, or
to supplying other equipment such as sensors, weapons or command systems with
navigational information. The safe and effective navigation of the ship requires a full and
thorough understanding of the various equipment fitted, including the fundamental physics

underpinning its operation, how to configure it, how to operate it, and what to do when things
go wrong.
0102. What is an Aid to Navigation?

The standard definition of navigation used in the RN states that ‘navigation is the
process of planning and executing the movement of ships from one place to another.’ It
therefore follows that anything that assists in that planning or execution is an ‘aid to
navigation.’ This book is concerned with those aids to navigation that are either entirely
external to the ship (GPS, LORAN) or are internal to the ship but that give the navigator
information they would otherwise be unaware of eg the echo sounder or an inertial navigator.
Over the centuries, aids to navigation evolved as technology evolved, moving from simple
lodestones and backstaffs, to sophisticated sextants and chronometers, to the modern post-
war era of DECCA/LORAN, ARPA radar, echo sounders and digital logs. It is no doubt true
to say that one single development has threatened to overshadow almost all other navaids,
and that development is GPS.
0103. Basis of Instructions and Guidance in the Book

This volume contains descriptions of the various navigational support equipment
fitted across the RN, including the submarine flotilla and RFA. Included where relevant are
descriptions of the fundamental physics or mathematics underpinning the operation of the
equipment, as well as guidance on its configuration and operation. The guidance has been
prepared on the basis of what has been found to work at sea, including the common
mistakes. For a given piece of equipment, some or all settings may be up to the OOW, NO
or CO’s discretion, dependent on their preferences and the navigational situation, whereas
others may sensible need to be mandated by the Fleet Navigator. Nothing in this book
however should be construed as preventing the CO from ordering different equipment
lineups or settings as they see fit for the situation at hand.
Note. The CO retains ultimate discretion as to the settings to be employed

in all navigation equipment, and may order different configurations or
settings as required to maintain safety or achieve the operational aim.
1-2 UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE
UK OFFICAL-SENSITIVE BRd 45(3)
0104. What is Not in the Book

This book aims to be a practitioner’s guide for the practical navigator at all levels of
experience, from the Young Officer learning their trade to the experienced CO taking over a
new ship, and everyone in between. It is not a maintainer’s guide, and it is not intended to
replace operator’s handbooks or equipment specific manuals where they exist. Moreover,
the systems and equipment described in this book are to described in their standard or
factory configuration; individual ships may have installations which differ from the standard,
or their own idiosyncrasies in terms of system configuration, which are not described in the
book. In addition, WECDIS, as a major and complex system in its own right is not included
in this book; readers requiring information on the operation of WECDIS should consult BRd
45(8).

In reading this book and seeking to understand the capabilities and limitations of any
given aid to navigation, the prudent navigator will remain that precautionary principle that
underpins all safe navigation at sea; namely, that reliance should not be placed on any one
piece of information or source of information, and everything should be cross-checked so far
as is practicable. This principle will be re-stated where necessary throughout the book as it
is worth repeating. No navaid yet devised is infallible.
0106. What the Navigator Needs to Know about their Equipment

The navigator must have a thorough and instinctive understanding of all the systems
onboard which act to support the safe navigation of the ship. This includes many systems
which are out of the scope of this book, such as propulsion and steering systems, as well as
all various aids to navigation which are fitted to their platform. The NO must be ready at all
times to support the OOW on the bridge/in the Control Room and/or the Command with
accurate, timely advice and guidance. When the OOW calls you to the bridge at night, in
bad weather, in a busy shipping situation, you should be able to answer their question
without having to go below and look at the BR. This will mean that the NO should aim to
master the topics below; this list is not exhaustive and NOs should take advantage of all
sources of information including their predecessor and the system maintainers onboard to
ensure they have captured all the necessary information. The necessary detail should also
as a matter of course be captured in the platform endorsement (PE) process as all officers
seeking to qualify to take Charge should demonstrate the same level of understanding.
a. Standard Settings and Configurations. The NO should be familiar with the

standard settings and configurations for all equipment, such as range scales, power
levels, and switch positions for internal communications.
b. Normal and Alternative Power Supplies (and Other Services). The NO

should have a thorough understanding of the normal and alternative power supplies
for all navigation equipment, as well as other ship services such as hydraulics or air.
The NO should be aware of the consequences of the loss of various ship services,
such as electrical supplies, and how to change equipment over to alternative
supplies if required.
c. Know Who the Maintainer is! The NO should know the maintainer for all ‘their’
equipment by name.
d. Breakdown and Emergency Procedures. The NO must be aware of all the

standard or credible failures for their equipment, and the standard actions to be
taken in the event of any failure occurring. Such action must be instinctive for all
personnel involved in navigational watchkeeping.
CHAPTER 2
TERRESTRIAL RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION
CONTENTS
Para
0201. Scope of Chapter 2
0203. The History of the Evolution of Radio Navaids
0204. Current RN Navigational Accuracy Requirements

0205. The Enduring Need for Terrestrial Radio Aids to Navigation
SECTION 1 – RADIO PROPAGATION THEORY
0206. Wavelength and Frequency

0207. Radio Transmission Paths and Propagation Modes
0208. The Ground Wave
0209. The Sky Wave
0210. The Direct Mode (Line of Sight)
0211. The Ionosphere
0212. Refraction of the Sky Wave
0213. Effect of the Sky Wave on Radio Navaid Performance
0214. Ducting and ANAPROP
SECTION 2 – HYPERBOLIC SYSTEM THEORY
0215. Fixing using a Hyperbolic Pattern

0216. Two Transmitters with Central Receiver
0217. Two Transmitters with Displaced Receiver
0218. Position Ambiguity and Resolution
0219. Intersecting Position Line Patterns
0220. Time and Phase Comparison Methods
0221. Hyperbolic System Coverage
0222. Hyperbolic System Errors
0223. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hyperbolic Systems
SECTION 3 – LEGACY RADIO NAVAID: LORAN C
0224. LORAN-C System Description

0225. LORAN-C Configuration
0226. Levels of Accuracy (Unimproved LORAN-C)
0227. LORAN-C Spheroid/Datum
0228. LORAN-C Latticed Charts
0229. LORAN-C Principles of Operations
0230. Avoidance of Sky Wave Interference with Ground Wave Signals
0231. Sky Wave Corrections and Additional Corrections
0232. LORAN-C Range-Range (Rho-Rho) Mode
SECTION 4 – eLORAN
0233. eLORAN Description

CHAPTER 2
TERRESTRIAL RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION

Chapter 2 provides an explanation of the theoretical basis on which terrestrial radio
aids to navigation (navaids) depend. Radar is not included, nor are direction-finding or the
terrestrial elements of augmented GNSS (see Chapter 3). No equipment-specific annexes
are included (see Para 0201 sub para b below).

a. Status of Chapter. Until GPS and the other GNSS became available,
terrestrial hyperbolic radio aids to navigation were the only long range navigation
systems available to the mariner. They have now (2016) been largely supplanted by
GNSS, and many systems have been entirely shut down and the transmitters
dismantled. There is, however, a requirement for a backup to GNSS (see Para
0205 below) and so it is entirely possible that some form of hyperbolic system will
return in the near future. This Chapter is therefore retained within BRd 45(3) for
future reference, with details of the basic theory of hyperbolic systems and the
operation of LORAN-C and eLORAN, which is the most likely candidate (at the time
of writing) for revival. Very old systems such as Decca and Omega are not
discussed as the infrastructure has been removed and there is no foreseeable future
in which they would ever be restored to operating status.
b. RN Equipment. This Chapter does not contain any equipment annexes as

new-build ships are not fitted with hyperbolic receivers and LORAN receivers are no
longer widely available. Moreover, the LORAN chains in the vast majority of RN
operating areas have been shutdown as of 31 Dec 2015, with no plans to reinstate
them. Legacy equipment may still be found in older platforms, but it is no longer
maintained and is likely not to be functional even in areas where LORAN signals are
available. Readers requiring information on the Furuno LC90 Mk II LORAN receiver
(once FLEET standard fit) should contact the Fleet Navigator or NPGO Navigation
Author.
c. Direction Finding. With the removal of the requirement to carry DF equipment

from SOLAS, RN ships no longer carry DF equipment; if it is carried it is unlikely to
be serviceable and trained operators are unlikely to be onboard. As of 2016, the
only shore-based VHF DF stations are located in Canada, with all other sites having
been closed-down, either to save money or because they are considered redundant
in the age of GNSS, DSC radios, and EPIRBs etc. DF facilities are still available on
dedicated SAR platforms, eg RNLI all-weather lifeboats, MCA SAR aircraft etc.

No radio navaid, and indeed no signal navaid of any type, is completely infallible. It
therefore remains a fundamental navigational principle that terrestrial radio navaids should
be cross-checked by all available sources of information as a matter of course, no matter
how advanced the technology becomes in the future. Navigators should never rely on a
single source of information. See Para 0205 for the enduring need for radio navaids.
0203. The History of the Evolution of Radio Navaids

World War Two prompted the development of practical radio aids to navigation, to
support both long range strategic bombing and the war at sea, both of which required
navigational accuracies an order of magnitude greater than was possible at the time. Major
advances were made, and systems were developed which could give actual positions at
sea, as opposed to the pre-war systems which consisted purely of beacons for direction-
finding. One of the first to be developed for maritime use was the British Decca system,
which was capable of high accuracy navigation in coastal waters, and the US LORAN
system (which grew out of British developments and was greatly assisted by British
involvement). LORAN was capable of navigation at oceanic ranges. Both systems were
deployed operationally during the war, and Decca had a small but crucial role in D-Day, as

the swept channels through the minefields were deliberately aligned with Decca navigation
lanes to enable Decca-fitted minesweepers to lead the force safely to the invasion beaches,
which they did. The proliferation of increasingly more capable and cheaper receivers lead,
directly after the war, to the 1946 International Meeting on Radio Aids to Marine Navigation
(IMRAMN) which resulted in the publication in 1947 of the IMRAMN standards. The 1947
standards classified radio navaids into ‘ocean’, ‘coastal/landfall’ and ‘pilotage’ classes, with
mandated accuracy and frequency standards for each class. The 1947 standard was
ultimately replaced by a new IMO standard in 1984, even as GPS was deployed rendering
radio navaids obsolete (to a certain point of view).
0204. Current RN Navigational Accuracy Requirements

The current (2016) required navigational accuracy for RN units is described by
DEFSTAN 08-214 (Maritime Geospatial and Temporal Accuracy Requirements), which in
turn is based on NATO STANAG 4278 Edition 3 (from 1995). The DEFSTAN specifies
accuracies which are needed to support both ship safety and warfare requirements in a
number of areas; it is important to realise that it in the generic surface ship combat system
construct it is the navigation sub-system (however that is defined) which acts as the
‘geospatial and temporal reference’ for the combat system, and so the NO is responsible for
both determining the ship’s position and its time.
0205. The Enduring Need for Terrestrial Radio Aids to Navigation

Global navigation satellite systems provide real-time, high accuracy position and
timing information for users with suitable receivers, but GNSS signals are inherently low-
power and hence vulnerable to jamming. Moreover, many aspects of GNSS operation are
open source and so GNSS receivers are vulnerable to ‘spoofing’, in which the receiver is
deliberately induced into giving a false position by another party (see Chapter 3 for a full
discussion of NAVWAR and GNSS vulnerability). Whilst terrestrial radio navaids cannot
currently match the global coverage and accuracy of GNSS (OMEGA achieved essentially
worldwide cover but at an accuracy much lower than that of GPS), the signals are lower
frequency and much higher powered than those of GNSS, making them much harder to jam
and spoof. Terrestrial radio aids to navigation should therefore be thought of as providing a
significant degree of redundancy to GNSS both as a position and a timing service, although
ultimately this will depend on the political decisions to restore the capability.
SECTION 1 – RADIO PROPAGATION THEORY
0206. Wavelength and Frequency
a. Relationship Between Radio Wave Frequency and Wavelength. The

relationship between the wavelength and frequency of any wave is determined by
the wave’s speed; its speed is the multiple of wavelength and frequency. For waves
of a fixed speed, then, this implies that the higher the frequency, the shorter the
wavelength. A radio wave is a class of electromagnetic wave, which will always
travel at the speed of light (c) which can be assumed for the purposes of this text to
be 300,000,000 m/sec or 162,000 nm/sec.

b. The Electromagnetic Spectrum. Given that wavelength and frequency are
intrinsically linked, it is possible to characterise radio waves into ‘bands’ based on
their wavelength and frequency (which of course amount to the same thing given
that the speed of light is fixed). In general, the higher the frequency, the less
penetrating power a radio wave has but conversely, the lower the frequency the
lower the useful data rate that can be achieved. The EM spectrum is summarised in
Table 2-1 below, including the RN radar, commercial radar and communications
terminology for the various bands.
Table 2-1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Frequency Wavelength Use RN Comm. Comms

f λ Radar
3000-
0.1μm-1μm Visible light
300THz
300-30THz 1-10μm Infra-red light
30-3THz 0.01-0.1mm Radiated heat rays
3-0.3THz 0.1-1mm
300-
1-3mm Microwave comms
100GHz Mm EHF
100-60GHz 3-5mm M
60-30GHz 5-10mm L Ka
30-20GHz 10-15mm K K
Fire control radars
20-10GHz 1.5-3cm J Ku
High definition navigation/fire
10-8GHz 3-3.75cm I X SHF
control radars
8-6GHz 3.75-5cm Satellite comms H
C
6-4GHz 5-7.5cm Microwave data links G
4-3GHz 7.5-10cm Air warning/surveillance/target F
S
3-2GHz 10-15cm indication radars E
GNSS, secondary
2-1GHz 15-30cm surveillance/doppler radars, data D L
links
UHF
1000-
30-60cm Television broadcasts C
500MHz
500-
60-100cm UHF comms B
300MHz
300-30MHz 1-10m VHF comms VHF
30-3MHz 10-100m HF comms HF
3-0.3MHz 100-1000m MF comms A MF
300-30kHz 1-10km LORAN-C/eLORAN, LF comms LF
30kHz-0 10km- ∞ VLF/ELF comms VLF
0207. Radio Transmission Paths and Propagation Modes

Radio waves, as stated above, are electromagnetic waves in exactly the same way
as a beam of light is. Radio waves are therefore subject to the same phenomenon as light
waves, such as refraction, reflection, diffraction, absorption and more. Moreover, radio
waves are able to propagate in one or more of a number of different ways or ‘modes’: the
ground wave, the sky wave, and the direct mode. The exact mode or modes that a
transmission takes will depend upon the frequency (wavelength) of the transmission, the
power level of the transmission, and the combination of all environmental characteristics
such as the time of day, the planetary and solar weather, and so on. The operation and
performance of a terrestrial radio navaid system are critically dependent on the propagation
of the signals used, and so a thorough understanding of radio propagation is required for a

complete understanding of the operation, capabilities and limitations of radio navaids. The
various propagation modes are illustrated in Fig 2-1 below.
Fig 2-1. Radio Wave Propagation Modes
Note. The unreflected or unreturning wave shown in Fig 2-1 above, and
indeed the first skywave below the D layer would both be received in the
direct mode by a receiver within line of sight of the transmitter.
0208. The Ground Wave

The ground wave propagates from the transmitter in the region between the surface
of the Earth and the bottom of the ionosphere. The ground wave gives coverage beyond the
visual horizon of the transmitter as induced currents in the ground slow down the wavefront
of the radio transmission, causing it to diffract downwards and thus follow the curvature of
the Earth. The degree to which this effect is experienced is influenced by the frequency of
the transmission, and the conductivity of the Earth’s surface; seawater is relatively very
conductive and so gives good ground wave propagation (and there are generally fewer
obstructions to absorb the signal) whereas a desert or city will tend to be relatively poorly
conductive and so ground wave propagation will be poor. At high powers and low
frequencies (VLF) the ground wave can travel many hundreds or even thousands of miles,

but at higher frequencies attenuation rises so that above the lower end of the HF band,
ground wave propagation will be limited to only a few miles further than line of sight.
Irrespective of the frequency, the precise distances achieved will depend upon the power
and height of the transmitter, but importantly the environmental conditions.
0209. The Sky Wave

Sky waves occur when the frequency is sufficiently high (HF band) that the radio
waves are refracted by the ionosphere, a series of distinct layers in the Earth’s atmosphere
(see Para 0211 below). If the conditions are right, the transmission is refracted sufficiently
that it exits the ionosphere and heads back to Earth (note that although it is often thought of
as being reflected by the ionosphere, strictly speaking it is refraction which is a different
phenomenon). The range from the transmitter at which the sky wave returns to Earth is
known as the skip distance; a receiver moving away from an HF transmitter will initially be in
contact through the ground wave, then lose reception until it is regained at skip distance. In
some conditions, the ground will reflect the signal back up again into the ionosphere, where
it may be refracted again, leading to what are known as multiple ‘hops’. HF reception
around a transmitter will therefore trace out a series of annulus or ‘doughnuts’. As the
frequency rises into the VHF band or higher, the radio waves penetrate further into the upper
atmosphere and are not refracted sufficiently far to return to Earth; VHF and above therefore
has no sky wave.
0210. The Direct Mode (Line of Sight)

At very high frequencies (VHF bands and above), neither the ground wave nor the
sky wave are significant. At these frequencies, radio waves propagate via the direct mode,
sometimes known as line of sight, in which the wave travels effectively in a straight line to
the receiver. The range of such transmissions depends on the power of the transmitter, and
the prevailing atmospheric conditions. GPS uses direct mode transmissions, whereas
terrestrial radio navaids use ground or sky waves.
0211. The Ionosphere

The ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere which exists at a height between
about 50km and 4-600km above sea level, and consists of a part of the atmosphere in which
the atmosphere has become ionised due to UV radiation from the Sun. It is the ionisation
that allows the ionosphere to refract radio waves of the right frequencies, creating the sky
wave effect described in Para 0209 above. The ionosphere is not homogenous, and is
generally described as consisting of three distinct layers: D, E and F. The density and height
of these layers will depend upon the time of day, the season, the geographical position and
the extent of sunspot activity.
a. The D Layer. The lowest layer of the ionosphere is the D layer, which generally

exists at an altitude of about 50-90km above sea level. The D layer’s existence is
driven by the emission of alpha radiation from hydrogen in the Sun, and so the D
layer is generally at its maximum thickness at about local midday, and it then almost
disappears entirely at night (a small part will remain due to the effect of cosmic
rays).
b. The E Layer. The next layer is the E or Heaviside (after the English physicist)
layer, at an altitude of about 90-150km. The E layer’s existence is driven largely by
x-ray and UV radiation from the Sun ionising the atmosphere, and it is the most
stable of the ionospheric layers.
c. The F Layer. The final layer is the F layer, from at a height of about 150-
500km. The F layer is the densest part of the ionosphere, so that if a signal passes
through the F layer it will not be possible to refract it back to Earth and it will ‘escape’
into space. The F layer will generally consist of one discrete layer at night, but
during the day in some seasons another distinct layer can be found; the two layers
are then known as F1 and F2.
0212. Refraction of the Sky Wave

So far as radio waves are concerned, the effect of the ionosphere is to refract
transmissions at certain frequencies back to Earth; the effect is often described as ‘bouncing’
or ‘reflecting’ whereas it is in fact due to refraction. The reasons for this are complicated,
but they arise directly out of the ionisation of the ionosphere. Refraction occurs when a
wave enters a medium with a different density, such as when light enters water. The
presence of electrically charged ions in the ionosphere means that, so far as a radio wave is
concerned, the ionosphere is more dense and hence waves travel faster in the ionosphere.
This means that, when a radio wave enters the ionosphere at a sufficiently oblique angle, the
upper part of the wave accelerates relative to the lower part, meaning that the wavefront tilts
downwards and the wave appears to be reflected from the ionosphere. The effect can be
readily visualised on the parade ground; if the file on one end of a column or line advances
faster than the file on the other end, then the entire formation will wheel. Radio waves
entering the ionosphere at a relatively acute angle will still be refracted, but the amount of
refraction will not be sufficient to cause the wave to return to Earth; the angle at which they
start to return to Earth is called the critical angle. Waves which return to Earth are known as
the first returning skywave, or ‘one hop’ E/F waves, second returning skywave/two hop
waves etc. The distance between areas where the skywave returns to Earth is known as the
skip distance. Out of range of the ground wave, in between the skip distances there will be
no HF reception.
0213. Effect of the Sky Wave on Radio Navaid Performance

Radio propagation is a complicated subject, and the details of how any given signal
will propagate on a given day will depend upon a combination of all the particular
circumstances, such as weather, atmospheric conditions and transmitter power, not
forgetting of course that receiver performance will be important in many cases.
Nevertheless, it is generally the case that during the day, sky waves are attenuated and
refracted within the D layer such that, if they return at all, they return within the ground wave.
a. Range. Sky waves affect the range of the radio navaid in use, depending on
the frequency. They can extend its coverage in some cases, and reduce it in others;
LORAN-C for example used the sky wave to extend its coverage to greater ranges

at the cost of reduced positional accuracy.
b. Reception. In extreme cases, the interaction of the ground wave and sky wave
can make a navaid unusable as it may not be possible to distinguish accurately
between the sky wave and ground wave. Signal paths in the ionosphere are difficult
to determine with accuracy, and so the positional errors involved in using the sky
wave are always larger than those associated with using the ground wave.
0214. Ducting and ANAPROP

Given the right set of conditions, it is possible for radio waves to propagate in an
anomalous manner (ANAPROP), such as ‘ducting’ in which low level transmissions travel
much further than they would be expected to in the normal ground wave mode. A full
explanation of these phenomena is outside the scope of this book, but NOs should ensure
that, when operating in an area of likely or possible ANAPROP, they assess all sources of
information as to the likelihood of ANAPROP ocurring, and assess their navigation
information accordingly. Many navaids, such as radar, AIS and terrestrial radio systems
may be affected by ANAPROP, and so the NO must ensure that information is treated with
appropriate caution if ANAPROP is suspected or predicted.
SECTION 2 – HYPERBOLIC SYSTEM THEORY
0215. Fixing Using a Hyperbolic Pattern

Ultimately, a hyperbolic radio navaid system works on the basis that, given the
speed of radio signals is known and fixed, the time it takes for a radio transmission to reach
a position can be turned into a range. It is then relatively simple to take two or more ranges
and determine the receiver’s position. A hyperbolic system works on the basis that utilising
a chain of transmitters, a hyperbolic pattern of signal delays is formed. The first versions of
such systems required the user to determine the ship’s position by reference to specially
printed charts with the hyperbola printed on them, although later systems generally
displayed a straightforward latitude and longitude (although often in WGS72!). Proposed

modern hyperbolic systems will undoubtedly also display position in latitude/longitude, but
the hyperbolic principle remains and so it is discussed in detail in the remainder of this
section.
0216. Two Transmitters with Central Receiver

If two radio transmitters, called A and B, are located 300nm apart, then two radio
pulses transmitted simultaneously by each station will arrive at the same instant at a receiver
located anywhere on a line equidistant between the two stations. In Fig 2-2 below, this is the
PP. In this case, a receiver analysing the time of receipt of the two signals would only be
able to place itself somewhere on the line PP.
Fig 2-2. Two Transmitters with Receiver on Centreline
0217. Two Transmitters with Displaced Receiver

It is of course extremely unlikely that a receiver will ever be located precisely equi-
distant between two transmitters. In fact, the receiver will be displaced such that it is closer
to one station than the other. The two signals, each transmitted simultaneously, will
therefore arrive at the receiver with a time delay, the further transmitter’s pulse taking longer
relatively to reach the receiver. Points with an equal time delay between the arrival of the
two pulses can be connected by an imaginary line, the line tracing out a hyperbola upon
which the receiver must be located. Examples are lines ST or RV in Fig 2-3 below.
Fig 2-3. Lines of Equal Time Interval

Since radio waves travel at a velocity of about 160,000 nautical miles per second, the most
convenient unit of time to work in is the microsecond (μs). The two hyperbolae in Fig 2-3
represent a time of arrival difference of 600μs; the ship could be at any of the positions Q or
R shown in Fig 2-3, and there is no way of telling from the received radio pulses whether it is
on line ST or UV. There is an ambiguity problem, which is illustrated in Fig 2-4 below, which
shows the pattern of hyperbola traced out by a series of time intervals (arbitrarily chosen at
300 μs intervals for clarity).
Fig 2-4. The Hyperbolic Pattern

0218. Position Ambiguity and Resolution
a. Position Line Ambiguity. If both transmissions are made simultaneously, the

pattern of position hyperbolae in Fig 2-4 contains an ambiguity. The receiver must
be located on one of the pair of lines of positions with similar time intervals, but the
receiver, in the absence of other information, will be unable to determine which.
b. Resolution of Ambiguity. In practice, a navigator might be able to resolve the

ambiguity discussed above on the basis of other information, such as soundings, or
a valid DR and EP, but this will not always be the case, and it will probably be
difficult to do for position lines that are close to equidistant from the two transmitters.
If, however, it is desired for the receiver to do so autonomously, then there is a need
to introduce more information into the pulses. This was achieved in LORAN-C by
arranging the transmissions such that one was always received before the other.
One station was designated as the ‘master’ and the other(s) as the ‘slave’; the
master station triggered the slave such as that fixed time delay plus a small
additional delay known as the coding delay was added to the time difference
between the two stations. The pattern produced by staggered transmissions is
illustrated in Fig 2-5 below. In Fig 2-5, the time difference along the base line
between the master (A) and slave (B) is 600 μs, to which a further 500 μs delays
has been added before B transmits. B therefore transmits 1100 μs after A; line ST
is therefore the 1300 μs delay position line and this is unambiguous. Provided the
delays are known to the receiver and maintained accurately, the receiver is therefore
able to resolve the ship’s position along a single position line.
Fig 2-5. Unambiguous Hyperbolae with Staggered Transmissions

0219. Intersecting Position Line Patterns
Even when the transmission lines are staggered such that the position lines are
unambiguous, this is not enough for a position as the receiver will still not be able to resolve
where along the position line it is. In order to achieve this, a second slave station ‘C’ must
be added to the chain. If suitable sites are selected for the stations, a pattern of intersecting
hyperbolic position lines can be generated, forming a lattice. If the coding delays and
frequencies are carefully selected, it is possible to generate signals and hence time delays
that can be observed without ambiguity, meaning that the receiver can resolve its
geographical position. Once, this would have been done utilising specially produced charts
with overprinted hyperbolae or reception lanes, but a modern receiver will carry out the
process electronically. Fig 2-6 illustrates a chain of one master and two slaves, with the ship
able to determine its position at O; in practice a third slave (not shown) would be added for a
three-point fix to bound the errors.
Fig 2-6. Lattice Pattern from Chain of Master and Slave Stations

0220. Time and Phase Comparison Methods
a. Pulse Time Difference Method. Comparing the time difference of the arriving
pulses is sufficient for a coarse navigation fix, perfectly adequate for open ocean
navigation but not for any application which requires a better degree of accuracy.
The pulse timing is useful, however, for ‘locking in’ the receiver such that other,
more accurate methods can be used. See below for details.
b. Phase Comparison. Hyperbolic patterns can also be created by the difference

in the phase of transmissions made on the same frequency from two stations.
Consider the situation where station A transmits a continuous wave (CW) signal on
a known frequency (and hence wavelength) and station B transmits another CW
signal at precisely the same frequency. If both stations start transmitting such that
the signals are precisely in phase and an exact number of wavelengths apart, the
situation will be as shown in Fig 2-7 below, which is explained in the following sub-
paragraphs.
Fig 2-7. Phase Comparison on a Baseline – Zero Phase Positions

(1) Phase Difference at P. A receiver located at point P, precisely halfway
between stations A and B, will show zero difference in phase (i.e. 0° or 360°)
between the two signals since they will have both travelled the same distance
(AP = BP).
(2) Phase Difference at Q and R. At points Q and R, both half a wavelength

from P, the phase difference between the two signals is 180° from what it was at
P and is thus still zero (0°).
(3) Zero Phase Difference ‘Lanes’. The lines where the phase difference is
zero are hyperbolae, and the areas between them are known as ‘lanes’.
c. Multiple Phase Differences. As explained above, in certain positions, there

will be no phase differences between the two transmissions, but at any positions
other than those, there will be a measurable phase difference between the two
signals. This is illustrated in Fig 2-8 below, which shows multiple phase differences
at various positions within half a wavelength.
Fig 2-8. Phase Comparison on a Baseline – Phase Differences within Half a

Wavelength

d. Width of Zero Phase Difference Lanes. The width of the lanes is least along
the baseline between the two stations, and it expands hyperbolically as the receiver
moves away from the baseline, as shown in Fig 2-9 below.
Fig 2-9. Half-Wavelength Lane Widths
e. Phase Comparison Practical Considerations. A number of practical

considerations need to be addressed when attempting to use a phase comparison
approach.
(1) Transmission Frequencies. The signals from the two stations must be
received separately in order to preserve their phase properties. In practice this
was achieved by transmitting on different frequencies which were harmonics of
one another.
(2) Transmission Phase Locking. The slave station’s signal must maintain a
constant relationship to that from the master in order to produce a fixed

hyperbolic pattern – the stations must be ‘phase locked’ to one another. In
practice this was achieved by the use of additional equipment and a secondary
frequency. A monitoring station checked the transmissions to ensure the
signals remained phase locked.
0221. Hyperbolic System Coverage

The area covered by a hyperbolic radio navaid will depend upon the propagation
characteristics of the radio frequency employed, and the power with which it is transmitted.
Within these limitations, the area covered at a given accuracy varies with the square of the
length of the baseline; longer baselines are better than shorter. In practice, the coverage of
a pair of stations is limited to two sectors each of about 120°-140°, one each side of the
baseline and equally disposed around the baseline. To obtain all-round coverage, a four
station chain is needed with a central master station and the three slaves spaced at about
120° intervals around the master. By way of illustration, LORAN-C utilised a number of
chains on the coasts of various parts of the world, meaning that, in combination with Chayka,
widespread (but by no means worldwide) coverage was achieved to a certain degree of
accuracy; OMEGA utilised a network of nine stations (only eight transmitting at any one
time) but was truly global (at a lesser degree of accuracy).
0222. Hyperbolic System Errors
a. Lattice Line Spacing. Hyperbolic position line accuracy varies over the
coverage area. The spacing between the hyperbolic position lines is as its
narrowest on the base line between the two stations (see Fig 2-5), and the so the
errors are least on the baseline. The error increases as the receiver moves away
from the baseline; the greater the spacing of the hyperbolic position lines, the worse
the accuracy.
b. Position Lines Angle of Cut. Errors in a single hyperbolic position line are
usually the result of a fault in the transmission system, distortions of the propagation
path (particularly if there is interference from the sky wave) or a defect in the
receiver. Errors from the first two causes were normally promulgated for the system
in terms of time (microseconds) or distances (metres or nautical miles), usually for a
95% (2σ) probable error. The accuracy of the fix, however, depends not only on the
individual position lines, but also on the angle of cut between them. Where two
position lines cross, an ‘error diamond’ is formed around the intersection, delineated
by their respective 95% (2σ) probable error limits and the angle of cut (see Fig 2-10
below). In Fig 2-10, at X, in the central part of the system’s coverage, the error
diamond becomes almost square, while at Y the error diamond is long and narrow.
At longer ranges, the least accurate direction is approximately in the direction of the
master station whereas the most accurate direction is at 90° to this.
c. 95% (2σ) Probable Error. It should be noted that that 95% (2σ) probable error
is NOT bounded by the error diamond, but is actually contained within an error
ellipse (NOT shown) around the error diamond. See BRd 45(1) for a full discussion
of navigation errors.
Fig 2-10. Error Diamonds

d. Speed and Propagation Path of Radio Waves. The accuracy of any
hyperbolic system depends upon the receiver having precise, accurate knowledge of
the exact speed and propagation path of the radio waves. The path may be straight,
or it may be bent due to refraction in the atmosphere, multi-path effects etc. The
speed of the radio wave may be altered slightly as it passes through regions of
different atmospheric conditions and from land to sea. Returning sky waves can
cause errors, although where the sky wave is reasonably stable it is possible to
compute corrections which are generally reasonably reliable.
0223. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hyperbolic Systems

Any discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of hyperbolic systems must be
seen in the modern context of essentially universally available GNSS with high accuracies.
Hyperbolic systems do have the key advantage of being orders of magnitude harder to jam
due to the frequencies and signal strengths involved. Whilst the first receivers required a
degree of skill to operate, including manual plotting on specially printed charts, modern
receivers were fully automated and capable of displaying a position. More problematically,
hyperbolic radio systems require an extensive shore infrastructure, and perhaps the key
disadvantage is that they must be funded and maintained by the same authorities who are
tasked with funding and maintaining GNSS and so the two systems have found themselves
to be in competition; the realities of budgetary pressures cannot be ignored.
Note. It should be remembered that, whilst GPS at any rate, is essentially

free to end users, it cost the US many billions of dollars to design and
construct, and yet more to run on an annual basis.
SECTION 3 – LEGACY RADIO NAVAID: LORAN-C
0224. LORAN-C System Description

LORAN-C (usually referred to as ‘LORAN Charlie’) was a 100kHz (i.e. L F)
hyperbolic position fixing system utilising pulse transmission to allow the receiver to fix its
position at oceanic ranges. Ground wave cover extends to a range of about 800-1200nm.
Sky wave cover extends from 1800 to 2400nm at night, and there is usually some limited sky
wave cover by day.
Note. Although LORAN is an acronym, some references, including USCG

documents, refer to it as a proper name ‘Loran’.
a. LORAN History. LORAN is an acronym for ‘long range navigation’. It was first
developed and deployed by the US with British involvement during WW2, and
incrementally improved from its primitive first implementation. LORAN-C, an
improvement on the earlier LORAN-A, was first introduced in 1957, and further
developed with the introduction of ‘modernised LORAN’ and differential LORAN in
the 1990s. A proposed next generation system, eLORAN, is discussed in Section 4.
In the US, LORAN was the responsibility of the US Coastguard until it was shutdown
in 2010; in Europe a Northwest Europe LORAN System (NELS) was introduced in
the mid-1990s after the USCG terminated overseas LORAN operations.
b. Chayka. Chayka is the Russian equivalent of LORAN-C and it operates in

entirely the same way with the same frequency, GRI and coding delay parameters
as LORAN. The two systems are interoperable.
c. Current Status of LORAN-C. LORAN-C in North America was shutdown in

2010 as part of Federal budget cuts. NELS ceased operation on 31 Dec 2015, with
the exception of the Anthorn transmitter in England which continued to send a timing
pulse only. Worldwide, as of early 2016, LORAN-C chains are only operating in the
Northwest Pacific (Korea and Japan) and Russia (Chayka). Users should treat any
LORAN signals received outside of those areas with extreme caution. See Section
4 for eLORAN, the proposed enhancement to modernised LORAN.
0225. LORAN-C Configuration

A complete LORAN-C chain consists of a master station and two, three or four slave
stations, sited at distances of about 600-1000nm.
a. Group Repetition Interval (GRI). Each chain has a unique pulse repetition rate
(PRR) measured in microseconds. Dividing the PRR by ten gives the group
repetition interval (GRI) which identifies the chain (eg Lessay chain, part of NELS,
was GRI 6731).
b. Slave Station Nomenclature. The slave stations are designated by the letter
W, X, Y and Z, which are usually suffixed to the chain’s identifying GRI eg 6731-W,
6731-X.
c. Coding Delay/Slave Number. In order to resolve ambiguity (see Para 0218),

each slave station has a unique coding delay. The coding delay is measured in
microseconds; dividing the coding delay by 1000 and rounding down to the nearest
integer gives the ‘slave number’ for each station which is required for manual setup
of some receivers.
0226. Levels of Accuracy (Unimproved LORAN-C)

Conventional unmodernised LORAN-C should give fix accuracy better than 0.25nm
(95% 2σ) within the ground wave; it may be better than 0.1nm close to the baseline between
a chain’s stations. If using the sky wave, fix accuracy is likely to be 10-20nm. Modernised
LORAN-C as utilised in NELS was capable of accuracy of 100m (95% 2σ). LORAN-C

repeatable accuracy is much greater than absolute accuracy, in the region of 30 to 300ft.
0227. LORAN-C Spheroid/Datum

LORAN-C uses the WGS 84 geodetic spheroid/datum, although the receiver in
general use in the RN only displayed results in WGS 72.
CAUTION
Some LORAN receivers will not display results in WGS84. Navigators

must ensure that any datum shift is identified and appropriate
corrections made before relying on a LORAN-derived position.
0228. LORAN-C Latticed Charts

The first LORAN receivers were only capable of outputting values for the hyperbolic
lanes on which the receiver was located. The NO then had to plot the ship’s position usually
specially overprinted charts, which had a LORAN lattice displayed on them. This required
interpolation and a degree of skill on the NO’s behalf, as well as a possible source of
confusion as some lattices were adjusted for ASFs and some were not. Modern receivers
are capable of displaying a position as a latitude and longitude, obviating the need for
latticed charts, and UKHO no longer prints charts with a LORAN lattice. Latticed products
are not available for WECDIS.
0229. LORAN-C Principles of Operation

LORAN-C utilises time and phase comparison methods (see Para 0220). to achieve
maximum navigational accuracy. The earliest LORAN receivers required the operator to
carry out the process manually, using oscilloscopes, but modern receivers carry it out
autonomously and use integrated processors to derive the receiver’s position.
a. Sequence of LORAN-C Transmissions. Each station transmits groups of

pulses at the unique GRI, thus ensuring that there is no interference from other
chains. The usual sequence is the master pulse group, followed by the W, X, Y and
Z slave pulse groups in that order.
b. LORAN-C Transmission Configuration. The configuration of LORAN-C

transmissions is shown in Fig 2-11 below. Within each GRI, the master station
transmits a group of eight pulses, each approximately 250-300μs long spaced
1000μs apart, followed (for master station identification) by a ninth pulse after an
interval of 2000μs. Each slave station sends eight pulses spaced 1000μs apart.
The coding delays at the slave stations are so arranged that all the transmissions in
the chain can be received within one GRI in a specific order, anywhere within the
chain.
Fig 2-11. LORAN-C Master and Slave Pulse Configuration

c. Blink Coding. LORAN-C utilises blink coding as a form of integrity monitoring.
If the signal from a secondary station moves out of tolerance, the first two pulses in
that slave’s transmission are turned off and on (i.e. blinked) in a repeating cycle of
3.6 seconds off and 0.4 seconds on, to indicate the fault. The receiver will detect
this blinking and indicate the fault; modern receivers may drop the affected slave
automatically if possible.
d. LORAN-C Time Comparison. LORAN-C works by first measuring the

difference in the time of arrival of pulses from the master (9 pulses per GRI) and a
slave station (8 pulses per GRI) by matching them for a coarse time difference
measurement. During coarse measurement, two pulses are identified in the same
relative position within a group of master and a group of slave pulses.
e. Phase Comparison. Having achieved a coarse match, the phase of the signal
within the pulse is matched exactly to achieve a fine time difference measurement.
This is achieved by aligning one cycle within the master pulse to the corresponding
cycle of the slave pulse and recording the exact time difference thus measured.
With earlier receivers, a point 30μs from the start of the signal was always selected
manually, by which time it had reached 50% of peak amplitude while still short of sky
wave interference; in practice this meant selecting the 3rd cycle in the sequence for
matching. More modern receivers carry out the entire process autonomously.
f. Result of Using Both Methods. The result of using both methods is that a
very accurate measurement of time differences can be achieved, which in turn
means that an accurate position can be determined.
0230. Avoidance of Sky Wave Interference with Ground Wave Signals
a. Sky Wave Interference. LORAN-C sky waves potentially arrive at the receiver
anywhere between the 35μs and 1000μs after the ground wave. At one extreme
(35μs), the sky wave and the ground wave from the same pulse interfere with each
other; at the other extreme (1000μs), the sky wave of one pulse group interferes
with the ground wave of the succeeding pulse group. At other values, interference
occurs on a pro-rata basis. If sky wave interference occurs, distortion of the ground
wave pulse results and large positional errors can arise.
b. LORAN-C Phase Coding to Avoid Sky Wave Interference. The 3rd cycle of

the ground wave pulse is used for time difference measurement due to its ideal
amplitude and as it occurs before any early arrival of the sky wave. To prevent long
delay (1000μs) sky waves from the previous pulse group affecting the ground wave
time difference measurements, the phase of the 100kHz carrier wave is varied 180°
between one pulse group and the next, in a predetermined manner. The master
station transmits alternately two types of phase coding M1 and M2, whereas the
slave stations all transmit alternately two types of phase coding S1 and S2. Fig 2-12
below shows the phase coding patterns, where the + and – symbols indicate a
positive or negative first half-cycle for the pulse. This phase coding procedure
enables receivers to discriminate between the ground wave and sky wave
components. It also enables automatic signal acquisition receivers to discriminate
between the master and slave station signals.
Fig 2-12. LORAN-C Master and Slave Phase Coding Patterns
0231. Sky Wave Corrections and Additional Corrections

Fixes generated using the LORAN-C sky waves are generally only accurate to
several miles, such that the system was of little practical use even before the advent of
GNSS. In extremis, however, sky wave fixes could be used, either in the absence of other
information such as astro or bottom contour fixes, or as a gross error check of some other
information (BC fix or long-run DR/EP). To support sky wave fixing, tables of corrections
were published.
a. Sky Wave Corrections. LORAN-C sky wave day (‘D’) and night (‘N’)
corrections were promulgated in books and often included within modern digital
receivers, and were applied to sky waves received from master and slave stations.

Special corrections were also produced for the situation where the receiver saw
ground waves from the master and sky waves from the slave (‘GS’ corrections), or
sky waves from the master and ground waves from the slave (‘SG’ corrections).
Both GS and SG corrections were usually published in day and night forms.
b. Additional Secondary Factors. The velocity of propagation of a LORAN-C

signal, as with any radio wave, depends upon the conductivity of the surface of the
Earth over which it travels. Where the signal path is partially over the land (with
varying conductivity) and partially over water, the calculation of the hyperbolic time
difference lattices becomes very complicated. Additional secondary factors (ASF)
corrections were calculated in advance and published as tables or included in
receivers to allow for most of the errors due to conductivity to be removed.
0232. LORAN-C Range-Range (Rho-Rho) Mode

With the appropriate equipment, which was typically only available to survey ships, it
was possible to use modernised LORAN (see Para 02XX) in a ranging mode (‘rho-rho’).
Rho-rho LORAN-C allowed the area of coverage to be extended.
a. Rho-Rho Mode General Principles. Modernised LORAN-C stations are

precisely controlled by a caesium standard which ensures that the pulses leave the
stations at the right time. Slave stations ‘free run’ on their caesium time standards
and are thus immune to variations in the propagation conditions between the master
and slaves. A local frequency oscillator (LFO) is incorporated in the receiver and
time/phase locked to the transmissions of a shore station (the reference point); the
rate of change of time/phase ‘remembered’ by the LFO is that experienced by the
reference point. Comparison of the time/phase of the received signals with that of
the LFO reveals a value which is a function of the distance of the receiver onboard
the vessel from the reference point. This can then be used to generate a pseudo-
range from the reference point, and not a range difference, eliminating the lane
expansion of the hyperbolic system.
b. Rho-Rho LORAN Errors. The most serious source of error in such an

arrangement is the drift of the LFO caused by an imperfect match with the
transmitter oscillator. This is corrected by returning to the reference point or by
fixing the vessel by other means. Integrated systems were developed to address
this point.
SECTION 4 – ENHANCED LORAN (eLORAN)
0233. eLORAN Description

Enhanced LORAN, known as eLORAN, is itself a development of modernised
LORAN-C which is proposed by a number of authorities as a resilient back-up to GNSS. It is
designed to provide positioning accuracy adequate for IMO port approach standards, as well
as oceanic navigation, and to meet the frequency and timing requirements of infrastructure
users such as telecomms and utilities. Importantly, it is also envisaged, by the US and
others, as a robust counterpart to GPS (and other GNSS), capable of providing resilient
position, navigation and timing services to GPS users in the event of GNSS denial.

a. System Operation. eLORAN differs from legacy LORAN-C in a number of
ways. It uses the LORAN data channel to send differential LORAN corrections, and
receivers are designed to use ‘all in view’ techniques whereby navigation is de-
coupled from one particular chain, and the receiver is able to optimally choose the
best stations from all those it is receiving. Highly accurate surveys are used to
accurately model ASF corrections with a very high degree of granularity, especially
in sensitive areas such as port approaches and choke points. Shore station
infrastucture is also upgraded to the latest, most modern standards including the
atomic clocks and control segment. eLORAN can typically achieve accuracy of 10-
20m (95% 2σ) or better.
b. Receivers. eLORAN receivers will be fully modernised, digital systems, with

most if not all of the calculations for differential corrections and ASFs being carried
out autonomously by the receiver. Integrated GNSS and eLORAN receivers were
developed but are unlikely to be widely available until the future of the system is
known with certainty.
c. System Status. eLORAN is not a fully deployed, operational system. For

several years, it was trialled as a prototype by the UK GLA and Trinity House, using
the existing NELS infrastucture (suitably upgraded). The trial was discontinued
when the other NELS nations decided to discontinue NELS in favour of Galileo (see
Chapter 3). Developments have also been carried out in the US, and it appears as
of early 2016 that the US is likely to push ahead with an experimental eLORAN
system. The Republic of Korea is pursuing eLORAN aggressively due to the
frequent occasions of GNSS interference in the region, apparently due to signals
from North Korea. eLORAN remains the only truly credible alternative to GNSS for
position, navigation and timing signals, but it is unclear as to if or when it will
become widely available.
CHAPTER 3
SATELLITE AIDS TO NAVIGATION
CONTENTS
Para
0303. The History of Satellite Navigation Systems

0304. NAVSTAR GPS
0305. Other GNSS
0306. Differential GPS (DGPS)
0307. Augmentation Systems
SECTION 1 – SATELLITE NAVIGATION CONCEPTS AND THEORY
0308. Spacecraft Physics

0309. The Effects of Gravity on Spacecraft
0310. The Application of Kepler’s Laws to Satellites
0311. Perturbation of Satellite Orbits due to the Shape of the Earth
0312. Satellite Ground Tracks
0313. GNSS Satellite Constellations
0314. Satellite Navigation Error Sources
0315. Vulnerability of Satellite Navigation Systems – NAVWAR
0316. GNSS Interoperability
SECTION 2 – NAVSTAR GPS
0317. System Overview

0318. System Segments
0319. GPS Operation
0320. Securing the Military Advantage – Selective Availability and Anti-Spoofing
0321. GPS System Time, UTC, Satellite Clock Error and Satellite Clock Frequency
0322. GPS Pseudo Ranging
0323. Dilution of Precision
0324. Position Dilution of Precision
0325. Degraded GPS Coverage
SECTION 3 – DIFFERENTIAL GPS AND AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS
0326. GPS Augmentation – the Basics

0327. Differential GPS (GPS)
0328. Ground Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS)
0329. Space Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS)
0330. Real Time Kinematics (RTK)
SECTION 4 – OTHER GNSS
0331. Galileo
0332. System Configuration
0333. Galileo Services

0334. Galileo Interoperability with GPS
0335. Galileo Space Vehicles
0336. Galileo Transmissions
0337. Galileo Navigation Message Structure
0338. GLONASS
0339. GLONASS History and Current Status
0340. GLONASS System Operation
0341. GLONASS Accuracy
0342. GLONASS Transmissions
0343. BeiDou-2

0344. BeiDou-2 Satellite Constellation
0345. BeiDou-2 Services
0346. BeiDou-2 Status
0347. Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)
0348. IRNSS Satellite Constellation
0349. IRNSS Performance
0350. IRNSS Operations with GAGAN
0351. The Future of GNSS
ANNEXES
Annex 3A NAVFIX
Annex 3B Defence Advanced GPS Receiver – DAGR
Annex 3C Precise Fixing/Jamming Resistant Satellite Navigation System
Annex 3D MX 420 Receiver (GPS/DGPS)
Annex 3E GN 33 Receiver (GPD/DGPS – SM WECDIS)
Annex 3F Raytheon Skydec NGNS04 Mk 11/CRPA Jamming Resistant System (GPS)
CHAPTER 3
SATELLITE AIDS TO NAVIGATION

Chapter 3 provides an explanation of the theoretical basis on which the various
global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) depend, and an explanation of how the major
systems the RN navigator is likely to use operate. Also included is an explanation of the
various enhancements and augmentation systems available to GNSS users to enhance the
accuracy of the satellite-derived position. The introduction provides a brief overview of the
history of GNSS, and a summary of each of the main systems and technologies involved.

Greater detail and technical explanations can be found in the relevant sections below.

No GNSS is infallible. It therefore remains a fundamental navigational principle that
GNSS-derived positions should be cross-checked by all available sources of information as
a matter of course, no matter how advanced the technology becomes in the future.
0303. The History of Satellite Navigation Systems

In 1957, Sputnik 1 became the first artificial satellite to be successfully placed into
orbit. Sputnik carried a small microwave transmitter, and almost immediately the potential to
use signals emanating from the spacecraft to aid in terrestrial navigation was recognised;
work on the first GNSS thus began in 1958, ultimately becoming ‘Transit.’ Transit worked by
utilising the perceived doppler shift in the transmissions from satellites with precisely known
orbits. Although Transit provided global coverage, it only provided a fix when the satellite
was high enough to be observed by the receiver, and considerable processing (by the
standards of the time) was required, such that a dedicated computer had to be designed and
built for it, meaning that it could take up to 15 minutes to generate a fix once the satellite had
been observed. Time between fixes varied from several hours to an hour depending on
position on the earth’s surface; although Transit achieved a sufficient degree of accuracy to
allow Polaris SSBNs to reset their INS, it was not capable of supporting continuous, real-
time, high accuracy position determination in 3 dimensions. Accordingly, whilst Transit
became operational in 1964 and was made available to commercial users in 1967, in 1973
the US began work on the Navigation System by Time and Ranging Global Positioning
System (NAVSTAR GPS – although this may well be a backronym), now ubiquitously known
simply as GPS. The first GPS satellite was launched in 1979, and, although initially a
military only programme, following the shooting down in 1983 of a Korean airliner that had
strayed into Soviet airspace, GPS was made freely available to anyone, albeit at a reduced
accuracy due to the introduction of ‘selective availability’ (SA; see below). System
development continued and remains ongoing; GPS achieved IOC in 1993 and FOC in 1995
and in 2000 SA was turned off for all users, ensuring that anyone with a GPS receiver can
theoretically achieve the same accuracy. Satellite launches continue to this date, with new
and improved spacecraft being flown and a number of on-orbit spares being available to
ensure system resilience in the event of a failure. Since the development of GPS, a number
of other systems, such as Soviet/FSU ‘GLONASS,’ EU Galileo, and Chinese ‘Beidou’ have
been developed but as of 2016 only GLONASS can be thought of as being comparable to
GPS in terms of coverage, accuracy, and reliability.
0304. NAVSTAR GPS

NAVSTAR GPS, or more usually just GPS, is the US developed system. It relies on
a constellation of 24 spacecraft, each of which carries a number of highly accurate clocks, to
achieve global coverage. Using advanced mathematical techniques based on the timing
signals transmitted by the spacecraft, a GPS receiver is capable of deriving a 3d position to
better than 10m accuracy, in realtime. GPS also enables precise timing to be achieved.
0305. Other GNSS

In addition to GPS, a number of other GNSS are in development around the world.
Some have only regional relevance for the foreseeable future, but others have either
achieved or aspire to achieve global coverage. Many modern GNSS receivers, including

those embedded in a great many smartphones, are capable of using all the major GNSS
signals in deriving their positions; ultimately, when all planned constellations are established,
users will potentially have access to more than 75 satellites.
a. GLONASS. GLONASS is the system designed by the former-USSR roughly

contemporaneously with GPS, and which operates on very similar principles.
Although development began more or less in parallel with GPS, the system suffered
from a lack of funding following the collapse of the USSR, so that although the
constellation was completed in 1995, it subsequently fell into disrepair and lost the
ability to provide global coverage until it was essentially non-operational by the early
2000s. More recently, concerted efforts and considerable investments were made
to restore the system so that by 2016 it was back to full operational status and
provides global coverage to accuracy on a par with GPS. Indeed, the orbital
configuration of the space vehicles means that very high attitude coverage,
especially at the North Pole, is marginally improved over GPS. Many modern
receivers are capable of receiving both GPS and GLONASS signals, transparently
so far as the operator is concerned.
b. Galileo. Galileo is a European Union system, which aspires to provide global

coverage with up to centimetric accuracy to selected users. Satellite launches are
ongoing, with the aspiration of achieving IOC in 2017-18 and FOC in 2020. Galileo
is over budget and delayed, and it seems unlikely that the planned in-service dates
will be met.
c. BeiDou-2. BeiDou-2, earlier also known as COMPASS, is a Chinese system

which currently provides regional coverage but is intended to be a global system by
circa 2020. BeiDou-2 will provide comparable accuracies to Galileo or modernised
GPS, with the most accurate services only available to military users. The less-
accurate service will be freely available.
d. Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS). The IRNSS is a

regional system which is due to provide full coverage of the Indian sub-continent and
surrounding area by mid-2016. The most accurate positioning service will be limited
to Indian military users.
0306. Differential GPS

When GPS initially entered service, it was anticipated that the civilian mode would
provide accuracy of about 100m, but it soon became apparent that the receivers actually
constructed could achieve real-world accuracy in the order of 20-30m. For this reason, in
order to preserve an apparent military advantage in having a more precise position available,
selective availability (SA) was introduced which was a deliberate degradation in the position
service provided to non-military users. Unfortunately, due to the way it was created, by the
introduction of a random but deliberate jitter in the timing signals transmitted by the satellites,
SA effects were constant over a relatively large area, meaning they were measurable. A
technique was therefore developed whereby a ground station with an accurately known
position monitored GPS at its position, worked out the corrections necessary and then

rebroadcast them. Ultimately, DGPS provided better accuracy even than the military precise
positioning service, so SA was ultimately switched off. DGPS is considered further in
Section 3.
0307. Augmentation Systems

DGPS (see Para 0306) is in fact just one case of a ground-based augmentation
system (GBAS) which augments the accuracy of GPS by providing additional information or
corrections to the receiver. Other systems are available, such as realtime kinematics (RTK)
or the US Wide Area Augmentation System, or space based systems (SBAS) such as
EGNOS, all of which aim to improve GPS accuracy to the centimetric level. Augmentation
systems are considered further in Section 5.
SECTION 1 – SATELLITE NAVIGATION CONCEPTS AND THEORY
0308. Spacecraft Physics

All GNSS rely, as the name suggests, on spacecraft in orbit to allow users to derive
their positions relative to the Earth’s surface. In order to fully understand the operation of
GNSS some knowledge of the physics that govern spacecraft motion is necessary. A full
discussion of orbital mechanics is outwith the scope of this book, but it will suffice to
understand that spacecraft in orbit (for the navigator’s purposes) are governed by Newtonian
physics, and that satellites will obey Kepler’s ‘laws of planetary motion.’
a. Newtonian Physics. The great physicist Sir Isaac Newton derived three laws

of motion that, combined with his ‘law of universal gravitation,’ explained Kepler’s
laws of planetary motion. These four laws are described below.
(1) The First Law. ‘When viewed in an inertial reference frame, an object
either remains at rest or continues to move at a constant velocity, unless acted
on by an external force.’ A spacecraft in space will move in a straight line at a
constant velocity indefinitely unless or until some external force acts upon that
spacecraft.
(2) The Second Law. ‘The vector sum of the external forces on an object is
equal to the mass of that object multiplied by the acceleration vector of that
object.’ Mathematically, if F is the vector sum of the external forces, m is the
mass of the object and a is the acceleration vector, the second law can be
represented thus:
f = ma
(3) The Third Law. ‘When one body exerts a force on a second body, the
second simultaneously exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction on the first body.’ This is the fundamental reason why a ship’s engines
are able to propel a ship; the thrust produced by moving the water aft acts on
the thust blocks to push the ship in the opposite direction. It also allows
spacecraft engines to operate.
(4) The Universal Law of Gravitation. ‘The attractive force exerted by one
heavenly body on another is proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.’ This
‘inverse square’ rule, similar to others such as radar power, shows that the
effects of planetary gravity on a spacecraft will reduce rapidly as the range of
that spacecraft from the planet increases. Mathematically, if F is the force, m1
and m2 are the masses of the two bodies, and d is their distance apart, this law
may be expressed thus:
(m m )
1 2
f ∝ 2
d
b. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion. Although Kepler produced his laws in

advance of Newton’s work on his laws, it is the sum effect of Newton’s laws that
explain Kepler’s observations. Newton’s laws apply equally to moving objects
underwater, on land, in the air and in space, but when applied to spacecraft (and
other astronomical objects such as planets, asteroids and comets) they produce
Kepler’s laws. As originally expressed, Kepler’s laws related to bodies in orbit
around the Sun, but they apply equally to any orbital system of two bodies, including
satellites orbiting the Earth, so they are expressed in that form below.
(1) Kepler’s First Law. ‘The path of a satellite around the Earth is an ellipse,
the Earth being situated at one of the foci of that ellipse. The plane of the ellipse

must therefore pass through the centre of the Earth.’ Just as the Earth is not a
sphere, so the orbit of a satellite around it is not in fact a circle, although it will
require careful observation to determine this fact.
(2) Kepler’s Second Law. ‘The line joining the Earth’s centre and the satellite
sweeps out at a constant rate.’ The satellite’s orbital radius and angular velocity
will vary; it will travel faster when closer to the Earth and slower when further
away.
(3) Kepler’s Third Law. ‘The square of the time taken by the satellite to
complete its orbit (the period) is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis
of the ellipse.’ This third law has been observationally confirmed by, for
example, radar ranging of Venus.
0309. The Effects of Gravity on Spacecraft
a. Reduction of the Earth’s Gravitational Force with Altitude. The force of

gravity reduces with the square of distance in accordance with Newton’s universal
law of gravitation. For a spacecraft in low Earth orbit (LEO) such as the International
Space Station, gravity is still 90% of that at the Earth’s surface (although the
astronauts do not experience it as they are in freefall). For a GPS spacecraft at an
altitude of about 20,200km, the gravity experienced is only about 6% of that at the
Earth’s surface, but, as the relationship is an inverse square, any small changes in
altitude will result in a very small change in the gravity experienced; at that altitude,
gravity is essentially constant. Note that the gravity experienced due to the Earth
will never become zero, as it has an infinite range, but it will become infinitesimally
weak and gravitational forces exerted by other bodies such as the Moon, other
planets or even other spacecraft may be much greater.
b. Satellite Launch Speeds. The action of gravity has implications for the speed
at which a satellite is launched from the Earth. The faster the launch speed, the
further the launch vehicle will travel before it falls back to Earth. If a launch speed of
about 8,000m/sec is achieved, known as circular velocity, the spacecraft will enter a
circular orbit around the Earth. At an altitude of about 110nm above the Earth, this
orbit will become elliptical provided sufficient velocity is achieved. As velocity
increases, the orbit becomes more and more elliptical until at about 11,300m/sec the
spacecraft will reach ‘escape velocity’ and break away from Earth orbit entirely. It
will then cease to become a satellite of the Earth and will follow a parabolic path
through space (although possibly eventually entering an elliptical orbit around the
Sun); if its speed is increased still further, its path may become hyperbolic and the
craft will break away into interstellar space.
0310. The Application of Kepler’s Laws to Satellites
a. Application of Kepler’s First Law - Launch Sites. One of the implications of

Kepler’s first law is that it is not possible to launch a satellite directly into an orbit
where the angle of inclination (measured against the equator) is less than the
latitude of the launch site. There are several possible solutions if this is a problem
for the satellite’s mission; communications satellites for example are often required
to be geostationary which requires a 0° inclination orbit.
(1) Parking Orbit and Use of Satellite Onboard Propulsion. If a low angle
of inclination is required, one solution is to simply launch the satellite into a

parking orbit. Then, as the satellite crosses the required latitude, the satellite’s
onboard propulsion system can be fired into order to move it to the required
orbital inclination. This solution makes the spacecraft very heavy and
complicated (or requires a major reduction in useful payload), carries more risk,
and by using propellant potentially reduces the useful life of the spacecraft in
orbit.
(2) Satellite Launch from Another Space Vehicle. This is similar to the
parking orbit solution above, but involves releasing the craft from another
vehicle as it crosses the required latitude. This solution is less viable since the
retirement of the space shuttle.
(3) Low Altitude Launch Sites. The generally preferred (and cheapest)
solution is to use a low latitude launch site such as Kourou in French Guiana (at
latitude 5° 10’N).
(4) Use of Eastward Launches. Satellites launched to the east gain the
benefit of the Earth’s rotational speed at the launch site’s latitude with no
additional fuel costs. The Earth’s rotational speed is greatest at the equator
(about 1000 knots) and varies with the cosine of latitude (and is thus zero at the
poles). Launch sites close to the equator thus gain the greatest benefit from the
Earth’s rotation and are thus preferred (as they also allow the choice of low
inclination launches if desired). The need to launch to the east also explains
why, if possible, launches will take place from the east coast (eg Kennedy
Space Centre at Cape Canaveral) as then any debris or other arisings from the
launch will fall into the ocean rather than populated land areas.
b. Application of Kepler’s Second Law – Apogee and Perigee. By inspection,

one of the implications of Kepler’s second law is that a satellite’s speed will vary as it
orbits the Earth; its forward velocity is greatest at the point of closest approach
(‘perigee’) and at its least at the furthest point from Earth (‘apogee’). This
phenomenon can be exploited in designing a satellite’s orbit; for example, a
reconnaissance satellite might be placed into an elliptical orbit with perigee over the
target region, meaning that the satellite will transit the target area low and fast.
Conversely, a communications satellite could be placed in an orbit with its apogee
over the target area or ground station, meaning that the satellite will stay in line of
sight for longer. GPS satellites are generally designed to be in circular orbits, to
ease constellation design problems and ensure that the number of satellites in view
is predictable and continuous coverage is achieved (over the system’s designed
area).
0311. Perturbation of Satellite Orbits due to the Shape of the Earth

The Earth is not a sphere; rather, due to its spin, it forms an ‘oblate spheroid’ with a
distinct equatorial bulge. This bulge means that a satellite orbiting the Earth does not
experience a uniform gravitational field, which in turn means that satellite orbits do not
strictly follow Kepler’s laws. Instead, they will be subject to two distinct perturbations as a
result of the Earth’s shape. Other physical effects will also potentially affect a craft’s orbit.
a. Rotation of the Orbital Plane – Nodal Precession. Because of the equatorial

bulge, the gravity experienced by the satellite does not act in a straight line directly
towards the centre of the Earth. Rather, it is offset slightly towards the equator; in
other words, a satellite with an eastwards orbit is pulled ‘down’ towards the equator

in the northern hemisphere, and ‘up’ towards the equator in the southern
hemisphere. This has the effect of creating a torque on the orbit, which leads to
gyroscopic precession (see Chapter 5). Counter-intuitively, perhaps, this does not
affect the orbital inclination but instead leads the orbital plane rotating slowly
westwards. The points at which a satellite’s orbital plane crosses the equator are
called nodes, hence the term nodal regression to describe the steady westwards
movement of the satellite’s orbital plane. The rate of rotation of the orbital plane is
governed by the angle of inclination to the equator and the altitude of the satellite;
very high orbits, or very highly inclined orbits will experience little nodal precession.
A satellite in a precisely polar orbit will experience no nodal precession at all. Fig 3-
1 below illustrates the nodal precession of a spacecraft in an inclined orbit.
Fig 3-1. Nodal Precession
b. Rotation of the Elliptical Orbit’s Major Axis – Apsidal Precession. Another

long-observed feature of bodies in elliptical orbits is that the perigee and apogee will,
over time, rotate about the orbital plane, known as apsidal rotation (the line of
apsides is the straight line connecting the points of apogee and perigee). The
direction of apsidal rotation of the major axis depends on the angle of inclination of
the orbit and the altitude of the satellite; it rotates forward along the orbit for
equatorial orbits and backwards for polar orbits. At an angle of inclination of 63.4°
the apsides will not rotate at all (the so–called ‘critical inclination’). The physics
behind this apsidal rotation are complicated; suffice it to say that as it certainly
exists, regardless of its causes.

c. Atmospheric Drag. Spacecraft in orbits with an altitude of 1000km or less will
still experience the tenuous effects of a very thin atmosphere. This drag will
physically slow the spacecraft, which will have the effect of reducing an orbit’s semi-
major axis, making it more and more circular, ultimately causing the spacecraft to
slowly lose altitude until eventually it re-enters the atmosphere and either returns to
Earth or (more likely) burns up and is destroyed. Due to the effects of atmospheric
drag, spacecraft in LEO must either carry out periodic orbit-raising manoeuvres or
accept that they will only have a short lifespan.
0312. Satellite Ground Tracks

As both the satellite in orbit and the Earth are in motion in space, satellites will (with
one notable exception) appear to trace out a path across the Earth’s surface. In general, an
orbiting satellite’s ground track will appear to trace out a sine wave across the Earth’s
surface, the northern and southern extents of which are determined by the angle of
inclination of the spacecraft’s orbit. The implication of this is that inclinations must be
carefully considered against the spacecraft’s mission to ensure that sufficient coverage is
achieved. Global reconnaissance satellites will need to have high inclinations or even polar
orbits in order to achieve sufficient cover.
a. Angle of Inclination Zero. A satellite with an angle of inclination of 0° will

follow an orbit precisely above the equator.
b. Angle of Inclination 90° - Polar Orbits. A satellite with an angle of inclination

of 90° is said to be in a polar orbit. Complete global coverage is achieved as the
satellite will pass over both poles as the Earth rotates beneath it.
c. Intermediate Angles of Inclination. A satellite with an angle of inclination

between 0° and 90° will trace out a sine wave pattern with the northernmost and
southernmost extents directly equal to the angle of inclination of the satellite’s orbit.
The time taken for a satellite to complete one orbit is known as the ‘sidereal period;’
for a satellite in a 12 hour circular orbit, an observer directly under the satellite’s
track would see the satellite pass overhead only once every 24 hours, due to the
Earth’s eastwards rotation. This observed period is known as the ‘synodic period.’
The ground track of a satellite in an orbit with inclination of 55° (such as a typical
GPS satellite) is shown below in Fig 3-2.
Fig 3-2. Satellite Ground Track and Synodic Period

d. Increasing Coverage. By inspection of Fig 3-2 above, it becomes clear that a
single satellite, whether in polar orbit or an inclined orbit, cannot achieve constant
global coverage, even if it covers every part of the globe during the synodic period.
In order to achieve constant coverage, more satellites are required, either in different
orbits or in different ‘slots’ in the same orbit.
e. Geostationary Orbits. For some applications, in particular communications, it

is useful to have a satellite that does not have a ground track but rather appears to
be fixed in space as seen from the surface of the Earth. For these missions,
geostationary orbits are used. For a satellite to be in a geostationary (sometimes
known as geosynchronous, although strictly geostationary satellites are one class of
geosynchronous satellite) orbit, it must be orbiting high enough and hence fast
enough that its orbital period precisely matches the rotation rate of the Earth. In
practice, this proves to be about 22,236 miles above the Earth. Geostationary orbits
are subject to precession and also to longitudinal drift, meaning that regular (annual)
station-keeping manoeuvres are required. Satellites in geostationary orbits that
have drifted out of position enough to have small north or south inclination will
appear trace out an ‘analemma,’ an apparent figure of eight motion as viewed from
the Earth.
0313. GNSS Satellite Constellations

Although a detailed discussion of satellite positioning can be found below, a GNSS
position is essentially a fix like any other, and so a minimum of 3 position lines (4 for 3d
positioning) are required. It follows therefore that to achieve constant realtime fixing, a
minimum of 4 satellites must be in view from any point of the Earth at all times. In order to
achieve this, GNSS operators launch a constellation of satellites. Geostationary orbits might
appear to be ideal, but they have limits in terms of high altitude coverage, and the distance
from the Earth means that more powerful transmitters are required, but the essential
problem is that is not possible to get sufficient angle of cut from geostationary satellites.
Therefore a constellation is used with a number of satellites equally spaced among different
orbits all of the same inclination. In GPS, for example, there are six orbital planes, all at 55°

inclination, equally spaced around the equator, which means that there are always at least
eight satellites in view, and often many more.
0314. Satellite Navigation Error Sources

Regardless of the precise design of the system, any GNSS will have a number of
fundamental error sources built-in. Many of these can be accounted for in receiver and
software design, but they can sometimes result in significant position errors.
a. Representative Error Budgets. Table 3-1 below gives a representative error

budget for GPS and DGPS, showing how the overall system position error is made-
up of a number of smaller error factors. The figures are approximate but can be
considered broadly representative of other GNSS systems. Each of the individual
error sources is considered in more detail below.
Table 3-1. Representative GPS/DGPS Error Budget
ERROR SOURCE TYPICAL ERROR (METRES)

GPS DGPS
Ionospheric errors ± 5.0m ± 0.4m
Tropospheric errors ± 0.5m ± 0.2m
Orbit errors ± 2.5m 0
Satellite clock errors ± 1.5m 0
Satellite group delay errors ± 1.0m 0
Multipath errors ± 0.6m ± 0.6m
Receiver errors ± 0.3m ± 0.3m
TOTAL ERRORS ± 10.0m to 15.0m ± 0.5m to 3.0m
b. Ionospheric Errors. All GNSS are reliant on signals transmitted by the

satellites being received by users on the Earth. The single most significant source
of errrors will almost always be due to solar activity affecting the ionosphere, hence
affecting the propagation of the satellite signals. The magnitude of ionospheric
errors will vary significantly with the time of day (greater by day than by night) and
solar activity (in particular the 11 year sunspot cycle), but they can potentially reach
± 10.0m if not correct for. Fortunately for military users ionospheric errors can be
largely eliminated by the use of dual frequency receivers.
c. Tropospheric Errors. The lower level of the atmosphere, the troposphere,

contains water vapour which will slow the satellite signals. Weather systems cause
volatile, unpredictable changes in pressure, temperature and humidity, which will
have a small but unpredictable impact on GPS signal propagation. Dual frequency
receivers can not eliminate tropospheric errors.
d. Orbit Errors. As explained in Para 1308 to Para 1311, satellite orbits are
subject to gradual changes. In a generic GNSS, the satellite positions and tracks
are constantly monitored by ground stations and their predicted future positions
uploaded to the satellites for retransmission to users (as part of the navigation
message in GPS). Orbital prediction errors can be of the order of metres and can

result in fix errors, although they can be removed by the use of DGPS or other
augmentation system corrections.
e. Satellite Clock Errors. Satellite clock errors are caused by drift in the onboard
atomic clocks, which occur for a number of reasons, such as relativistic effects due
to the satellite’s velocity compared to the Earth’s. Satellite clocks are monitored by
ground stations, and corrections are included in the messages broadcast by the
satellites, but satellite clock errors are inherently unpredictable.
f. Satellite Group Delay Errors. Satellite group delay errors result from
unavoidable delays caused by data processing onboard the satellites themselves.
Although the delays are unavoidable, they are predictable and so will be corrected
via a predicted offset.
g. Multipath Errors. Multipath errors are caused by the satellite transmissions

being reflected from surfaces near to the receiver. They can be reduced by careful
aerial design, correct siting of the receiver aerial, and to some extent by signal
processing. Multipath errors will be largely dependent on the operating
environment, so they will be much more prevalent in urban locations or areas such
as fjords.
h. Receiver Errors. The design of the receiver electronics and software may
introduce some errors (some readers may recall attempting to operate QYF in the
North Channel), but in modern high precision receivers, especially those designed
for military use, receiver errors should be minimal.
0315. Vulnerability of Satellite Navigation Systems – NAVWAR

GNSS are now ubiquitous, being found in a multitude of military systems (from
dedicated navigation systems to radars, WAIS, and communications equipment) as well as
civilian applications, ranging from smartphones and tablets to cars and other vehicles.
Some of these GNSS will be used for positioning, whereas others merely seek to take
advantage of the inherent ability of GNSS to supply an accurate time. Collectively,
therefore, GNSS provides a ‘precise navigation and timing’ (PNT) service, which is of critical
importance to defence users. Unfortunately, the physical characteristics of GNSS mean that
they are inherently vulnerable to outside interference, whether environmental (eg coronal
mass ejection from the Sun causing widespread EM disruption) or manmade (inadvertent or
deliberate jamming or spoofing). Conditions in which GPS is unavailable are known as ‘GPS

denial;’ deliberate attempts by an adversary to create conditions of GPS denial or
degradation is known as navigation warfare or NAVWAR. Addressing the NAVWAR
problem is a key area of concern for the Fleet Navigator; FNO can be contacted to supply
the most up-to-date classified NAVWAR threat brief if required.
a. GNSS Jamming. The signals transmitted by a GPS satellite are inherently low-
powered and hence weak by the time they reach the surface of the Earth – they are
transmitted from the spacecraft at 30W (i.e. similar to any ordinary lightbulb), so that
by the time they have reached the surface of the Earth the received power is about
0.0000000000000001W, which is several orders of magnitude less than normal
background radio noise (the signals cannot be observed on a spectrum analyser).
This makes jamming GNSS reception a trivial exercise, and L1/L2 or broadband
jammers, although illegal, are readily and cheaply available. GNSS jammers can be
very small (the size of a pack of cards) or larger and more powerful; the more
powerful versions can have outputs of 2W or more on each frequency, enabling
them to jam both L1, L2 and indeed every other GNSS signal, over large areas.
Military GNSS jammers can be even more powerful, and if mounted on an aircraft
can potentially disrupt PNT services over a wide area. Utilising a military GPS with
the correct crypto loaded provides a small measure of resilience to jamming, but the
simple fact is that jamming power will always overcome the weak GPS signals.
FOST have access to a number of GNSS jammers and will use them to exercise
GPS denial during OST as required.
b. GNSS Spoofing. GNSS jamming results in the complete denial of PNT

services; spoofing, on the other hand, is the deliberate injection of false data into a
target GNSS receiver to give incorrect position or timing outputs. Notwithstanding
Hollywood movies, spoofing a correctly configured military GPS receiver is a non-
trivial exercise that would require considerable skill, expertise and knowledge on
behalf of the adversary, although the thresholds for achievability are lowering all the
time. For example, in 2015 at the DEFCON23 hacking conference, Chinese
researchers without a background in GPS (although with formidable technical skills
with respect to radio communications, electronics and computing) demonstrated
successful GPS spoofing of a car and a UAV with entirely open source technology.
Although still less straightforward than jamming, spoofing must be considered a
genuine threat to civilian GPS receivers; military receivers are much less vulnerable
due to the availability of two frequencies and, most importantly, the encryption of the
P(Y) code. There are two types of spoofing, overt and covert, which are described
in more detail below.
(1) Overt Spoofing. Overt spoofing can be defined as spoofing in which the
attacker does not seek to conceal the fact that it is seeking to capture the target
vehicle’s GPS. There is thus no need to closely align the broadcast spoof
signals with the target’s true position and velocity, which eases the attacker’s
problems considerably (see covert spoofing below). A straightforward method
of overt spoofing is to jam GNSS frequencies at the target until the target’s
receiver loses lock; spoof signals can then be broadcast with sufficient power
that when the jamming ceases and the receiver attempts to regain signal lock
the spoof signals are preferred to the true signals. If this is achieved, the
attacker can capture the target’s GNSS receiver and potentially take full control
of the navigation outputs generated by the target. This technique is relatively

straightforward, but clearly runs the risk of alerting the target due to the period of
jamming, and the fact that the spoofed position may well be clearly incongruous
with the pre-attack position, course and speed of the target. Such attacks are
possible without the use of jammers in areas where GPS coverage is naturally
unavailable, such as underground car parks.
(2) Covert Spoofing. A covert spoofing attack is one in which the attacker
seeks to gain control over the target without triggering any anti-spoof defences
in the target. To carry out a successful covert spoof, the attacker must align the
initial spoof signals to the true signals such that both true and spoof position,
velocity and timing solutions are coincident; this is non-trivial as it requires
knowledge of the target platform’s position and velocity to an accuracy at least
equal that of GPS standard positioning service. Once the spoof signals have
been correctly aligned, the transmitted power of the spoof signals can be raised
above that of the received GNSS transmissions, such that the spoof signals are
preferred by the target receiver. If successful, a covert spoof will therefore be
insidious and probably only result in gradual alterations of position or velocity
from their true values. Nevertheless, over a period of hours or even days this
could result in significant errors, as could a covert spoof attack on a ship or
submarine in pilotage waters (especially at night or in restricted visibility).
Maritime platforms are probably more vulnerable to covert spoofing than aerial
platforms, as their positions and speeds are probably easier to measure (AIS
could be used by the attacker as the seed for their spoof attack for example),
but by the same token, they may well have other independent navigation
systems available to cross-check the GPS output such as speed logs, radar,
visual bearings, echo sounders etc, and this will often be the case even in open
ocean. A team from the University of Austin successfully spoofed a yacht (from
onboard) to induce a series of course alterations; whilst on the yacht’s ECS the
vessel’s track was straight, a simple glance astern showed the wake was
curved. Persistent rudder angles (demanded by the autopilot in response to the
spoof-induced GPS errors) would also have given a clue that something was
amiss, even in the open ocean.
c. NAVWAR Countermeasures. The best countermeasure to NAVWAR

techniques remains the fundamental navigational principle of never relying on one
single source of information; GPS positions must be constantly checked correct
against all available information, such as visual bearings, radar ranges, the echo
sounder, or a DR/EP/pool of errors. Inertial systems will provide a useful backup but
are not available on every platform, and can themselves be seduced by incorrect
fixes/resets. Nevertheless, it remains the case that no GNSS should be trusted
blindly, and navigators should always seek to prove that their system is correct.
Transits should be planned on the basis of using traditional RELNAV techniques as
a matter of course, so that in the event of GPS denial there is no need to re-plan at
short notice. In addition, RN users must ensure that any mission critical GPS is a

military GPS, with the correct crypto loaded; receivers using encrypted signals on
two frequencies are harder both to jam and to spoof. Anti-jam aerials should be
used wherever possible; civilian GPS should not be used. Implicit in this is that
equipment users must have a thorough understanding of how their equipment
operates and where it gets its PNT feed from; there are more receivers on a ship
than just Navfix/MX420.
d. Resilient PNT Solution. There is a clear need for a resilient PNT solution, both
for military and civilian use. eLORAN has been suggested as one such solution, as
it should be capable of wide area coverage, if maybe not truly global, and is capable
of high accuracy positioning and timing. Moreover, the much high power levels of
eLORAN transmissions would make them much harder to jam. However, eLORAN
is still in development and has not been placed into service, and the future of the
system remains in doubt (as of early 2016). A possible option that would go some
way towards addressing the problem would be a multi-system receiver capable of
accessing all GNSS, as it would be harder (although by no means impossible) to
jam the signals from all GNSS rather than just one.
0316. GNSS Interoperability

GPS and GLONASS were developed during the height of the Cold War, and there
was never any expectation of interoperability between the two systems at the design stage,
other than usual co-ordination of matters such as radio frequency assignment through the
ICU etc. However, the advent of modern computing and software defined radios have
allowed multi-GNSS receivers to be developed in very small form factors with low weight and
power requirements. For example, the iPhone 4 ‘GPS’ function will in fact utilise a
combination of signals from GPS, GLONASS, as well as other aids such as local wi-fi
connections, GPRS networks etc to determine its position. Future military GPS receivers will
undoubtedly be able to utilise more than just GPS signals, although a SAASM will still be
vital in order to assure access to GPS P(Y) code in degraded EM environments. The major
advantages of multi-GNSS devices are increased global coverage, especially at high
latitudes, as the more satellites the receiver can choose from, the greater the chance of
selecting optimum geometry. In addition, with more satellites available the chances of
having enough in view in so-called ‘urban canyons,’ fjords, or other areas of significant
topography are increased. A true multi-GNSS receiver would be able to access to more
than 75 satellites, as opposed to the 24 to 30 in most single system constellations.
SECTION 2 – NAVSTAR GPS
0317. System Overview
a. Satellite Constellation. The GPS satellite constellation consists (2016) of 27

satellites, usually with a further four in orbit spares in case of satellite breakdown.
The system was originally designed to have 24 satellites, arranged in 6 orbital
planes of 55° inclination, spaced at 60° around the equator. The constellation was
expanded in June 2011 to the current 27 unit configuration, enhancing coverage in
most parts of the world. The constellation is designed so that at least four satellites
will be visible from anywhere in the world, usually more, although this is not always

achieved at very high latitudes. In GPS terminology, the satellites are known as
space vehicles (SVs). The constellation consists of a mix of space vehicles, with
newer Block III vehicles with enhanced capabilities being launched to replace the
older vehicles.
b. Spheroid and Datum. GPS is referenced to WGS84. Most modern charts and
all WECDIS/ECDIS equipment are referenced to WGS84, but some older charts
may have other horizontal geodetic datums. If so, then the necessary datum shift
must be applied to GPS positions before they can be plotted on the chart. Details of
the datum shift necessary will usually be found on the chart.
c. Accuracy. There are three levels of accuracy available on the system.
(1) Standard Positioning Service (SPS). SPS is available to all users, and
should achieve accuracies in the order of 8-13m (95%) with modern receivers.
(2) Precise Positioning Service (PPS). PPS is a secure, encrypted service

only available to military users with the correct equipment and crypto.
(3) Differential GPS (DGPS). DGPS is available to all users in range of a

station broadcasting corrections. Accuracies in the order of 3-4m (95%) or
better may be expected.
d. Pseudo Ranges. GPS works on the principle of establishing ranges from the
space vehicles to give position lines on the Earth’s surface. Strictly speaking,
because of the errors involved, the calculations yield ‘pseudo ranges’. In order to
obtain a 2-dimensional fix, three satellites are required and to get a 3-dimensional
fix, a minimum of four satellites is required.
e. Space Vehicle Transmissions – L1 and L2. Currently, each satellite

broadcasts on two channels: L1 (1575.42MHz) and L2 (1227.60MHz). Both
frequencies are integer multiples of the basic 10.23MHz frequency. Dual channel
receivers are able to use both frequencies to counteract the effects of ionospheric
refraction.
f. Space Vehicle Transmissions – CA and P(Y) Codes. Space vehicles

transmit two types of codes operationally which GPS receivers use to calculate their
position: CA for all users and P(Y) code for military users.
(1) CA Code. The standard positioning service uses the ‘coarse acquisition
(CA) code which is broadcast on L1 only. CA enables civilian users to calculate
a position, but is primary purpose is actually to allow military receivers to lock
onto the P(Y) code. Under the GPS modernisation programme, CA is due to be
broadcast on L2 as well as L2C.
(2) P(Y) Code. The military only precise positioning service is based on the P
code. P code is much longer that CA code, repeating weekly, which makes it
harder for receivers to lock on to and, importantly, much harder for adversaries
to spoof. To increase the protection of P code, it is in fact broadcast in an
encrypted form known as P(Y) code in the so-called ‘anti-spoofing’ mode; to

receive P(Y) code therefore a military GPS must be used and the correct
crypto must be loaded. P(Y) code is broadcast on both L1 and L2, but
because of the length of the code, non-SAASM receivers are unable to lock on
to it from a cold start; they must either be initialised with an accurate position
and time or use CA code to find the P(Y) code.
Note. In order to achieve the maximum benefit from a military GPS, it must
have the correct crypto loaded. This allows it to use both L1 and L2 and so
benefit from dual-receiver mode. P(Y) code is also much harder to jam.
g. Space Vehicle Transmissions – Modernisation. Under the GPS

modernisation programme known as GPSIII, a number of additional signals are due
to be transmitted. These will provide enhanced capabilities for both civilian and
military users. The modernised signals are currently (early 2016) tied in with the
new GPS ground control system so at the time of writing it is not possible to be
definitive as to when the new signals will go live; some are currently being broadcast
but do not provide any usable navigational information.
(1) L2C. L2C will be a new open signal transmitted on L2, similar to the
existing C/A code on L1. It is intended to allow civilian users to make use of the
benefits of dual-frequency receivers. As of December 2015 L2C was still
considered ‘pre-operational’ by the US Government and so should be used with
caution.
(2) L5. L5 is a signal on an entirely new frequency (1176.45MHz) designed

for safety-of-life applications for civil users, in particular the aviation sector.
Specifically, L5 is designed to meet a US Federal Aviation Administration
requirement for a second signal in the ITU aeronautical band. Aircraft will use
L5 and C/A code on L1 to gain the benefits of ionospheric correction (through
dual-frequency techniques) as well as enhanced robustness. As an open
signal, L5 will be available for anyone to use. As of December 2015 L5 was still
considered pre-operational by the US Government and so should be used with
caution.
(3) L1C. L1C is another open signal designed to improve interoperability with
other GNSS. In the future, it is likely that receivers will be able to used
advanced ‘trilaning’ techniques to make use of L1 C/A (or L1C), L2C and L5 in
order to achieve sub-metre accuracy without the need for augmentation.
(4) M Code. M code will be a new encrypted code for military users,
transmitted on L1 and L2. M code is designed to be just as secure as P(Y)
code, but with enhanced spectral characteristics to improve resilience against
jamming and the ability to be transmitted directionally in a ‘spot beam’ targeted
against specific geographical areas. M code is designed to be autonomous i.e.
receivers will be able to lock on directly without having to go through C/A first.
M Code will required to new control system to be operational, as well as
correctly outfitted satellites which were beginning to be launched as of early
2016.
h. Known Gaps in GPS Coverage. Despite the worldwide nature of GPS, some

localised gaps in coverage exist, due either to the local geography or to poor
geometry of satellites in view. See NP100 for the most up-to-date list.
0318. System Design

GPS consists of three component segments, illustrated in Fig 3-3 below.
a. Space Segment. The GPS space segment consists of the various space
vehicles in orbit, including the on-orbit spares and recently decommissioned vehicles
which can be put back into service in an emergency. Each space vehicle carries
atomic clocks, and an array of aerials for the various uplinks/downlinks and
navigation messages. Additionally, each GPS space vehicle carries a nuclear
detection subsystem for the detection of nuclear detonations.
b. Control Segment. The GPS control segment consists of a master control

station (MCS), six monitor stations, and a number of ground antennae. As the name
suggests the control segment is used to monitor and control the system.
c. User Segment. The user segment consists of any and all receivers fitted to
ships, submarines, aircraft, cars, tanks, smartphones or watches which enable the
processing of GPS data to derive position or time.
Fig 3-3. GPS Design – The Three Segments
0319. GPS Operation
a. GPS Control Segment. The GPS control segment consists of a number of

ground installations which support the operation of the system. The master control
station is located at Schriever AFB in Colorado, and it is supported by monitor
stations located at Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein, Hawaii, Colorado
Springs and Cape Canaveral. The control station also has access to an alternate
MCS, the US Air Force satellite control network (AFSCN) ground antenna and
National Geographic Agency monitoring stations, ensuring there is a resilient, global
control and monitoring network. The monitor stations track all satellites that are
more than 5° above the horizon and calculate accurate ranging data on them. This

data is then used by the MCS to calculate satellite ephemerides, clock drifts and
propagation delays; this information is then uplinked to the satellites by the MCS at
least three times a day so that the navigation messages broadcast by the satellites
to the user segment are accurate.
b. Space and User Segments Messages. The space and user segments exploit
the highly accurate time keeping abilities of atomic clocks to allow the receivers to
calculate a position on the Earth’s surface by generating ranges from the satellites in
view. The detailed description of the system given below is for the unmodernised
GPS; GPSIII introduces new signals and codes but their functional operation is
broadly similar.
(1) Downlink Data – L1 and L2. The satellites broadcast the downlink data to
the user segment using two frequencies: L1 and L2. L1 (1575.42MHz) is the
primary navigation frequency, whereas L2 (1227.60MHz) is made available
primarily for the use of duel-frequency techniques to correct for ionospheric
distortions. Data on the satellite ephemerides and clock corrections is also
included.
(2) Phase Modulation of L1 and L2. Two ‘pseudorandom’ codes are used to
modulate the L1 and L2 frequencies. These consist of a precise code (P code)
and coarse acquisition (C/A) code. These codes have two functions: firstly, they
identify the particular space vehicle as each one has its own unique code, and
secondly they are used for ranging. The navigation signal transit time from the
satellite to the receiver is turned into a pseudo range by measuring the code
phase shift required to match the signal with receiver generated codes derived
from the receiver clock. P code is made more secure by being encrypted, so
what is actually received is the P(Y) code. L1 is modulated by both P(Y) and
C/A codes, whereas L2 is modulated by P(Y) code only.
(3) Acquisition of C/A Code. The C/A code is a 1.023 MHz pseudo random
noise (PRN) sequence which is broadcast on L1. The C/A code is itself
modulated by the navigation message (see below) at 50 Hz, which means that
the C/A code conveys both ranging information and system data vital for the
receiver to function correctly. Each C/A code sequence is unique, the PRN
used by the satellite allowing the receiver to identify which satellite is
broadcasting each signal it receives. The C/A code is short, repeating every
millisecond, which makes it easy for a receiver to lock on to the code sequence
and start the fixing process.
(4) Acquisition of P(Y) Code. P(Y) code is a 10.23 MHz PRN sequence, so
although it is transmitted at a much higher rate than C/A code, because it is
much longer than C/A code it only repeats once every seven days (the complete
code is 267 days long but each satellite only broadcasts a portion of the code).
Strictly, what happens is that each satellite generates a section of the P code
which is then encrypted by another (‘W’ code) to create P(Y) code. Because of
the length of the P(Y) code, it is not possible for a receiver to lock on directly
without either the assistance of C/A code or being very precisely initialised with
an accurate position (± 2-4nm) and clock time. Some commercial civilian
receivers can exploit the fact that W code is applied to P code at a different rate
to use so-called ‘semi-codeless’ techniques to use P(Y) code to improve

position accuracy without the necessary crypto. Modern GPS equipment, fitted
with a SAASM and loaded with the correct crypto may be able to acquire P(Y)
code directly (‘direct’ or ‘autonomous’ acquisition’). In any case it is impossible
to use P(Y) code without the correct crypto being loaded.
Note. A military GPS without the correct crypto fill is little better than an off-
the-shelf civilian GPS. All RN users of military GPS receivers MUST ensure
that the correct crypto is loaded at all times.
(5) Acquisition of M Code. Whilst sharing many of the same code properties
with P(Y) code, M code is designed for autonomous (direct) acquisition by
military receivers as it is expressly designed for use in environments in which
access to C/A code is denied or degraded. Again, M code will require the use of
a SAASM-enabled receiver with the correct crypto.
c. Satellite Navigation Message. The satellite navigation message is the

message that is used to modulate the PRN codes generated by the satellites, and it
conveys all the additional information needed by a receiver to use the timing
information to generate an accurate position. The navigation message, which is
transmitted continuously by all satellites, is contained in a 30 second (1500 bit) data
frame which consists of 5 (300 bit) sub frames which last six seconds each. The
final two subframes actually consist of 25 pages of data each, which are transmitted
sequentially over successive messages, so that to receive the complete message
will take at least 12.5 minutes. Subframes 1-3 contain a single page of data which is
rebroadcast every message. Each subframe begins with a telemetry word and the
handover word (HOW) required to transfer lock from C/A code to P(Y) code; the
HOW is therefore repeated every six seconds. The GPS control segment generates
most (although not all) of the information required for the navigation message, and
uplinks it to each of the satellites periodically throughout the day.
(1) Block I Data. Block 1 data is contained in the first subframe and includes
data on satellite clock and group delay errors, satellite health and expected user
range accuracy. This data is updated every 30 minutes and repeated with every
message i.e. every 30 seconds.
(2) Block II Data. Block 2 data is contained in subframes 2 and 3, and

consists of the ephemeris data for the individual space vehicle sending the
message. This data is updated every 30 minutes and repeated with every
message i.e. every 30 seconds.
(3) Block III Data. The final block of data is contained in subframes 4 and 5,
and consists of almanac data for every space vehicle, including the spares,
satellite health data, details of ionospheric and UTC corrections, and
constellation configuration data. Because of the large amount of data to be
transmitted, each of these subframes consists of 25 pages of data, which are
transmitted sequentially with each navigation message, such that it takes 12.5
minutes to transmit all of the data contained in Block III. It is the length of time
taken to receive the complete satellite almanac that dictates such long ‘time to
first fix’ for a GPS receiver switched on from cold and not initialised with an
accurate position and UTC time; in the worst case a receiver may need to wait
for two complete transmission cycles to download all the necessary almanac

data.
0320. Securing the Military Advantage – Selective Availability and Anti-Spoofing
a. Selective Availability. When the GPS project was first conceived, it was felt
necessary to ensure that the US (and its allies) would maintain a military advantage
through the privileged access to high accuracy positional information. This was
achieved through the use of ‘selective availability’ (SA). SA was a time-varying error
deliberately introduced into the C/A code that would cause the user’s reported
position to vary erratically and unpredictably up to ±100m from its true position (both
horizontally and vertically). Military users, with the correct crypto, were unaffected
and thus would have access to the system’s true accuracy. Due to the way SA
worked, although the ‘dither’ was unpredictable, it affected all users in the same
area equally, and so it was possible to use fixed monitor stations with known
positions to determine what the SA-induced error was at any given point in time.
The necessary corrections to give the true position could thus be determined with
ease, and broadcast to all users in the area; this was the origin of differential GPS
(DGPS) which rapidly allowed civilian users to get better accuracy using SA-affected
signals than military users using P code. Moreover, during the first Gulf War so
many US military users were using civilian GPS devices that SA was in fact turned
off for the duration of hostilities. Ultimately, SA was turned off in 2000 by order of
President Clinton and will never be turned on again (Block III satellites will not have
the capability to apply SA) as the US judges that it no longer has any military
advantage.
b. Anti-Spoofing. Now that SA is defunct, anti-spoofing is the primary protection

for GPS. Anti-spoofing is the name given to the technique of encrypting the P code
to give P(Y) code so that only authorised users can access both L1 and L2 and gain
the benefit of the most accurate, secure use of GPS. Turning off anti-spoofing
would not make much difference to most GPS users, but would benefit some such
as surveyors or scientists who need very high precision readings; turning off anti-
spoofing would however make military GPS receivers vulnerable to spoofing attacks.
Anti-spoofing will therefore remain in use for the forseeable future.
c. SAASM. The hardware mechanism for protecting GPS is the ‘selective

availability and anti-spoofing module’ (SAASM) which is an integral part of all
modern military GPS receivers. The SAASM is a classified processor chip in a
tamper-proof coating, produced only by authorised contractors in the US, which
carries out all decryption and signal processing tasks for the GPS receiver. All
military GPS receivers deployed after September 2006 have been required to use
SAASM; SAASMs can thus be found in Navfix, DAGR, and other military GPS
receivers used in the Naval Service. SAASM can accept black and red crypto, and
they are capable of crypto OTAD, satellite authentication and contingency recovery,
although not all these features are currently enabled. In and of themselves SAASMs
do not provide any increased anti-jam capabilities, but the higher data rate of the

P(Y) code means that a higher processing gain can be achieved which will enhance
tracking performance in a jamming environment.
0321. GPS System Time, UTC, Satellite Clock Error and Satellite Clock Frequency
GPS as a system is inherently reliant on accurate time. As the signals from the
satellites travel at the speed of light, one metre of range error can be caused by a
3.3nanosecond time error (3.3 x 10-9 seconds). Timing requirements throughout GPS are
governed by GPS system time, which is maintained by the MCS using caesium and rubidium
fountain atomic clocks which are accurate to within two nanoseconds over 12 hours.
Onboard, timing is maintained by the satellites’ atomic clocks with a similar accuracy,
corrected by reference to the MCS time.
a. GPS System Time vs UTC. GPS system time (GPST) differs from UTC as,
unlike UTC, GPST does not have leap seconds applied to account for the gradual
slowing of the rotation of the Earth. This means that a correction, of an integer
number of leap seconds, must be applied to GPST to give UTC. The GPST to UTC
correction is contained within the navigation message data and is usually applied
automatically by a GPS receiver, so that it will show UTC. Determination of GPST is
complicated, as it relies on a ‘composite clock’ determined by a number of clocks at
the US Naval Observatory and the GPS control station in Arizona.
b. Satellite Clock Error. Although the atomic clocks on the satellites are
engineered to very high tolerances to have extremely high accuracy, the clocks will
drift from GPST due to small but measurable inaccuracies in the mechanism of the
clock itself. Additionally, as the clocks are mounted onboard satellites which are
orbiting the Earth much faster than the Earth is rotating, relativistic effects come into
play and so the atomic clocks onboard run fractionally, but noticeably, slower than
an equivalent clock on the surface of the Earth. The GPS navigation message
includes the necessary corrections for clock drift and relativistic effects, as
determined by the ground monitoring stations.
c. Satellite Clock Frequency. The satellite clocks are used to drive a frequency
standard onboard at 10.23MHz, slightly adjusted to take account of the effects of
relativity. All other frequencies used onboard are derived from this basic frequency.
0322. GPS Pseudo Ranging

The principle on which GPS operates is that, due to the constant velocity of a radio
signal, if the time a signal is sent is known, and the time that the signal is received is known,
to a given degree of accuracy, then it is possible to establish the range between the
transmitter and receiver. If this is done enough times, with a sufficient angle of cut, then a
position fix can be established just as with radar ranges, vertical sextant angles, etc.
Technically, the ranges calculated by a GPS receiver are known as pseudo ranges, as the
calculated ranges will not be the true geometric range to the space vehicles due to errors in
the process. As all measurements are taken simultaneously, however, the errors will be the
same

a. Pseudorange Accuracy. Positions obtained by GPS will be affected by several
error sources which will affect the accuracy of the pseudorange, as explained at
Para 0314. They can vary in magnitude, and not all are predictable; however, as
measurements are taken simultaneously they can be established and accounted for
to give an accurate fix. All measurable errors are monitored by the MCS (and
predictions generated where relevant) and uplinked to the satellites for inclusion in
the navigation message.
b. Calculating a Pseudorange. Utilising the ephemeris and almanac data

included in the navigation message, the receiver will calculate the best space
vehicles in view. Ranges from the selected satellites will be determined by
calculating the propagation time of the signals from each satellite. The quartz
oscillator in the receiver, however, although it is reset to GPST as frequently as
possible, is inaccurate compared to the atomic clocks on the space vehicles and so
the determined range to each satellite will not, in fact, be the true geometric range.
In order to obtain a two-dimensional fix, the GPS receiver must obtain a minimum of
three pseudoranges so that the processor can mathematically remove the effects of
receiver clock offset error, satellite clock offset error, GPST error, and atmospheric
propagation and processing delays. By extension, a minimum of four pseudoranges
are required to give a three-dimensional fix.
c. Conversion of Pseudorange to True Range. Pseudorange, and hence the

conversion to true range, can be determined mathematically as in the equation
below.
PR = R + c∆ t a + c( ∆ tU − ∆ t S )
Where:
PR = Pseudorange
R = True geometric range
c = speed of light
ta = Propagation delay and other errors
tU = Receiver clock offset from GPST
tS = Satellite clock offset from GPST
This is illustrated graphically in Fig 3-4 below.
Fig 3-4. Conversion of Pseudorange to True Range for One Satellite

d. Effect of Receiver Clock Error on Pseudorange Fixing. The effect of
receiver clock error on pseudorange fixing is illustrated in Fig 3-5 below. Before the
error is taken account of, the pseudoranges from the three space vehicles do not
meet at a point but will enclose an area which does not in fact include the true
position. The value corresponding to the receiver clock error must be subtracted
from or added to all three pseudoranges in order to determine the receiver’s true
position; done correctly this will causes all three pseudoranges to cross at point P
which will be the receiver’s true position. The same will be true for a 3d fix, with four
satellites being tracked. In practice, the receiver clock error is calculated
continuously by the receiver software’s navigation filter whenever satellite signals
are being received.
Fig 3-5. Correcting Pseudorange for Receiver Clock Error, 2d Fix

0323. Dilution of Precision
The total range error is not the only factor in the accuracy of a fix at a given point in
time (and space). As with any fix by position lines, which is what a GPS fix remains, the
geometry of the fixing points is key. Good geometry, in other words a good angle of cut, will
produce an accurate fix, whereas poor geometry will produce a less accurate fix, which is
why fix accuracy reduces at high latitudes as all satellites are low on the horizon and hence
the receiver cannot establish an optimal geometry. In GPS, the geometry of the fix is
measured by the ‘dilution of precision’ which is a mathematical measurement of the
accuracy of the fix. It is important to understand that dilution of precision (DOP) although
given as a number does not correspond directly to the expected fix error in terms of CEP
(i.e. a DOP of 10 does not correspond to a 10m fix error). Acceptable DOP values will vary
depending on the situation, but a value of greater than 10 indicates that the position should
be treated with extreme caution; more than 20m is effectively not a fix and the GPS output
should be disregarded until the DOP improves. Examples of good and bad DOP are in Fig
3-6 below.
Fig 3-6. Good (Low) and Bad (High) Dilution of Precision

a. Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP). When a fix is obtained in three
dimensions, the position dilution of precision (PDOP) figure, multiplied by the
satellite range error, will give the radial root mean square (RMS) error around the fix.
The lower the value of PDOP, the smaller the three-dimensional RMS error. For RN
purposes, a ‘good’ PDOP will be no more than 4.
PDOP Example: With a range error of 3.6m and PDOP 2, the three-dimensional
radial RMS error around the fix would be 7.2m (2 x 3.6m), giving a 2DMS error value
of 14.4m.
b. Horizontal Dilution of Precision (HDOP). The horizontal dilution of precision

(HDOP), multiplied by the satellite range error, will give the horizontal error in the
receiver’s position. As with PDOP, the lower the figure the smaller will be the radial
RMS error. HDOP is usually just over half PDOP and more consistent for time of
day for latitude.
c. Vertical Dilution of Precision (VDOP). Vertical dilution of precision (VDOP)

multiplied by the satellite range error will given the vertical error in the receiver’s
position.
d. Time Dilution of Precision (TDOP). The time dilution of precision (TDOP)

multiplied by satellite range error will give the range equivalent of the receiver clock
offset.
e. Geometric Dilution of Precision. The value of geometric dilution of precision

(GDOP) is a composite measure, which reflects the influence of space vehicle
geometry on the combined accuracy of the receiver clock offset and the receiver’s
position in three dimensions.
0324. Position Dilution of Precision

The value of PDOP varies inversely with the volume of the special tetrahedron
‘ABCDP’ in Fig 3-7 below, which is formed by the unit vectors from the receiver’s position to
the four satellites. The tetrahedron ‘ABCDP’ has P as the receiver position, and ABCD lie on
the surface of the unit sphere. As the volume of the tetrahedron increases, the value of
PDOP decreases. The maximum tetrahedron volume, and hence the lowest possible value
of PDOP, will occur when one satellite is on the receiver’s zenith and the other three
satellites are each separated by 120° are as low as possible on the horizon (i.e. not within 5°
of the horizon).
Fig 3-7. PDOP and the Volume of the Tetrahedron
0325. Degraded GPS Coverage

The current (2016) ‘expanded 24’ GPS constellation uses 27 satellites to maximise
the geometries available to receivers and improve the coverage, so that GPS users should
be able to achieve accurate (low PDOP) fixes, worldwide, on a continuous basis. Under the
former 24 vehicle constellation, it was theoretically possible to get very small windows (no
more than several minutes in length) in certain latitudes in which the geometry of the
satellites in view caused degraded 3d fixing (PDOP > 6). The limits of the space vehicle
orbits will still mean that the satellites are low on the horizon when at very high latitudes, but
otherwise the expanded constellation should improve coverage to be (to all intents and
purposes) ubiquitous and continuous. Momentary periods of poor space vehicle visibility or
geometry are more likely to be due to physical obstructions such as urban canyons,

mountains or wooding by superstructure than satellite geometry.
SECTION 3 – DIFFERENTIAL GPS AND OTHER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS
0326. GPS Augmentation – the Basics

The original driver behind augmented GPS was the decision by the US DoD to
implement selective availability; a number of civilian firms discovered that, by the use of
appropriate augmentation systems, it was possible to improve GPS performance for SPS
users to an accuracy at least as great as PPS users, if not more. The fundamental principle
underpinning all GPS augmentation technologies is that utilising fixed base stations of
known position, it is possible to establish the errors that GPS receivers in a certain region
will be experiencing, and thus to correct them. In general, augmentation systems can be
either space-based (SBAS), with corrections provided via satellite, or ground-based (GBAS)

with corrections provided via ground stations. Real-time kinematics are a variation on the
theme. It should also be noted that, although the term differential GPS is used, it is possible
to use differential corrections (or other augmentation) to improve any GNSS, and there are
indeed live dGLONASS services, for example. For DGPS to work, the receiver must be in
range of the DGPS station such that corrections are being received, and the DGPS station
and user GPS must be monitoring the same space vehicles.
0327. Differential GPS (DGPS)
a. DGPS Principles. DGPS arose due to the use of SA by the US to degrade

civilian GPS performance. It was realised that, although SA-induced errors were
inherently unpredictable by users, the effect was the same for all GPS receivers in a
given area. If a ground station, whose position could be very accurately determined
by traditional methods, was equipped with a GPS receiver, then the ground station
could instantly determine exactly what the effect of SA was in that area, and indeed,
the cumulative effect of all errors including ionospheric corrections. The DGPS
ground station then merely had to broadcast the necessary corrections to other
users, which could apply them to their own GPS readings and improve their fixes.
This is the basis for many modern DGPS systems, which, in the nautical domain,
typically utilise a chain of ground stations and transmitters which can broadcast the
corrections for up to 1,000km.
b. DGPS Reference Stations. The fixed DGPS ground monitoring stations are
known as ‘reference stations.’ Details can be found in ADRS.
c. Correction Messages. DGPS correction messages will usually use a standard

format known as RTCM SC-104 which is the de facto industry standard. Some
DGPS providers utilise an encrypted signal so that either a proprietary receiver or
commercial crypto device is required to utilise the corrections.
d. Transmission Methods for DGPS Corrections
(1) Space Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS). SBAS utilise

geostationary satellites to broadcast the correction messages, on a global or
wide-area basis.
(2) Ground Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS). GBAS use ground-

based radio stations, generally either VHF or MF to broadcast the corrections, to
achieve coverage of at least 200nm around each reference station. If LORAN
transmitters are used, enhanced range may be achieved although most LORAN
transmitters are now off-air (2016).
e. EUROFIX. EUROFIX was a system that utilised the LORAN data channel to
transmit DGPS corrections (in addition to DLORAN and DChayka corrections). As
of the end of 2015, all European LORAN stations have been shut down, with the
exception of Anthorn which continues to transmit a timing signal only. EUROFIX is
therefore no longer operational (nor is LORAN-C in European waters) and users
requiring differential corrections need to use either EGNOS or transmissions from
shore-based DGPS radiobeacons.
0328. GBAS
IALA radiobeacon DGNSS remains the internationally accepted means of providing
differential GNSS corrections and integrity messages to mariners. Full details of DGSP

radiobeacons can be found in ADRS but a summary of some major systems is provided
below. The development of GBAS DGPS was led by the US Coastguard in the US, and so it
has always been primarily aimed at maritime users although as the systems have expanded,
land-based cover has become available.
a Europe. European DGPS corrections are provided by a network of systems run

by countries or groups of countries. In the UK and Ireland, DGPS corrections are
provided by the General Lighthouse Authorities DGPS network.
b. North America. The USA operates the Nationwide Differential GPS System,
which was developed on the original Maritime Differential GPS which was created
by the US Coastguard to improve safety. NDGPS provides complete coverage of
the continental US including coastal waters and the Great Lakes. The Canadian
DGPS system is primarily intended for maritime use only, with coverage of coastal
waters, the Canadian Great Lakes and the St Lawrence Seaway.
0329. SBAS
Unlike GBAS, SBAS were originally developed with the primary aim of supporting
aviation users, including the timely provision of integrity messages and the ability for aircraft
to rely on GPS for all phases of approach and landing, including in zero visibility. Most
SBAS rely on satellites in geostationary orbit, which means that in high latitudes the
satellites will be very low on the horizon and so for terrestrial users visibility will be a
problem; the same will potentially apply in urban environments and fjords or lochs. These
problems do not apply to aircraft.
a. European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS). EGNOS is

a SBAS developed by various European bodies, to provide correction data for
aviation users in the EUROCONTROL region, although there is no reason why ships
or other maritime users cannot use the system provided they have a suitable
receiver.
b. Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS). WAAS is a US system owned

and operated by the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Although it provides
coverage at sea, it is primarily intended at the aviation community and in fact
originated as a way to rapidly alert aviation users of failures in GPS satellites
(integrity monitoring).
c. MTSAT and QZSS. Japan already operates the Multi-function Satellite

Augmentation System and is constructing the Quasi-Zenith Satellite System which is
planned to enter full service in 2018. Both provide GPS corrections and are aimed
at aviation users and those in Japan’s numerous ‘urban canyons.’
d. GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN). GAGAN is a regional

SBAS operated by India to allow Indian users to achieve horizontal accuracies in the
order of 1.5m. The functional payloads are carried on other GEO satellites owned
and operated by India. Again, as with other SBAS the primary user is the aviation
community, and the system is designed to be interoperable with other systems such
as WAAS and EGNOS.
e. GLONASS System for Differential Correction and Monitoring (SDCM).

GLONASS SDCM is a system for monitoring and correcting GLONASS and GPS
performance and providing corrections, utilising an extensive (although not truly
worldwide) network of monitoring stations and transponder payloads on Luch

geostationary communications satellites. Although SDCM is operating and providing
integrity monitoring, at the time of writing it is not certified as safe for use as a
differential GNSS for aviation users. GPS monitoring ceased in April 2014 following
increased tension between the US and Russia as a result of events in the Ukraine.
0330. Real Time Kinematics (RTK)
a. RTK Theory. Standard GPS receivers work by tracking the code(s) broadcast
by the satellites; the receiver metaphorically slides its internally generated replica of
the code along until it matches the signal received from the satellite. The amount of
‘sliding’ equates to the delay in receiving the signal, which is then used to determine
the pseudorange from the space vehicle (see Para 0322 for a full explanation). The
code is broadcast as a modulation of a carrier frequency; in GPS C/A, the code is
broadcast at 1.23MHz on the L1 carrier which has a frequency of 1575.42MHz. This
means that the carrier signal’s phase changes over a thousand times more
frequently than the code signal’s phase. Due to the fundamental relationship
between wavelength and frequency, the higher frequency of the carrier signal
equates to a much shorter wavelength than for the code signal, meaning that a
much higher resolution can potentially be achieved (the same principle as for radar).
The problem is that the PRN code used to modulate the carrier signal is intentionally
easy to replicate in the receiver, especially in C/A code; it can be thought of as being
easy to recognise, and it is obvious when the next timing pulse starts. The carrier
frequency is theoretically an identical sine wave that the receiver is unable to
replicate; it is therefore much more difficult for the receiver to correlate its internal
signal with the received signal and hence calculate the pseudorange to the satellite.
It is not, however, impossible, and with sufficient processing it can be achieved; the
technique is known as real time kinematics (RTK) or carrier-phase matching.
b. RTK Accuracy. As explained above, basic physics shows that higher

frequencies correspond to shorter wavelengths. Utilising the carrier signal for
tracking rather than the PRN code means that a shorter wavelength becomes
available for ranging; in GPS L1 the wavelength is 19cm. This means that an error
of even one cycle in the phase-matching will lead to a range error of 19cm; clearly
multiple cycles will lead to errors of multiples of 19cm. This is the so-called ‘integer
ambiguity’ problem. Although it is not possible to eliminate this entirely, with the
application of sufficient processing and advanced statistical techniques, RTK
systems are capable of extremely precise fixing and highly accurate relative
navigation. An RTK’s absolute accuracy will be limited by the known position of the
base station (see below), but relative to that base station will be extremely accurate

indeed: better than 2cm accuracy. In practice, this means that RTK has tended to
be used for applications such as surveying, or in agriculture. In agriculture, farmers
are concerned with their position in the field relative to the earlier tramlines or the
gate, rather than the gate’s absolute position in space, and RTK systems are
capable of accurately driving machinery to follow in the wheelmarks of earlier
passes or drive through a farm gate.
c. RTK System Operations. RTK systems work in a similar manner to differential

GPS, in that the system will consist of a base station at a known location and one or
more mobile stations, which must be connected by a data bearer. By tracking the
carrier phase on two frequencies (i.e. L1 and L2) from a known position, the base
station can then rebroadcast the observed carrier phase to the mobile stations. This
allows the mobile stations to resolve the carrier ambiguity and fix their position to
within 2cm relative to the base station. The connection to the base station must be
continuous and high speed, which limits RTK operations to either about 20nm from a
base station, or to areas covered by an RTK network. Generally, connections are
either via mobile phone networks (GSM) or by UHF radio-modem. Base stations
can be permanent, temporary (or portable) or ‘virtual’ in which the correction data is
generated by a central server and distributed via data messaging to the mobile unit
as part of an RTK network. In almost every case users will require a licence or
subscription to access RTK services, supplied at a cost by the provider.
d. Maritime Applications of RTK. The limited area that an RTK station can
cover, and the requirement for constant high data rate communications, necessarily
limits the application of RTK techniques in the maritime environment. However, they
can be of use in areas of confined waters such as port entry or docking where high
precision is required, and RTK systems are beginning to be installed in ports and
harbours for use by pilots with portable pilot units. The Admiralty Pilots in
Portsmouth Naval Base have access to PPUs served by an RTK base station, and
PPUs with RTK were vital in the undocking of HMS QUEEN ELIZABETH for the first
time. It is likely that RTK services will be supplied at more ports in the future. RTK
systems also have applicability to hydrographic surveying, and potentially in inshore
MCM operations as well. RTK devices have also been used in offshore engineering,
such as oil rig positioning, towing and salvage.
SECTION 4 – OTHER GNSS
0331. Galileo
Galileo is an in-construction GNSS that will be operated by the EU to provide a
system with comparable reach and accuracy to GPS. The system was originally conceived
in the 1990s as a way of providing resilience against deliberate or inadvertent loss of GPS
service from the US, although the decision to permanently disable SA may have lessened
the strength of the arguments slightly. Unlike GPS or GLONASS, Galileo is a fundamentally
civilian service and hence will provide the highest accuracies to both civil and military users.
Galileo works on the same fundamental principles as GPS, with a receiver’s position being
calculated based on time differences in signals received from the satellites, but there are

some important differences in the system architecture. The description of Galileo below
assumes the reader has read Section 2 on basic GNSS theory and also Section 3 on
NAVSTAR GPS and so much of the amplifying detail is omitted; this Section concentrates on
the differences between Galileo and GPS.
0332. System Configuration

As with GPS, the system consists of three fundamental components: the ground
segment, the space segment and the user segment.
a. Ground Segment. Ultimately, Galileo will have two Ground Control Segments,
one located in Fucino, Italy and one in Oberpfaffenhofen in Germany, which will
have entirely equivalent capabilities and facilities. Both will run concurrently, with
one as the ‘master’ and one as a hot backup ready to take full control immediately if
required. Both will be equipped with extremely accurate atomic clocks to determine
Galileo system time (GST, see below), as well as the necessary software and
equipment to control the satellites. In addition, two telemetry, tracking and
command stations are located in Kiruna, Sweden and Kourou in French Guiana,
which work with a global network of uplink and sensor stations to monitor the
satellites and uplink data to them.
b. Space Segment. The complete Galileo space segment will consist of 30

satellites, in nearly circular Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) at an altitude of 23,222
kilometres. Ten satellites will occupy each of three orbital planes, with an angle of
inclination of 56° to the equator. In each orbital plane, eight of the satellites will be
operational with a further two on-orbit spares, for a total of 24 operational satellites
and six spares. Although the constellation is different in design to GPS, it is
designed to give a greater than 90% probability that, anywhere in the world, at least
four satellites will be in view and thus allow a 3d fix. The slightly higher angle of
inclination (56° vs 55°) will give improved coverage at higher latitudes relative to
GPS, although still less than a fully operational GLONASS.
c. User Segment. The Galileo user segment will consist of receivers capable of
receiving the various signals. They will vary between those capable of receiving the
open signal only, those capable of receiving the commercial signal, and those
capable of receiving the public regulated service (PRS) – see below for a detailed
description of the various signal types and architectures.
0333. Galileo Services

Whereas by design GPS only offers two services (SPS and PPS), Galileo is
designed to offer several discrete services, although not all may be operational in the early
life of the constellation.
a. Open Service. The Open Service (OS) will be freely available to all users with
a suitably capable receiver, and is directly analogous to GPS SPS, although with a
two frequency capability. OS should prove ±1m accuracy in normal conditions.
b. Commercial Service. The Commercial Service (CS) will potentially provide

centimetre-level accuracy, and is aimed at commercial, scientific and other users

who require the very highest level of precision in their GNSS applications. The CS
signals will be encrypted, and it is anticipated that access will be through licence
payments, either up-front when purchasing a receiver or through monthly (or annual)
subscription. Ultimately, it is envisaged that the CS will be provided by other service
providers who will make their own decisions on what additional services to offer
such as differential or RTK corrections, and the final performance seen by CS users
will depend on the final shape of the overall system. Whether sufficient private
sector interest will arise to make the CS viable remains to be seen.
c. Public Regulated Service. The Public Regulated Service (PRS) is the most
secure and robust service offered by Galileo, and will be available to government-
authorised users only. Primarily, Galileo PRS is aimed at public sector users such
as first responders, coastguards, customs and so on. PRS is an encrypted dual
frequency service, designed to incorporate anti-spoof and anti-jam technology. PRS
should retained its ± 6.5m accuracy even in heavily degraded conditions. EU
member states will control access to the Galileo PRS. The UK will have access to
PRS.
d. Safety of Life Service. The safety of life (SoL) service is intended to

automatically alert users to satellite failures or other problems affecting safe
navigation. SoL is already implemented in the EGNOS (see Para 0329 sub para a),
and the design intent is that Galileo SoL should feed in to more general integrity
monitoring services.
e. Search and Rescue Service. Galileo satellites are equipped with a SAR
payload that allows them to form part of the global COSPAS/SARSAT system.
Galileo satellites are equipped to receive signals from EPIRBs/ELTs, and should
provide near real-time reception of distress messages (against a current average
waiting time of one hour). The SAR service should also allow for increased
accuracy in alert location; if the transmitting EPIRB/ELT is itself equipped with a
Galileo receiver then accuracy should be as good as fix accuracy. Galileo SAR will
also provide a ‘return link service’ (RLS) capability to downlink a message to the
transmitting EPIRB/ELT, informing the casualty that their alert has been received.
This should also reduce the number of false alerts being received as inadvertent
activations should be readily detectable, although it will rely on the facility being
enabled on the satellites and a RLS capable EPIRB being used.
0334. Galileo Interoperability with GPS

As Galileo was essentially conceived as a direct alternative or competitor to GPS,
for civilian use, the signals transmitted by Galileo satellites were not originally designed to be
compatible with GPS transmissions. In particular, it would have been very difficult to jam
Galileo transmissions without also interfering with GPS transmissions (this was not, perhaps,
accidental). Indeed, the development of Galileo brought about significant tensions between
the US and EU, due to US fears that Galileo would give potential adversaries access to
another high-precision GNSS outside of US control. Nevertheless, the tensions were
resolved in a bilateral agreement in 2004, with Galileo using a technique called ‘multiplex
binary offset code’ to ensure that Galileo and GPS signals could be broadcast on the same
frequency without causing interference. In addition, Galileo uses a reference frame which,

although different to WGS84, is expected not to differ from WGS84 by more than ±3cm in
most cases. Galileo is thus designed to be directly interoperable with GPS, although
modern developments in chip decision and processing power have probably rendered the
interoperability problem trivial (see Para 0351).
0335. Galileo Space Vehicles

The first two satellites, GIOVE-A and GIOVE-B launched were ‘in orbit validation’
craft used to evaluate and prove the mission-critical technologies required for Galileo.
These were followed by pairs of FOC space vehicles which will form part of the operational
constellation. Each satellite is equipped with an L-band antenna for transmitting the
navigational messages, a C-band antenna for receiving uplinks from ground stations, and an
S-band antenna for transmitting downlink information back to the ground. Also onboard is a
search and rescue antenna for the SAR function. Each satellite carries four atomic clocks,
two passive hydrogen masers as the master clock and backup, as well as two rubidium
clocks as additional redundancy. The passive hydrogen masers are designed to be
accurate to within 0.45 nanoseconds after 12 hours, where as the rubidium clocks are
‘merely’ accurate to 1.8 nanoseconds after the same period. The frequency output from
both the master and active backup are kept in phase so that the active backup can take over
immediately in the event of a failure of the master clock.
0336. Galileo Transmissions

Unlike GPS, Galileo was designed from the outset to give civilian users access to
dual-frequency operation to improve the accuracy of fixing (by allowing for ionospheric
corrections, see Para 0314 sub para b), as well as a safety of life service. Galileo therefore
uses three channels, as does modernised GPS; Galileo transmits in the L band although to
distinguish it from GPS, its channels are known as E1, E5 and E6 (whereas GLONASS
transmissions are known as G1, G2 and G3). All transmissions use binary offsetting
techniques to prevent them from interfering with other GNSS signals in the same band
(where they exist).
a. E1. Galileo’s E1 is centred on 1575.420MHz, the same as GPS L1, although E1

has a slightly wider bandwidth. E1 is used for the OS and PRS signals, as well as
for the SoL service.
b. E5. E5 is split into two sub-bands, E5a and E5b, E5a being centred on
1176.45MHz i.e the same as GPS L5. E5b is centred on 1207.140MHz and so
overlaps the third GLONASS signal rather than another GPS signal. Although
referred to as two sub-bands, E5 can be thought of as one signal which carries the
OS and CS signals as well as the SoL service. There is no PRS code on E5.
c. E6. E6 is an entirely distinct frequency, centred on 1278.75MHz which does not

overlap with any other GNSS signals. E6 is used by Galileo for the PRS signal, and
is also earmarked for the CS if the service ever commences.
0337. Galileo Navigation Message Structure

As with GPS, the Galileo ranging transmissions, whether encrypted (PRS or CS) or
not (OS) are modulated by a navigation message, although Galileo uses a variety of
message structures commensurate with the extra services Galileo offers as compared to
GPS.
a. Freely Accessible Navigation Message (F/NAV). The freely accessible

navigation message (F/NAV in Galileo terminology) is broadcast on the OS (on E5)
and, as the name suggests, is freely available. F/NAV consists of a number of
frames, each frame consisting of a number of pages. Although the structure is
therefore slightly different from the GPS navigation message, the end result is
essentially the same: some data is retransmitted every message, but to
receive/download a fully copy of the almanac from ‘scratch’ will take at least ten
minutes (one complete frame consists of twelve 50-second long sub-frames).
b. Commercial Navigation Message (C/NAV). The commercial navigation

message (C/NAV) will be transmitted on E6, for users who have bought into a
commercial high precision navigation service. The C/NAV message structure is not
defined, although the intent is that the C/NAV message will be used for
supplementary data rather than for positioning/timing data. As such, any companies
wishing to offer such a service will need to define a C/NAV message within the
constraints of the Galileo service.
c. Integrity Message (I/NAV). The integrity message (I/NAV) forms part of the
OS, CS and SoL service, and will be broadcast on E1 and E5. The messages on
each frequency are effectively the same, although some data is transmitted in a
different order on the two frequencies allowing a dual-frequency user to receive the
complete message more quickly. I/NAV messages consist of 12-minute long
frames, which themselves consist of 24 sub-frames of 30 seconds each. I/NAV
messages convey timing information, hence can be used for ranging but they do not
include any ephemeris or other navigation data. Primarily I/NAV messages are
intended to provide safety-critical information on satellite and service status, and
they will also be used in due course to provide the return link data to EPIRBs/ELTs
as part of the Galileo SAR service.
d. Governmental Message (G/NAV). The so-called governmental message is

used to provide the Galileo PRS and is transmitted on E1 and E6 at 50bps; the
higher data rate should provide improved processing gain and hence improved
reception in a jamming environment. The G/NAV message provides both full
navigation data (including ephemerides and almanac data) as well as integrity data;
PRS therefore stands alone without the need to use OS to ‘lock on’ as with GPS.
0338. GLONASS
GLONASS (globalnaya navigatsionnaya sputnikova sistema) is the GNSS originally
developed by the Soviet Union and now operated by Russia, designed to provide coverage
and accuracy comparable to that of GPS.
0339. GLONASS History and Current Status
a. Inception to the Collapse of the USSR. GLONASS appears to have been

conceived more or less coincidentally with GPS, with development commencing in a
truly global GNSS in the mid-1970s. The first space vehicle was launched in 1982,
with launches continuing until the collapse of the USSR in 1991. Although system

testing and development continued throughout the 1980s, by 1991 there were only
12 operational satellites in two orbital planes, which was insufficient to provide total
coverage of Russia, let alone the world. Nevertheless, in 1993 the system, with a 12
satellite constellation was declared operational, and in 1995, with 24 spacecraft in
orbit, the system was claimed to be fully operational.
b. Financial Crisis. The early design of GLONASS spacecraft only had a three
year service life, and thus a steady state drumbeat of two launches per year would
have been required to keep the constellation fully operational. In the constrained
financial circumstances in which Russia found itself after the break-up of the USSR,
this was simply not possible, and GLONASS funding was cut by as much as 80%.
Thus, although the full constellation was complete by 1995, no replenishment
launches were made until 1999, with the result that by 2001 there were merely six
operational space vehicles.
c. Reconstruction. With improving finances, the GLONASS programme was

transferred from the Russian Ministry of Defence to the civil spaceflight agency and
the programme of development and replenishment launches restarted. A new
space vehicle with an enhanced life of seven years was first launched in 2003, with
launches continuing throughout the first two decades of the 21st century. In October
2011, a full 24 space vehicle constellation was achieved for the first time since 1996
making GLONASS once again fully operational.
d. Current Status. As of February 2016, the system was essentially fully

operational with 23 operational space craft in orbit, and one undergoing
commissioning in orbit. A further two test-bed prototypes were in orbit undergoing
flight testing and evaluation. Strictly, 24 satellites are required for complete
coverage but the reductions in coverage are small and unlikely to have an impact on
operational users.
0340. GLONASS System Operation
a. Space Segment. The GLONASS space segment consists of 24 spacecraft in

three orbital planes of eight evenly spaced satellites, inclined at 64.8° to the equator.
This constellation design offers global coverage (18 satellites are required to cover
Russia) and, because of the high inclination of the orbits, GLONASS offers improved
performance at high latitudes relative to GPS. Originally it was intended that
GLONASS would utilise 7 satellites in each plane with 1 additional spare, for a total
of 21 operational satellites and three spare, but as of 2016 all satellites in orbit were
operational. Spare flight-ready satellites are held on the ground for launch when
required.
b. Ground Segment. The GLONASS ground segment consists of a master

control and timing centre and a number of telemetry and tracking stations. All are
located within former Soviet Union territory, with the exception of some installations
located in Brazil and some in Antarctica. More stations are likely to be added in the
future.
c. User Segment. GLONASS receivers are fundamentally the same as GPS or

Galileo receivers and they are used in the same way. In practice however, there are
very few GLONASS-only receivers and most will be combined GPS and GLONASS
or truly multi-GNSS receivers. Receiver chipsets which are capable of receiving
both GPS and GLONASS are found in many modern smartphones, and even if the

display indicates that ‘GPS’ is being used, in point of fact it is likely to be some
combination of the two.
0341. GLONASS Accuracy

In its original condition, GLONASS accuracy was somewhat worse than GPS,
although following the effective reset of the programme in the early 2000s, one of the
declared aims was to bring effective GLONASS accuracy to a level that broadly matched
GPS by 2011. In many conditions, the greatest accuracy can be achieved by using a
receiver capable of fixing off GLONASS and GPS satellites. Published GLONASS
performance standards or specifications have not yet been made available.
0342. GLONASS Transmissions

Although GLONASS works in exactly the same way as GPS in that fixes are derived
from pseudoranges calculated to the satellites, some of the technological solutions are
different. For example, the legacy frequencies used by GLONASS utilise frequency division
multiple access (FDMA) techniques rather than the code division multiple access (CDMA)
techniques used by every other GNSS. This means that each satellite is distinguished by
the frequency of its transmissions, rather than PRN codes; satellites on opposite sides of the
Earth utilise the same frequency to conserve spectrum. GLONASS uses a number of
frequencies to achieve ionospheric corrections, as well as the provision of civilian and
military signals (although the status of the military signal is unclear). Modernised
GLONASS-K satellites, when operational, will broadcast new CDMA signals on additional
frequencies with the aim of improving accuracy and resilience.
0343. BeiDou-2
Beidou-2 (formerly known as COMPASS) is a Chinese state-owned GNSS which
builds upon earlier development carried out by China in the form of BeiDou-1. BeiDou-1,
which is still operational, provides a regional service to China, whereas BeiDou-2 is intended
to be a true GNSS with coverage and accuracy comparable to GPS. BeiDou-2 achieve a
limited operating capability in 2012, and is planned to achieve full capability in 2020 when
the full constellation is achieved.
0344. BeiDou-2 Satellite Constellation

BediDou-2 will use a complicated constellation that will include five geostationary
satellites for backwards compatibility with BeiDou-1, 27 in MEO and three in inclined
geosynchronous orbits. This constellation architecture is required in order to allow BeiDou
to deliver PNT services as well as other integral services such as corrections and a text
messaging service.
0345. BeiDou-2 Services
a. Open Service. This is directly comparable to the Galileo open service or the
GPS SPS in that it will be freely available, worldwide, to any user with a suitably
capable receiver. The open service should be capable of 10m accuracy worldwide,
and this is likely to be substantially improved (in the order of 1m accuracy) when in
receipt of corrections from ground stations or the SBAS elements of the complete
BeiDou-2 system. Unlike GLONASS, a BeiDou performance standard for the open
service (i.e. civilian users) has been published and is readily available for
developers.

b. Authorised Service. The authorised service is directly comparable to the
Galileo PRS and GPS PPS in that it will be protected, and only available to
authorised users such as the Chinese armed forces. The authorised service
appears likely to have been designed to provide a resilient service in the event of
jamming or other degraded EM environments.
c. Short Message Service. BeiDou-2 will provide a text messaging service

(sometimes called the positioning report service) which is primarily aimed at users in
remote areas. Although currently limited to a maximum of 120 Chinese characters,
it is to be expected that the functionality of this service will be expanded in due
course.
0346. BeiDou-2 Status

At the time of writing, a total of 13 BeiDou satellites were operational in Earth orbit,
all of the BeiDou-2 configuration. A further four so-called BeiDou-3 in-orbit validation
satellites, designed to support expansion of the constellation with target date for full
operational capability of 2020, are also in orbit.
0347. Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System

The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) is an indigenously
developed system which, unlike Galileo, GLONASS or BeiDoud-2, is only intended to
provide accurate PNT services over a region. Specifically, IRNSS will provide accurate PNT
services across India and a region up to 1500km around it. Development began in the mid-
2000s, with the first spacecraft being launched in 2013; constellation completion was
programmed for the end of 2016, although it may take longer for full operation to be declared
as a validation and testing campaign will undoubtedly be required.
0348. IRNSS Satellite Constellation

Because the IRNSS is only required to service a defined geographical area, a
‘traditional’ GNSS constellation would be inefficient and many satellites would be needed to
ensure coverage across India. A novel constellation design has therefore been utilised,
consisting of three satellites in geostationary orbit above the Equator over India, and four
satellites in inclined geosynchronous orbits. The geosynchronous satellites trace out a large
analemma above India, the net result being that all seven satellites will be visible from India
at all times. Two spare, flight ready satellites are held in a secure ground facility in order to
‘launch on demand’ in the event of a failure; there are no on-orbit spares.
0349. IRNSS Performance

IRNSS will offer two services, an open standard positioning service (SPS) and a
secure Restricted Service (RS). Both will be broadcast on L5 and on an S-band frequency
by phased array aerials onboard the spacecraft. Accuracy for SPS should be comparable to
GPS over India, but may be slightly worse in the Indian Ocean and on the edges of
coverage. RS will be designed to offer improved accuracy but also resilience to authorised
users. A grid system is used to broadcast ionospheric corrections for users with single-
frequency receivers, although dual-frequency operations should be possible for all users as
both navigation broadcasts are transmitted on two frequencies.
0350. IRNSS Operations with GAGAN

It is unclear what, if any, consideration has been given to augmenting IRNSS fixes
with data from GAGAN (see Para 0329 sub para d). Assuming there are no insurmountable
technical difficulties, it is to be expected that GAGAN corrections will be available to IRNSS
in due course (even if on civilian receivers) for a form of differential IRNSS.
0351. The Future of GNSS

For many years, GPS was the only truly operational GNSS, to the extent that GPS
has become synonymous with GNSS. With the reinvigoration of some older systems and
the construction of new ones, the amount of PNT data being broadcast from space has
increased dramatically in the first two decades of the 21st century. In the immediate future,
the clear direction of travel is for multi-GNSS receivers with receiver autonomous integrity
monitoring (RAIM) which will monitor all GNSS space vehicles in view, giving the receiver
the ability to pick the best geometry of any satellites for fixing, but also to run multiple
solutions to best identify failures or errors in one or more of the systems. In the longer term,
receiver processing power and techniques will continue to increase such that it is not
impossible that specialist surveying techniques, such as carrier-phase ambiguity resolution,
may become possible in operational receivers to allow centimetre or even millimetre fixing.
Ultimately, however, the two key vulnerabilities of GNSS (jamming and spoofing) will remain,
although using multi-GNSS receivers means an adversary must jam all of them, and the
laws of physics mean that GNSS will never work underwater, inside or underground. The
ultimate future navigation system will probably therefore involve, in addition to multi-GNSS
receivers with RAIM, esoteric technology such as molecular-scale accelerometers and gyros
in the form of highly accurate, low space, weight and power inertial navigation platforms.
ANNEX 3A
NAVFIX
1. General Description
NAVFIX is a military GPS receiver, installed throughout the Fleet as the replacement for
Outfit QYF, and designed to deliver accurate position, velocity and timing data to legacy and
future systems. The system consists of a single receiver processor unit, which fits in the
same footprint as the legacy QYF system, which includes a military GPS receiver module
(SAASM – see Para 0320) which is connected to various ancillaries via an Ethernet interface
module. Interaction with NAVFIX is via a computer-based interface. Full details of the

NAVFIX system are available in BR 7987 (system handbook).
2. System Capabilities
The major capabilities of NAVFIX are summarised below.
a. Military GPS. NAVFIX contains an internal military GPS receiver card, with
embedded SAASM (see Para 0320), so that when connected to the correct aerial and
with the correct crypto loaded, it is capable of receving both CA and P(Y) signals in a
jammed or degraded environment. The receiver is a 12 channel unit, capable of true ‘all
in view’ position determination. The SASM locates all the classified data and
processing in one single tamper-proof module, in addition to providing the jamming and
spoofing protection.
b. CRPA Antenna. Although NAVFIX is usually driven by the ship’s standard active
GPS antenna, the system is capable of being connected to a controlled reception
pattern antenna (CRPA) for increased performance in degraded environments.
c. Battery Backup. NAVFIX contains an internal battery for operation in the event of
loss of electrical supplies (115V AC 60Hz from ship’s supply). This battery is capable of
allowing the system to display PVT data on the NAVFIX screen for six hours, and
driving the output to the combat system/WECDIS for three hours after loss of supply. A
fully discharged battery backup requires 24 hours to ‘trickle charge’ to nominal capacity.
Note. NAVFIX cannot be started on battery supplies; a mains supply is

essential to achieve first fix.
d. Interfaces. NAVFIX receives information from a number of sensors onboard,

including the ship’s log, heading (gyro compass) (either synchro data or serial data from
SDDS) and from SINS if fitted (two NATO STANAG 4156 input/output ports are
provided for this purpose). 20 user configurable serial outputs and 10 user configurable
Ethernet outputs are provided to deliver PVT data from NAVFIX to costumer equipment,
such as WECDIS and the combat system. NAVFIX uses external data (log speed,
heading) to determine set and drift values by comparison with GPS-derived ground
track. NAVFIX uses a pre-determined priority list to select sensor sources, in the order
SINS, SDDS, and finally synchro. NAVFIX is designed to be able to interface with
future equipment (such as a voyage data recorder)
UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE 3A-1
e. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM). The GPS receiver

implements receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM), if selected to on via the
user interface. RAIM makes use of redundant pseudorange calculations to detect, and
automatically exclude erroneous signals which may cause positional errors or instability.
RAIM enables NAVFIX to automatically detect errors and therefore recomputed the
ship’s position in real time, reducing the likelihood of successful spoofing or jamming
attacks. An alert is provided when RAIM is unavailable (due to insufficient space
vehicles in view, poor geometry etc), or when RAIM has tripped but the faulty space
vehicle cannot be excluded from the position solution.
CAUTION

RAIM is a key component of the defences against jamming or spoofing
attacks. The CO and NO are to be informed AT ONCE if NAVFIX
alarms due to RAIM becoming unavailable or if a faulty signal is
detected which cannot be excluded.
If RAIM has detected a faulty signal which cannot be excluded,

NAVFIX positions are to be treated as unreliable and use should be
made of reversionary techniques until the source of the problem can
be identified.
f. Differential GPS. NAVFX is capable of receiving differential corrections, but they

are not used in the position calculation. NAVFIX IS NOT A DIFFERENTIAL GPS.
g. Crypto Zeroise. Facilities are provided to zeroise the crypto store in the event that
emergency destruction is ordered by the Command or the unit appears likely to fall into
hostile hands.
h. Security. In submarines, NAVFIX is provided with a physical key and lock to

enable/disable the display of positional information on the main display, for operations
where the ship’s position is classified above UK SECRET.
i. Summary of Principal Performance Parameters. The principal performance

parameters for NAVFIX, assuming permissive environment and correct crypto fill, are
summarised in Table 3A-1 below.
Table 3A-1. NAVFIX Principal Performance Parameters
CHARACTERISTIC PERFORMANCE
Time to first fix – cold start (no almanac) 25 minutes
Time to first fix – warm start (valid 5 minutes
almanac)
Time to first fix – hot start (valid almanac 2 minutes
and PVT data)
Horizontal position accuracy 21m (95%)
Vertical position accuracy 35m (95%)
Velocity accuracy 0.2ms-1 (95%)
UTC accuracy 200ns (95%)
GPS time accuracy 250ns (95%)
3A-2 UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE
3. Operation of NAVFIX
Control of and interaction with NAVFIX is via the human-computer interface (HCI). This
consists a full-colour TFT screen, a number of soft keys, several hardwired keys, and a
number of indicator LEDs.
Fig 3A-1. NAVFIX

a. Menu Structure Overview. There are three top-level menus within NAVFIX,
accessed via three function keys on the main panel: navigation (NAV), configuration
(CFG), and status (STAT). Selecting any one of the function keys displays the
associated menu structure at the last page which was viewed; if already in that menu
structure, the top-level screen is displayed.
b. Screen Layout. Certain elements are common to all NAVFIX screens. At the top
of the screen is the status display error, which shows alarm indicators for the GPS
receiver, the NAVFIX system as a whole, estimated horizontal position error, system
time, and any icons relevant at the time. Around the edge of the display are the tabs for
the soft keys, showing which function is assigned to which key at the time, and in the
centre of the display is the main display area, used to display information relevant to the
menu page accessed at the time.
c. Crypto. For the full system capability to be enabled, the correct crypto must be
loaded into the system. The crypto fill can be completed at any time after the system is
switched on, by connecting the appropriate fill gun to the port on the front of the unit and
carrying out the loading drill. The ‘LOADED’ LED on the front panel will illuminate if the
fill is successful, and a message indicated successful crypto loading will be displayed
above whatever menu page is currently displayed. After accepting the message, the
crypto ‘LOADED’ LED will be extinguished, and it is therefore necessary to use the
system status page to tell whether or not crypto is correctly loaded at any other time.
d. Navigation Screen. The navigation screen is accessed by pressing the NAV

function key. The NAV screen displays the current position calculated by the system
(with or without lever arm corrections), along with COG and SOG readouts, log speed,
heading, set and drift. Also displayed is the time figure of merit (TFOM), the number of
space vehicles used in the position calculation, and the signal encoding (CA or P(Y)). If
the DISPLAY POSN key is locked, no position will be displayed. If the system has
been fully reset (including crypto zeroise), the position displayed will be the location of
the Rockwell Collins factory until the first fix is achieved. NAV should be the default
screen and the unit must be left on this page when it is not being used for another
operation. NAV screen data is refreshed every second. From the NAV screen, it is
possible to set/view an anchor watch, view space vehicle information, and set and

display an intercept.
CAUTION
If the freeze function is used (eg to manually record a position for a

fix), then care MUST be taken to ensure that the display is unfrozen
afterwards. This is especially true if GPS positions are being manually
plotted for whatever reason rather than automatically by WECDIS.
e. Configuration Menu. The configuration menu is entered by pressing the CFG

function key on the front panel, and it contains a number of sub-menus used to
configure various aspects of the system. Many will only be of relevance to the
maintainer/during setting to work, but some may need to be checked by the OOW/NO in
certain circumstances. Settings within the CFG menu are password protected to
prevent inadvertent or deliberate interference.
(1) System. The system sub-menu allows the selection and configuration of
various aiding sources, as well as the security features of the whole system. From
the system sub-menu it is possible to carry out a full system and crypto zeroise,
which will scrub the entire system at end of mission to remove any and all classified
data.
(2) Navigation. The navigation sub-menu allows the selection of planned speeds
for intercepts/MOB, the use of rhumb lines or great circles, and the choice of datum
and grid system. It also allows key parameters such as antenna height and lever
arm corrections to be entered.
(3) GPS. The GPS sub-menu allows for system initialisation data to be entered,
as well as the selection of DGPS and RAIM modes.
(4) Alarms. The alarms sub-menu allows the user to configure and enable system
alerts, audible alarms (including alarm volume) and thresholds.
(5) Units. The units sub-menu allows the user to choose which units to display
numeric data in.
(6) Interfaces. The interfaces sub-menu allows the serial and Ethernet interfaces
to be configured.
f. Status Menu. The status menu is accessed via the STAT function key. The top-
level page of the STAT menu is the system alerts status list, which displays a list of
alerts raised by the system. Alerts can be classed as either warnings or critical errors
(similar in concept to alarms and warnings or grade A and grade B alarms), and they
can be either acknowledged or unacknowledged. The alerts status list allows the user
to scroll through all active and inactive alerts, and to acknowledge them if required. It
also allows access to the various STAT menu sub-menus.
(1) System. The system sub-menu allows the user to review basic information
about the system (version information etc), the power supply status, and the crypto
status. It also allows a lamp test to be initiated, as well as the MOB screen.

Note. The MOB page can also be accessed directly through the MOB
button.
(2) GPS Status. The GPS status sub-menu allows the viewing of information
about the space vehicles in view (‘skyview’), and space vehicle tracking information.
(3) Aiding Interfaces Summary Status. The aiding interfaces summary status
sub-menu allows the review of information concerning the various aids connected
to NAVFIX.
(4) Logs. The logs sub-menu allows the reviewing and clearance of the system
and MOB logs.
4. Mini-SOCS/Phase Two Damage Control Checks

The following checks are to be carried out as mini-SOCS/phase two damage control
checks when the situation requires. They are also suitable for use in control room rounds. It
may be useful to locally produce a tote to hold with the equipment summarising the values of
the key data (lever arm corrections, Ethernet port settings etc) to be reviewed so that there
can be no doubt that settings are correct.
Table 3A-2. NAVFIX Mini-SOCS/Phase Two Damage Control Checks

1. At the NAVFIX equipment, perform the following steps on the RPU:
Check that SYS alarm status is OK 
Check that GNSS alarm status is OK 
Check that date and time are OK 
2. Select the STAT – System Status screen

Check that crypto status is OK 
Check that power supply status is OK 
Check that ETI status is OK 
3. Select the NAV screen

Check that positional information is displayed and is correct 
4. Select the NAV – View SVs screen

Check that the number of SVs used, signal strengths and TFOM are all ok 
5. Select the STAT – GPS SV Skyview screen

Check that FOM, HDOP and RAIM are all correct 
6. Select the CFG menu

On the Aiding Sources > Enabled Sources page, check that the configuration is

correct
On the Aiding Sources > Configuration page, check that the configuration is

correct
On the Security page, check that the configuration is correct 
From the Navigation page, check that navigation, lever arm and antenna height

configuration data is correct
From the GPS page, check that initialisation data and GPS receiver status is correct 
From the Interfaces page, check that serial and Ethernet ports are configured

correctly
ANNEX 3B
DEFENCE ADVANCED GPS RECEIVER - DAGR
The Defence Advanced GPS Receiver – DAGR – is the standard issue small form
factor, man portable military GPS for use across defence. It is a modernised and improved
version of the older SPGR, and has been introduced into service to replace all older small
form factor GPS units (SPGR, PLGR etc) [units should no longer hold any of these legacy
GPS types]. It is fitted with an integral SASM (see Para 03XX), which provides DAGR with
full anti-jam and anti-spoofing capabilities (RAIM), and access to P(Y) code fixing. DAGR is

capable of extremely rapid times to first fix (less than 100 seconds in a cold start with no
valid almanac). DAGR is nominally battery powered, in the ship/submarine environment it
will normally be fed from ship’s supplies. Although primarily designed for the land
environment, DAGR is provided with three serial ports for data connections to other
equipment, and is capable of providing PVT data in NMEA-0183 formats for marine
applications. DAGR is technically capable of accepting DGPS corrections, with a theoretical
horizontal accuracy better than 2.4m (95%).
2. Operation
The operation of DAGR is relatively straightforward, and in most cases it should operate
relatively autonomously, provided the crypto is loaded correctly.
a. Initial Start. The device is started by holding down the PWR/QUIT key until it
powers up. The default view on power up is the SV SKY VIEW, and the display will
initially flash as no current position is established. Do not change screen until DAGR
displays ‘NAVIGATING’ in the top centre of the screen. At this point, check the
almanac age (ALM AGE) in the bottom right-hand corner of the screen.
CAUTION
If the DAGR display is flashing, then the position data is old and MUST
NOT BE USED. Do not rely upon the positional data until the screen
stops flashing.
b. Crypto. Crypto can be loaded manually, by entering the CVs five at a time, but it is
preferable to use the fill gun. To check that crypto fill took place correctly, press
STATUS – the CV LOADED line should read ‘GUV’. To check that the P(Y) code has
been acquired (and by definition therefore crypto is correct), press MENU twice, select
SATELLITE and then CHANNEL STATUS. If a Y is displayed in the third column, Y
code has been successfully acquired.
Note. It may take up to 15 minutes for P(Y) code to be successfully

acquired.
c. Warnings. If at any stage DAGRS displays a SPOOFING or JAMMING warning,

this must be reported to the CO and NO immediately. If a CRYPTO warning is
displayed, first check that the crypto is shown as loaded correctly on the STATUS page,
and then check with the crypto custodian that the correct CV has been loaded.
UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE 3B-1
d. Display Position. To display the current position, press and hold the POS/PAGE
button. The main POS screen will be displayed. To ensure that the data is accurate
and valid, first ensure that the display is not flashing. Then check the datum identifier
and co-ordinate formats (WGS84). Use the PAGE or QUIT buttons to page through
other screens available, including SA and SV SKY VIEW screens.
3. Recommended Settings
a. Standard Settings. Most of the settings to be checked can be found within the
GPS SETUP menu, accessed from the POS screen by pressing MENU twice, then
selecting RECEIVER SETUP then GPS SETUP. The recommended settings for the

standard parameters are shown in Table 3B-1 below.
Table 3B-1. DAGR Recommended Settings
PARAMETER SETTING
Operating mode Continuous
Power-on operating mode Continuous
Frequency L1 primary
SV Code ALL-Y
Elevation hold Automatic
RAIM mode Enabled
Anti-jam accessory mode Disabled
Mask mode Disabled
DGPS mode Disabled
WAGE mode Enabled
SV hold Disabled
Auto-averaging Disabled
These settings should be checked when the DAGR is first switched-on, and prior to
occasions on which it is to be used operationally. Nothing prevents the CO or NO from
ordering different settings to be used if required for operational reasons.
b. Power Settings. The following settings are recommended, accessed via the
POWER SAVER menu. These will ensure that the device remains ready for use at all
times, and maximise battery life in the event of a TLF.
Table 3B-2. DAGR Power Saving Settings
PARAMETER SETTING
Auto-off mode Off
Auto-standby mode Off
Off mode display heater Off
Note. If operating the DAGR externally in extreme cold, set ‘Off mode
display heater’ to ON. This will dramatically reduce the unit’s battery life.
3B-2 UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE
c. Units. DAGR is not a marine GPS by design, and is therefore capable of operating
in a number of land-based co-ordinate frames. Prior to using the device operationally,
check via the units menu that the device is appropriately configured for the task at hand
(WGS84, OSGB36, UTM etc).
4. Navigating with DAGR

DAGR is equipped with a full range of navigation functions, including the ability to
display moving maps in a variety of formats, as well as navigating by waypoints. Although
DAGR is equipped with an internal magnetic (fluxgate) compass to provide initial guidance to
the first waypoint, this will seldom be available onboard as it requires the DAGR to be
horizontal. Once in motion, DAGR uses a GPS compass for azimuth information.

a. Waypoint Creation. Waypoint creation can be achieved from any screen in
DAGR. Press and hold WP/ENTER, then select CREATE NEW WP and press ENTER.
DAGR will default to the first free waypoint in memory. Edit the various waypoint fields
as required. Do not use a name for the waypoint –numbers must be used instead.
A local tote will be required to tally DAGR waypoint numbers with waypoint
names/designations etc. Once data entry is complete, press MENU once followed by
SAVE & EXIT and ENTER. DAGR will briefly display a warning, and then the waypoint
should be available for use.
b. Waypoint Checking. It is important to check waypoints have been entered

correctly. This is best achieved by pressing and holding WP/ENTER, then selecting
LIST ALL WPs. The waypoint to be checked can be scrolled to and interrogated; if
necessary, the data can be amended and saved in the same way as for waypoint
creation. If the task is safety critical, it may be worth using a two-man system to check
waypoints in DAGR.
c. Navigating with Waypoints. To navigate to a waypoint, press and hold

WP/ENTER. Select GOTO A WP and press ENTER, then select the desired waypoint
from the list of available ones, and press ENTER again. DAGR will then go to the NAV
POINTER screen, and commence providing navigation details to drive you to the
programmed waypoint. For full details on the capabilities of DAGR, see the equipment
handbook.
5. Emergency Zeroise
DAGR is provided with a function to carry out an emergency zeroise on all data held in
the device. This will delete from the DAGR’s memory all settings, data and crypto, rendering
the device useless. To carry out an emergency zeroise if emergency destruction has been
ordered, or if it is believed that the DAGR is at risk of falling into unauthorised hands, press
and hold PWR/QUIT and POS/PAGE buttons until a warning message is displayed. Press
ENTER – all data on the device will be deleted.
WARNING
AN EMERGENCY ZEROISE WILL DELETE ALL DATA ON THE DAGR

AND RENDER IT USELESS FOR NAVIGATION. IT SHOULD
THEREFORE ONLY BE CARRIED OUT WHEN ABSOLUTELY
NECESSARY.
ANNEX 3C
PRECISE FIXING/JAMMING RESISTANT SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM
MHCs are provided (either fitted for but not with or fitted with) a precise fixing system
(PFS) which may or may not also be fitted with a CRPA anti-jamming system. Full details on
the system are contained in BRd 9329 which should be consulted for further information. A
basic outline is given below.
2. Precise Fixing System (PFS) – System Description

a. Purpose and Use. PFS was initially procured for use by MHCs in support of their
minehunting role. In the days before widespread adoption of DGPS, it gave MCMVs the
capability to carry out the minefield leadthrough role with the high degrees of accuracy
needed to ensure safety of the HVU. In the current era, the system remains fitted but it
should be remembered that it is a mission aid, located in the Ops Room and under the
control of the MWO, rather than a navigation aid located on the bridge under the direct
control of the OOW/NO.
CAUTION
PFS is a mission aid and therefore not under the direct control of the
OOW. It should therefore be used with the appropriate degree of
caution, and the appropriate traditional navigational techniques
utilised in support to ensure safety of own ship.
b. System Accuracies. Typically, the system should achieve accuracies (95% 2σ) of
3-4m in DGPS mode, and 5-13m in GPS mode, whether with a standard or anti-jam
antenna.
c. Major System Components. Fig 3C-1 shows a block diagram of a typical system,
which comprises of seven main elements.
(1) Antenna and Receiver Sub-System. Further details are in Para 3 below, but
in summary the antenna and receiver sub-system comprises of one of two antenna
(a standard model 600LB antenna and CRPA anti-jam as well as fitted), and two
receivers, one Novatel survey-grade DGPS receiver and one DAGR military GPS
(see Annex 3B). Integral to the sub-system is a RF splitter/DC block.
(2) Software Sub-System. The system is powered by Windows operating

software, with separate PFS applications for real time and offline use. The
computer elements are housed in a standard 19” rack unit located in the ops room
as part of the fit to receive (FTR) package.
(3) Power Sub-System. PFS runs on 24V DC, fed by ship’s supplies (115V AC
60Hz mains or 24V DC standby power). In extremis, limited data will be available
from the DAGR’s own internal batteries.
(4) Sensor Sub-System. The sensor sub-system comprises of a dedicated pitch

and roll sensor, which automatically applies lever arm corrections due to the ship’s
angle of pitch and roll. Heading data is taken from the ship’s gyro compass.
UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE 3C-1
(5) Display Sub-System. The display sub-system comprises a water-resistant

15” colour monitor mounted in the rack.
(6) Input Sub-System. The input sub-system comprises a water-resistant,

ruggedized keyboard mounted on a slide-out drawer in the rack. Integral to the
keyboard is a mini-joystick and left/right mouse buttons for cursor navigation.
d. System Block Diagram. Fig 3C-1 below shows a generic standard system and
the various power and data connections. Not all ship fits will have the CRPA in addition
to the standard antenna, in which case the standard antenna feed is routed through the
dc block and RF splitter. The single antenna installation wiring is shown in red.

Fig 3C-1. PFS Block Diagram
3C-2 UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE
3. Antenna and Receiver Sub-System

PFS is capable of operating with either the standard 600LB antenna alone, or a
combination of the standard antenna and a CRPA anti-jam antenna. Small variations in the
wiring and connections occur between the two configurations.
a. CRPA. When fitted, the CRPA (controllable reception pattern antenna) provides a
high level of protection against a wide-range of jammers and degraded EM
environments. Under jammed or degraded conditions, L1/L2 frequency-nulling takes
place under the control of the CPUPak-4 card in the PFS receiver rack, utilising
information provided by DAGR. In such conditions, only of either L1 or L2 (but not both)
will be received, and the Novatel receiver (which normally operates on both frequencies)

will operate with reduced performance. When operating with CRPA therefore in
jamming or degraded EM conditions, the DAGR will be the primary GPS receiver as it
can operate with a single frequency (and indeed is designed to do so).
b. Antennae. When the CRPA is fitted, the standard 600LB antenna provides DGPS
correction signals, and the CRPA provides the baseline GPS signals. With a single
antenna fit, by definition both DGPS corrections and GPS signals are provided by the
same antenna.
c. Geodetic Datum. PFS is configured to use WGS84 and cannot be altered by the
user (regardless of, for example, DAGR settings, NMEA messages output by PFS will
always be in WGS84).
d. Memory. A large quantity of fix and quality control data is stored on flash card
memory. The data is relevant to both DAGR and the Novatel receiver, although the
Novatel receiver can provide much more data than the DAGR. All data is time-stamped
and can be downloaded to a PC for off-line analysis.
e. RF Splitter/DC Block Device. The RF splitter and DC block device is used to

provide both receivers with a GPS signal from a single antenna and prevents both
receivers trying to power the same antenna.
f. Novatel Receiver and Demodulator. The Novatel receiver (actually a card within
the main receiver assembly) provides survey-grade DGPS data, using both L1 and L2
techniques (without crypto) and DGPS corrections. Full details are contained in the
manufacturer’s handbook which was provided with each system.
g. DAGR. See Annex 3B.
4. Software Sub-System
The software sub-system comprises two specialist software packages (RT for real time
operations, PP for offline analysis), running in a Windows based environment.
a. Scope. The NAVPak-4 RT software controls the main PFS interfaces, monitors
performance, displays appropriate warnings, outputs positional information, logs data
and computes quality assurance and quality control parameters. The PP software is for
offline use, to analyse data.
b. Traffic Light Indications. PFS uses GREEN/AMBER/RED traffic light warnings to

give an immediate visual indication of system status on the LCD monitor. Three large
traffic lights give an indication of the overall system health, with the condition of the
various individual components indicated elsewhere on the screen. Thresholds can be
adjusted by the operator, but the overall system health traffic light is driven by a logic
which assesses the nature of the failures on individual components. A critical (red)
failure of a mission critical component causes a red traffic light to be issued, even if all
other components are operating correctly, whereas several minor faults on non-mission
critical components might result in the issuing of an amber warning. The overall traffic
light default positional accuracy settings may be interpreted in accordance with the
information in Table 3C-1 below.

Table 3C-1. Traffic Light Display Thresholds
WARNING STATE MEANING POSITIONAL ACCURACY

GREEN Correct 0m-5m
AMBER Caution 5m-10m
RED Out of specification >10m
Fig 3C-2. RT Software Display – Traffic Light Indications
5. Power Sub-System
The 24V sub-system supplied by ship’s 115V AC 60Hz mains power, or from ship’s own
standby 24V DC system. If the 115V supply fails, an audible alarm supplies. If the standby
24V DC supply also fails, the DAGR can be used to power the antenna directly from its own
internal battery backup, with limited positioning data being available from the DAGR’s own
display.
ANNEX 3D
MX 420 RECEIVER (GPS/DGPS)
The MX 420 GPS/DGPS equipment is fitted as part of a standard surface ship WECDIS
(Outfit 4LAA) installation, and in the T45’s combined ‘LORAN-C + C/A code GPS/DGPS’. It
is a commercial off-the-shelf civilian GPS (no crypto so therefore no access to L2 or P(Y)
code fixing) capable of making use of DGPS corrections. It consists of a single integrated
display and keypad, connected to WECDIS/ECDIS (in T45). Full details of the unit’s
operation can be found in the operator’s handbook which should be consulted if in any

doubt. A number of variants of MX 420 are available, with different configurations of data
ports, additional ‘slave’ displays and various antennae. Consult the manufacturer’s
handbook for details of the equipment fitted.
Fig 3D-1. MX 420 GPS/DGPS Receiver
2. Capabilities and Facilities

The MX 420 provides a range of facilities, including ‘at a glance’ traffic light indications
of GPS/DGPS performance. Interaction with the unit is via the keypad, which includes a
number of function keys for direct control of various functions (MOB etc). A DR mode and
various navigation functions are provided (routes/waypoints etc), but in practice when the
unit is connected to a functioning WECDIS most of the functionality is subsumed within
WECDIS and will not be needed (other than control of the GPS/DGPS itself).
UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE 3D-1
3. Keypad and Display

A diagram of the MX 420 display is at Fig 3D-2 below.
Fig 3D-2. MX 420 Display and Keypad

a. Traffic Lights. The meanings of the traffic light combinations vary between GPS
and DGPS operations, as detailed below.
(1) Red Flashing – GPS/DGPS. RED flashing (GPS/DGPS) indicates that the MX
420 is not tracking satellites (i.e. there is no valid position). This is normal for the
first two minutes after powering on the unit.
(2) Red Solid – GPS/DGPS. RED solid (GPS/DGPS) indicates that the MX 420 is
tracking one or more satellites, but that no valid position has yet been determined.
This is also normal for the first two minutes of operation.
(3) Red/Yellow Solid – GPS/DGPS. RED and YELLOW solid together

(GPS/DGPS) indicated that normal operation is not available and the unit has
switched to DR mode. A DR indicator is also displayed on all screens in the upper
left hand corner of the display.
(4) Yellow Solid – GPS Only. YELLOW solid (GPS only) indicates that the GPS
position solution has a poor HDOP value.
(5) Yellow Solid – DGPS Only. YELLOW solid (DGPS only) indicates that the
DPGS position solution has a poor HDOP value.
(6) Yellow/Green Solid – DGPS Only. YELLOW and GREEN solid together
(DGPS only) indicates that a valid GPS position solution has been achieved and
positions are being updated, but that DGPS corrections are not being received.
(7) Green Solid – GPS Only. GREEN solid (GPS only) only indicates that the
GPS position solution has a HDOP value of less than four.
3D-2 UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE
(8) Green Solid – DGPS Only. GREEN solid (DGPS only) indicates that DGPS
corrections are being received and the DGPS position solution has a HDOP value
of less than four.
b. Display Lighting. The display is backlit for use at night, and contrast and
backlighting levels may be adjusted by use of the CFG key and the lighting menu.
c. Softkeys. The five softkeys located on the bottom left of the unit, directly under the
display, are context sensitive and, with the exception of the PLOT and MOB screens,
may only be accessed after the E (edit) key has been pressed. The E key must be
pressed again once input is complete.

d. Function Keys. The 18 function keys are located on the right of the unit. They are
used to access different displays, edit and move within the displays, and for specific
functions such as to mark the vessel’s current position, or mark a MOB.
e. NAV (Navigation) Screens. There are four different NAV screens, designed to
work with an active route.
(1) NAV1. NAV1 is designed to give a three-dimensional oblique angle look at the
active route (in MX 420) being followed. It is usually referred to as the ‘runway
view’ because of its appearance. Navigational markers, course line, cross-track
error lines and waypoint flags are all displayed in NAV1.
(2) NAV2. NAV2 provides the bearing (BRG) and range (RNG) to the next
waypoint in MX 420, in large, easy to read characters. Below these, course and
speed over the ground (COG and SOG) are also displayed. At the bottom of the
screen, the cross track error (XTE) is displayed.
(3) NAV3. The NAV3 screen displays the same information as NAV2, with
addition of supplementary PIM information, such as ETA and TTG to the next
waypoint and to the end of the active route. These are filtered over time, so the
filtering should be allowed to settle after making an alteration of course and/or
speed.
(4) NAV4. NAV4 applies the wind speed and direction, speed log, gyro compass
and echo sounder inputs from any interfaced external sensor(s) to the active route,
as appropriate.
f. RTE (Route) Screens. There are two route screens. If routes are to be used in
MX 420, the UTMOST care must be taken to ensure that they are identical to the
routes in WECDIS, otherwise great confusion may be caused.
(1) RTE1. RTE1 interacts with the NAV screens to allow routes and waypoints to
be created, and to select the active route.
(2) RTE2. RTE2 provides a ‘route bank’ for copying and editing frequently used
routes.
4. Other Facilities
Depending upon the variant of MX 420 fitted, a variety of other functions (such as
tide/tidal stream information, port information etc) may be available. The appropriate
manufacturer’s handbook must be consulted for more information.
5. Detailed Operating Guidance

Consult the manufacturer’s handbook for detailed guidance on the configuration and
operation of the unit. In practice, if connected to an operational WECDIS, most of the MX
420 features will not be needed as the functionality is subsumed within WECDIS.
ANNEX 3E
GN 33 RECEIVER (GPS/DGPS – SM WECDIS)
The Simrad GN 33 GPS/DGPS receiver is fitted as part of the submarine WECDIS
equipment (Outfit 4LAA), and comprises a single display/keypad (see Fig 3E-1 below). GN
33 is a civilian GPS/DGPS, not capable of accepting crypto (and therefore unable to utilise
P(Y) code fixing), which is capable of accepting DGPS corrections. Full details on the
operation of the GN 33 are contained within the manufacturer’s handbook which should be
consulted if in any doubt.

Fig 3E-1. Simrad GN 33 GPS/DGPS Receiver
2. Capability
a. Basic Features. The GN 33 has a single large multi-function screen, which can be
used as a full display showing one of a number of pre-determined screens, or as a split-
screen, or up to four user-defined pages. The unit is controlled by the function buttons
on the right of the screen. The GN 33 is technically capable of display C-Map raster
navigation charts, but these are not supplied to the RN and are not to be used with GN
33.
b. Function Keys. A summary of the various GN 33 function keys is provided below.
(1) Chart. The CHART key is a shortcut to the Chart 1 display, and toggles
between chart display and split-screen with chart and data. Hold for two seconds to
change to Chart 2.
(2) Echo. The ECHO key is a shortcut to the depth and temperature display.
(3) Pilot. The PILOT key is a shortcut to the position display, and then toggles
between ‘position’, ‘highway’, ‘ETA and AVN’ and ‘trim and highway’ displays (note
that ‘trim’ in the GN 33 refers to information on speeds rather than a submariner’s
traditional understanding of the term).
UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE 3E-1
(4) Page. The PAGE key toggles between four pre-selected screens. Hold for two
seconds to begin automatic cycling between the four pre-selected screens. A
single press will resume normal operation.
(5) Menu. The MENU key is a shortcut which toggles the menu bar on and off,
and exits any data display without taking any action.
(6) Enter. The ENT key is used to open fields for editing, and confirm insertion
and editing of data. It calls up information on marks, waypoints etc on the chart,
together with several INFO windows from a chart display. It also gives access to
setup displays.

(7) Cursor. The circular ‘cursor’ control D-pad is used in the menu system, and to
move the cursor in data displays and charts, as well as activating the cursor on
charts.
(8) Man Overboard. The MOB function is activated by holding the MOB key for
two seconds, which drops a datum and provides guidance back to the MOB’s
position.
(9) Go To. The GOTO key activates the INFO window with a choice of navigation
modes.
(10) Plot. The PLOT key actives an INFO window with the possibility of
plotting/inserting a waypoint, route, line etc from the chart display, or
plotting/inserting the vessel’s position from any display.
(11) +/-. The + (plus) key zooms out for better overview (larger range) and
conversely the – (minus) key zooms in for greater chart details (smaller range)
(note that this is counter-intuitive to what might be expected). The keys also toggle
between available values.
(12) Alpha-Numeric Keys. The alpha-numeric keys insert and select data in data
displays. Keys 1-9 are also ‘quick-range’ keys which each represent a fixed chart
range. Pressing 0 will centre the cursor/vessel on the chart.
(13) Clear. The CLR key turns the cursor off and centres the vessel in the chart
display. In enter or edit modes, it deletes data.
(14) Power. The PWR key calls up a window where the brightness (and contrast in
monochrome version) may be adjusted in the screen, and the backlighting in the
keypad. It also allows daylight, night or custom displays/palettes. Holding the PWR
key down for two seconds turns the unit on or off.
3E-2 UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE
3. Satellite Status
a. Satellite Status Display. The satellite status display, obtained via the menu bar,
shows which space vehicles are currently being used for calculation of the position
solution. It will show their position, together with the signal to noise ratio (SNR). The
bottom line shows the status of all space vehicles in the system, starting from left to
right covering SV1 through 32.
b. Satellite Status Display Symbology. The satellite status display uses the
following symbology on the bottom line of the display.

Table 3E-1. Satellite Status Display Symbology
SYMBOL MEANING
+ Satellite is healthy
- Excluded or non-existent satellite
0 Satellite data is faulty
* Satellite is manually excluded
c. Position Update Alarm. The alarm facility in the satellite status display is pre-set
to ON, so that an alarm is given when there is no position update. The alarm is reset by
pushing the CLR key. If the received position data is invalid, the position shown in the
position display will start to flash. The position update alarm can be set to ON or OFF
from the satellite status display.
4. DGPS
DGPS corrections are provided either by an inbuilt module which is pre-set to fully
automatic operation, or manually from a connected DGPS (WAAS, EGNOS or MSAS)
receiver. An indication of the method in use is provided in the status indicator on the
position display.
5. Detailed Operating Guidance

Detailed operating guidance, including configuration information, is contained in the
manufacturer’s handbook which should be consulted for full details.
ANNEX 3F
RAYTHEON SKYDEC NGNSO4 MK 11/CRPA JAMMING RESISTANT SYSTEM (GPS)
Two Raytheon SkyDec NGNS04 Mk 11/CRPA jamming resistant GPS receivers are
fitted in the Type 45. Both are military GPS receivers, capable of receiving P(Y) code GPS
and commercial C(A) code DGPS signals (but see the CAUTION at Para 6 below regarding
use of DGPS). Twin CRPA (controllable reception pattern antennae) are fitted on the bridge
roof for P(Y) code reception, and separate omni-directional antenna are fitted for DGPS
reception. A switch is fitted at the chart table to select which unit provides precise time and

time interval (PTTI).
2. Chart Table
A combined receiver and display unit is fitted in the forward facing chart table on the
port side of the bridge (see Fig 3F-1 below). Contained within this unit are the two ‘sentinel
displays’, both P(Y) code GPS/DGPS receivers (forward and aft), and the PTTI switching
unit (aft facing only).
Fig 3F-1. Type 45 Chart Table and GPS Equipment
UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE 3F-1
3. RayChart Displays
Depending on the batch, one of two different variants of commercial GPS plotting
displays is fitted to the T45 chart table. The differences are cosmetic; in neither case do the
displays allow interaction with the GPS, they merely allow the GPS position to be displayed.
Although both variants are technically capable of displaying C-Map raster navigation charts,
this capability is not used in the RN.
4. CRPA and DGPS Antennae
a. CRPA (P(Y) Code GPS). Each of the two P(Y) code GPS receivers is provided
with its own dedicated CRPA, mounted on the bridge roof. These antennae are capable

of blanking jamming signals on up to six distinct bearings, and will continue to generate
usable signals for positioning in a ‘jam-to-GPS’ signal ration of 30-40dB.
b. DGPS. Each of the two DGPS receivers is provided with its own dedicated omni-
directional antenna for DGPS reception. The choice of DGPS station is automatic and
CANNOT be changed by the operator. See Para 6 below.
Fig 3F-2. CRPA and DGPS Antennae
5. Precise Time and Time Interval

Either of the two military GPS receivers may be used to generate a precise time and
time interval (PTTI) output. Two types of timing output are available: ‘1 PPS’ (one pulse per
second) and ‘HGIIA’ (HAVE QUICK). A PTTI switch (illustrated below) is provided at the
chart table to select which GPS PTTI unit provides the timing signal. If the active system
fails to output either type of pulse, a RED LED will illuminate on both the PTTI switch and the
PTTI unit. There is no monitoring of the standby unit, i.e. no indication will be given
should the standby system fail.
3F-2 UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE
Fig 3F-3. PTTI Switch
Fig 3F-4. PTTI Unit

6. DGPS
Although both T45 GPS units have a fully functional DGPS capability, this must
ALWAYS be selected to OFF in BOTH the GPS/DGPS receiver racks. This is ultimately to
ensure safety; the detailed reasons for this restriction are given below.
a. Automatic Station Selection. Selection of the DGPS correction broadcast station

to be used is fully and entirely automatic in the T45 system; it CANNOT be overridden
by the operator, even when there may be an urgent requirement to do so. It is therefore
entirely possible to receive a spurious DGPS correction signal which may seriously
degrade navigational accuracy and which cannot be excluded.
b. Spoofing. It is a relatively trivial matter for third parties to produce a spoof DGPS
correction signal which is strong enough the auto-selection facility to lock on to, thus
potentially injecting a large and undetectable error into the ship’s position. See Para
02XX (spoofing).
c. Single DGPS Frequency. When DGPS is switched ON, only the L1 GPS
frequency is used. If L1 is jammed while operating in DGPS mode, the receiver is not
able to acquire the P(Y) code on L2 until L1 becomes available again.
d. Temporary Loss of DGPS Signal Alarm. A temporary loss of the DGPS signal, a
common occurrence, results in no output from the GPS receiver which result in an alarm
being issued. This incurs a greater risk of ‘alarm fatigue’.
CAUTION
The DGPS receivers in T45 operate largely autonomously, with no

facility for the operator to force or override settings. There is
therefore a significant risk of large, undetectable and unquantifiable
errors being introduced in the ship’s position. In T45 therefore, the
DGPS capability is ALWAYS to be switched OFF in BOTH GPS/DGPS
receiver racks.
Fig 3F-5. Switch OFF DGPS in BOTH Receivers

7. Crypto
As with any military receiver, each of the T45 receivers needs the correct crypto fill in
order to utilise P(Y) code on either L1 or L2. The procedure for completing a crypto fill is
summarised here; consult the operator’s handbook for the system and the crypto fill gun for
full details.
a. Fill Guns. A compatible fill gun is connected to the crypto-connector on the GPS
receiver control and switch panel, as illustrated below.
Fig 3F-6. Crypto-Connector Location
b. Loading Crypto. To load crypto, connect the fill gun to the connector (see above).
When connected, the ‘keyloader’ indicator will show GREEN. Carry out the drill in
accordance with the SOP for the fill device in use, and wait for loading to complete.
c. Sentinel Display. In order to determine if crypto keys are both loaded and valid,
the sentinel display must be consulted.
(1) Crypto Loaded. If the crypto is loaded, the ‘crypto loaded’ and ‘crypto valid’
indicators on the right side of the screen will be GREEN.
(2) Crypto Not Loaded/Invalid. If the crypto is NOT loaded or is otherwise

invalid, either the ‘crypto loaded’ or ‘crypto valid’ indicators on the right side of the
sentinel window will be RED. If so, toggle the zeroise switch to OFF, check that the
zeroise LED next to the switch is illuminated, and then follow the cypto loading
procedure again.

(3) Crypto Remains Not Loaded or Invalid. If the crypto remains not loaded or
is otherwise invalid (i.e. the indicators on the sentinel display remain RED), then
double check with the crypto custodian that the correct crypto has been issued and
used for the fill, and then the maintainer should use the troubleshooting guide in the
maintainer’s manual.
d. Black and Red Keys. Generally, the red key crypto will be used. If there is a
requirement to use black key material to enable the SAASM, it must be loaded in the
order BKAUPD, BGUV, BCVM.
8. Faults
The system is completely autonomous in operation. All faults should be reported to the
maintainer.
9. Further Information
For further information, the manufacturer’s handbook and maintainer’s manual should
be consulted.
CHAPTER 4
ECHO SOUNDERS AND SPEED LOGS
Para
0401. Introduction and Scope of Chapter
0402. A Note on Terms and Terminology
0403. Small and Landing Craft Equipment
SECTION 1 – ECHO SOUNDER THEORY

0404. The Basic Principles of Echo Sounders
0405. Echo Sounder Displays
0406. Keel Depths vs Waterline Depth
0407. Transducer Separation Correction
0408. False Echoes
0409. Weak Echoes
0410. Calibration
0411. Upward Looking Echo Sounders (SM Only)
SECTION 2 – SPEED LOG THEORY
0412. General Introduction

0413. Summary of Types of Logs
0414. General Principles of Electromagnetic (EM) Speed Logs
0415. Single-Axis Electromagnetic Speed Logs
0416. Two-Axis Electromagnetic Speed Logs
0417. General Principles of Sonar Speed Logs
0418. Doppler Speed Logs
0419. Sonar Correlation Speed Logs
0420. Combination Electromagnetic/Sonar Speed Logs
0421. Speed by Engine Revolutions/Pitch
SECTION 3 – SPEED LOG CALIBRATION
0422. Principles of Speed Log Calibration

0423. Frequency of Log Calibrations
0424. Calibrating a Log with a Measured Distance
0425. Calibrating a Log with a QRAMB
0426. Calibrating a Log with (D)GPS
0427. Calibrating a Log with INS
0428. Comparative Advantages and Disadvantages of Log Calibration Methods
0429. Speed Log Calibration Calculations
0430. Accuracy of Speed Log Calibration Corrections
0431. Application of Speed Log Calibration Corrections
ANNEXES
Annex 4A AGI EM2 Speed Log

Annex 4B AGILOG Speed Log
Annex 4C Chernikeef Aquaprobe EM Speed Log
Annex 4D RDI WHN Doppler Speed Log
Annex 4E Speed Log Calibration at BUTEC
Annex 4F Echo Sounder Type 790
Annex 4G Echo Sounder Type 800
Annex 4H ELAC NAUTIC VE 5900
CHAPTER 4
ECHO SOUNDERS AND SPEED LOGS
0401. Introduction and Scope of Chapter

The previous Chapter dealt with global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) and their
ability to give the navigator an accurate real-time position. As explained, however, GNSS
are neither always available nor always reliable, and must always be checked against other
sources of navigational information. Two of the most basic, but most important, sources of
information a navigator should always have are a speed log and an echo sounder. An

accurate log is one of the two pieces of information needed to calculate an accurate DR
position, and the echo sounder can sometimes be the only source of ‘external’ navigational
information. It is invariably the case that the closet point of land is directly underneath the
ship. This chapter introduces the theory behind the operation of the major types of echo
sounder and speed log in use with the RN.
0402. A Note on Terms and Terminology

Some terms will be used throughout this chapter which, although they are commonly
used and should be familiar to all navigators, are defined again below for the convenience of
readers. The introduction of GNSS/ECDIS has led to some older terms falling out of use.
a. Set. Set is defined as the resultant direction towards which current, tidal stream
and surface drift flow; it will be the vector sum of all of the forces.
b. Drift. Drift is defined as the distance covered in a given time solely due to the
movement caused by current, tidal stream and surface drift.
c. Track. A vessel’s track is defined as the path followed or intended to be

followed between one position and another. It may be the water track, ground track
or relative track. The different types of track are illustrated in Fig 4-1 below.
(1) Water Track. Water track is defined as the course steered and distance
run at speed through the water (water speed) plus the leeway encountered.
(2) Ground Track. Ground track is more usually known as the track (or
course) made good (CMG) and is defined as the water track plus the set and
drift encountered.
Fig 4-1. Illustration of Vessel Tracks

d. Speed through the Water. The term speed through the water (STW) is now in
common usage, although readers may still encounter the older term ‘water speed.’
e. Speed over the Ground. Speed over the ground (SOG) is often known as
speed made good (SMG). Readers may still encounter the older term ground speed.
f. Speed and Distance Measuring Equipment. Many legal and procurement

documents will refer to speed logs as ‘speed and distance measuring devices,’ or
more rarely as speed and distance measuring equipment (SDME).
g. Doppler Logs. Modern logs which exploit the Doppler effect are generally
known as Doppler speed logs or, more commonly, as Doppler velocity logs (DVL).
DVL is the usage generally adopted in the RN.
0403. Small and Landing Craft Equipment

Details of the navigation equipment fit onboard ARCHER class (P2000) and
SCIMITAR class vessels can be found in Chapter 9. Information on landing craft navigation
equipment formerly found in this volume can now be found in BRd 6600 (Royal Marines
Landing Craft and Small Craft Operations). In general, small craft/landing craft etc have
commercial off-the-shelf equipment which operates in accordance with the basic principles
explained in this chapter.
SECTION 1 – ECHO SOUNDER THEORY
0404. The Basic Principles of Echo Sounders
a. The Importance of the Echo Sounder. For a ship under way, the nearest point
of land is almost invariably the sea bed. A navigator thinks nothing, for example, of
operating a frigate in the waters 20 nm south of Plymouth Sound, where charted
depths are about 70m; indeed, this would probably be thought of as relatively deep
water. Thought of another way, however, 70m is much less than half a cable, and
few ships would willingly or sensibly approach the LDL that closely unless berthing; if
they did so it would certainly be considered pilotage waters and full precautions

would be taken. Even in mid-ocean, most depths are less than 3 nm and less in
places; the least-depths across the mid-Atlantic Ridge are in the order of hundreds of
metres, and the average oceanic depth (to the extent that figure has any meaning)
has been calculated to be about 2 nm. In that context, then, the nearest point of land
is almost always the sea bed, and it thus represents both a potential danger but also
a very important piece of information; in open ocean, in daylight or bad weather with
no GNSS available, the echo sounder may be the only way to gather external
information of use to the navigator. The echo sounder remains one of the
navigator’s key pieces of equipment, and their correct operation is fundamental to
the safe navigation of the ship.
b. The General Principles of Echo Sounders. The principle underlying the

operation of a standard echo sounder is quite straightforward. A pulse of sound is
transmitted by an underwater transducer. On reaching the seabed, part of the sound
pulse is reflected back towards the ship and received by a hydrophone in the hull. If
the speed of sound in water is known, and if the time interval between transmission
of the pulse and hearing of the echo can be measured, the depth may be easily
calculated. An echo sounder is effectively therefore a highly-specialised single role
active sonar.
c. Calculation of Depth. The depth of water ‘d’ can be calculated using the
formula below, where c is the speed of sound in water (usually taken as 1500m/s or
4920ft/s) and t is the time interval in seconds between transmission and reception.
ct
d=
2
d. Errors in Depth Calculation. Although the principles of echo sounder operation

are straightforward, all measurements are subject to error. In particular, the speed of
sound in water will affect the measurement as all the echo sounder is actually
measuring is the time interval between transmission of a pulse and the reception of
its echo. Errors in the speed of sound value will cause depth measurement errors;
using a figure of 1500m/s should record depths accurate to within 4% of the true
figure. If greater precision is required, then depths can be corrected using the tables
in NP139, although this should not be required for routine navigation (soundings
reported to UKHO should always be corrected). For some applications, it will be
necessary to carry out velocity of sound (VOS) measurements through deploying
some form of expendable or recoverable sensor. For legacy paper and stylus depth
recorders, the stylus speed must be set correctly as compared with VOS in use; if
VOS is higher than recorder speed then the recorded depth will be shallow and vice
versa.
0405. Echo Sounder Displays

Echo sounder displays traditionally used moving paper rolls and a stylus to make a
series of marks on the paper, the marks tracing out the contour of the bottom hence the term
echo sounder trace. These devices, when used correctly, were accurate, and kept a record
of the bottom topography that the ship had transited that could be of immense use to the NO,
but they had a major drawback in that it was not possible to get an ‘at a glance’ reading of
the current sounding. These paper and stylus type recorders have been replaced with digital
devices that show the same information on a computer screen or other monitor; in addition,
warship and submarine echo sounders are often fitted with digitisers capable of displaying an
instantaneous sounding at remote positions such as the ship control console. Modern
computerised displays, in addition to the bottom trace, will almost always display the

instantaneous depth reading as well. They are also capable of being interfaced with other
equipment such as WECDIS and command systems, with the option of providing depth
alarms, event recording and more.
Fig 4-2. Example Echo Sounder Display (Type 800)
0406. Keel Depths vs Waterline Depths

Echo sounder transducers are located at some point on the underwater portion of
the ship’s hull, but they are not necessarily located at the deepest point on the hull. Most
echo sounders will allow the reading to be adjusted for the depth of the transducer, so that
the echo sounder gives the waterline depth. Otherwise, the echo sounder gives the depth
below the transducer (which in submarines is the same as depth under the keel); it may be
necessary to add an additional amount for the height between the transducer and the keel.
a. Waterline Depths. In the RN, except in vessels which have substantially

variable draughts such as submarines or ships with docks, echo sounders are to be
set to read waterline depths. This allows for easier comparison of the depth of water

with charted soundings, although it can lead to confusion and lead navigators to
believing they have more water under the keel than they in fact do. All echo
sounders are to be clearly marked with the position from which soundings are
measured.
Note. All echo sounders are to be clearly marked with the position from
which the soundings are measured. This is especially critical if a mix of
waterline and keep depths is being displayed on the bridge or in the control
room.
b. Keep Depths. In submarines, the CO/NO is to order soundings to be reported

as transducer soundings, because of the probability that waterline soundings will
lead to large errors. The advantage of reporting keel depth is that it is immediately
clear to the navigator and CO just how much water they have beneath the keel to
navigate in, but for situations in which the absolute depth of water is required, such
as for pool of errors calculations, the reported sounding must be adjusted for dived
depth and height of tide before it can be used.
c. Effects of Squat and Trim. If a ship is squatting or trimmed, then the effects on
recorded soundings will be different depending on whether waterline or keel
soundings are recorded. If keel (transducer) soundings are used, then the depth of
water shown beneath the keel will be accurate regardless of the effects of squat. If
waterline soundings are being taken, then the soundings recorded will be shallower
than the true soundings by a factor equivalent to the ship’s squat.
Note. Trim must not be ignored. A ship trimmed by the stern and using a
bow transducer will record accurate soundings, but the NO must be aware of
any effective changes in the ship’s draught when judging whether a given
sounding is safe or not.
0407. Echo Sounder Transducer Separation Correction
a. Separation Correction in Shallow Water. Also known as ‘Pythagoras errors’,

separation errors occur if the echo sounder transmitter and receiver are widely
separated horizontally on the hull, and the soundings are being taken in shallow
water. The situation is illustrated in Fig 4-3 below. The transmission and reception
transducers are separated horizontally on the hull by the distance s, and the true
depth of water is in fact d. However, in order for the ping to be received by the
receiver, it must travel two sides of a triangle rather than straight up and down like a
laser. The echo sounder, therefore, measures the depth of water as r rather than d.

Fig 4-3. Echo Sounder Separation Error
b. Correcting for Separation Error. The error is essentially a function of

geometry, and it reduces as depths increase, so that it in deep water it is to all
intents and purposes zero; in shallow water it can be significant. The maximum
possible error is equal to half the distance between the transducers; if the recorded
depth shoals to this value then the ship has run aground. The correction SC for
separation error, which must be subtracted from the recorded depth, is given in the
formula below.
s2
SC = r − r2 −
4
c. Table of Corrections. In practice, there will not be time for the NO or OOW to
carry out the calculations during navigation, and so NOs of vessels with transducers
more than 2m apart should construct a table of true depths against recorded depths
for use in shallow waters.
d. Calibration of Echo Sounders. The separation correction should always be

applied when calibrating or checking the echo sounder.
0408. Echo Sounder False Echoes

In reality at sea, echo sounders seldom produce crisp, clear echoes with a discrete
line on the trace that corresponds precisely to the bottom topography. Instead, a great many
external and internal factors will all interact to cause echoes to become weak and indistinct,
or confused, or otherwise hard to interpret. Great care should be taken when interpreting
echo sounder readings, especially if relying on them for safety or for fixing; in particular, a
single snap sounding should be treated with care.

a. Bottom Type. The nature of the seabed, both material and topography, has a
significant impact on the strength and nature of the echo returned to the transducer.
The following general factors will normally apply.
(1) Strong Echoes. Hard sand, coral, chalk and rock will usually give strong,
clear echoes which are easy to interpret.
(2) Weak Echoes. Thick mud will usually give a weak echo.
(3) Confused Echoes. Rock in stepped formations can produce a confused

echo, especially on a steeply shelving bottom in deep water.
b. False Bottom Echoes. Modern deep echo sounders are powerful, and capable
of sounding accurately to great depths. This does however introduce the possibility
of ‘second phase’ or even ‘third phase’ errors, in which the device is set-up
incorrectly such that the returning echo is not heard until after the next ping has
already been transmitted, potentially spoofing the echo sounder (or the operator) into
believing the water is much shallower than it actually is. Alternatively, when a
sounding is detected which appears to be much shallower than expected, navigators
have sometimes convinced themselves that it was a second or third phase echo
rather than an accurate depth; this has led to several grounding incidents in the past.
(1) Effect of Second or Third Phase Echoes. If an echo sounder is set to

the 450m depth scale, then a trace at 30m could mean a true water depth of
30m, 480m or even 930m. If a sounding that is much shallower than expected is
suddenly received, then it is safer to assume that the ship is standing into danger
and take appropriate action whilst working to confirm the actual depth of water.
(2) Establishing the True Depth. If the equipment has the capability, then the
easiest solution is to select a much deeper depth scale than the expected depth
(eg 4,500m) to establish the true depth, albeit it will not be possible to be precise
at that depth scale. Once the approximate depth has been established, it will
then be possible to adjust the echo sounder settings (phase, depth scale etc) to
establish the true depth with greater accuracy.
c. Reflection Echoes. In shallow water, the ship’s hull and sea surface may
create so-called ‘reflection echoes’. The strong returning echoes from the seabed
strike the hull and/or sea surface, bounce back to the sea bed and then return to the
receiver. The effect is to create two spurious echoes, one at about twice the
indicated depth, and a second a few metres deeper, the difference corresponding
roughly with the draught of the ship (strictly with the depth of the transducers).
Multiple reflection echoes may also be received in good transmission conditions at
two, three or even four times the depth of water down to apparent depths as great as
several hundred metres. The reflection echoes are always weaker than the true
echo, and can be readily eliminated by reducing the transmitter power and/or
receiver gain.

d. Distinguishing Between False Bottom Echoes and Reflection Echoes.
Great care must be taken to distinguish accurately between false bottom echoes and
reflection echoes, especially when altering the phase settings of an echo sounder.
e. Non-Bottom Echoes. Various other echoes may be observed on the echo

sounder trace, caused by a number of natural and man-made phenomena, including
(but not limited to) shoals of fish, water layers, submarine springs, kelp, side echoes,
turbulence, man made objects such as anchor chains, or processing artefacts within
the echo sounder itself. Although often described as false echoes, this is not strictly
correct as they are almost always real echoes, just not echoes from the seabed. In
most conditions, non-bottom echoes will not obscure the true bottom, but their
correct interpretation can take some skill and experience. Some common sources of
non-bottom echoes are discussed in more detail below.
(1) Fish/Biologic. Shoals of fish will often mark clearly on the trace, and
indeed, many modern echo sounders are sold as ‘fish finders.’ Bio contacts are
fairly easy to distinguish in the open ocean due to their characteristic lozenge-
shaped echoes, each lozenge probably being a group of fish lying at different
depths. Over rock pinnacles and coral heads, fish are often difficult to identify
and can be confused with other bio contacts such as weed or kelp, or even the
rocks/coral themselves. The bottom usually marks clearly as well beneath the
fish, and there is usually no difficulty in establishing the true depth (all other
things being equal).
(2) Water Layers. Water layers of different temperatures and densities may
reflect part of the sound wave back towards the transducer. In all but the most
extreme cases of very strong layers, the bottom echo can usually be seen
through the layer, although the return may be weak. The most frequent cause of
layer-related non-bottom echoes is the ‘deep scattering layer.’ The deep
scattering layer consists of a mass of marine life, probably mostly plankton and
lanternfish, which reflect sound strongly. It usually lies at depths of about 350m
to 450m during the day, and largely disappears at night as the fish rise to the
surface. The deep scattering layer effect can be very strong, so it is sometimes
referred to as the ‘phantom bottom.’ Strong returns from the deep scattering
layer are probably the cause of the majority of false reports of shoals in
otherwise deep water.
(3) Submarine Springs. Salt and fresh water springs are a frequent
phenomenon in all parts of the world and they can occur at any depth; fresh
water springs have been known for many years in the southern part of the Gulf
for example. Salt water springs, on the other hand, will tend to occur wherever
there is geologic faulting or volcanic activity. Submarine springs and
hydrothermal plumes often cause strong echoes which resemble those of a
wreck or a small shoal. The differing water densities in their vicinity leads to
significant changes in VOS over a relatively short distance, which will lead to
further errors in the depth recorded. Known submarine springs will be marked
on the chart using appropriate symbology.

(4) Kelp. Echoes from weed or kelp can be hard to identify. The bottom will
usually be seen through kelp or weed echoes, although on occasion it may be
impossible to locate the true bottom. Kelp is uncommon in depths greater than
about 30m, although weed of other types can be found at any depths in coastal
waters.
(5) Turbulence. Turbulence in the water, often caused by the mixing of tidal
streams or strong eddies, will sometimes mark clearly on the echo sounder
trace.
(6) Side Echoes. Not all the energy transmitted from the echo sounder is
concentrated in the main (downward pointing) lobe; side lobes will occur as well,
and one of these may produce a good return from an object not actually
immediately below the vessel, where the slant depth is less than the true depth
of water. Side echoes can mark as a trace which is detached from the bottom,
blends in with it, or obscures it entirely. Side echoes can thus be difficult to
identify, but reducing transmitter power or receiver gain may help.
(7) Instrumental and Man-Made Echoes. Correct design, construction,

maintenance and operation of an echo sounder should prevent instrumental
echoes i.e. entirely false echoes which are an artefact of the system itself.
However, if the transmitter power or receiver gain is set too high, then spurious
marks may be seen on the trace. Equally, self-noise from onboard machinery or
other sonar on or near the echo sounder frequency may cause interference and
hence false echoes on the trace. Man-made objects such as buoy moorings or
anchor cables will also mark on the trace, often very distinctly.
f. Hyperbolic Echoes. Hyperbolic echoes may be produced when sounding over

a rugged or undulating seabed in deep water. The area of seabed covered by a
single ping from the echo sounder (which should be thought of as a cone rather than
a straight line) can be an insonification circle with a diameter between 400m and
2800m, depending on the equipment type, the beam with and depth of water.
Hyperbolic echoes are so-called because they mark with a distinctive hyperbola on
the echo sounder trace.
(1) Peaks Within Echo Sounder Insonification Circle. Within such an

insonification circle, there may well be local peaks, bottom features that are
closer to the transducer head than the seabed immediately below the vessel.
Echoes from these peak bottom features will mark the recorder at varying depths
as the slant range between them and the vessel alters.
(2) Apparent Hyperbola of Depths. Successive echoes from such peak

bottom features will trace a hyperbola on the echo sounder as the vessel
passes, the apex occurring at the closest point. Only if the vessel passes
directly over the peak bottom feature will the apex of the hyperbolic echoes
record the true depth.
(3) Interpretation of Hyperbolic Echoes. Interpretation of hyperbolic echoes

is very difficult. If hyperbolic echoes are being received from both sides of the
vessel’s track, it will be impossible to interpret the echo trace with certainty. With
a legacy echo sounder with a paper trace, the recommended procedure is to
mark the crests of the hyperbolic echoes on the trace, join them in a smooth

curve, and assume that this represents the bottom. At best this can only be an
approximation of the bottom, and at worst it will be misleading; this procedure is
not possible on modern echo sounders with electronic displays.
0409. Weak Echoes

In addition to the various possible sources of false or misleading echoes described in
Para 0408 above, there are two main causes of weak or intermittent echoes being received.
If multiple selectable transducers are fitted (eg submarines or ships with variable draughts
such as LSD(A) or LPD) it may be possible to improve performance by selecting an alternate
transducer.
a. Water Noise Interference. Flow noise across the face of the transducers will
interfere with echo sounder performance. It may be caused by one or more of the
shape and condition of the vessel’s hull, the vessel’s speed, the location of the
transducers, and the effects of sea and weather.
b. Water Aeration. The echo sounder relies on water to conduct the sound of the
echo sounder’s ping to the seabed. Aeration or cavitation of the water will inhibit the
propagation of the sound signal, and hence performance of the echo sounder.
Aeration of the water may be caused by excessive use of the rudder (especially in
bad weather), making sternway, encountering the wake of ships ahead, or having a
forward trim (such as in submarines or small craft).
0410. Calibration
As with any navigational instrument, an echo sounder must be carefully calibrated
before use so that the Command can have confidence in the depths it records. This is true
for all navigation, but additionally any RN and RFA vessel (not just purpose-built
hydrographic vessels) may be tasked with conducting a hydrographic survey of an area from
time to time. Such a survey will almost certainly require the use of the ship’s echo sounder,
in which case it must be carefully calibrated in order that UKHO are able to make full use of
the sounding data recorded.
a. Precision Calibration - Bar Check. The most accurate way to calibrate an

echo sounder (for shallow depths up to about 40m) is with a bar check. This

involves the use of a rigid hollow metal bar, filled with air, which is lowered
underneath the transducer on marked chains or non-stretch rope, such that the
depth the bar has been lowered to can be accurately known. In principle, the bar
check is straightforward in that the bar is lowered to a known depth and the readings
from the echo sounder compared so that adjustments can be made, or correction
tables created. In practice, the procedure is more complex, as adjustments can be
made both for transducer depth, delays inherent in the echo sounder equipment, and
the local velocity of sound. In theory, to be most accurate the bar check should be
carried out in the position to be surveyed, but in practice most non-specialist ships
do not carry the equipment and the procedure is harder to carry out in a seaway. In
practice, therefore, the bar check will usually be carried out alongside before sailing;
if necessary it can be completed again on returning alongside. A summary of the
procedure is given below.
(1) Bar Check Procedure. Initially, the bar should be lowered to 5m below the
transducer and the readings checked. Either the echo sounder’s transmission
line or the draught offset electronically applied should be adjusted to give the
true reading (it is vital before beginning to know whether the echo sounder is
displaying waterline depths or keel depths). The bar should then be lowered to
its deepest possible extent (probably 40m, assuming sufficient depth of water
exists), and the procedure repeated, raising the bar in 5m increments until the
calibration is complete. The results are then plotted graphically, to show depths
by measured lines against the difference between the measured lines and the
echo sounder readings. The gradient of the line can be adjusted by altering the
speed of sound in water, which will pivot the line about the transducer depth.
Once the VOS is correct, any residual error is remove by changing the
transmission line or draught offset. It is important that any separation
corrections are included in the process as the depths are likely to be shallow
enough for separation errors to be significant.
Note. To carry out an accurate echo sounder bar check, it is absolutely vital
that the navigator understands whether the echo sounder is set to record
depths from the waterline or the transducer. Adjusting a transducer-depth
echo sounder for waterline readings will introduce significant errors that may
be dangerous.
b. Gross Error Check – Leadline Calibration. As stated above, most ships will
not routinely carry bar calibration equipment. If one is available, it is likely to be
supplied by shore authorities and there is seldom likely to be 40m of water alongside
at the berth. A ready alternative is for the navigator to use the ship’s leadline as a
gross error check. It is important to carry out readings at a range of depths in order
to construct a graph of depths against echo sounder readings, so that the necessary
adjustments can be made to the equipment or a table of corrections drawn up.
c. Occasions for Echo Sounder Calibrations. The echo sounder should be

calibrated on a number of occasions.

(1) Following Refit. On completion of build or following any major upkeep
period or refit, the fullest possible calibration should be carried out.
(2) When any Part of the Equipment is Replaced. Whether as part of

planned maintenance or due to a defect, the equipment should be recalibrated in
order to ensure that the new part does not affect its performance.
(3) Prior to Carrying Out a Survey or Obtaining a Line of Soundings.

Where time and operational circumstances permit, the echo sounder should be
calibrated as fully as possible prior to carrying out survey work or a line of
soundings. If necessary, a post-operation calibration may be necessary as it
may not always be possible to achieve one before the operation.
(4) Annually. All other things being equal, in the absence of any other
reasons to calibrate the system, the echo sounder should be calibrated annually
and the results held in the Navigation Data Book.
(5) If there is any Doubt as to the Accuracy of the Echo Sounder. If, for
any reason, the Command or Navigating Officer has any reason to doubt the
accuracy of the echo sounder then a calibration should be carried out as soon as
possible.
0411. Upward-Looking Echo Sounders (SM Only)

Submarines are fitted with upward-looking echo sounders for under-ice operations.
As with all multi-transducer installations, it is important to be aware which of the various
transducers are selected. ES800 is capable of displaying upward and downward-looking
echo sounder readings simultaneously but this may not be the case with other equipment.
SECTION 2 – SPEED LOGS
0412. General Introduction

Throughout this chapter, the term ‘speed log’ will be used to avoid any ambiguity
with the Ship’s Log (Form RNS 322).
a. Purposes and Characteristics of Speed Logs. A speed log is a device which

is used to measure a vessel’s speed, and modern logs are also capable of
measuring the distance run. The type of speed measured (through the water or over
the ground) will depend on the type of log and how it operates. Logs are vital

navigational tools, as an accurate log forms the basis for dead reckoning. They can
also be used to supplement other forms of information, such as inertial navigation
systems.
b. Accuracy – Speed/Distance through the Water. A modern EM log (see

below), if in-date for calibration and suitably located on the ship’s hull, should be
capable of measuring the ship’s speed through the water to within 2% (95% 2σ) of
the actual speed through the water at all times.
c. Doppler Velocity Log Accuracy. Modern Doppler velocity logs (DVL) work on
a different principle to traditional logs (see Para 0418 below). In ideal conditions, in
relatively shallow water (200m or shallower) a DVL should be capable of measuring
speed over the ground with an accuracy of ± 0.1 kn (0.05 m/sec). Modern DVL
equipment is also capable of measuring speed through the water in deeper water (as
well as other information about the water column), with accuracies determined by the
equipment in question. Some DVL equipment also has an echo sounding capability
as well, due to the way the system operates.
d. Sensor Linearity. An important concept in assessing the operation and

performance of a speed log is ‘sensor linearity’. A linear sensor is one that produces
an output that is directly proportional to the input across the entire range of operation
i.e. for a speed log, it would detect the acceleration from 20 knots to 20.5 knots
equally as well as the acceleration from stationary to 0.5 knots. Sensors that do not
behave like this are described as non-linear; non-linearity is not a desirable
characteristic of a speed log.
0413. Summary of Types of Log

There are a number of different types of log available, which use different methods
for measuring a ship’s speed. A brief summary of each type is given below, with more
detailed explanations of capabilities and limitations following in the rest of the chapter.
a. Impeller Logs. The oldest form of log in common usage, the impeller log relies
on the motion of the ship through the water to physically drive an impeller (generally
either of the propeller or paddlewheel type), the rotations of which are sensed by the
log and translated into speed through the water and distance run. In the RN,
impeller logs are generally found only on smaller craft, and are generally accurate to
the greater of 1%/± 0.1kn/0.1nm. As they rely on underwater moving parts, impeller
logs are vulnerable to damage, and fouling by marine life or manmade obstructions
(ropes, plastic bags, debris etc).
b. Electromagnetic (EM) Logs. EM logs exploit the physical properties of

seawater to measure flow past a sensor without the need for any moving parts.
Sensors can be mounted on probes that extend some distance from the hull,
negating any boundary layer effects but making the sensor potentially vulnerable, or
they can be flush mounted in the hull. As explained at Para 0412 sub para b above,
a modern EM log should give speed through the water to an accuracy of 2%. Most
logs fitted to RN and RFA ships are of the EM type, although manufacturers and hull
outfits vary.
c. Sonar Logs. Sonar logs use information returned from active transmissions to
either supplement a traditional EM log or to generate from first principles speed over

the ground or speed through the water. They can operate on either ‘correlation’ or
Doppler principles, and, all other things being equal have the advantage of being an
order of magnitude more accurate than standard EM logs and also being able to
calculate an accurate speed over the ground as well as/instead of speed through the
water. Sonar speed logs are complex systems, which come in a number of forms
and are explained in more detail in Para 0417 to Para 0420.
d. Other Sources of Speed Information. A number of other sources of speed

information are available to the prudent navigator, and it would be wise to cross-
check them whenever possible.
(1) Propulsion Settings. Tables of speed against various propulsion settings

(shaft or engine RPM, % PCL etc) should be prepared and available for display
on the bridge. As a matter of routine, the OOW should be familiar with the
response broadly expected from their ship to a given engine order,
notwithstanding the effects of wind, sea and tide. One of the first indications of
shallow water effect may be a sudden slowing of the ship or log speed readings
significantly below those expected for a given engine order.
(2) GPS. GPS equipment is capable of measuring a ship’s velocity over the
ground with a high degree of accuracy. The information may be displayed
either directly on the equipment itself, or on other information such as WECDIS.
(3) Inertial Navigation Systems. Inertial navigation systems are capable of

displaying accurate velocities and may be a useful source of information in the
event of a log failure.
(4) Dutchman’s Log. A Dutchman’s log is the oldest and most straightforward
form of log. An offboard measuring device is deployed (i.e. a piece of wood or
other floating debris is thrown overboard) and the time it takes to pass two
known positions down the ship’s length is measured. The ship’s speed can thus
be established. Accuracy will depend on the size and speed of the ship, the
accuracy of the timepiece used and the ability of the observers, but in the
absence of any other information a Dutchman’s log may prove useful even if only
as a gross error check.
0414. General Principles of Electromagnetic (EM) Speed Logs
a. Sensing Head. The only outboard part of an electromagnetic (EM) log system
is the sensing head, which contains an electromagnet in a waterproof, faired
housing. The sensing head may be mounted on a probe to ensure it extends into
water clear of the boundary layer, or it may be in a flush-mounted assembly that
does not extend beyond the hull itself.
b. Principle of Operation. An EM speed log exploits the fact that when a

conductor (such as water) passes through a magnetic field, a voltage is created. As
that voltage is directly proportional to the speed at which the conductor passes

through the field, it is possible to measure the induced voltage as a way of
measuring speed. The sequence of operation of an EM log is given below.
(1) Magnetic Field Generation. A small alternating current energises the

electromagnet in the sensing head, setting up a local magnetic field which
encompasses the region of seawater around the sensing head.
(2) Voltage Induction. As the ship moves through the water, a voltage is
induced in the water itself (due to the Faraday-Maxwell effect). This voltage is
directly proportional to the velocity of flow past the sensing head (strictly through
the magnetic field).
(3) Speed Measurement. The induced voltage is detected by pickup

electrodes in the sensing head, and transmitted back up the sensor head to the
electronic assembly where it is amplified and measured. The electronics
assembly then convert the signal into velocity and distance run measurements,
for display or onward transmission to other systems as required.
0415. Single-Axis Electromagnetic Speed Logs
a. History. Single-axis EM speed logs were first introduced into the RN in the early
1960s, replacing obsolete mechanical types.
b. Sensing Head. The single-axis EM log sensing head can be mounted in fixed
or retractable probe, or a flush-mounted fit. Fig 4-4 below shows the general
arrangement of a typical fixed probe installation.
Fig 4-4. Single-Axis EM Speed Log Fixed Probe Sensing Head
c. Fixed Probes. Probe-mounted sensors will tend to be more accurate than flush
sensors because they will generally be designed to place the sensor in water outside
the boundary layer (see BRd 45(6)). Fixed probes are a relatively straightforward
item to fit, and are found in both ships and submarines.
d. Retractable Probes. Retractable probes offer the same accuracy as fixed

probes, but they come in a more complicated hull outfit. Major advantages of being
able to retract the probe are that it makes maintenance more straightforward (no
need for divers), and that, depending on the size of the probe, it may be possible to
make a meaningful reduction in the ship’s greatest draught (although if retracting the
log is necessary to make an evolution achievable, great care should be given as to

whether it is sensible to attempt it in the first place).
e. Flush Sensors. Flush sensors do not protrude beyond the hull at all, so they
are suitable for use in very shallow waters or in which large amounts of debris may
be expected. They operate within the ship’s boundary layer, however, so will not be
as accurate as fixed or retractable probes. That said, if the water is so shallow or so
debris-laden that flush sensors are required to avoid damage to extended probes,
speeds are unlikely to be so high that log accuracy becomes a genuine concern.
0416. Two-Axis Electromagnetic Speed Logs
a. Flush Sensor. Unlike the single-axis EM log, a two-axis log always uses a
discus-shaped flush-mounted sensor. The sensor is usually in the ship’s boundary
layer, and is aligned such that each axis measures a component of the ship’s
forward and athwartships speed through the water. A typical arrangement is
illustrated in Fig 4-5 below.
Fig 4-5. Two-Axis EM Speed Log Sensor
b. Principle of Operation. Functionally, a two-axis EM speed log operates in

exactly the same way as a single-axis log, on the basis explained in Para 0414 sub
para b, with the exception that it measures velocity in two axes. The sequence of
operation is explained below.
(1) Induction of Voltages. A vertical magnetic field is generated by the

sensor coil. The effect of water flowing through the magnetic field is to create
voltages at right angles to both the field and the direction of flow. Two pairs of
electrodes pick up the voltages which are proportional to both the fore and aft
and athwartships components of the water flow past the sensor. Within the
sensor linearity limits, the faster the water moves past the sensor head then the

greater the voltages which are generated and the higher the speed through the
water which is indicated.
(2) Processing. The voltages picked up by the sensor are transmitted to an

electronics assembly, which will drive the display and retransmission of fore/aft
and athwartships velocities.
(3) Athwartships Speeds. As the two-axis log is located within the ship’s
boundary layer, direct measurement of the ship’s athwartships velocity produces
poor accuracy because of sensor non-linearity at low speeds. This is overcome
by aligning the sensor such that each axis measures both fore and aft and
athwartships movement. This shifts athwarthships movements into the linear
operating region of the sensor.
(4) Water Track. A two-axis EM speed log configured in this way will produce
the ship’s water tack, taking account of athwartships movements to give a good
DR.
(5) Ground Track. If the estimated set and drift is applied to the water track,
an estimate of the vessel’s ground track can be developed.
(6) Accuracy. The ship’s speed through the water may be obtained to an
accuracy of ± 0.1kn in both the fore and aft and athwartships directions at most
speeds. At very low speeds, however, the log’s accuracy will be poor as the
sensor will be entirely in the non-linear region.
0417. General Principles of Sonar Speed Logs
a. Principles of Operations and Types of Sonar Speed Log. ‘Traditional’ speed

logs, such as impeller-type or EM logs, are inherently passive and rely on inferring
the ship’s speed based on the flow of water past a sensor. They can therefore only
give speed through the water. Sonar speed logs, on the other hand, are active as
they rely on active transmissions from a transducer mounted in the hull reflecting off
the seabed or deep layers of water to allow the system to measure the ship’s velocity
over the ground or through the water as required. Sonar speed logs operate on two
main principles: Doppler logs or correlation logs. Correlation logs can be further
divided into two types, which use different techniques: temporal correlation logs and
spatial correlation logs.
b. Performance of Sonar Speed Logs in Comparison with EM Logs. Sonar

speed logs have a number of advantages over traditional EM logs.
(1) Direction Measurement of Speed over the Ground. In a suitable depth

of water, a sonar speed log is capable of an accurate, real-time determination of
the ship’s speed over the ground. They are also capable of determining speed
through the water in other conditions.
(2) Accuracy. Speed over the ground can usually be measured to an order of
magnitude more accuracy than with a conventional EM log, especially at slow
speeds, which is of use for operations in which high accuracies/precisions are

required, or in which detailed information about the water column is required.
(3) Hull Outfit. Because they rely on active transmissions, sonar speed log
sensors can be mounted in a flush-mounted hull outfit within the boundary layer
without any loss in accuracy. If so mounted, they are less vulnerable to damage
than fixed or retractable probe type mountings, although if not perfectly flush to
the hull cavitation may occur.
c. Comparison of Correlation Speed Logs with Doppler Speed Logs. Detailed

descriptions of the various types of sonar speed log can be found in Para 0418 to
Para 0420 below, but the major differences between the two are summarised below
for readers requiring a general overview.
(1) Signal Strength. The strength of the returning signal is much higher for
correlation speed logs than Doppler logs for two reasons. Firstly, unlike a
Doppler log, a correlation log’s beam has a 90° angle of incidence with the
seabed, which gives better echoes. Secondly, a correlation log can use a wider
beam width than a Doppler log (beam widths typically of 10° to 40°) which allows
lower frequencies to be used for a given size of transducer; this allows for
reduced attenuation and so again better return echoes.
(2) Depth and Accuracy Capabilities. The signal strength differences

explained above mean that correlation logs can be used to obtain bottom echoes
in much greater depths than Doppler logs. Doppler logs will successfully track
the bottom down to 200m, and can also provide speed through the water by
tracking deep water masses. Spatial correlation speed logs can theoretically
track the bottom down to 2000m in calm conditions, although in reality they are
limited to about 300m in sea state 5. Spatial correlations are effectively linear
throughout the entire speed range and maintain accurate ground speeds down
to zero knots. Temporal correlation logs can successfully track the bottom down
to about 200m, but may lose tracking (de-correlate) in shallow water. They also
suffer from non-linearity at low speeds and may not provide valid speeds below
about three knots. Single-axis temporal correlation logs are, however, cheap
and simple and have utility in certain applications.
0418. Doppler Speed Logs
a. Speed Through the Water. Doppler logs do not require contact with the
seabed to establish accurate velocity data. They are capable of measuring speed
through the water by measuring the Doppler shift in echoes return from water layers
beneath the ship at selected depths (which will vary from 2-6m below the transducer
to 85% of the depth of water), although accuracy and capability very much depends
on the specific equipment fitted. Other than the fact that the echoes are coming from
a different water mass rather than the sea floor, the technique is exactly the same as
for speed over the ground measurements which are detailed below.

b. Speed Over the Ground. In single-axis Doppler speed logs, a narrow high
frequency sonar beam (usually 100kHZ to 1MHz) is transmitted from a transducer to
the seabed in order to get a return. Unlike an echo sounder, in order to generate
useful Doppler information the transmission is made at an angle from the
horizontal. The returning echoes are picked up by a transducer on the hull and the
inboard electronics assembly analyses the frequency of the echoes to derive the
ship’s speed.
c. Doppler Shift Measurement and Speed Calculation. The operation of single-

axis Doppler log is illustrated in Fig 4-6 below.
Fig 4-6. A Single-Axis Doppler Log
The beam is transmitted at angle . At sea, a ship moving forwards with velocity V
will pitch an amount shown by angle P, and be subject to vertical heave measured
by the vector VZ. The Doppler log measures speed by detecting the Doppler shift F
in the returning echo compared with the frequency F0 of the active transmission. If C
C is the velocity of sound in water, then it can be shown that the Doppler shift will be
given by the equation below:
2VF0 cosϕ
∆F =
C
This can be rearranged to find the vessel’s speed.

C × ∆F
V =
2 F0 cosϕ
Worked Example
Assuming a speed of sound in water of 1500m/s, transmission frequency of 300kH,

and transmission angle of 60°, and a ΔF of 1kHz, what is the ship’s velocity?
1500m / s × 1kHz
V = = 5m / s = 9.72 kn
2 × 300kHz × cos 60
d. Twin Beam ‘Janus’ Configuration. Although it is theoretically possible to use a

single beam in a Doppler log, in practice this kind of installation suffers from severe
limitations at sea. As the pitch angle P of the vessel continually alters, so the beam
angle is continuously altered, whilst the vessel’s heaving motion also introduces a
vertical velocity component. A trim by the bow or stern will also affect the beam
angle, altering the frequency of the received signal in proportion to the change in the
cosine of the angle. By way of illustration, a change in beam angle of only 8° as a
result of a change in pitch and/or trim can produce a change in measured forward
speed of about 25% for a standard beam angle of 60°. The effects of trim and pitch
can be largely overcome by using a ‘Janus’ configuration (named after the two-faced
Roman god) in which two beams are used, one facing forward and one facing aft.
e. Janus Configuration Error Subtraction. In a twin beam Janus configuration

installation, the change in frequency received from one of the pair of beams resulting
from the pitch and heave of the vessel is accompanied by an identical change in the
frequency received by the other of the pair. Thus, when the Doppler shift in one
returning frequency is subtracted from the other, these two changes should cancel
out, although in the real world residual errors (in the order of 1%) will usually remain.
Where the error in a single beam system can be as much as 25% for an 8° change
in beam angle, the error in speed measurement in a twin beam system can be under
1%. Almost all real Doppler log installations use a Janus configuration.
f. Twin-Axis Janus Configuration Doppler Speed Log. The beneficial Janus

configuration may be applied to a two-axis log by placing another Janus-configured
pair of beams in an athwartships direction, to take account of list and roll. Such
systems are capable of providing highly accurate athwartships speed information as
well as fore and aft.
g. Janus Configuration Doppler Shift Calculations. The principle behind

establishing speed from frequency shift is exactly the same in a Janus configuration
system as for the single beam system. If Ff is the frequency received by the
forward transducer and Fa is the frequency received at the aft transducer, V is the
forward speed of the vessel, VZ is the vertical heave vector, F0 is the transmitted
frequency, C is the speed of sound, P is the pitch angle and is the beam angle, it
can be shown that the change in frequency is given by:
 V 
4 F0V cosϕ  cos P + Z sin P
 V 
∆ F f − ∆ Fa =
C

In ideal conditions, when P and VZ are both equal to zero, the frequency change can
be simplified to:
4 F0V cosϕ
∆ F f − ∆ Fa =
C
This being the case, the ship’s speed is then given by:
V =
(
C ∆ F f − ∆ Fa )
4 F0 cosϕ
Fig 4-7 below shows an illustrative block diagram for a Janus configuration Doppler
speed log, using a transmitter frequency of 300kHz, with a difference between
forward and aft received frequencies of 4kHz.
Fig 4-7. Illustrative Janus Configuration Doppler Log System Block Diagram
h. Capabilities and Limitations. In ideal conditions, a Doppler speed log can

establish speed over the ground to an accuracy of ± 0.1kn (0.05 m/sec) in water
shallower than about 200m. Factors affecting Doppler speed log performance and
use are discussed below.
(1) Reflection Losses. The echoes received by the transducers are likely to
be weak. This is because the oblique angle of incidence between the
transmitted pulse and the seabed tends to scatter the energy beam widely,
depending on the nature of the bottom. Only a small proportion of the
transmitted energy is therefore reflected back to be received by the transducer.

(2) Propagation Losses. The propagation loss of a high frequency narrow
beam transmission is relatively large compared to a lower frequency
transmission. Reducing the frequency to improve bottom returns, allowing
bottom tracking and hence speed over the ground determination in deeper
water, means that the physical size of the transducer must be increased. A
compromise must therefore be struck between desired bottom tracking
performance, transmitted frequency and hence transducer size.
(3) Power Requirements. The power required must be sufficient to ensure

that the returning signal is sufficiently strong for the receiver circuits to
distinguish it from ambient noise. Too high-powered transmissions risk losing
the returns in reverbs and side lobes.
(4) Depth Limitations. The above performance factors mean that accurate
bottom tracking by a Doppler log is limited to waters 200m deep or shallower.
(5) Interference. Interference will degrade the performance of a Doppler

speed log. In particular, performance will tend to be poor in rough weather, and
it can be severely affected by interference from other ships’ wakes when
manoeuvring in close company or when conducting a RAS.
(6) Linearity. Doppler speed logs have a good dynamic response to

alterations in speed and are linear across the operating range. Some older
equipment may still be encountered which suffers from non-linearity below about
1 knot.
i. Applications of Doppler Speed Logs. Doppler speed logs are widely used in
large merchant vessels, due to their ability to provide highly accurate athwartships
speed readings, which are useful in berthing and unberthing. They are also well
suited to specialist shallow water naval operations such as mine clearance and
beaching; a Doppler log has now replaced an earlier correlation log in the
SANDOWN class SRMH. In very shallow water, shore mounted horizontal Doppler
logs are often used as docking aids for the berthing of very large merchant ships.
0419. Sonar Correlation Speed Logs
a. Basic Principles. In a correlation speed log, a single broad sonar beam is

transmitted vertically downwards from the ship towards the seabed, in a manner
directly comparable to an echo sounder; the arrangement is illustrated in Fig 4-8
below. The beam is at a much steeper angle, and has a much greater beam width
than the beam of a Doppler log. The vessel’s motion is measured by the sonar
detecting changes in the seabed features underneath the vessel; the same feature
will return an echo which will be received differently by each hydrophone, and it is
these differences which are measured and used to establish ship speed.

b. Echo Geometry. The characteristics of the echoes are determined by the
geometry of the active emitter, the hydrophones and the scattering properties of the
seabed. In Fig 4-8 below, one pair of hydrophones (H1 and H2) is positioned along
the longitudinal axis of the ship to measure fore and aft speed, and another pair (H3
and H4) is positioned on the athwartships axis to measure athwartships speed.
Fig 4-8. Two-Axis Correlation Log
c. Types of Correlation Speed Log. There are two types of correlation speed
logs. Temporal correlation logs, explained in Para 0419 sub para d below, examine
the time delays in returning echoes, whereas spatial correlation logs, explained in
Para 0419 sub para e, determine speed by looking at the spatial separation required
to correlate the echoes. The type of log determines some key operating
characteristics of the equipment.
d. Temporal Correlation Speed Logs. Temporal correlation logs use (at least)
two hydrophones positioned on the fore and aft axis, and (if athwartships speeds are
required) at least another two more on the beam axis of the ship, to capture the
returning echoes and examine the time delay between receiving them. This is used
to determine the speed. In this example, it will be assumed that there are only two
hydrophones.
(1) Sonar Pulse. A single sonar pulse is transmitted for each ground speed
measurement ‘V’. The pulse is transmitted vertically downwards to the seabed
with a relatively wide beam width; this makes the correlation log relatively
insensitive to movement of own ship in comparison with a Doppler velocity log.

(2) Echo Correlation. The sonar echo received at the forward hydrophone is
stored and compared with the echo received at the after hydrophone. These two
echoes will be identical (they will correlate) only provided that the first echo is
stored and delayed for the correct, unique ‘correlation time’ interval T.
(3) Calculation of Ground Speed. The forward ground speed is calculated

using the formula below, where Vt is the ground speed of the transmitter, Vh is
the ground speed of the receiving hydrophone, d is the distance between the two
hydrophones, and T is the correlation time.
d
Vt + Vh =
T
As the transmitter and hydrophones are mounted on the same platform, they
must be moving at the same speed and so:
Vt = Vh
Thus, by substitution into the first formula:
d
V =
2T
Example. With d of 0.1m, and T of 10ms (i.e. 0.01 seconds), what is the ship’s
forward speed V?
01.m
V = = 5m / s = 9.72 kn
2 × 0.01s
(4) Two-Axis Temporal Correlation Logs. In a two-axis temporal correlation

log, the ground speed components of each of the two axes may be resolved by
using two pairs of thin transducers inclined at an angle to each other. Each pair
of transducers is connected to an individual correlator; if the lateral velocity is
zero, the correlation time delay needed to obtain perfect correlation is identical in
both correlators. Any lateral velocity component produces a proportional time
difference in the two correlators.
(5) Limitations of Temporal Correlation Logs. The most serious limitation of

temporal correlation logs is that they de-correlate in very shallow water at low
speed i.e. they cease to produce valid speed readings. They are therefore not
suitable for naval operations, for which the (more complex and therefore more
expensive) spatial correlation log is preferred.
e. Spatial Correlation Speed Logs. The arrangement of hydrophones in a spatial

correlation speed log is the same as for the temporal correlation type, i.e. at least
two hydrophones on the fore and aft axis and at least two on the athwartships axis if
athwartships velocities are required.

(1) Separation Distance between Hydrophones. In spatial correlation speed
logs, the separation distance ‘d’ between the hydrophones may be varied. This
is achieved in practice by using an array of many hydrophones to provide a
range of values for ‘d’ to be used in interpolation.
(2) Echo Correlation. Ground speed ‘V’ is derived from the transmission in
sequence of two identical short pulses. The interval between the two pulses is
known as the correlation time ‘T’ and its value is by definition known accurately.
The hydrophones receive echoes from each pulse in turn, and a ‘cross-
correlation network’ selects the optimum value for ‘d’ to match the distance
travelled by the ship during the interval between pulses.
(3) Ground Speed. Ultimately, it can be shown that a spatial log uses the
same formula to determine ground speed as does a temporal log, restated
below.
d
V =
2T
(4) Block Diagram. An example block diagram for a representative system is

given below in Fig 4-9.
Fig 4-9. Spatial Correlation Speed Log System Block Diagram
(5) Two-Axis Spatial Correlation Logs. In a two-axis spatial correlation log,

the athwartships speed is established in exactly the same manner as the fore
and aft speed.
(6) Capabilities of Spatial Correlation Logs. Unlike temporal correlation

logs, spatial correlation logs are capable of providing accurate ground speeds
down to zero velocity, due to the interpolation methodology used. Spatial logs
do not suffer from the same shallow water limitations as a temporal correlation
log.
0420. Combination Electromagnetic/Sonar Speed Logs

a. Introduction. In order to provide the most accurate possible velocity
information, it is possible to combine a two-axis EM log with a two-axis temporal or
spatial correlation speed log, to create a two-axis combination speed log. This sort
of system was fitted to SANDOWN class minehunters at build, although in recent
years it has been replaced with a Doppler velocity log. When combined with a gyro
or other heading input, a combination log can provide an accurate DR, if good
bottom tracking is achieved.
b. Integration of Speed Log and Gyro/INS. The outputs from the two speed logs
are selectively integrated with heading via a suitable gyro or inertial navigation
system (INS).
(1) Sonar Speed Log. The role of the sonar speed log (Doppler or spatial
correlation) is to establish the ship’s ground speed, so far as is possible given
the limitations of the equipment fitted.
(2) EM Log. The role of the EM log is to determine the vessel’s speed through
the water at all times.
(3) Set and Drift – Ground Speed. When seabed tracking is satisfactory, the
Doppler or spatial correlation log will be provide an accurate measurement of the
ship’s movement over the seabed. As water speed and heading are known, this
means that the set and drift can be accurately determined, and hence ground
speed and ground track.
(4) Estimated Set and Drift – Ground Speed. Water speed from the EM log
is used to update the ground speed during periods when bottom tracking is not
possible. Vectors for estimated set and drift and leeway must be entered
manually in order to provide an estimate of ground speed.
c. Ground Speed Inputs to Gyro Compass. If the combination log is interfaced

to the gyro compass, it can improve the North-seeking properties of the gyro.
(1) Ground Speed Components. The combination speed log output includes
both the fore and after and athwartships components of ship’s speed. The fore
and aft axis of the combination log and the roll axis of the gyro must be
accurately aligned with one another.
(2) Ground Track Components. The two ground speed components are
combined in the gyro accelerometer integration loops. This enables the system
to generate northerly and easterly components of the ground track.
d. Accuracy of Combination Speed Logs. The ground speed accuracy of a

combination speed log should be better than ±0.1kn. Positional accuracy
degradation in the absence of fixes should be less than 2.4nm per day, assuming
good bottom tracking. Whenever the Doppler or spatial correlation log are unable to
track the bottom, the accuracies given will be heavily dependent on the correct
assessment and inputting of leeway and set and drift estimates.

0421. Speed by Engine Revolutions/Pitch
a. Unreliable or Unavailable Speed Log. If the ship’s installed speed log

equipment is unavailable or deemed unreliable, then a gross assessment of the
ship’s speed through the water may be made by using average engine revolutions or
power settings over the hour. This method relies on having accurate tables of
engine revolutions (or % PCL) against speed; the OOW should know instinctively
what engine orders to give for a desired speed. In shallow water, the first indications
of shallow water effect may well be that the ship’s log speed drops dramatically
compared to the speed expected for the engine settings.
b. Revolution Tables. Revolution tables or PCL settings for various speeds are
derived for each new warship from first of class trials. They may be reviewed as part
of propulsion power statement (PPS) trials after refits or major work such as engine
or propeller changes.
(1) Compilation and Accuracy of Tables. Revolution (or PCL) tables may be
compiled from the results of runs over a measured distance, carried out in a
similar manner to log calibrations (see Para 0424). They should be a good guide
to practical estimates of speed through the water, provided allowances are made
for variations in draught, the state of the ship’s bottom and the effects of wind
and sea.
(2) Speed Range and Draught. Warship revolution tables are usually
produced for the full range of speeds from zero to full power, at 1 or 2 knot
intervals. Tables will usually be given for the ‘full warship displacement’; ships
with substantially variable draughts (such as LPD or LSD) may produce
additional tables for other states of draught.
(3) Bottom Fouling and Draught States. Three revolution tables are
normally produced for each vessel, showing shaft RPM against speed for a
normal draught and one of three bottom states: clean, six months out of drydock
(or since last bottom clean) and 12 months out of drydock (or since last bottom
clean). In addition, regular monthly trigger trials in accordance with RNTM
042/16 should give confidence that revolution tables are broadly accurate.
SECTION 3 – SPEED LOG CALIBRATION
0422. Principles of Speed Log Calibration
a. Speed Log Errors. All speed logs, of whatever type, are subject to errors of
one kind or another, which will vary over the speed range. Due to the importance of
accurate log information to the safe navigation of the ship, it is essential that
accurate speed log calibrations are carried out over the entire speed range of the
vessel. Correctly calibrated speed logs are then capable of supplying accurate
information to the NO to support the construction and evaluation of the DR, EP, pool
of errors/most probable position, and for onward distribution to other equipment such

as sensors and weapon systems. In carrying out log calibrations, there are several
fundamental points to note.
(1) Percentage Speed Log Correction. The percentage speed log correction
to be applied must always be applied as a percentage of (indicated) speed
through the water and not of speed over the ground.
(2) Units of Speed. Speed logs should be calibrated for speed through the
water in knots (kn). One knot is one international nautical mile (defined as
1,852m) per hour.
(3) Units of Distance. A correctly calibrated log should be adjusted to read

speed through the water in knots (see above), and distance run in nautical
miles. A sea mile is defined as one minute of latitude, and so the length of a
sea mile varies with latitude and the spheroid in use; sea miles are not
provided by a correctly calibrated log. If for any reason a reading in sea
miles is required, then a correction must be made to the speed log results for the
difference between one nautical mile and one sea mile at the particular latitude
for the spheroid in use.
b. EM Speed Logs. The accuracy of EM speed logs depends on the type of

sensor used, and arguably more importantly, its position on the hull, in particular
whether or not the sensor is within the boundary layer. The signal output from the
sensor is directly related to water flow and is rarely linear over the whole speed
range of the vessel.
c. Sonar Speed Logs. Sonar speed log transducers may be flush-mounted on the
hull without loss of accuracy, as they operate through the boundary layer and directly
measure speed over the ground, provided that the vessel is operating in a suitable
depth of water.
d. Operational State. Speed log calibrations should be carried out with the vessel
in its operational state, with all underwater fittings in place. In vessels fitted with a
towed array (TA), log calibration runs should be carried out with the TA stowed.
0423. Frequency of Log Calibrations

Log calibrations are an essential serial, and vessels must ensure that sufficient time
is included in the programme for them. There are several occasions when log calibrations
are mandatory.
a. Occasions for Mandatory Log Calibration. A log calibration is mandatory on

the following occasions.
(1) On First Installation. Log calibration should usually be carried out as part
of the sea trials and acceptance process for new-build vessels, but must also be
carried out if a new log is fitted at a later time in the ship’s life.

(2) Following Refit. A log calibration must be carried out if, following a refit or
other docking period, the vessel’s underwater shape has changed. It will surely
be advisable to carry out a ‘check cal’ after a refit or major docking even if it is
not believed that the underwater profile has been altered.
(3) If a Different Type of Probe or Sensor is Fitted. A simple ‘like for like’
replacement of one sensor head with another is unlikely to required a full
calibration, but if one is replaced with a different type (eg probe-mounted replace
with flush-mounted sensor) then a full calibration must be carried out.
(4) If in Any Doubt. If, for any reason, the Command does not have
confidence in the log, then a calibration should be carried out. Modern
navigational equipment fits mean that it is now possibly to carry out calibrations
relatively straightforwardly even at sea, so there can be no excuses for not even
carrying out at least a gross check of log speed against DGPS.
b. Submarine Log Calibrations at BUTEC. The range at BUTEC is uniquely

suited to assist submarines in carrying out dived log calibrations. NOs should
proactively seek to make the best possible use of any ‘dead’ time on the range to
carry out log calibrations on an opportunity basis, without interfering with the trials or
training programme. Submarine log calibrations are considered further in Annex 4A.
0424. Calibrating a Log with a Measured Distance

The oldest and simplest method for calibrating a log involves the use of a measured
distance ashore (always called a ‘measured mile’ even if the distance is, in fact, more than a
mile). A minimum of two runs, and possibly as many as four, are required at each speed to
be measured, and the full range of speeds should be measured, to determine the vessel’s
speed through the water and speed over the ground for each speed. It is then a
straightforward calculation to establish the percentage speed log correction for each speed.
Multiple runs at each speed are necessary in order to ensure that the effects of tidal stream
and wind are cancelled out so far as is possible.
a. Measured Distances Available for RN Use. Fleet Operating Orders (FLOOs –

BRd 9424) contain details on various measured miles maintained by MOD for use by
RN vessels. Further details can be found on the relevant chart and in sailing
directions. Care should be taken when planning to use a measured mile to ensure
that the available depth of water supports the planned range of speeds, as well as
that any speed limits or restrictions placed on the size of vessel on the range are
obeyed. Attention should also be paid as to whether or not the beacons are
illuminated at night; when using MOD ranges, the NO must ensure that any
necessary area bookings or range bookings are signalled sufficiently in advance to
ensure that illumination can be provided if necessary. Vessels are not to use any
remaining commercial measure miles without prior approval from NCHQ.
b. Time Requirement. Due to the number of runs required, log calibration on a

measured distance can be a time consuming evolution. A good rule of thumb is to
allow at least one day on the range to complete the full set of calibrations; the
programme should ensure time for additional runs to check the calibration and for
any defect rectification which becomes necessary. It may be possible to achieve the
runs overnight, but care must be taken to ensure that the range is lit, and that it will
be safe to carry out the runs overnight.
c. Preliminary Adjustments. Any relevant preliminary adjustments should be

made to the equipment in accordance with the relevant handbooks. Any other
guidance concerning equipment setup should also be followed.
d. Operational State. So far as is possible, the vessel should be in the operational

state, with all underwater fittings in place. Towed arrays and other towed bodies
should be stowed.
e. Selection of Calibration Speeds. A series of runs over the measured distance

must be carried out at a number of speeds. Depending on the type of equipment,
these will generally either be at 6, 12, 18, 24 knots and then 6 knot intervals up to
maximum speed, or 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 knots and then 4 knot intervals up to
maximum speed. Navigators should refer to the equipment handbook for details for
their ship. The general pattern of runs is shown in Fig 4-10 below.
f. Tidal Stream. When the tidal stream is negligible or assumed to be constant,

one run in each direction at each speed should suffice. If the tidal stream is strong
or variable, four runs at each speed should be made. If four runs are necessary, it is
important that the time intervals between runs are kept constant. For example, if the
first run was commenced at 1000 and the second at 1020, then the third and fourth
should be started at 1040 and 1100 respectively.
g. Vessel and Weather Conditions During Runs. A number of requirements

must be satisfied throughout the runs in order to achieve a valid log calibration, as
detailed below.
(1) Constant Speed. Each run must be conducted at a constant speed

throughout the run, without the need to adjust any engine power settings. In
order to allow for deceleration/acceleration, it is necessary to be steady on
course for at least five minutes prior to starting the run.
(2) Use of Rudder. When turning between runs, to limit the loss of speed in
the turn, no more than 15° of rudder should be used. During the run itself, the

rudder should be used sparingly.
(3) Weather Conditions. Log calibrations should be carried out in calm

conditions, with no swell, and in winds of Force 3 or less.
(4) Stopwatch Period. The stopwatch period for each run is defined as the
interval between the bridge crossing each measured distance transit.
h. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Measured Mile Method. See Para

0429 for a full discussion of the various advantages and disadvantages of each
method of calibrating logs.
Fig 4-10. Speed Log Calibration Runs over a Measured Distance

0425. Calibrating a Log with a QRAMB
If no measured mile is available, ships can carry out an effective log calibration with
the use of two free-floating QRAMBs (danbuoys will also work but are no longer routinely
carried onboard HM warships). The QRAMBs, designated A and B, should each be fitted
with radar reflectors, and then laid deep water, well clear of land, about 3nm apart on a line
at right angles to the true wind. A light, steady wind and calm conditions are required.
a. Conduct of the Calibration. Starting at least 5 minutes’ run from buoy A (to
allow time to accelerate and settle on a steady speed), the ship should steer a
steady course towards buoy B. Once the course has been selected, it should not be
altered regardless of any small movement of buoy B relative to the ship’s course.
(1) First Run – Radar Range. When the ship has steadied at the ordered
RPM/PCL setting (about 2-2½ nm from buoy B) a range is taken with the fire
control or navigational radar and the stopwatch started.
(2) First Run – Second Radar Range. The range strobe is then reduced by
exactly 1nm and the stopwatch stopped when the ship has closed to this
distance. Alternatively, the strobe range may be measured after a set period of
time has elapsed (eg 6 minutes, 3 minutes at high speeds), which simplifies the
calculations. Frequent observations and averaging of log readings throughout
the run will give a measurement of speed through the water.
(3) Second Run. When past buoy B, the ship reverses course, and starts the
second run once it has achieved at least five minutes steady on course and
speed as for the first run. Ranging is taken off buoy A in the same manner as for
the first run.

(4) Subsequent Runs. The process is repeated, ranging off each buoy in
turn, until the required number of runs over the required speed range have been
completed. If there is a shift in the wind over a run, a second run in the opposite
direction should be carried out.
b. Accuracy of the Method. The accuracy of the free-floating danbuoys or

QRAMB method is largely dependent on the accuracy of the radar and the means of
taking readings from it. There are though several sources of error.
(1) Time Error. The maximum time error on each run is unlikely to be more
than ±2 seconds. This results from the measurement of range being taken from
a radar with an aerial rotation rate (for a typical navigation radar such as 1007) of
about one revolution every 2 ½ seconds.
(2) Magnitude of Time Error in Terms of Speed. The time error, allowing for
interpretation, is about ±1 second on the measurement of range at the beginning
and end of each run. It has been found in practice that when all readings are
plotted on a graph of revolutions/PCL settings against speed, if a mean curve is
drawn, the greatest error has generally been no more than about 0.2 knots.
(3) Use of Fire Control Radar. The problem of accurate ranging and timing
caused by the aerial rotation rate of the navigation radar can potentially be
eliminated by the use of a fire control radar.
0426. Calibrating a Log by (D)GPS
a. Concept. If a shore-based measured distance is not available, then onboard

GPS or DGPS equipment may be used instead of QRAMBs to carry out a log
calibration.
b. Procedure. The procedure is similar to that at Para 0425, except that the GPS
readouts are used to determine the distance travelled rather than a set of transits on
the shore. Care must be taken to establish the precise distance involved, as there is
a difference between an international nautical mile (1,852m( and a sea mile (1’ of
laititude at the observer’s location, measured on the spheroid in use by the
observer). See Para 0425 for the concerns and considerations.
c. Advantages and Disadvantages. See Para 0429.
0427. Calibrating a Log with INS
a. Concept. Inertial navigation systems (INS), by definition, are capable of

providing extremely accurate velocity information, provided that the platform is well-
settled, with a well-established Kalman filter. This can be used to calibrate the log.
b. Procedure. The procedure is similar to that at Para 0425. In addition to the

considerations given in Para 0425 sub para a to Para 0425 sub para g, there are a
number of INS specific considerations.
(1) INS Damping. Calibrations should be made with INS damping set to ‘off’

(manual undamped for NATIO SINS MKII), to avoid speed log induced Schuler
oscillations.
(2) Monitoring of INS Velocities. The INS should be confirmed as settled

before accepting speed log and INS comparison readings for a speed log
calibration run. INS velocities should be observed and plotted in advance for at
least 30 minutes; they must be clearly stable and consistent with shaft
revolutions.
(3) Reciprocal Runs. Reciprocal runs should be made as soon as possible,

consistent with the gentle manoeuvring which is necessary both to avoid starting
a Schuler oscillation and/or a severe loss of speed in the turn.
c. Accuracy. Over the speed range of the calibration, a well-groomed INS

equivalent to a well-filtered and settled NATO SINS should provide accuracies of
±0.1kn.
d. Advantages and Disadvantages. See Para 0429.
0428. Comparative Advantages and Disadvantages of Log Calibration Methods

Each of the various methods for calibrating a log has advantages and
disadvantages, but whilst they should be considered when contemplating how best to
calibrate the log, it should be remembered that all methods will work but they will not always
be available. After all, if a ship does not have an INS and there are no measured miles in the
vicinity, then the choice of methods will by definition be constrained. The choice in practice
will be determined by the systems and the time available.
a. Measured Distance.
(1) Shallow Water and Local Limitations. Measured distances are usually
located in shallow water, thus precluding high speed runs. Moreover, they may
be in areas which are subject to local speed limits, heavy local traffic, or even
financial constraints with respect to illumination at night.
(2) Two/Four Runs per Speed. Measured distances always require at least
two runs per speed, and, if located in an area of rapidly changing tidal streams,
will require four runs per speed. When time to alter course at the end of the run
is factored in, log calibrations on a measured distance can be very time
consuming.
(3) Traffic Congestion. As they are by definition in coastal waters, measured

distances are often in areas with heavy traffic. Although in UK waters it is
prohibited to fish or trawl along a measured distance, this does not apply to the
water off the measured mile that the ship needs to turn around.
b. QRAMB. In comparison with the use of a measured distance, the QRAMB

method has a number of advantages, but of course it relies on sufficient buoys and
radar reflectors being available.
(1) One Run per Speed. Tidal stream should affect each buoy identically, and
in the same way as the ship itself is affected. Therefore, only one run per speed

is required. By carrying out runs at right angles to the true wind, any difference
in leeway of the ship compared with the leeway of the buoys should produce a
negligible range difference on the run. The time taken to carry out a log
calibration using buoys should be more than halved compared to the use of a
measured distance.
(2) Tidal Stream Variations. If the buoys are dropped well clear of land, local
variations in the tidal stream over the length of the run may be considered
negligible. It is possible to check this by fixing the position of each buoy before
and after the log calibration. If indeed local variations in the tidal stream are
negligible, the total movement of each buoy should be the same.
(3) Avoidance of Shallow Water Effect. As the buoys can be laid in deep
water, it is possible to avoid the onset of shallow water effect, which is often a
concern for measured distances.
(4) Radar Index Error Elimination. There is no need to worry about the radar
index error, as it is the difference in range that is measured rather than the
absolute range.
(5) Flexibility. This method can be used by day or night, in or out of sight of
land, in shallow coastal waters or the deep ocean. The preparation, laying and
recovery of the buoys will take time but is a useful seamanship evolution in its
own right.
c. GPS/DGPS.
(1) Avoidance of Shallow Water Effect. As it is possible to carry out the

calibration in deep water, the onset of shallow water effect can be entirely
avoided.
(2) Flexibility. A calibration by this method can be carried out by day or night,
in any location provided the satellite geometry is suitable for a high accuracy fix.
This method does not rely on any outside resources and there is no need to lay
or recover buoys.
d. INS. To all intents and purposes, the INS method has the same advantages as
the GPS/DGPS method described above. It relies on having a stable, well-groomed
platform which may not always be the case.
0429. Speed Log Calibration Calculations

The vessel’s mean speed through the water, as shown by the speed log readings, is
compared with the speed over the ground actually achieved, and from this the percentage
speed log correction may be calculated. The percentage speed log correction must always
be calculated as a percentage of speed through the water and not of speed over the ground.
The instructions below are generic; in practice, ships must refer to the specific guidance for
their particular installation as to the conduct of log calibrations. Modern equipment may be
capable of self-calibration provided it is marked at the beginning and the end of each run; if
this is the case then it is vital that a number of check runs are completed once the self-
calibration is complete.

a. Observation and Recording of Log Speed. The speed displayed by the log
should be recorded every 15 seconds, or every 10 seconds at speeds of 20 knots or
greater. The distance run should also be noted in order that any discrepancies may
be noted and corrected.
b. Calculation of Percentage Speed Log Correction. The mean speed over the
ground and speed through the water at each calibration speed should be calculated
for each run, both in knots and as a percentage speed log correction, where:
C = Percentage speed log correction

V1, V2, V3 and V4 = speed over the ground measured on runs 1, 2, 3 and 4
L1, L2, L3 and L4 = speed through the water measured on runs 1, 2, 3 and 4
(1) Two-Run Formula. If the tidal stream is assumed to be zero or constant,

then it is only necessary to carry out two runs for each calibration speed. In this
case, the percentage speed log correction is given by the formula below.
 V1 + V2 
C = 100 − 1
 L1 + L2 
(2) Four-Run Formula. If the tidal steam is strong and/or variable, then an
accurate percentage speed log correction is only achievable by carrying out four
runs at each calibration speed. In this case, the percentage speed log correction
is given by the formula below.
 V1 + 3V2 + 3V3 + V4 
C = 100 − 1
 L1 + 3 L2 + 3 L3 + L4 
c. Tidal Stream Calculations. For an accurate log calibration, it is necessary to

ensure that the effects of any tidal stream have been eliminated. It is possible to
calculate the effects of tidal streams mathematically, but this is a complicated
procedure involving either a significant degree of approximation, or the use of high-
order polynomials to interpolate the tidal stream velocity at a point in time and space
across the ship’s run. These calculations are unlikely to be practicable in most ships
carrying out a log calibration; it is much more straightforward to carry out four
calibration runs spaced at equal time intervals. This being the case, the only
calculations necessary is the one at Para 0430b sub para (2) above.
d. Examples of Speed Log Calibration Calculations. Two examples are given

below, one each for the two-run and four-run methods.
Example 1 – Constant Tidal Stream (Two-Run Method).
A ship calibrates its log over a measured distance of 1 nautical mile (1,852m). Two runs are
made, one with and one against the tidal stream, which local knowledge suggests can be
considered constant for the duration of the two runs. The following results are recorded:
Run 1: Time 3 mins 38 secs

Mean speed through the water: 14.9kn

Run 2: Time 4 mins 00 secs
Mean speed through the water: 15.1kn
What is the percentage speed log correction?
Remember that 1 hour = 3,600 seconds. Therefore:
3600
V1 = = 16.5kn
218
3600
V2 = = 15.0kn
240
The percentage speed log correction can therefore be calculated using the two run method:
 16.5 + 15.0 
C = 100 − 1 = 100 × 0.05 = + 5.0%
 14.9 + 151. 
The percentage speed log correction is +5% and the speed log should be increased by
5% to read ‘true’ (i.e. correctly calibrated) speed through the water.
Example 2 – Variable Tidal Stream (Four-Run Method)
A ship calibrates its log over a measured distance of 1 nautical mile (1,852m). Local
knowledge suggests that the tidal stream is variable; four runs are therefore made, two with
and two against the tidal stream. The following results are recorded (SDT calculations alreay
complete):
Run 1: Speed over the ground 21.59kn

Mean speed through the water 20.3kn



What is the percentage speed log correction?
. + 3(17.76) + 3( 2127
 2159 . ) + 18.37 
C = 100 − 1
 20.3 + 3( 20.8) + 3( 20.6) + 20.7 
 157.05 
C = 100 − 1 = 100( 0.95 − 1) = 100 × ( − 0.05) = − 5%
 165.2 
The percentage speed log correction is -5% and the speed log should be reduced by
5% to read ‘true’ (i.e. correctly calibrated) speed through the water.

0430. Accuracy of Speed Log Calibration Corrections
The accuracy of the speed log calibration corrections will depend upon the accuracy
with which the speed displayed by the log was observed and recorded, and upon the
accuracy with which the information (range or time) needed to derive speed over the ground
was recorded.
a. Stopwatch Time Error. The recorded stopwatch times may produce errors of
the order of ± ½ second to ± 1 second. Errors of this scale will lead to errors in the
log correction in the order of about ± 1/3% per ½ second error. Generally, these
errors will be random so should cancel out over the course of the runs.
b. Observation of Speed through the Water. If the measured speed through the
water is derived from the recording of readings on the log’s display, the accuracy will
depend on how precisely the log displays the speeds (eg to none, one or two
decimal places) and how regularly it is read. Where the speed scale can be read to
0.1kn, the error should be about ± 1/3% at high speed, although it will likely be much
greater than this at low speeds.
c. Observation of Distance Recorder. If possible, the monitoring of the speed

log’s distance recording output can be a useful gross error check.
d. Overall Accuracy of Percentage Speed Log Correction. Overall, an accuracy

for the percentage speed log correction of ±1% should be achievable.
0431. Application of Speed Log Calibration Corrections

Having calculated the appropriate corrections, it is necessary to inject them into the
log equipment in question. The method of doing so will depend on the specific log
equipment fitted, and NOs must refer to all relevant handbooks as a matter of course for
instructions as to how to apply the corrections. In any case, if time permits (and it really
should be made available), it is advisable to carry out a number of post-calibration check
rungs using the same measured mile or buoy pattern as for the log calibration, in order to
ensure that the log calibration has been achieved
ANNEX 4A
AGI EM2 SPEED LOG
The AGI EM2 speed log comprises a fixed bronze probe (two probes in larger vessels),
‘speed and distance transmitter unit’ (SDTU), ‘retransmission units’ (RTUs), and a number of
‘speed and distance indicators’ and other interfaced equipment
a. Fixed Probes. The AGI EM2 speed log fixed probes have a fibreglass casing, and
extend 914mm below the hull in ships and 762mm in submarines. They contain an

electromagnet, bronze sensor electrodes, and are filled with an epoxy resin (Araldite or
similar) after assembly to prevent water ingress. A generic probe assembly is illustrated
below.
Fig 4A-1. AGI EM2 Speed Log – Fixed Probe
b. Speed and Distance Transmitter Unit (SDTU). The voltage generated in the
probe sensors is passed to the speed and distance transmitter unit (SDTU) to be
converted into speed and distance. The SDTU contains an indicator unit (right-hand
side) and a trimmer unit (left-hand side) – see Fig 4A-2 below. A calibrator unit is also
supplied – see Para 1 sub para c below. The voltage generated by the sensors is in
the region of 400 microvolts (400µV) per knot of water speed. This input is pre-
amplified and fed to a positional speed servo system. The speed servo takes up a
position which represents the vessel’s speed in knots and drives a dial on the SDTU
indicator unit, to give a local indication of the vessel’s speed in a range from 1kn to
30kn, or 2kn to 60kn. The SDTU trimmer unit provides the current to energise the
electromagnet in the hull probe sensor, and also produces the various correction signals

required in the speed amplifiers so that an accurate water speed may be recorded in the
SDTU indicator unit.
Fig 4A-2. AGI EM2 Speed Log – Speed and Distance Transmitter Unit
c. SDTU Calibrator Unit. A calibrator unit (not shown in Fig 4A-2 above for clarity) is
supplied as part of the SDTU to facilitate bench testing and fault finding. This unit
enables signals from 0kn to 60kn, in 6kn steps, to be injected into the control circuits.
d. Retransmission Units (RTU). The speed servo in the SDTU also drives two
synchro transmitters and a distance potentiometer. The vessel’s water speed is taken
from one of the synchro transmitters to the retransmission units (RTUs) in order to be
distributed to the navigation systems and any weapons systems which require a water
speed input. Inside the front cover of the RTU is a dial graduated in knots, which is read
from the mark engraved on the glass in the cover of the RTU. The distance
potentiometer develops a voltage proportional to the vessel’s speed to control the
distance servo. A series of 24 volt DC pulses are produced to represent the distance
travelled, at rates of 100, 200 and 400 pulses per nautical mile. A numerical register in
the SDTU indicator unit displays distance travelled up to 99,999.99 nautical miles. 100
pulses per nautical mile are normally used for the VCS Type 84 bridge display speed

and distance indicator (see Fig 4A-3 below), and VCS Type 630 bridge display speed
and distance indicators fitted in some MHCs, while 400 pulses per nautical mile are
normally used for other interfaced equipment. The 200 pulses per nautical mile facility
is usually dormant, but is available for use by other equipment if needed.
e. Speed and Distance Indicators. Multiple speed and distance indicators (see
example at Fig 4A-3 below) receive signals directly from the SDTU, to give an
immediate visual indication of the vessel’s speed (0-40kn) and distance run (0-999.99
nautical miles) through the water. A number of these indicators are fitted (eg
QM/OOW/CO consoles on the bridge, secondary steering position, ops room,
MCR/SCC, charthouse etc). A similar waterproof indicator may be supplied for use on
open bridges. In many platforms, the units are now digital utilising an LCD display but
the functionality is the same and the display is driven by the same underlying
technology.
Fig 4A-3. Legacy Speed and Distance Indicator (VCS Type 84)
2. System Block Diagram

Fig 4A-4 below illustrates a generic system. Note how the sensor, SDTU, RTUs, and
speed and distance indicator units and other interfaced equipment are interconnected.
Fig 4A-4. System Block Diagram

3. Dummy Log
If the probe or sensor is damaged, a speed signal may be supplied to the vessel’s
systems by means of a dummy log, inserted in the speed output wiring from the AGI EM2
speed log. It is fitted with a switch which disconnects the AGI EM2 speed log and
substitutes a signal which can be manually set to represent any speed within the normal
operating range of the equipment.
4. Validation Unit
A validation unit may be fitted to give local and remote indication of any of the following:
excessive misalignment between the speed and distance transmitter control element and the
RTU resetting element, failure of the 115V 400Hz power supply to the SDTU or RTU, or
failure of the 115V 60Hz supply to the SDTU.
5. Accuracy
If well sited and correctly calibrated, the accuracy of the system should be in
accordance with Table 4A-1 below.
Table 4A-1. AGI EM2 Speed Log Accuracy
SPEED RANGE ACCURACY

0 – 3 knots ±0.1 knots
Above 10 knots ±2%
6. Calibration
a. Frequency. The frequency of calibration should be in accordance with Para 0423,

which can be summarised as on first installation, after a refit if the underwater profile of
the hull has changed, after a different type of probe or sensor is fitted (re-calibration
usually not being necessary if the replacement probe is of identical type), or if there is
any doubt as to the performance of the log.
b. Action on Fitting a New AGI EM2 SDTU or Probe. The settings of a replacement
SDTU may need to be changed. The sensitivity of an otherwise identical log probe may
be different from the previous one, and thus the probe rod sensitivity or gain factor may

require changing, but re-calibration is probably unnecessary (it may be wise to at least
carry out a check run or two if the programme allows to prove confidence in the log).
The relevant handbook should be consulted for detailed instructions, but the following
points should provide a useful summary.
(1) Replacement SDTU. If the SDTU is replaced, re-calibration should be

unnecessary provided the previous settings are reset on the new unit.
(2) Probe Sensitivity Adjustment. Allowance for the different sensitivity of a

replacement probe may be made using the rod sensitivity control (RV12). This
control increases speed indication when adjusted clockwise and vice versa. One
revolution of the control know (i.e. 1/100) gives a 3% adjustment to indicated speed;
the probe sensitivity may be adjusted to read anywhere between 0 and 14/100.
Note. For the avoidance of any doubt, adjustments to settings should be

made by the WE Department.
c. Pre-Calibration Adjustments. The relevant handbook should be consulted for

detailed instructions on the preliminary speed log calibration adjustments required. The
following points are provided by way of an overview, remembering that the adjustments
will be made by the maintainers rather than the NO.
(1) Zero Water Movement. The vessel should be in still water (there must be no
relative movement between vessel and water).
(2) ‘Ind Zero’ and ‘Rod Zero’ Controls. Adjust ‘ind zero’ and ‘rod zero’ controls
in turn to obtain a zero speed indicator reading for each control.
(3) Rod Sensitivity (RV12). Set rod sensitivity (RV12) to the position indicated on
the graph supplied for the SDTU in use (eg the appropriate setting for 400
microvolts per knot may be 6/50).
(4) Linearity Correction Potentiometers (RV1-RV9). Set all nine linearity

correction potentiometers (RV1-RV9) to zero.
d. Application of the Corrections. The relevant handbook must be consulted for

detailed instructions on the application of settings to the SDTU, but the following points
are provided by way of an overview, remembering that the adjustments will be made by
the maintainers rather than the NO.
(1) Tabulation of Speed Log Calibration Results. Table 4A-2 below gives an
example of how the initial settings on the linearity correction potentiometers may be
adjusted to allow for the errors deduced from comparing mean ground speed with
mean water speed at various speeds over the speed range.
(2) Common Percentage Error. If the results show a basic percentage error
common to all speeds, the overall rod sensitivity setting (RV12) should be adjusted
before corrections are applied to the individual linearity correction potentiometers.
Table 4A-2. Example AGI EM2 Speed Log Calibration Runs (6 knot intervals)

Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4 Col 5 Col 6 Col 7 Col 8 Col 9
Initial Mean Speed Log % Log Overall Residual Correction Revised
Setting (Kn) Error Error Adjustment Log to Log Settings on
Ground Water High (% of to Rod Error Speed to Linearity
Speed Speed (H) log Sensitivity Achieve Potentiometers
(Log) Low water Control Ground
(L) speed) (RV12) Speed
(Kn) (kn)
RV1 – 6.05 6.19 0.14H 2.26%H Reduce log 0.74%L +0.046 +0.05kn
zero speed
RV2 – 11.75 12.12 0.37H 3.05%H indication 0.05%H -0.006 Zero
zero by 3% (i.e.
RV3 – 18.12 18.63 0.51H 2.74%H one anti- 0.26%L +0.049 +0.05kn
zero clockwise
RV4 – 23.63 24.56 0.93H 3.79%H turn of 0.79%H -0.19 -0.2kn
zero RV12)
RV5 – 29.74 30.80 1.06H 3.44%H 0.44% -0.14 -0.15kn
zero
RV6-9 - - - - - - -
– zero
CAUTION
The data in Table 4A-2 above is an EXAMPLE only and is not to be

used to calibrate or adjust settings on a log.
Notes:
1. Column 4 = difference of columns 2 and 3.

2. Column 5 = column 4 multiplied by 100, divided by column 3.
3. Column 6 = decision on best overall adjustment (common percentage
error).
4. Column 7 = difference of columns 5 and 6.
5. Column 8 = columns 4 and 7 multiplied together, divided by column 5
6. Column 9 = column 8 rounded to nearest linearity correction
potentiometer increment.
ANNEX 4B
AGILOG SPEED LOG
The AGILOG speed log is a more modern version of the AGI EM2 speed log described
in Annex 4A. It is microprocessor controlled to measure the vessel’s water speed using the
EM log principles explained in Para 0414, and the same physical concepts as explained in
Annex 4A. Depending on the platform, the AGILOG may be used with a fixed probe, fin
probe, retractable probe, flush sensor, or a combination thereof.

a. Fixed Probes. The fixed probe protrudes below the vessel’s boundary layer and is
the usual fitting in most RN FF/DD and SM. It is similar to the AGI EM2 speed log probe
shown in Annex 4A.
b. Fin Probe. The fin probe has been specifically designed for patrol boats and can
be affected by the boundary layer. Fin probe accuracy is less than that of a fixed or
retractable probe.
c. Retractable Probe. The retractable probe (also known as a retractable rodmeter)

protrudes below the vessel’s boundary layer and is suitable for use in shallow water. A
retractable probe provides the same accuracy as a fixed probe.
d. Flush Sensor. The flush sensor lies within the vessel’s boundary layer, but has no
underwater protrusions and is thus suitable for use in shallow water. Flush sensor
accuracy is less than that of the fixed or retractable probes.
2. Speed and Distance Transmitter Unit (SDTU)

The voltage generated by the AGILOG probe sensors is passed to the speed and
distance transmitter unit (SDTU), illustrated in Fig 4B-1 below, to be converted into speed
and distance indications. Speed is shown in a four digit LED display in the range -10kn to
+60kn. Distance is shown in a seven digit non-resettable LED display in the range 0 to
99,999.99 nautical miles. Up to two probe inputs can be processed in the SDTU, selected
by switches on the front panel. The use of two probes permits greater signal integrity, and
the mixing of different probes in one system. One or two syncho outputs may be provided in
the SDTU for transmission to navigation and weapon systems via retransmission units
(RTUs). The SDTU also supplies speed and distance repeaters (SDRs) in remote positions.
Februray 2017 Version 1
Fig 4B-1. AGILOG SDTU

a. SDTU Operating Controls. For normal mode operations, there are six controls
located behind the clear lower hinged door on the front face of the SDTU (see Fig 4B-2
below). Some controls may also be used for simulated mode operations. The relevant
SDTU text or LED indications are situated above the controls. Control functions are
detailed below.
Fig 4B-2. AGILOG SDTU – Controls and Indications
(1) Display Dimmer. The display dimmer adjusts the brightness of all the SDTU
displays.
(2) SDTU Mode Button. The mode button is used to select between normal or
simulated modes. In normal mode, both the curve and probe buttons, and either
the P1 or P2 (probe) LEDs are illuminated. Simulated mode enables a speed to be
set manually, and may also be used to check the system alongside. Simulated
mode is selected by pressing and releasing the mode button. In simulated mode,
the ‘sim up’ and ‘sim down’ buttons are illuminated, and the text ‘SIM’ is displayed
above the speed readout. In simulated both, all of P1, P2, C1 and C2 LEDs are
extinguished.
(3) Calibration Curve Button. The curve button is illuminated and therefore
active in normal mode operation, when either P1 or P2 will also be illuminated.

When the curve button is pressed, the AGILOG changes to the appropriate
calibration curve for the probe selected for use. The C1 or C2 LED will illuminate to
indicate the calibration curve selected. If the selected probe has only one
calibration curve, this is duplicated to ensure that inadvertent operation of the curve
button does not adversely affect AGILOG operation by accidentally applying nil
corrections.
(4) Probe Button. The probe button is illuminated and therefore active in normal
mode operation (when the curve button and either P1 or P2 LED are also
illuminated). Pressing and releasing the probe button changes the input to the
SDTU from probe 1 to probe 2 or vice versa, and the appropriate LED will illuminate
to indicate which probe is now selected. When only one probe is installed, the P1
and P2 connections are wired in parallel so that inadvertent operation of the probe
button makes no difference to AGILOG operation.
(5) Sim Up/Sim Down Buttons. The sim buttons are only active in simulated
mode. Pressing the buttons causes the simulated speed to increase or decrease
as appropriate while the button is held down; releasing the buttons freezes the
display.
b. Display Indications. The SDTU display indications consist of various LED

alphanumeric indicators and LEDs.
(1) Speed and Distance Indications. The speed and distance readings are
displayed on LED alphanumeric displays as a steady indication; flashing characters
indicate a fault.
(2) Sim Display Indication. The ‘sim’ text indication only appears when the
AGILOG has been placed in simulated mode.
3. Speed and Distance Repeaters

Multiple speed and distance repeaters (SDRs – see typical example at Fig 4B-3 below)
receive signals directly from the SDTU at 100, 200 or 400 pulses per nautical mile, to drive a
display if vessel speed and distance run through the water (0-999.99 nautical miles).
Dimmer buttons are provided to brighten/dim the display, together with trip ½ and reset
buttons. A number of SDRs are fitted throughout the ship/submarine.
Fig 4B-3. AGILOG Speed and Distance Repeater

4. SDTU Faults
The SDTU runs its own fault diagnostic routine under the control of a dual
microprocessor-based system. If a fault is detected, the operator is warned by flashing
knots and/or sea miles alphanumeric displays.
a. Fault Codes. When the front cover of the SDTU is removed, up to three fault
codes will be indicated on the displays. The fault codes identify which of the twelve
modes is likely to be defective, so that a replacement may be carried out. The fault
codes will be displayed in order of probability as follows.
(1) Knots Display. The most likely fault code will appear on the knots display.
(2) Sea Miles Display – Left. The second most likely fault code will appear on the
left side of the sea miles display.
(3) Sea Miles Display – Right. The least likely fault code will appear on the right
side of the sea miles display.
b. Calibration Terminal Keypad Display. The SDTU calibration terminal keypad

display (located on the upper right hand side of the SDTU and shown on Fig 4B-2 and
Fig 4B-4) runs in parallel with the main displays to provide backup should the log
displays themselves become faulty when displaying fault codes.
5. Calibration
The principles and procedures for speed log calibrations are detailed in full in Para 0422
to Para 0431, including the occasions when calibration is required. The procedures for the
AGILOG are broadly the same as for the AGI EM2 speed log detailed in Annex 4A, with the
exception of the following features.
a. Calibration Terminal Keypad – Speed Log Calibration Data. The calibration

terminal is used to enter speed log calibration data. Values for up to 14 different speeds
within the vessel’s speed range (including zero) may be entered. The unit automatically
interpolates between these points for intermediate values.

b. Calibration Points and Curves. A minimum of five calibration points should
always be entered, including zero and the vessel’s maximum speed. The SDTU can
store two calibration curves, which may be selected between by using the curve button
on the SDTU lower control panel. Calibration data for each curve is entered using the
keypad. It is possible to select between four combinations of probe and curve (P1C1,
P1C2, P2C1, P2C2).
c. Replacement SDTU. If the SDTU is replaced, re-calibration should not be

necessary, provided that the previous settings are re-entered into the new unit. If the
microprocessor board (module two) in the AGILOG is replaced, the original calibration
data for the platform must be re-entered using the keypad.
6. Calibration Terminal Keypad
a. Keypad Location. The calibration terminal keypad is located on the upper right
hand side of the SDTU – see Fig 4B-2. The keypad itself is shown in Fig 4B-4 below.
Fig 4B-4. AGILGOG Calibration Terminal Keypad

b. Keypad Functions.
(1) Reset. The reset function clears the current table of data and causes
‘AGILOG’ to be displayed.
(2) Next. The next button causes the current data table cursor to indicate the next
number in the table.
(3) Last. The last button causes the current data table cursor to indicate the
previous number in the table.
(4) Clear. The clear button clears the contents of the data table at the cursor
position.
(5) Exam. The exam button allows a calibration curve stored in the probe to be
examined via the probe and cursor buttons. When the exam button is pressed, use
the probe button to select a probe and the curve button to select a curve.
(6) Save. The save button stores the data in memory.
(7) Numerical and Decimal Point Keys. The numerical and decimal point keys
are used to enter numeric values as required.
ANNEX 4C
CHERNIKEEF AQUAPROBE EM SPEED LOG
The Chernikeef Aquaprobe EM Speed Log Mark II Type 300 (‘the Chernikeef log)
consists of a hull-mounted flush fitting EM sensor, a master speed and distance indicator,
and speed and distance repeaters. Speed and distance information can also be fed to a
retransmission unit producing up to four synchro outputs for navigation and weapons
systems. The Chernikeef log measures water speed, and displays the value digitally, the
water speed being integrated to produce distance. The distance readout may be reset to

zero at the beginning of each passage if required. Speed and distance displays are
illuminated in red and are fully dimmable. The voltage generated in the sensor electrodes
(known as pick-up beads) is approximately 50µV per knot.
2. Master Speed and Distance Indicator

Two types of master speed and distance indicator are employed; the EM100 is fitted in
most RN/RFA vessels equipped with this speed log, except for RIVER class vessels which
are fitted with the EM900. The master speed and distance indicator unit contains the
electronics for energising the sensors.
Fig 4C-1. Master Speed and Distance Indicator
a. Speed Displays. Speed is displayed in digital form at increments of 0.1kn through

a range from -20kn to +51.2kn. Distance reset and dimmer controls are provided.
b. Calculation and Display of Distance. Speed is integrated to provide a pulse drive

of 1/1000th of a nautical mile to the distance counter, up to a maximum of 9999.99
nautical miles. The reset switch on the panel front may be used to set the counter to
zero.
c. Alternative Power Supply. An alternative power supply switch is located on the

side of the unit.
d. Outputs and Interfaces.
(1) EM100. Relay contacts in the EM100 provide 200 pulses per nautical mile for
interfacing with navigation and weapons systems, with an alternative output of 400
pulses per nautical mile if required.
(2) EM900. Relay contacts in the EM900 provide 200 pulses per nautical mile for
interfacing with navigation and weapons systems, except for the gyro compass
which is connected through a dedicated interface board.
3. Speed and Distance Repeater

A VCS Type 837 digital speed and distance repeater is usually fitted with the system
(see Fig 4C-2 below). Speed is displayed at 0.1kn intervals and distance in increments of
1/100th of a nautical mile, up to a maximum of 9999.99 nautical miles. Distance reset and
dimmer controls are provided on the speed and distance repeater.
Fig 4C-2. VCS Type 837 Speed and Distance Repeater
4. Retransmission Units
Retransmission units are provided to deliver synchro outputs to appropriate systems.
5. Operating Instructions
As the sensor is fixed and flush to the hull, the log is ready to operate at any time.
When power is first applied, the master speed and distance indicator will register zero speed
for a few seconds whilst the internal electronics are reset.
6. Accuracy and Calibration

See the equipment handbook for calibration instructions. When correctly calibrated and
well sited, the log should be capable of similar accuracies to the AGILOG, as detailed in
Table 4C-1 below.
Table 4C-1. Log Accuracy
SPEED RANGE ACCURACY

Above 10 knots ±2%
ANNEX 4D
RDI WHN 300 DOPPLER SPEED LOG
1. Summary
Variants of the Teledyne RDI WHN 300 Doppler speed log are fitted to HUNT and
SANDOWN class MHCs, where their capabilities are needed to support minehunting
operations. Legacy equipment (HUNT class Doppler log and SANDOWN class CMS log)
has been removed, and replaced with the new fit. The new Teledyne Doppler log is capable
of measuring ground speed, ground track, water speed, water track, depth of water, and
detailed water column information. See equipment handbook and ship weapon system BR

for further information.
CAUTION
The Teledyne RDI WHN 300 fixed Doppler speed log increases the
maximum draught of the SANDOWN class by 0.3m when fitted.
2. Specification
a. Ground Speed, Ground Track and Depth.
(1) Principles of Operation. The Teledyne Doppler speed log utilises a

conventional four beam Janus configuration array (see Para 0418). It measures
F, the Doppler shift, in the returning seabed echo frequency, and thence
calculates the forward and athwartships speed of the vessel. The outputs are
ground speed, ground track, and water depth measurement.
(2) Accuracy. The single-transmission ground speed accuracy is ±0.8cm/s.

Multiple-transmission ground speed accuracy is designed to be ±0.4% or ±0.2cm/s,
whichever is the greater.
(3) Depth Limits. To measure ground speed, the seabed must be between 1m
and 200m below the transducer array. The maximum tracking depth will be
reduced in the event of water flow noise, high ship speeds, cavitation, heavy
weather or other interference factors.
b. Water Speed and Water Speed Track. Early Doppler speed logs had a
comparatively limited capability to determine water speed from echoes off the deep
plankton layer, but the results were generally unreliable. Technological advances mean
that modern Doppler logs are capable of accurate measurement of water speed and
water track at a wide range of water depths.
(1) Principles of Operation. The Teledyne Doppler speed log measures the
shallow and deep water F (the Doppler shift) of watermass reverberation echoes
in order to measure water speed and ground speed. An internal fluxgate compass
provides heading information.
(2) Accuracy. The water speed accuracy is ±0.4% or ±0.2cm/s, whichever is

greater. Water speed accuracy is particularly accurate in the surface depth layer
2m-6m below the transducer array.
(3) Depth Limits. The minimum/maximum water speed depths are from 1m below
the transducer to 85% of the water depth, to a maximum of 110m.
c. Known Shortcomings.
(1) Bridge LED. The bright blue LED on the bridge unit cannot be dimmed and
thus must be covered at night.
(2) Bridge Speed Indicator. The bridge unit speed indicator only offers a very
coarse adjustment of the illumination, and the unit cannot be safely illuminated at
night.

3. Detailed Operating Instructions
See DBR 9320 (HUNT class) or BRd 8413(2C1) (SANDOWN class ship weapon
system handbook).
ANNEX 4E
SPEED LOG CALIBRATION AT BUTEC
1. Circumstances
During the periods that a submarine spends at BUTEC for certification firings, SF drills,
or other exercises or trials, there will often be periods of relative inactivity during a day on the
range. Whether a consequence of the trial programme, weather or defects, these periods of
relative quiet may be profitably used to carry out speed log calibrations, or at least a check
cal, using the accurate BUTEC range tracking facilities without penalty to the primary trials
programme (for example, there is no reason why a rattle run cannot be combined with a

check of the log). Speed log calibration runs may be carried out at periscope depth (PD) or
deep depths, at speeds up to the maximum allowed under current operating envelopes on
the range.
2. Limitations and Navigational Considerations

The following limitations and considerations are relevant.
a. Range Records. No records will be provided by BUTEC.
b. Priorities. Speed log calibration runs take second place to the primary trial activity,
including the preparation of primary trial records which may require use of the tracking
system.
c. Range Hours. The BUTEC range hours will not normally be extended to cater
solely for log calibration.
d. Depth. The submarine must be at the required depth prior to the calibration run
start, as depth errors materially affect BUTEC range tracking accuracy.
e. Navigational Track. The planned track should pass down the centre of the range
to ensure good tracking throughout the run, with sufficient sea room for a Williamson
turn at the end of each leg (ensuring that the submarine remains on the range
throughout the turn).
f. Run Length. Any run length may be used, provided it remains on the range. In
practice, the following leg lengths are recommended. One complete run consists of two
legs.
Table 4E-1. Recommended Leg Lengths
SPEED LEG LENGTH

Less than 6 knots 1 nautical mile
7 – 15 knots 2 nautical miles
Over 15 knots 3 nautical miles
g. Maximum Cumulative Errors. At the recommended run/leg lengths given above,

the maximum cumulative errors in the BUTEC range tracking and timing facilities
amount to less than 1%.
h. Pinger Re-Synchronisation. For deep speed log calibration runs, it is important

that the boat’s tracking pinger is re-synchronised prior to going deep. Submarines
should report to Range Control when ready to go deep, so that re-synchronisation can
be ordered. It will be necessary to return to PD to re-synchronise the pinger between
runs, but not between individual legs.
i. Timing and Calculations. The submarine is responsible for recording the

stopwatch period time elapsed for each speed log calibration run leg, and for calculating
the percentage speed log correction.
3. Control of Speed Log Calibration Runs

a. Range Communications. Range communications are to be in accordance with in
force procedures.
b. Position Requests. The submarine’s position will be provided at any time in

response to a ‘REQUEST POSIT’ message.
4. Conduct of Speed Log Calibration Runs
a. Notification to Range Control. The submarine must inform BUTEC Range

Control at the start of the day or whenever a window is identified that speed log
calibration runs are required on an opportunity basis during the day.
b. Availability of Range for Log Calibration. When suitable periods are identified,
Range Control will inform the submarine “RANGE IS AVAILABLE FOR SPEED LOG
CALIBRATION”.
c. Procedure for Specific Run.
(1) Request Run. The submarine should request a specific speed log calibration
run in the format: “RUN SPEED … KNOTS, DEPTH PD/… M, INITIAL COURSE…,
LENGTH … MILES”.
(2) Acknowledgement. Range Control will acknowledge the run request.
(3) Ready for Run One. The submarine reports when on course, speed and
depth, reporting “READY LEG ONE”.
(4) Start of Leg One. Range Control orders “5, 4, 3, 2, 1, NOW, START LEG
ONE”. The submarine starts the watch and acknowledges.
(5) End of Leg One. On completion of leg one, Range Control orders “STANDBY,
STANDBY, NOW. END OF LEG ONE”. ‘Stopwatch period’ time elapsed is
recorded on board the submarine.
(6) Ready for Leg Two. The submarine reverses course and, when steady on
course, depth and speed, reports to Range Control “READY LEG TWO”.
(7) Leg Two. Leg two is then conducted using the same procedure as for leg one.
d. Further Runs. Further runs can then be requested, using the same procedures.
ANNEX 4F
ECHO SOUNDER TYPE 790
1. Summary
Echo sounder Type 790 is a legacy ‘precision depth recorder’ now only fitted in HMS
SCOTT and early ASUTE class submarines (in which it is expected to be replaced with echo
sounder Type 800 during refits). Full information is contained within the BR 9235 series
which should be consulted for detailed operating procedures. The following paragraph
provides a summary of the equipment and its use. The guidance on echo sounder settings
does not preclude the CO/NO from ordering other settings if required.

2. System Description
a. Capability. 790 is a bulkhead-mounted dual-frequency echo sounder capable of

recording depths from 0.6m to 15,000m. It is fitted with a remote digital depth display
and has an upward-looking capability.
b. Features/Characteristics.
(1) Frequencies and Transmission Power. The transducers operate at

frequencies of 33kHz and 210kHz. Transmission power is 600W.
(2) Sounding Pulse Rate and Pulse Width. To achieve maximum resolution and
the best seabed returns, the sounding pulse rate and pulse width on each
frequency are automatically adjusted based on the depth range selected.
(3) Speed of Sound in Water. The speed of sound in water may be set in the
range 1401m/s to 1554m/s using the sound velocity control. For normal operations
(with most charts), a speed of sound in water of 1500m/s (4290ft/s) is used. With
certain US products it is necessary to use a speed of sound in water of 1463m/s
(4800ft/s).
Note. A value for the speed of sound in water other than 1500m/s should
only be used during hydrographic survey operations, in accordance with
UKHO instructions.
(4) Phase Control. 790 utilises automatic phase control, although it is possible to
manually override.
(5) Seabed Hardness. 790 provides a bottom strength curve, which gives an
indication of differences in seabed hardness, down to 1000m.
(6) Paper Trace. The echo trace is output on paper which is printed by a fixed
thermal head. There is no stylus, and therefore no risk of paper distortion.
(7) Draught (Offset). Draught offset adjustments may be made between 0m and
84.64m.
(8) Interface to Other Equipment. Type 790 may be interfaced to external

systems, including automated survey systems, external computers, remote digital
depth displays and heave compensators.
(9) Submarine Fit. In submarines, two Type 790s are fitted with additional
upward looking transducers for operations under the ice.
Fig 4F-1. Echo Sounder Type 790
Fig 4F-2. Echo Sounder Type 790 – Detail of Control Panel

c. Controls. The controls for the Type 790 are listed in Table 4F-1 below. For
detailed instructions as to their use, see BR 9235. Key numbers in Table 4F-1 refer to
the illustrations in BR 9235.
Table 4F-1. Echo Sounder Type 790 Controls
KEY DESCRIPTION USE

1 C Selecting speed of sound in water
2 Draught Setting of transmission line (draught (offset))
3 Alarm Selection of the depth value (+ve or –ve) at which an
alarm will sound
4 Full zero line Displays the zero pulse line in normal width or as a dotted
and dashed line
5 Reset Reset alarm or display fault
6 Dig indication Selection of the sounding channel for the CH1/CH2 digital

display. Normally, digitise CH1 (33kHz) deeper than 90m
and CH2 (210kHz) shoaler than 90m
7 Dig depth gate Selection of blanking range (depth gate)
8 Gen. record on/off Recording of the overview echogram
9 Beam width Beam width change-over switch
10 Dist mark Select distance marker in metres or feet
11 Intensity Recorder contrast setting
12 Channel 2 CH2 ON or OFF – normally ON
13 Channel 1 CH1 ON or OFF – normally ON
14 Gain auto/manual Select gain control as auto or manual
15 Modes Mode selection switch
16 Switch unit ON/OFF
17 Phasing and PRG Keys to shift the measuring range section manually or
data automatically, and for inputting the parameter values
18 Depth scale Scale of ‘range’ (depth)
19 Depth range Selection of the basic measuring ‘range’
20 Gain Manual gain setting for CH1 and CH2
21 Marking Key 1 or 2
22 Paper speed Select paper speed
23 Brightness Adjust recorder illumination
24 Display Display of the code number if the modes switch is set to
PRG
25 Auto phasing Indicator lights when auto phasing selected
26 Spare
27 Display Option indicator
28 Auto gain Illuminates when auto gain selected
29 Error Illuminates if error occurs
30 Pinger depth Indicator lit when depth being set
31 Displays Displays ‘range’ end and memory edit
32 Nav mode display Indicates when ‘NAV MODE’ selected
3. Operating Procedures
The following operating procedures and initial settings are recommended when
operating Type 790 for general navigation. For dived navigation, settings should be adjusted
as appropriate.
a. Start-Up/Operating Procedure.
(1) Paper. Check that there is sufficient paper to start the task at hand, and
replace if required.
(2) Power. Switch power to the unit ‘ON’.

(3) Speed of Sound in Water. Set the sound velocity for the correct speed of
sound in water.
Note. A value for the speed of sound in water other than 1500m/s should
only be used during hydrographic survey operations, in accordance with
UKHO instructions.
(4) Draught (Offset). Set the draught in accordance with BR 45(1). See also
Para 4 (‘a cautionary tale’).
(5) Depth Alarm. Set the depth alarm if required.
(6) Mode. Select the require mode. Modes available are detailed below in Table
4F-2.
Table 4F-2. ES Type 790 Operating Modes
MODE DETAILS
NAV Basic navigation mode. Depth shown on depth display,
sound velocity set to 1500m/s, draught zero and alarm
set. Gain auto/manual, reset, intensity, gen record all
fully effective.
REC. OFF Recorder OFF, digital display shows depth which will be
transmitted to the data logging system, but with no paper
record
INT. SPEED Paper feed internal (simulated speed of about 6kn)
EXT. SPEED Paper feed from external speed log
PRG Program, used to input parameters
(7) Auto Phasing. Select auto phasing. A red dot will appear in the auto phasing
window.
(8) Depth Range. Set the depth range to the required depth for the operating
area. For general depths of 40m, select ‘50’ and for 70m select ‘100’.
(9) Depth Scale. Set depth scale to ‘20’ for most general tasks.
(10) Paper Speed. Set paper speed as appropriate to the task.
(11) Dual Channels. Set both channels ON (as appropriate to task).

(12) Gain. Set the gain control to ‘auto’. A red dot will appear in the auto gain
window.
(13) Digital Indication. Set the digital indication to the frequency channel to be
displayed. Ensure the remote digital display indicates the correct echo set and
depth.
(14) Echogram. Set ‘gen. record’ to ON (as appropriate to the task).
(15) Dist Marks and Beam Width. Dist marks should be set to OFF. The beam
width changeover switch should not be used.

b. CO/NO Discretion. The above general guidance does NOT prevent the CO/NO
from ordering other settings if required.
4. A Cautionary Tale
An aircraft carrier was making a landfall in thick fog on a low-lying coast in a particularly
difficult radar environment. GPS was not available, and the ship was only equipped with an
I-band navigational radar, LORAN-C and an early version of echo sounder Type 778 which
had separate draught (offset) settings for each depth scale. Heavy reliance was being
placed on the echo sounder to provide reliable position lines based on soundings.
Unbeknown to the NO, the maintainer visited the charthouse (where the echo sounder was
located) during the landfall approach, and accidentally adjusted one of the draught (offset)
settings by a significant margin. Due to the deep scale in use at the time, this unexpected
change was not spotted immediately but, when the NO changed depth scales, he was
shocked to discover that the real depth was much less than was shown on the other scale.
The effect of the true depth was to place the ship, its consort RFA and destroyer escort,
some three nautical miles closer to danger than had previously been thought. Fortunately,
there was just time to close up SSDs ahead of schedule, take appropriate navigational
action to avert an incident for the entire group, and then make a safe entry into a foreign
harbour. Although echo sounder equipment has improved immeasurably since the time of
this incident, the principle in this tale of ALWAYS checking the draught offset before using
soundings remains valid, particularly as the echo sounder will almost always indicate the
nearest point of land.
ANNEX 4G
ECHO SOUNDER TYPE 800
1. Summary
Echo sounder Type 800 is an LCD-based replacement for previous paper-based depth
recorders in both ships and submarines. Type 800 connections are compatible with those
used by the systems it replaces (Types 778/780), and Type 800 is also capable of
interfacing with WECDIS and other Ethernet-based networks (such as TaLAN). Full
information is contained in the operating handbook, BR 9407 series, which should be
consulted for detailed descriptions and operating procedures; this Annex contains an

overview of the equipment and its use. The guidance on echo sounder settings does
NOT preclude the CO/NO from ordering other settings if required.
a. Type 800 System Description. The system consists of a number of discrete

elements, which are described in more detail in Para 2 to Para 5.
• Transducers (hull outfit).

• Recorder.
• Remote display(s).
• Transducer switch box (submarines only).
Fig 4G-1 Type 800 Recorder (L) and Remote Display (R)
UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE 4G-1
b. Technology. Type 800 is a fully digital system, based on commercial off-the-shelf

components i.e. a PC running windows software.
c. Channels, Frequencies and Depth Capabilities. Type 800 has two channels
which operate at 10kHz and 30kHz or 48kHz (12kHz and 33kHz in ASTUTE class fitted
with Type 800). The 10kHz channel has a maximum depth capability of 8800m, against
a maximum depth of 1000m for the high frequency channel.
d. Security. Type 800 is designed with both physical and software security features
in accordance with its accreditation. To protect unauthorised access to/from the
vessel’s Ethernet highway, Type 800 installations have physical locks with keys

guarding Ethernet ports, and Windows software security is configured to provide three
levels of access (operator, maintainer and administrator).
2. System Diagram
An illustrative diagram of a typical full (submarine) installation is shown below in Fig 4G-
2. ‘TDCR’ is an abbreviation of transducer.
Fig 4G-2. Type 800 Block Diagram
4G-2 UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE
3. System Hardware Specifications

The computer hardware elements of Type 800 have the following specifications. Form
factors were deliberately designed to fit into the existing footprints of the equipment
replaced.
Table 4G-1. Echo Sounder Type 800 Hardware Specifications
HARDWARE ELEMENT SPECIFICATION

Recorder AMD Geode GX533 processor
512MB RAM, 1GB Flash memory
Removable 80GB hard drive

DVD RW drive
15inch SVGA 1024x768 TFT screen
Remote display 400MHz PXA255 XScale processor
64MB RAM, 32 Mb Flash memory
15 inch QVGA 320x240 TFT screen
4. Universal Switchbox (Submarines Only)

Submarines are fitted with both downward-looking transducers for sounding the bottom,
and upward-looking transducers for use when dived under ice. The Type 800 universal
switchbox is fitted to enable the appropriate transducer(s) to be selected. There are three
variants in service, one each for T, V and A class submarines. The switchbox (shown in Fig
4G-3 below) contains an outline of the submarine, with individual lights for each transducer,
which illuminate when the transducer is selected for use.
a. T Class. T class SSGNs are fitted with four downward-looking and three upward-
looking transducers.
b. V Class. V class SSBNs are fitted with three downward-looking and three upward-
looking transducers.
c. A Class. A class SSGNs are fitted with four downward-looking transducers and
two upward-looking transducers.
Fig 4G-3 Universal Switchboxes
5. Receiver Control Panel

The Type 800 receiver is controlled by a control panel on the recorder, which consists of
a multi-function keypad and hardwire controls for power, brightness, and volume, as shown
in Fig 4G-4 below.
Fig 4G-4. Type 800 Receiver Control Panel Detail View
6. Type 800 Recorder Capabilities
a. Transducer Database. The Type 800 recorder contains a database of information

on the transducers it is possible to connect to, with the following information.
• Maximum range (depth)

• Maximum output power
• Transmission parameters
• Frequency
• Upward-looking or downward-looking
• Transducer offset

b. Recorder Display – Surface Vessels. In surface vessels, the Type 800 recorder
calculates and displays the following information on its TFT screen.
• Bottom profile, colour coded to indicate echo strength and in sufficient detail for
an assessment of bottom type to be made.
• Depth and time grid lines.
• A digital indication of the current seabed depth.
• The current transmission mode.
• The current time.
• The time of the last transmission (in discrete mode).
• Depth alarm level (if set).
c. Recorder Display – Submarines. In submarines, Type 800 provides all the

information described above, with some additions or alterations.
• When operating with upward-looking transducers, the surface profile replaces

the bottom profile in the display
• When operating with upward-looking transducers, transducer depth track
replaces the bottom profile.
• Currently selected transducer is displayed.
• A digital indicator of the depth below the keel, height above the fin and the ice
thickness.
• The time of the last transmission (in discrete mode).
• A digital indication of surface clearance when operating under ice with upward-
looking transducers selected replaces current seabed depth.
d. Depth Scales. The operator has the option of selecting from a list of predefined
depth scales (ranging from 10m to 9000m), or selecting automatic scaling.
e. Viewing Functions. The operator can select one of a number of different viewing
options.
• ‘Normal’.
• A-scan – displays an additional graph showing the signal strengths of the last
transmission.
• Dual frequency operation - where two transducers operating at different
frequencies are available to the recorder.
• Dual-split operation – each transducer is shown on a split screen.
• Dual-combine operation – where the average of the two transducers is
displayed.
• Zoom – the operator is able to zoom in on a particular depth range, in order to

study it in more detail. This depth range is displayed as an additional graph.
• A-scan is available in all modes except dual combine.
f. Alarms. The operator can selectively enable alarms (at selected depths/heights) to
warn of shallow water or ice clearance. The operator can choose between audible
(buzzer) or visual alarms.
g. Audible Frequencies. Echoes from the deep transducer may be converted to

audio frequencies to which the operator may listen on headphones or loudspeaker.

h. Recording and Archiving. The Type 800 recorder records data to an internal hard
disk. Recording starts to a ‘mission file’ as soon as the recorder is switched on.
Archiving a recording closes a mission file; recording of a new mission file begins
immediately. The hard disk contains all sounding data received by the unit, and
sufficient operating mode information to allow the plotter screen seen by the operator to
be replicated precisely. The disk has sufficient for a 90 day patrol. There is also a
playback facility to allow the operator to review a previous mission file.
i. Playback. Playback software is provide to allow data from the Type 800 recorder
to be viewed on a PC for analysis. To do so, it must first be copied onto a DVD using
the recorder’s internal DVD RW drive.
j. Clock Time. The Type 800’s internal clock maintains system time to one second
precision. The clock remains supported by an internal disposable battery when mains
power is removed from the unit, and loss of the battery when the mains is unavailable
will result in the loss of clock settings. No other system will be affected; the clock may
be set by the operator using the keypad.
k. Networking. Type 800 is capable of outputting to an Ethernet LAN. This is used to

connect the system to the TWS network onboard (TaLAN etc), as well as to connect
multiple Type 800 recorders if more than one is fitted.
l. Self Test. Type 800 is capable of self testing its transmit and receive functions.
m. Illumination. If mains power is applied, the control keypad backlighting will be

illuminated. Both the keypad backlighting and the main display have manual
(hardwired) dimmer switches. For the main display screen, the operator can change
between predefines colour palettes, optimised for use in normal, red, NVG and black
lighting conditions.
7. Remote Display Capabilities
a. Display Screens. The Type 800 remote display will always be showing one of
three displays:
• Depth only (or surface clearance).

• Depth and trend graph (or surface clearance and surface/ice trend).
• Transducer depth track and surface/bottom track.
b. Controls. A mode button is used to page through the various screens. In

submarines, an icon or legend is used to clarify whether an upward or downward-
looking transducer is in use.
8. Keypad
a. Keypad Layout. The recorder keypad has 16 buttons (illustrated below), which
control the operation of nine softkeys on the display.
Fig 4G-5. Recorder Keypad and Softkeys
Fig 4G-6. Recorder Main Screen Showing Softkeys at Bottom

b. Keypad Functionality. The functions of the various keypad buttons is shown in
Table 4G-1 below.
Table 4G-2. ES800 Keypad Functionality
BUTTON FUNCTION DESCRIPTION

MARK Inserts a mark into the mission log file, which appears as a
bright vertical line on the display
NOTE As per mark, but with the additional ability for the operator to
add a text note
SCREEN DUMP Takes a screen shot of the current screen and records to
disk
PLAYBACK Permits the operator to playback previously recorded
mission files (password protected)

STORAGE Permits the operator to archive the current log file to the hard
drive. Also gives the ability to delete log files. This function
is password protected
ALARMS Permits the configuring of various alarms
VIEWS Permits the configuration of the display with the following

keypad buttons, as required
- Plot Primary – use [7] to select
- Primary & Sec – use [9] to select
- With A-Scan – use [0] to select, to show clarity of echo
- Draught Offset ‘IN’ – use [.] to select
SETTINGS Permits the setting of:
- Time
- Display colour scheme (normal, red, black or NVG)
- Water temperature
- Salinity
- Specific gravity
HARWARE Use [.] to select the required transducer, and then configure
the following parameters as required:
- Tx Power – [1] to increase or [2] to decrease in 0.5dB
increments
- Rx Gain – [4] to decrease or [5] to increase in 0.5dB
increments (only for 10kHz transducers)
- Max Depth – [7] to decrease or [8] to increase; each
transducer has a set number of maximum depth values
- Transmission Mode – set the transmission mode
required to auto-power [3], set one of continuous [6], off
[9] or ‘1x’ (single ping) [0]
To select TEST, press the TAB key then SELECT, press the
TAB key again then enter the test depth. Test depth will
only be displayed when EMCON is set to TRANSMIT
c. Further Functionality. Further functionality is accessible via the keypad but is not
within the scope of this BRd. See BR 9407 for full details.
d. Common Problems and Solutions. Below are some common problems which
are likely to be encountered, along with some suggested solutions (where appropriate).
(1) ‘Draft’. Whilst it is not a major problem, the ES 800 software is American and
therefore uses the US spelling of ‘draft’ rather than the undoubtedly correct spelling
‘draught’.
(2) Depth Output to WECDIS. ES800 can only output transducer depth to
WECDIS and CANNOT output waterline depth, even with the appropriate draught
offset applied at the recorder.

CAUTION
ES800 can only output transducer depth to WECDIS and CANNOT

output waterline depth, even when the appropriate draught (offset) has
been applied at the recorder.
(3) Displays too Dark or Not Visible. If the display is too dark or cannot be seen
on either unit, check that the dimmer switch has not been turned down.
(4) No Return Echo. To check that power is being sent to the transducer, press
[9] and scroll through transducers using the [>] key. When ‘shallow (down)’ shows
“*LIVE LOCAL*”, check that power is in continuous mode by pressing [6] then [+].
(5) Distorted Echo. If the return echo is unclear or distorted, the transducer
power can be modified through the hardware settings (key [9]). First increase ‘Tx
Power’ for a stronger echo, then reduce ‘Rx Gain’ for a cleaner echo.
(6) Loss of Echo in Hard Turns. As ES 800 only uses a single transducer at any
one time, it is prone to loss of echo during hard turns, such as when rounding
Vanguard Bank in Devonport.
9. Transducer Parameter Panels

The right-hand side of the ES 800 recorder main display shows either shallow or deep
transducer panels (see illustration below), dependent on the vessel installation. The panels
show details of the various parameters included, as well as details of the units of
measurement.
Fig 4G-7. Transducer Parameter Panels

10. Alarms
Alarms may be set for both ‘min’ and ‘max’ values, and a gradient alarm may also be
enabled with a maximum acceptable gradient. NCHQ advice is to configure the alarms in
accordance with the details below, although this does not preclude the CO/NO from ordering
different settings if required. ES 800 policies should include consideration of alarm
thresholds, particularly when operating close inshore or in a navigation posture which makes
use of the echo sounder for positional or safety information.
a. Minimum Alarm
(1) Pilotage. In pilotage, a dedicated echo sounder and WPSO should be closed
up as a matter of course. ES 800 should be running continuously, configured for
the appropriate depth of water (shallow or deep settings), and the audible alarm
switched OFF. The WECDIS depth alarm should be configured in accordance with
BRd 45(8) guidance.
(2) Operational Areas. ES 800 should be running continuously (EMCON

permitting), configured for the appropriate depth of water (shallow or deep settings),
and the audible alarm switched OFF. Configure the WECDIS depth alarm in
accordance with BRd 45(8) guidance.
b. Gradient Alarm. The gradient alarm should be configured as for the minimum
alarm, i.e. switched OFF.
11. Storage and Playback Facilities

The ES 800 has extensive records storage and playback facilities. Full information is
contained within the BR 9407 series which should be consulted for detailed operating

procedures.
12. ES 800 Operation
a. Pre-Start Checks. Carry out the following checks prior to powering up the
equipment.
(1) Confirm that power (115V 60hZ AC0 is available.
(2) Confirm that the hard disc is installed, and that the recorder front cover is
secure.
(3) Confirm that the remote display is connected, secure and available.
b. EMCON Key. To prevent inadvertent acoustic transmissions, the ES 800 software

will not allow any transmissions to be made until the EMCON key-switch is moved from
INHIBIT to TRANSMIT.
c. Power-Up.
(1) Set the local power oscillator (if fitted) to ON.
(2) Set the system power switch to ON.
(3) Allow the recorder time to boot (which normally takes about three minutes).
(4) Check that the recorder keypad is backlit and adjust keypad dimmer switch as
required.
(5) Check that no error/warning messages are displayed on the main screen. Up
to 20 different errors or warnings may be displayed on the main screen. For details
and recovery procedures, consult BR 9407 series.
d. Configuration. Configuration guidance is provided earlier in this Annex. For full

details on system configuration and recommended parameters, consult BR 9407.
ANNEX 4H
ELAC NAUTIC VE 5900
1. Summary
The ELAC NAUTIC VE 5900 is a commercial off-the-shelf echo sounder fitted in early
Type 45s. It operates at 12kHz and 200kHz, giving a maximum theoretical depth capacity of
6000m. Full configuration and operating information is given in the manufacturer’s
handbooks which should be consulted; the rest of this Annex gives a summary of the
equuipment’s major features. The guidance on echo sounder settings does not preclude the
CO/NO from ordering other settings if required.

Fig 4H-1. ELAC NAUTIC VE 5900 Echo Sounder
2. Transducers
The VE 5900 is fitted with 12kHZ (‘WD1’) and 200kHz (‘WD2’) transducers. Choice of
the nine range scales is limited by the transducer in use and, if both transducers are used
simultaneously, only range scales II to VI are available. Transducer details and range scales
are in Table 4H-1 and Table 4H-2 below.
Table 4H-1. ELAC NAUTIC VE 5900 Range Scales
RANGE DEPTH SOUNDINGS RESOLUTION WD2 PULSE WD1 PULSE

SCALE (m) PER MIN (m) LENGTH LENGTH
(ms) (ms)
I 0-10 240 0.01 0.1 -
II 0-25 240 0.01 0.15 0.5
III 0-50 240 0.1 0.15 0.5
IV 0-100 200 0.1 1.0 0.5
V 0-250 110 0.1 10.0 1.0
VI 0-500 54 1.0 20.0 1.0
VII 0-1000 28 1.0 - 1.0
VIII 0-3000 9 1.0 - 20.0
IX 0-6000 4.5 1.0 - 20.0
UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE 4H-1
Table 4H-2. Transducer Power Settings
TRANSDUCER HIGH POWER MEDIUM POWER LOW POWER

(W) (W) (W)
WD1 (12kHz) 300 16 1
WD2 (200kHz) 200 16 1
3. Keyboard Functionality
The VE 5900 keyboard is controlled from the ‘keyboard’ (actually a dedicated panel and
not a genuine keyboard despite the name), which is located immediately adjacent to the
display, and illustrated in Fig 4H-2 below.

Fig 4H-2. VE 5900 Keyboard
a. Standby and Heating LEDs. The ‘standby’ and ‘heating’ LEDs (on the top right of
the keyboard) indicate the presence of power supplies. Heating should always be on
when the system is turned OFF.
b. Menu Keys. The ENTER, ESCAPE, UP and DOWN keys are used to control the
interaction with the system, as follows.
(1) ENTER. ENTER brings up the soft menu, and selects further sub-menus and
actions.
(2) ESCAPE. ESCAPE exits menus and sub-menus.
(3) UP and DOWN. The UP and DOWN keys move around the menus and, when
soft menus are not active, toggle between transducers.
c. MARK and STORE Keys. The MARK key places an electronic marker on the
display. The STORE key has no functionality in T45.
d. THRESHOLD UP and DOWN Keys. The THRESHOLD UP and DOWN keys

adjust the colour saturation of the display. They do not alter the detection
characteristics of the echo sounder. Setting THRESHOLD to zero gives a black and
white trace.
4H-2 UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE
e. RANGE UP and DOWN Keys. The RANGE UP and DOWN keys control the range
scale selected for use.
f. DIM UP and DOWN Keys. The DIM UP and DOWN keys adjust the brightness
levels of the display (in a total of 32 increments).
g. SINGLE Key. The SINGLE key is used to select the single pulse mode. In single
pulse mode, one press of the SINGLE key releases a single ping from the transducer.
Hold the key down to return to continuous mode.
h. ON/OFF Key. The ON/OFF key is used to switch the unit on and off.

i. MUTE Key. The mute key mutes the audible alarm, and is also used to set numeric
values to zero.
4. Display
The standard VE 5900 display is shown below in Fig 4H-3.
Fig 4H-3. VE 5900 Display
a. Indicated Depths. The indicated depths and tabs are shown for the 12kHz are
shown for WD1 (12kHz) and WD2 (200kHz) transducers, colour coded GREEN for
steady, YELLOW for deepening and RED for shoaling.
b. Echo Traces and Range Marks. The echo traces are shown in separate windows
(left and right of the display) for each transducer. Range marks are indicated vertically
either at the right side or across the full width of each window.
c. Echo Trace Colour. The intensity of the echo (shown at Fig 4U-3 as a central
horizontal line on the ‘Display’) is indicated by the colour of the trace (Red = High, Blue
= Low with the ‘rainbow’ spectrum of colours in between). The white line above the
trace is the computer analysis of the depth based on the traces displayed.
d. Softkeys. The ‘Softkeys’ (‘Display’ bottom) indicate (from left to right) the settings
or states selected, which may be set from the ‘Softkey’ menus’ (see Para 5):
• System status (‘OK’ or otherwise).

• Threshold setting selected.
• Store (‘ON /OFF’).
• Autophase status(‘ON /OFF’).
• Processing type selected (‘Log’ or ‘Lin’).
• Mode (‘Continuous’ or ‘Single’).
• Gain settings of WD1 and WD2 transducers.
• Date.

e. Information Window. An ‘Information Window’ (shown at Fig 4U-3 as a white
rectangle at the bottom of the ‘Display’) appears when settings are changed.
f. Ship Data. Various items of ‘ship data’ and the Speed of Sound in Water selected
are shown at the top right of the ‘Display’.
5. Softkey Menus
The VE 5900 softkey menu structure is at Fig 4H-4 (below). Key menu/sub menu uses
are outlined below.
Fig 4H-4. ELAC NAUTIC VE 5900 Echo Sounder - ‘Softkey’ Menu Structure
a. Display Mode Menu. The display mode menu is used to select the following.
(1) WD1/WD2. One or both of the transducers may be selected for display from
the ES sub-menu.
(2) Large Depth Display. The large depth display option provides an ‘at-a-glance’
display which is easier to read from distance/quickly.
(3) Range Marks. Range marks may be selected for display at the right-hand side
(mode 1) or across the entire display (mode 2) from the range mark sub-menu.

b. Sonar Parameter Menu. The sonar parameter menu is used to select the
following.
(1) Pulse Sequence. The pulse sequence sub-menu offers the choice of
continuous or external triggers; note that the external trigger is not available in T45.
(2) Pulse Power and Length. Provided autophase is not selected, pulse power
and pulse length may be decreased or increased from the defaults via the
appropriate sub-menus.
(3) Autophase. Autophase adjusts the min/max depth to keep the sea bed in the
centre of the display on the chosen depth scale (eg for a depth scale 50m, with a
seabed depth of 65m, the display will show the range 30m-80m). Autophase is not
available when both transducers are in use.
(4) Blocking Depth. The blocking depth option allows the user to set a depth
above which the system will not look. Extreme care must be taken with this
function and it MUST NOT BE USED IN SHALLOW WATER.
c. Properties Menu. The properties menu is used to select the following.
(1) Speed of Sound in Water. The sound velocity submenu allows a choice of
speed of sound in water settings. Recommended settings are at Para 7.
(2) Date and Time. Date and time can be set via the sub-menu.
(3) Reverberation. The reverb sub-menu allows parameters to be set to reduce

water-mass echo interference.
(4) Draft. The draft sub-menu allows the draught offset to be set.
(5) Depth Mode. This allows the user to select between depth below keel and
depth below surface. Recommended settings are at Para 7.
(6) Metrics. The metrics sub-menu allows the user to select the units for display.
(7) Transducer Correction. This sub-menu allows an additional correction to be

applied. See example settings below.
d. Testmode Menu. Testmode allows a variety of test functions to be used. In

particular, the built-in test sub-menu is of use to view the status of the various self-tests
conducted continuously by the system. The maintainer is able to run an ‘offline BITE’
which is a full test of the system.
6. Keel and Transducer Settings
a. Example Settings. The settings in Table 4H-3 below are example settings which
are applied through the properties menu (see above). These settings have been used
at sea but they must be considered EXAMPLE settings and each ship must calculate
and verify their own particular settings independently. See also the caveats below.

Table 4H-3. EXAMPLE Keel/Transducer Settings
ITEM EXAMPLE SETTINGS

Keel - Draft [Draught] 550cm
Transducer Correction WD1 19cm
Transducer Correction WD2 19cm
b. Caveats. The example settings at Table 4H-3 above are subject to the following
caveats.
(1) Bow Dome and Propellers. The settings in Table 4H-3 above give a depth a
below keel (DBK) reading to the keel at full displacement but take no account of
the bow dome or propellers. A further 1.9m must be allowed for the bow dome in
DBK mode. Depth below surface (DBS) readings will be correct.
(2) Platform Verification. The above figures are examples only. Settings must
be verified by each ship independently before use.
CAUTION
The data in Table 4H-3 above is an EXAMPLE only and must be

verified independently by each ship before being used at sea.
7. Operator Settings
The following guidance on recommended settings does not preclude the CO/NO from
ordering other settings if required.
a. Global Settings. The following global settings should be used.
(1) Sound Velocity Menu. The sound velocity should normally be set to a speed
of sound in water of 1500m/s (4920ft/s) for most charts, with an alternative of
1463m/s (4800ft/s) in conjunction with certain US products (which are not normally
used).
(2) Depth Mode Menu. The depth mode menu should normally be set to depth
below surface (DBS) in T45 in accordance with BRd 45(1).
(3) Metrics Menu. The metrics menu should normally be set to metres.
(4) Lin/Log Processing. Lin/log processing in independent of user settings, and

should normally be set to ‘lin’.
b. Task-Specific Settings. The settings below have been used at sea, but in each
case ships MUST check and verify each setting in each state independently before use.
Nothing in Table 4H-4 prevents the CO/NO from ordering different settings if required.
Table 4H-4. Operator Settings
User Setting Purpose Function Recommended Setting

ES WD2 (200kHz)

Large Depth Display On
Range Marks Mode 2
Pilotage/Blind Alarm Not active
1
Pilotage/SSD Pulse Power Automatic
Pulse Length Automatic
Autophase Automatic
Blocking Depth Off
ES WD1 + WD2 (12 &
Large Depth Display 200kHz)
Range Marks On
Coastal
Alarm Mode 1
Navigation
2 Pulse Power Not active
(Depth 15m -
100m)
Autophase Automatic
Blocking Depth Off
5m
ES WD1 (12kHz)
Large Depth Display On
Range Marks Mode 1
Ocean Navigation Alarm Not active
3
(Depth 100m+) Pulse Power Automatic
Autophase Automatic
Blocking Depth 30m
4 Not used - -
CAUTION
The settings in Table 4H-4 above must be verified independently by

each ship before being used at sea.
8. Achieving a Good Picture

The VE 5900 is reasonably capable of producing a readable trace automatically, and in
general settings should only be adjusted manually if it is necessary. When deciding on
whether and how to make manual adjustments, the following points should be considered.
a. Transducer Selection. Is the correct transducer selected? The 200kHz transducer

will only give a depth down to 100m-150m because of sound attenuation at this
frequency.
b. Autophase. Is the sea bed displayed on the currently selected depth range? The
use of autophase will help to keep the trace on the screen.
c. Correct System Setup. Has the system been setup correctly? The maintainer can
adjust the reverb settings to clear the picture of interference.
d. Transducer Maintenance. Is the transducer clean and serviceable? The

transducer has a limited life (circa 5-10 years). Air bubbles or sediment inside the
transducer box will degrade the picture.
9. Storing and Printing Data
a. Data Retention. The VE 5900 retains the last 168 hours (i.e. seven days) of data
on a flash drive. This data is retained when the unit is powered down, but can be

manually deleted if needed.
b. Data Searching. The stored data may be examined by selecting the data storage
sub-menu. The range keys are then used to scroll backwards and forwards. Data may
also be searched by date and time parameters (hence it is important to ensure that the
unit is correctly configured with the right date and time).
c. Printing Data. Both the current display data and stored data may be printed to the
printer in the chart house. The printer selection switch on the chart digitiser must be
switched to echo sounder. Printing is achieved through the print menu.
10. Further Information

For further information, the manufacturer’s handbooks (operator and maintainer) must
be consulted.
CHAPTER 5
ATTITUDE AND HEADING REFERENCES AND INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
Para
0502. Introduction to Gyros
0503. Types of Gyro and Applications
0504. Inertial Navigation Systems

SECTION 1 – GYROSCOPE THEORY
0505. Properties of Rotating Bodies – Gyroscope

0506. Rigidity in Space (‘Gyroscopic Inertia’)
0507. Gyroscopic Precession
0508. Factors Affecting Precession
0509. Practical Limitations in Gyroscope and Gyrocompass Design
SECTION 2 – GYRO COMPASS CONTROL PRINCIPLES
0510. Introduction to Gyro Compass Controls

0511. Horizontal and Vertical Earth Rates (HER and VER)
0512. HER in Gyroscope – Latitude and Spin Axis Alignment
0513. North Seeking Control of the Gyro Compass
0514. North Finding Damping of the Gyro Compass
0515. High Latitude (Polar) Navigation – DG Mode
SECTION 3 – GYRO COMPASS COMPENSATION PRINCIPLES
0516. Gyro Compass Factors Requiring Further Compensation

0517. Vertical Earth Rate – Drift
0518. Speed Errors – Simplified Summary
0519. Errors Due to East/West Velocity Component
0520. Errors Due to North/South Velocity Component
0521. Accelerations – Ballistic Deflection, Ballistic Tilt and Schuler Tuning
0522. Inter-Cardinal Rolling Error
0523. Constant Torques
0524. Power Supply Voltage Variations
SECTION 4 – RING LASER GYROS AND FIBRE OPTIC GYROS
0525. Introduction to Optical Gyros

0526. The Sagnac Effect
0527. Strapdown Technology
0528. The Ring Laser Gyro
0529. The Fibre Optic Gyro
SECTION 5 – INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
0530. Introduction to Inertial Navigation Systems (INS)

0531. History of INS
0532. Principles of INS
0533. INS Errors
0534. INS Platform Management at Sea
0535. INS Common Misunderstandings
0536. Bad or ‘Unreasonable’ Fixes
0537. INS Coupling with GNSS
0538. Blended INS Positions

0539. Some INS Things to Do – and Not to Do
ANNEXES
Annex 5A Naval Compass Stabiliser Mark 1 (NCS1)

Annex 5B Sperry Mk 39 Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS)
Annex 5C Arma Brown Mk 12 Gyro Compass
Annex 5D Raytheon-Anschutz Standard 20/22 Gyro Compass
Annex 5E NATO SINS (NSINS)
Annex 5F Electrostatically Supported Gyro Navigator (ESGN)
Annex 5G Marine Inertial Navigation System 2 (MINS2)
Annex 5H Maritime Inertial Navigation System (MARINS)
CHAPTER 5
ATTITUDE AND HEADING REFERENCES AND INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

Chapter 5 provides a detailed theoretical overview of the principles underpinning the
operation of the various attitude and heading references and inertial navigation systems in
use in the Royal Navy. A full discussion of the operation of the basic gyro compass is
included. A basic, non-mathematical introduction to the gyro is given in Para 0502 and Para
0503 below for readers requiring an overview, but Section 1 to Section 4 should be referred
to for detailed coverage of the subject. The magnetic compass is discussed in Chapter 6.

0502. Introduction to Gyros
A gyro compass utilises the principle of gyroscopic precession and the rotation of
the Earth to indicate true North. Gyro compasses are fitted to almost all RN warships and
submarines, with only the smallest vessels being excepted. Although early experiments with
gyro compasses were made during the 19th Century, it was not until 1906 that Hermann
Anschutz-Kaempfe produced the first practical gyro compass, which underwent trials in the
German battleship DEUTSCHLAND in 1908 ahead of being adopted by the Imperial German
Navy. Elmer Sperry produced an alternative design in the US in 1908, which was adopted
by the US Navy in 1911. Both types were used by the RN in the years before and during
the First World War, and new models, designed by the Admiralty Compass Observatory or
other companies such as Brown and Arma, began to appear. Gyro compasses have
therefore been at sea in RN warships for more than a century, and they provide a vital
accurate and reliable indication of true North, and hence ship’s head, for navigation and
weapon system purposes. They are also a key part of weapons system stabilisers, as they
can also be used to provide a local vertical/horizontal.
0503. Types of Gyro and Applications

In the 21st Century, there are several distinct types of gyro compass which may be
encountered at sea.
a. Conventional Mechanical Gyros. The conventional mechanical gyro is a

direct linear descendent of Anschutz and Sperry’s original work. It relies on the
physical properties of a gimballed, rapidly spinning rotor as outlined below.
Increasingly, a number of the control functions necessary to achieve accurate north-
seeking behaviour are carried out electronically or by software rather than physical,
electro-mechanical systems. It is to be expected that spinning mass gyros will
remain in use around the world for many years to come, notwithstanding the
development of more sophisticated devices.
b. Modern Gyro Compasses. The modern development of gyro technology has

led to the arrival of optical devices that contain no (or very few) moving parts.
Initially in the form of ring-laser gyros (RLG), these devices exploit certain optical
phenomena that can be used in the same way as gyroscopic precession, although
the processes involved are quite distinct. The most modern incarnation is the fibre
optic gyro (FOG), which can be built entirely solid-state, and has very low space,
weight and power requirements. Even smaller gyros can be built, taking advantage
of other techniques, for use in mobile phones, cameras etc, but these are not yet
found in marine applications as their accuracies are many orders of magnitude
below that required for safe navigation at sea.
c. Gyro Compass vs AHRS. The traditional gyro compass provided the ship’s
head, as a result of its North seeking behaviour. The modern multi-axis FOG should
more properly be labelled an ‘attitude and heading reference system’ as it will also
provide roll and pitch information as well as yaw (heading). The march of
technology has made it possible to construct an INS that takes up minimal space
and power, using FOGs and modern micro-accelerometers, so in the future it is
likely that ships will be fitted with an INS that will act as the ship’s AHRS as well.
d. Other Applications for Gyros. In naval usage, the term ‘gyro’ usually refers, in
the absence of any other context, to a gyro compass which provides the ship’s head
by reference to true North. There are many other applications of gyro technology

however, such as in stabilisation of weapon or sensor mounts (the old term ‘directing
gear’ in the context of sonar hull outfits refers to the gyro equipment that was used
to mechanically stabilise the sonar prior to the introduction of electronically stabilised
arrays).
e. Future Gyros. Modern smartphones contain gyros and accelerometers which

make use of micro-scale manufacturing techniques to create functional devices.
Whilst their accuracy is not yet sufficient for safe navigation at sea, it is to be
expected that increasing use will be made of such devices, and advanced
techniques such as exploitation of quantum mechanics to build gyros which are both
very small and very accurate.
0504. Inertial Navigation Systems

Some sort of gyro, whether mechanical, RLG or FOG is at the heart of any inertial
navigation system (INS), along with other equipment such as accelerometers. In the future,
as technology develops, it is likely that the distinction between a naval gyro compass and an
INS will become increasingly artificial and most naval AHRS will, in fact, probably be a de
facto INS (whether or not the full INS functionality is enabled or made use of). INS have the
major advantage of not being reliant on easily interfered with GNSS signals, as well as
providing (by definition) extremely precise attitude and heading information as well as
velocity (in all axes). INS are discussed in Section 5.
SECTION 1 – GYROSCOPE THEORY
0505. Properties of Rotating Bodies – Gyroscopes
a. Definition. A gyroscope is a device consisting of a spinning mass (a rotor),

typically in the form of a disc, wheel or sphere, mounted on a base such that its spin
axis may tilt or turn freely in one or more directions and thereby maintain its
directional orientation in space, regardless of any movement of the base. Strictly,
this is only true for the frictionless gyroscope; in practice, friction cannot be avoided
(even in space), and thus any gyroscope’s fixed orientation in space will slowly
degrade as the rotor slows down.

b. Properties of a Gyroscope. Once a body is spinning sufficiently rapidly to be
considered a gyroscope, it has two key properties: rigidity in space and
precession. Both of these are explained in more detail below; they are fundamental
to how a gyro works.
c. Degrees of Freedom. The gyroscope itself is mounted on one or more

gimbals, which allow its spin axis to move about another axis. A gyro with two
gimbals is described as having ‘two degrees of freedom.’ Note that in older usage in
the RN, such gyros were described as having three degrees of freedom, the third
being the ability to rotate about its spin axis but this is no longer considered a
degree of freedom in modern usage. A gyroscope with two degrees of freedom is
illustrated in Fig 5-1 below; to create a device to measure a vehicle’s orientation in
space in three degrees of freedom will require more than one gyroscope.
Fig 5-1. Gyroscope with Two Degrees of Freedom.
0506. Rigidity in Space (‘Gyroscopic Inertia’)
a. Newton’s First Law of Motion. Newtown’s First Law of motion may be

expressed as ‘when viewed in an inertial reference frame, an object either remains
at rest or continues to move at a constant velocity, unless acted on by an external
force.’
b. Angular Momentum. Angular momentum is the stored energy of a rotating

body which causes its frictionless spin axis to remain in the same constant direction
at a fixed position in space i.e. the rotor disc remains in its original plane of rotation.

c. Radius of Gyration. The radius of gyration of a rotating body is the distance of
the spin axis at which the mass of the rotor may be considered to act.
d. Rigidity in Space. It follows from Newton’s First Law, set out above, that a
mass moving in a straight line with linear momentum will require an external force to
alter its direction of movement. By extension, a spinning rotor with its spin axis in a
given direction has angular momentum, and this too will require an external force to
alter its direction. Until such a force is applied, the spin axis of such a frictionless
rotating disc, wheel or sphere will remain pointing in the same constant direction at a
fixed position in space. This property of gyroscopic inertia in a free gyroscope is
known as rigidity in space.
e. Magnitude and Calculation of Angular Momentum. The magnitude of the

angular momentum of a spinning rotor (see Fig 5-2 below) depends upon the
angular velocity ‘w’ and the mass ‘m’ of the rotor acting at the radius of gyration ‘k.’
It may thus be shown that the total angular momentum of a rotating body can be
calculated from the formula below.
Angular momentum = w × m × k 2
Thus a rotor possessing a large angular momentum will require a correspondingly

large force to change its spin axis in direction and will appear to have greater rigidity
in space.
Fig 5-2. Angular Momentum of a Rotating Body
0507. Gyroscopic Precession
a. Definition. Precession is the motion of the spin axis of a rotating body (a

gyroscope) when an external force is applied to it.
b. Summary of Effects. Precession has an effect that, initially at least, can

appear counter-intuitive, as a gyroscope does not respond as might be expected
when it is disturbed by an external force. Any attempt to tilt or turn a gyroscope by
an external force results in a combination of the ‘force vector’ and the angular
momentum vector acting on the body. The net effect is that the spin axis will always
move in a plane that is 90° ahead of the applied force and in the direction of wheel

rotation. This can be summarised thus:
“Attempt to tilt a gyroscope and it will turn”

“Attempt to turn a gyroscope and it will tilt”
This is easily demonstrated on a moving bicycle, the wheels of which are each a
simple gyroscope. When the bicycle is moving at any appreciable speed, to turn left
the rider leans (tilts) inwards, and the front wheel turns left automatically. The rear
wheel would behave in the same manner were it not constrained by the frame of the
bicycle.
c. Horizontal Precession from a Downward (Tilting) Force. Fig 5-3 below

shows a downward tilting force F0 applied to one end of the spin axis, which equates
to a force F1 applied to the spinning rotor disc at point P. The resultant vector of the
angular momentum PP1 and force F1 (shown by the vector P1Q) is the vector PQ, so
the rotor will turn to that direction about the vertical axis BUT its spin axis will remain
horizontal.
Fig 5-3. Horizontal Precession from a Downward Force
d. Vertical Precession from a Sideways (Turning) Force. Fig 5-4 below shows
a sideways (turning) horizontal force F0 applied to one end of the spin axis, which
equates to a force F1 applied to the spinning rotor at point P. The concept is exactly
the same as in Fig 5-3 except that it is turned through 90°, i.e. the resultant vector of
the angular momentum PP1 and force F1 (shown by the vector P1Q) is the vector
PQ, so the rotor will turn to that direction about the horizontal axis.
Fig 5-4. Vertical Precession from a Sideways Force.

0508. Factors Affecting Precession
a. Reversing the Direction of Rotation. If the direction of rotation is reversed,

this will reverse the direction of the angular momentum vector and hence the
gyroscope rotor and its spin axis will precess in the opposite direction.
b. Reversing the Direction of the Applied Force. Intuitively, the effect of

reversing the applied force is to generate an equal precessional rate around the
same axis but in the opposite direction.
c. The Effect of Increasing or Decreasing Angular Momentum. In any

gyroscope, the total mass ‘m’ and radius of gyration ‘k’ are constant, so it is only by
varying the speed of rotation that the angular momentum can be altered. As angular
momentum reduces (i.e. the rotor slows down) at some point the rotor will cease to
act as a gyroscope and it will topple – think of a spinning top as it slows down, which
starts to wobble and then falls over.
d. Constant Angular Momentum in Gyro Compasses. In order to calculate the

precise control forces required to precess a gyroscope at a given rate, the angular
momentum in the rotor must remain constant. The rotors of gyro compasses are
therefore designed to run at a precisely controlled constant speed, except during
starting or stopping when the rotor will be running up to, or spinning down from, its
operating speed.
0509. Practical Limitations in Gyroscope and Gyrocompass Design

Traditional mechanical gyro compass designs are vulnerable to certain extreme
conditions which can produce unpredictable behaviour and, in some cases, cause the gyro
to cease operating.
a. Gimbal Lock. If the spin axis of a gyro compass with two degrees of freedom is
precessed such that it aligns with the outer gimbal, then the system becomes
‘gimbal locked’ and one degree of freedom is lost. The gyro is unable to move freely
in space to maintain its orientation, and it becomes to all intents and purposes
useless as a gyro. Even in the case that strict gimbal lock is avoided, positions
approaching gimbal lock will cause problems, in that very large movements of the

gimbals are required for very small platform movements (the definition of gimbal lock
in mathematical terms is that one of the required gimbal movements becomes
infinite), which means that when approaching gimbal lock, very large, near-
instantaneous torques may be applied to the gimbals. Gimbal lock is more of a
problem for aerial or space-based platforms (it was famously a problem on the
APOLLO spacecraft) which will tend to change attitude in three axes compared to a
ship which is only changing in two axes, or a submarine which is unlikely to achieve
the same pitch angles as a violently manoeuvring aircraft or spacecraft. Gimbal lock
can be avoided by fitting another (fourth) gimbal to the system, which is artificially
driven by the control system so as to prevent gimbal lock occurring, or by fitting
stops to the gimbals which prevent them from moving into a gimbal locked position.
Gimbal lock is not generally a problem for non-mechanical gyros, as it is a physical
problem due to the mounting arrangement, but it can still occur in software (see
Note below).
Note. Software can become gimbal locked if the rotations are expressed in
Euler angles. In the gimbal lock conditions, some of the Euler angles
become infinite, meaning that even a non-mechanical system can suffer
from gimbal lock in certain attitudes if its control system is not designed
correctly. This can be avoided by using another method for mapping the
rotations, such as quaternions or directional cosines.
b. Toppling. If the gimbals of a gyro hit the control stops (fitted to prevent gimbal
lock), this can cause uncontrolled precessional movements called toppling
(sometimes tumbling). This may occur during start-up/shutdown. Cushioning the
stops with dampers can mitigate this effect somewhat.
c. Nutation. Gyros are vulnerable to shock and impact. A sharp blow to a

gyroscope or the application of a step-function torque will result in the spin axis
wobbling with an amplitude that is inversely proportional to the angular velocity of
the spinning rotor. These oscillations will slowly diminish, largely as a result of
inherent damping due to gimbal bearing friction. Oscillations are also minimised in
naval and maritime gyrocompasses by shock-proofing of the mounting, by using a
high angular velocity in the rotor, and by fitting compensation dampers or friction
dampers on the gimbals.
d. Starting and Stopping Effect. The angular momentum of the rotor will be slow
whilst the gyro is being started or stopped. This means that small torques will
generate high precession rates and may possibly cause the gyro to topple. It is
therefore important to ensure that no precessional forces are applied to a gyro until it
is at full operating speed, or has spun down completely to a stop. In practice, this
means that alterations of course should be avoided until the gyro has settled or
stopped completely; the equipment handbook will contain details of the time
intervals necessary and these should be complied with to avoid the risk of causing
significant damage to the gyro equipment.
SECTION 2 – GYRO COMPASS CONTROL PRINCIPLES
0510. Introduction to Gyro Compass Controls

The mere fact of a spinning gyroscope’s physical properties is a necessary but not
sufficient condition for a useful navigational instrument. In order to ensure that the gyro
compass points to true North, and is capable of doing so in real time, whilst accounting for
the various errors induced by the gyro itself and the ship’s motion, it is necessary to
introduce a number of control systems into the gyro. The gyro compass is carried on a ship,
which is moving across the surface of the sea, on a planet which is itself moving through
space and spinning. All these must be compensated for if the gyro is to provide useful
information to the navigator. It is also necessary to ensure that the gyro, once started, is

capable of finding true North without outside aiding and then pointing at it throughout the
gyro’s operation.
0511. Horizontal and Vertical Earth Rates (HER and VER)
a. Rigidity in Space. It is the gyroscope’s property of rigidity in space which

makes it useful; the spin axis of a gyroscope rotor will remain pointing at the same
point in space on which it was lined up when the rotor was started. This has a
number of implications.
(1) Effects of the Earth’s Motion. The gyro will remain rigid in space, but the
Earth is spinning about its axis (with a speed of about 900 knots at the Equator).
An observer on the Earth’s surface will therefore see an apparent motion of the
gyro’s spin axis, as the local horizontal changes and the orientation of the
observer’s meridian changes in relation to a fixed direction in space. Over the
course of 24 hours, the gyro would appear to turn one complete revolution, so
the gyro has an apparent drift rate of 15° per hour. The effect of the Earth’s
motion is illustrated in Fig 5-5 below; as the observer’s local horizontal changes,
the gyroscope appears to drift relative to the local horizontal, even though in fact
the gyroscope has not changed orientation at all.
Fig 5-5. Gyroscope Apparent Motion due to Motion of the Earth.

(2) Anti-Clockwise Rotation around the North Celestial Pole. The apparent
motion of the gyroscope will depend on how the spin axis is aligned at start-up.
Consider the case of a gyro which is not aligned on the North celestial pole.
Circumpolar stars appear to rotate anti-clockwise around the North celestial pole
(which may be approximated to Polaris, which is 1° away from the true celestial
pole). The effects of apparent motion on a gyroscope aligned on a position other
than the North Pole are described in Table 5-1 below.
Table 5-1. Apparent Movement of Gyro Spin Axis
ALIGNMENT OF LABEL IN FIG 5-6 APPARENT TERM FOR GYRO

GYRO SPIN AXIS MOTION OF GYRO MOTION
Imaginary star East E1 Gyro will appear to Tilt
of North rise
Imaginary star West W1 Gyro will appear to Tilt
of North fall
Imaginary star on the N1 Gyro will appear to Drift
meridian above track West
Polaris
Imaginary star on the S1 Gyro will appear to Drift
meridian below track East
Polaris
The effects described in Table 5-1 above are illustrated in Fig 5-6 below.
Fig 5-6. Apparent Movement of the Spin Axis when Not Aligned to the Celestial Pole

b. Horizontal and Vertical Earth Rates. The effects of apparent motion on a
gyroscope mean that it will not be useful as a gyro compass unless it was precisely
aligned with the celestial North Pole when started. Alignment in any other direction
means that the gyro will merely rotate around the celestial pole in a circle of radius
depending upon the initial alignment of the gyro’s spin axis. All gyros not located
precisely on the Equator or one of the poles will exhibit some amount of tilt or drift
due to the motion of the Earth.
(1) Horizontal Earth Rate (Tilt Rate). If a gyroscope rotor is suspended in a

horizontal gimbal, there will be an apparent up-and-down (tilting) movement of
the spin axis. This apparent tilting motion about the horizontal gimbal is known
as the horizontal Earth rate (HER), sometimes also known as the tilt rate.
(2) Vertical Earth Rate (Drift Rate). A gyroscope suspended in a vertical

gimbal will exhibit an apparent lateral turning motion about the vertical gambit,
called the vertical Earth rate (VER), sometimes also known as the drift rate.
0512. HER in a Gyroscope – Latitude and Spin Axis Alignment

The HER in a gyroscope is best explained by the consideration of the two extreme
cases: a gyro with its spin axis aligned at precisely 90° to the meridian, and a gyro with its
spin axis aligned precisely with the meridian.
a. HER – Spin Axis Aligned East/West. If the spin axis of a gyroscope is aligned
at 90° to the meridian (i.e. exactly East/West), it will seem to tilt one complete
revolution in 24 hours, as shown in Fig 5-7 below. The HER at the Equator is equal
to the Earth’s full rotation rate of 15° per hour, and at higher latitudes it will be equal
to the cosine of the latitude multiplied by the rotational speed (i.e. HER = 15 cos
latitude degrees per hour).
Fig 5-7. HER at the Equator with Spin Axis Aligned East/West

b. HER – Spin Axis Aligned North/South. If the spin axis of a gyroscope is
aligned with the meridian i.e. exactly North/South, then the HER will be zero. In fact,
what will happen is that the rotation speed of the rotor will increase by one revolution
per day, but compared to the absolute speed of the rotor, the effect is negligible. The
situation is illustrated in Fig 5-8 below. Note that although HER is zero, there will be
a VER, except for the case in which the gyroscope’s axis is directly over the
Equator.
Note. A gyroscope with spin axis aligned to the meridian will not experience
an HER but a VER will still be felt.
Fig 5-8. Zero HER with Spin Axis Aligned to Meridian
c. HER with the Spin Axis Displaced at any other Angle to the Meridian. The
angle between the spin axis and the meridian is known as the displacement angle .
As HER is at a maximum when = 90° and at a minimum when = 0°, the HER is
directly related to the sine of the displacement angle. The actual HER experienced
by a gyroscope will therefore be related to the displacement angle and latitude of the
gyro, and it can be found thus:
Horizontal Earth rate = 15 cos latitude° sin ° per hour
The HER due to displacement angle and latitude is summarised in Fig 5-9 below.

Fig 5-9. HER at Given Latitude with Displacement Angle
d. Direction of Action of HER. If the spin axis of a gyroscope is aligned to the

meridian and placed at a vertical angle of 90° - latitude, it will point to the celestial
North pole. If the North end of the spin axis is displaced to the East, the Earth-
referenced observer will see that end of the spin axis apparently tilting upwards in
relation to the horizontal. If the North end is displaced to the West, it will apparently
tilt downwards. It is this tilting movement, as a result of the horizontal Earth rate,
that the gyro compass exploits to make the device North-seeking.
0513. North Seeking Control of the Gyro Compass
a. Gravity Reference. It is the horizontal Earth rate that allows a gyro compass to
be made to be North seeking; the intrinsic properties of a gyroscope (rigidity in
space and precession) alone are not sufficient. To make a gyro compass settle on
North, it is necessary to add a gravity reference to the system. In the first gyro
compasses, this was achieved entirely mechanically, by adding a weight to the
gimbal or using a system of mercury-filled chambers, but in modern gyros it is
achieved electronically (through the use of accelerometers for example) and
generates electrical control signals. Regardless of the method used, the function of
the gravity reference is to constantly detect very small signals and act to keep the

gyro compass stabilised in the local horizontal at all times.
b. North Seeking Effect of the Gravity Reference on the Spin Axis. The tilting
of the spin axis as the Earth rotates is sensed by the gravity reference and is
controlled by precessional force proportional to the angle of tilt. Precessional force
will be generated to precess the northerly end to the West if it has an upwards tilt,
and to precess it to the East if it has a downwards tilt. The result is that the gyro
compass spin axis will describe an ellipse about true North, the amplitude of this
elliptical rotation being dependent on the initial displacement of the spin axis
northerly end from true North. In other words, the gyro compass will remain pointing
roughly North but it will not actively find North.
Fig 5-10. Spin Axis Movement with ‘North Seeking’ Correction Force ‘Pc’
c. North Seeking Behaviour of a Gyro Compass. Fig 5-10 above illustrates the
tilt rate (T) and the controlling force Pc generated from the tilt angle at various
positions around the ellipse. When the northerly end of the spin axis is displaced
horizontally to the East of the meridian at position 1, it will tilt upwards at a rate
proportional to the HER and the initial displacement of the spin axis from the
meridian (the tilt rate can be calculated from the formula at Para 0512 sub para c).
As the spin axis moves towards the meridian, the tilt angle increases and so does
the Pc, until at position 3 the force Pc reaches its maximum as the tilt angles also
reaches its maximum. As the spin axis passes to the West of the meridian, the tilt
angle starts to reduce and so therefore does Pc (at position 4). On passing through
the horizontal, there is no tilt angle and so no precessional force, but the tilt rate

remains high and so the spin axis passes through the horizontal and starts to tilt
downwards, generating an easterly Pc. Unless Pc is damped in some way (see
Para 0514), this elliptical rotation around North will continue indefinitely (if the effects
of friction etc are disregarded). This behaviour is known as North-pointing or North-
seeking, and the time taken for one complete rotation is called the period of the gyro
compass.
0514. North Finding Damping of the Gyro Compass
a. North Finding. In order to make a gyro compass North finding, and thus useful
as a marine navigation aid, the elliptical North pointing behaviour explained in Para
0513 above must be damped. This is usually done by producing a vertical
precessional force (Pd) from the HER tilt sensed by the gravity reference. The
vertical precessional force Pd precesses the North end of the spin axis vertically
towards the horizontal (i.e. downwards if tilted up and vice versa). The magnitude of
Pd is usually about half that of force Pc (in mechanical gyros it was achieved by
fitting another weight on the inner gimbal half the weight of that used as a gravity
reference). Fig 5-11 below explains how the spin axis is both ‘controlled’ (by the
North seeking horizontal force Pc) and ‘damped’ (by the North finding vertical
damping force Pd).
Fig 5-11. Spin Axis Movement under North Seeking (Pc) and North Finding (Pd)
Forces

b. Detailed Explanation of North Finding Behaviour. The tilt rate (T) and
horizontal controlling force Pc explained in Para 0513 is incorporated in Fig 5-11
above, along with the action of a vertical damping force Pd. It demonstrates how,
even with an initial displacement of the gyro away from true North, the two
controlling forces will combine in such a way that the gyro will find eventually settle
on true North. A detailed explanation follows below, given with reference to circled
positions in Fig 5-11.
(1) Initial Condition. The gyro compass starts with an initial displacement
away from true North.
(2) Position 3. At position 3, before the northerly end of the spin axis has
reached the meridian, the upward tilt rate will be counteracted by the downward
precession force Pd. As the spin axis moves towards the meridian the effect of
HER decreases, but at the same time the forces Pc and Pd will both be
increasing. With the tilt rate decreasing and Pd increasing, there will be a point
where they are equal and opposite. This will be before the North end of the spin
axis reaches the meridian i.e. at position 3.
(3) Position 4. When the spin axis crosses the meridian at position 4,
although the tilt rate is zero, Pd is still non-zero and acts to move the northerly
end of the spin axis downwards.
(4) Positions 5 and 6. Subsequently, as the spin axis has crossed the
meridian and continues to move further West, the rate of downward tilt will
increase but Pc and Pd, which are generated by the amount of tilt will decrease
until the spin axis is level. At this point, position 6, only HER from the
displacement of the axis to the West will cause apparent movement.
(5) Positions 7 and 8. Once the spin axis has passed through the horizontal
(position 6), the forces are reversed. Pd and tilt rate again become equal and
opposite at position 8, before the meridian is reached for a second time – but
now the displacement from N (true North) is reduced.
(6) Positions 9 and 10. The spin axis will now complete the first rotation
cycle, crossing through the horizontal displaced to the East of North, but with a
greatly reduced displacement compared with the starting condition (position 10).
The gyro will continue to make rotation cycles with an ever-decreasing
displacement, until at some point it will settle in the ‘ideal position’ N.

(7) Accurate North Alignment. The results of fitting a gyro with both north
seeking control and vertical damping are that, following start up, the gyro’s spin
axis will spiral towards North and eventually settle on the meridian after a
number of rotation cycles, each of which will take the same amount of time. The
number of cycles necessary will depend on the equipment’s physical
characteristics and, intuitively, the initial alignment; the closer the gyro can be
aligned on North at start up, the quicker it will be to settle. It is this spiralling
behaviour that explains the need to leave a gyro to settle before it can be used
for navigation.
c. The Ideal Position. The ideal position (N in Fig 5-11) is the position of a gyro
compass spin axis when it is on the meridian and perfectly horizontal. In the ideal
position, the gyro experiences no HER and therefore the spin axis will not tilt. Since
the spin axis is horizontal, the forces Pc and Pd are zero and so they exert no
precessional forces on the gyro compass rotor. The property of rigidity in space will
then keep the gyro compass pointing in this direction (ignoring the effects of friction).
d. Time from Start-Up to Accurate Alignment. The time taken for the spin axis
to achieve the ideal position (N) will depend on the number of rotation cycles needed
to achieve it. Self-evidently, starting the gyro compass with its spin axis horizontal
and pointing as close to North as possible will speed up the alignment process, as
will waiting for the rotor to achieve maximum speed before allowing the horizontal
and vertical controls to start operating. In modern gyros, this procedure may be
entirely automatic, whereas in older gyros a manual switchover from the ‘starting’
mode (or however it is known in that equipment) to the ‘gyro compassing’ mode (or
however it is known in that equipment) will activate these controls. The time taken
for a gyro compass to settle accurately on North will depend on the accuracy of any
initial alignment, and the physical characteristics of the equipment. Modern optical
(RLG or FOG) gyros can settle very quickly in comparison with older mechanical-
type gyro compass equipment.
0515. High Latitude (Polar) Navigation – DG Mode
a. HER at High Latitudes. As explained in Para 0511 and Para 0512, the
horizontal Earth rate experienced by a gyro is directly related to the Earth’s
rotational velocity, which is greatest at the Equator (900 knots) and zero at the poles
(it varies with the cosine of latitude). It is the HER which ultimately provides the
North seeking and North finding forces for the gyro compass, and it will also vary
with the cosine of latitude. This means that, whilst the behaviour explained in Para
0514 is true of gyro compasses in most latitudes, at very high latitudes, the HER
experienced by the gyro compass becomes very weak and so the control force
becomes correspondingly weak, meaning that the ability of the compass to settle on

the meridian and remain there is greatly reduced. Additionally, HER is so weak that
the vessel’s East/West speed has a noticeable effect on the HER parameters. The
net result is that a gyro compass becomes unstable above about 80°N, and will not
remain settled on North.
b. DG Mode. Some marine gyro compasses, and many provided for use onboard
naval platforms, are capable of operating in a directional gyro (DG) mode, where the
HER control of the gyro compass is removed, but VER damping and movement and
acceleration compensations (see Para 0517) remain. It thus performs as a
gyroscope which is maintained level and compensated for the vessel’s movement
(in the same manner as an aircraft heading or direction indicator). A marine gyro
compass in DG mode maintains a fixed direction relative to grid North, but will drift
slowly over time at a rate dependant on the characteristics of the gyro compass
equipment itself, the efficiency of the VER and other compensations, and the
inherent properties of a gyroscope. When operating in DG mode, traditional
navigation techniques must be modified to be conducted using polar grid methods.
c. Transition to/from DG Mode. Depending on the equipment, transition to/from

DG mode may be automatic by the control system, or manual by the operator based
on the ship’s position. It is wise to plan the transition in advance if possible, as it will
also be necessary to shift to polar grid techniques instead of traditional chart
projections. NOs need to understand how the gyro compass equipment fitted to
their platform operates in DG or polar mode, and the consequences for other
outstations and equipment which rely on navigation data from the gyro compass (or
INS as the case may be). There will usually be a hysteresis in the latitudes at which
the system changes from gyro compass to DG and back again in order to prevent a
the system fluttering between the two modes in a ship operating on or near the
border between the two regions.
d. Polar Grid Navigation. Navigation in the polar regions is possible using a gyro
compass in DG mode, provided the appropriate polar grid techniques are also used.
Detailed guidance on polar navigation techniques can be found in BRd 45(9). See
also BRd 45(6) for shiphandling in ice, and NP100 for general guidance on high
latitude and polar navigation.
SECTION 3 – GYRO COMPASS COMPENSATION PRINCIPLES
0516. Gyro Compass Factors Requiring Further Compensation
a. Requirements for Compensation. Once the gyro compass has been

precessed to the ideal position by the action of the controlling and damping forces
Pc and Pd (see Para 0511 to Para 0514), there will still be a number of factors
affecting the gyro compass which will require compensation if the gyro compass is to
remain accurately settled on the meridian. Some of them derive from inherent
properties of the Earth-gyro system, whereas others derive from the fact that the
gyro compass (to be any use) has been placed in an object which moves across the

surface of the Earth. If any of the compensations are in error, then the alignment of
the spin axis of the gyro will be incorrect, and the heading output of the gyro
compass will be in error to some degree.
b. Factors to be Compensated For. The factors listed below require

compensation for an accurate marine gyro compass to be useful for navigation.
They are discussed in more detail in the rest of this Section.
(1) Vertical Earth Rate. The gyro will appear to drift by 15° per hour as a
result of the VER. See Para 0517 for a full explanation.
(2) Vessel’s Movements – Velocity Errors. The vessel’s movement across

the face of the Earth will induce errors in the gyro compass which must be
compensated for; the effects of the East/West component and North/South
components are different and are compensated for differently. See Para 0518
to Para 0520 for a detailed explanation of velocity error compensations.
(3) Vessel Accelerations. Vessel accelerations, and high speed manoeuvres,

can cause gyro compass errors. See Para 0521 for a full explanation.
(4) Intrinsic Gyro Compass Errors. There are certain errors which will be
intrinsic to any given gyro compass installation, such as residual constant
torques arising from unavoidable manufacturing deficiencies, or variations in
rotor speed and supplied voltage, about which the Navigator can do nothing but
which nevertheless exist. See Para 0522 for a discussion of these intrinsic
errors.
0517. Vertical Earth Rate – Drift
a. Effect of Vertical Earth Rate – Drift. As a result of the Earth’s rotation there is
an apparent turning movement of the spin axis about the vertical gimbal. If the spin
axis is aligned with the meridian, the northerly end will appear to drift towards the
East in northerly latitudes and towards the West in southerly latitudes; precisely on
the Equator there will be no drift. This is illustrated in Fig 5-12 below.
Fig 5-12. Apparent Motion of the Heavens to an Observer Looking North

b. VER Drift Rate. Fig 5-13 below illustrates a gyroscope with its spin axis aligned
to the meridian in a number of locations, showing how the VER drift rate changes
with latitude.
(1) Position A – on the North Pole. As the Earth rotates, the spin axis will
appear to turn at a rate equal to the full rotation rate of the Earth (15°/hour).
(2) Position B/B1 – on the Equator. As the Earth rotates from position B to
position B1, the spin axis, which was initially aligned to the meridian will not
appear to turn (VER = 0°/hour).
(3) Positions C/C1 and D/D1 – Intermediate Latitudes. As the Earth rotates
from position C to C1 and D to D1 (northern and southern hemispheres
respectively), the northerly end of the spin axis will appear to turn at a rate
directly related to latitude. As VER is greatest at 0° latitude and greatest at 90°
latitude, it is a sine function, and the VER is therefore given by the formula
below:
Vertical Earth rate = 15 sine latitude degrees per hour
Fig 5-13. VER at North Pole, Equator and Intermediate Latitudes

c. VER Compensation. The VER is an inherent property of a gyroscope on the
surface of the Earth; it will exist for as long as the Earth rotates. It is, however,
entirely predictable, and so it is therefore possible to compensate for it. This is
achieved by applying an equal and opposite force to precess the gyro compass in
the opposite direction to the VER. This is known as the VER correction, and it is
common to all gyro compasses, although the way in which it is achieved varies
between different systems. As it is a function of latitude, it is essential that all gyro
compasses are provided with a means of setting the local latitude, and that this is
set correctly at all times. In older equipment, this may have been achieved manually
by the operation of controls on the equipment, but in modern systems it is usually
achieved automatically provided accurate start-up latitude was entered into the
system.
Fig 5-14. VER Compensation in the Northern Hemisphere.

d. Loss of VER Compensation/Incorrect Latitude. If the VER correction is
removed entirely, the gyro compass spin axis will immediately start to appear to turn
to the East (in the Northern hemisphere) at a constant rate of 15 sine latitude
degrees per hour. Once the spin axis becomes deflected to the East of the meridian,
it will tilt upwards because of HER (see Para 0511). The gravity reference will
detect this tilt, and in the normal way produce force Pc to precess the spin axis to
the West and force Pd to precess the spin axis downwards. The effect will be that
the gyro compass will eventually settle at a new equilibrium away from the ideal
position N, with the offset to the East (in the Northern hemisphere) being determined
by the latitude. Straightforwardly, there will be a permanent heading error in the
gyro compass readings. This is illustrated in Fig 5-15 below; the effect of setting the
latitude incorrectly is functionally the same.
Fig 5-15. Effect of Loss of VER Compensation or Incorrect Latitude Setting

(in the Northern Hemisphere)
e. Detailed Explanation of Loss of VER Compensation. In the event of a loss

of VER compensation, the gyro compass will depart from the ideal position N in a
predictable manner, as described below. All positions are given with reference to
Fig 5-15 above.
(1) Initial Position. The gyro compass starts settled on the meridian in the
ideal position N. VER compensation is then lost.
(2) Position 2. As VER is lost, the gyro compass will start to drift to the East
of the meridian, which introduces a corresponding upward tilt; forces Pc and Pd
increase.
(3) Positions 3 to 5. At position 3, Pc is equal to VER. After this, it becomes

greater than VER and so the spin axis moves back towards the meridian. This
causes the HER tilt rate T to reduce until T and Pd are equal and opposite at
position 5. At position 5, however, Pc is greater than VER and so the spin axis
continues towards the meridian.
(4) Position 6. The motion of the spin axis back towards the meridian

continues to reduce HER and therefore the tilt rate T, until eventually Pd
becomes greater than T, which causes the spin axis to move downwards at
position 6. This has the effect of reducing Pc and Pd. As a result, VER
becomes greater than Pc once again and so the spin axis moves away from the
meridian once more, causing T to increase.
(5) Settling. The process will continue until, after several complete rotational
cycles, the spin axis will settle in a direction where Pc is equal and opposite to
VER, and Pd is equal and opposite to T. This will not be the ideal position N;
the gyro compass will no longer settle on the meridian.
(6) Result in the Northern Hemisphere. Once the new uncompensated

equilibrium is reached, in the northern hemisphere the gyro compass will have a
permanent upwards tilt and will be offset to the East of the meridian. The
amount of tilt and the degree of offset are both directly proportional to the
latitude of the gyro compass. The directional offset will produce a permanent
heading error in the readings displayed by the gyro compass.
(7) Result in the Southern Hemisphere. The effect of the loss of VER is
reversed in the southern hemisphere, meaning that an uncompensated gyro
compass will have a permanent downwards tilt and a directional offset to the
West of the meridian.
0518. Speed Errors – Simplified Summary

This paragraph contains an outline summary of the two different types of speed error.
A more detailed, mathematical treatment is contained in Para 0519 and Para 0520.
a. Rotational Speed of the Earth. The Earth rotates to the East at a speed of
about 900 knots at the Equator (and zero at the poles). The rotational speed is
therefore a cosine function, and the rotation speed of the Earth at any given latitude
is given by the formula:
Rotational speed of the Earth = 900 x cosine latitude
b. Effect of the East/West Component – Velocity Error. A vessel moving

directly East or West across the surface of the Earth has the effect of increasing or
decreasing the apparent angular velocity of the Earth. In other words, it has the
effect of making the Earth appear to turn slightly faster or slightly slower, but the
rotation of the Earth remains about the north/south axis. This means that the
sensitivity of the gyro compass is affected, but its behaviour isn’t – it will still settle
on the meridian.
Fig 5-16. Effect of East and West Speed on the Gyro Meridian

c. Effect of the North/South Component – Speed Error. A ship moving due
North across the ocean is still being transported to the East by the rotation of the
Earth. A gyro compass sited onboard that ship is therefore actually being rotated
about an axis which is the resultant of the two vectors, as illustrated in Fig 5-17. A
vessel on a northerly course will see the gyro settle on a direction which is West of
the meridian, whereas a gyro on a ship on a southerly heading will settle on a new
direction East of the meridian. Given that the Earth’s rotational speed varies with
latitude, it can be shown that the speed error due to north/south velocity is given by
the formula:
speed × cos heading°

Speed error =
5π × cos latitude°
Fig 5-17. Simplified Speed Error for Vessel Heading North
0519. Errors Due to East/West Velocity Component

This paragraph gives a more detailed explanation of the gyro errors caused by the
East/West component of the ship’s velocity; see Para 0518 for a summary of all velocity
errors.
a. Turning Effects on Cardinal Courses. A gyro compass onboard a ship

moving directly East or West over the Earth’s surface will experience an apparent
turning effect on its spin axis; this will be to the East if the course is East, and to the
West if the course is West. This is illustrated in Fig 5-18 below. There is no turning
effect for courses that are directly North or directly South.

Fig 5-18. Gyro Compass Apparent Turning Effect on course of East
b. Turning Effects on Intermediate Courses. If the vessel is on an intermediate

course between the cardinal points, the spin axis will turn at a rate somewhere
between zero on a course of North (South) and speed V on a course of East (West).
This is a sine function, and so turning rate is given by the following formula where V
is the vessel’s speed:
Turning rate = V x sine course °
This is illustrated in Fig 5-19 below.
Fig 5-19. Turning Rate on an Intermediate Course
c. Calculation of Turning Effect on East/West Courses. As the rotational speed

of the Earth decreases with latitude, the ratio of a vessel’s speed to the Earth’s
rotational speed increases with latitude and eventually reaches infinity at the poles.
This is a tangent function, and it can be shown that the turning effect arising from
East/West movement at a given latitude is given by:
East/West movement turning effect = V x sin course ° x tan latitude °
d. East/West Compensation. In the absence of any East/West movement

compensation, the spin axis will settle with a small tilt and turn; this will only be
significant at high latitudes i.e. above about 80° of latitude. Most gyro compasses

do not include any compensation for East/West movement as the effect is so small,
although very high accuracy systems (such as weapon stabilisers or INS) will use
the formula in Para 0519 sub para c to calculate a precessional force which is
applied to eliminate the error.
0520. Errors Due to North/South Velocity Components

This paragraph gives a more detailed explanation of the gyro errors caused by the
East/West component of the ship’s velocity; see Para 0518 for a summary of all velocity
errors.
a. Tilt Effect on Cardinal Courses. A gyro moving North or South across the
Earth’s surface will experience an apparent tilt effect on the horizontal spin axis, at a
rate dependent on the vessel’s speed. There is no vertical spin axis turning effects
for North/South movements. If the vessel’s course is East or West, there is no tilt
effect. The tilt effect on the cardinal courses is summarised in Fig 5-20 below.
Fig 5-20. Apparent Tilt on Northerly Heading (left) and Easterly Heading (right)
b. Tilt Effect on Intermediate Courses. If the vessel is on an intermediate course

between the cardinal courses, the spin axis will have a tilt rate with a maximum at
latitude 0° and a minimum of zero at latitude 90°. This is a cosine function, and so
the tilt rate is given by:
Tilt rate = V x cosine course°
This is illustrated in Fig 5-21 below.
Fig 5-21. Tilt Rates on Intermediate Course

c. Calculation of Tilt Effect on North/South Courses. The direction of tilt is
upwards if on a northerly course and downwards if on a southerly course. It can be
shown that the overall error due to the vessel’s North/South velocity components is
given by:
speed × cos heading°

Speed error =
5π × cos latitude°
In order to keep the gyro compass pointing at the ideal position (on the meridian) it
is necessary to apply a precessional force equal and opposite to the tilt, as
calculated in Para 0520 sub para b.
d. North/South Compensation in Practice. On the first mechanical gyro

compasses, if they were velocity compensated at all, the velocity compensation was
achieved by physically moving the lubber’s line on the compass repeat to adjust for
the error, by operating manual controls to adjust for speed and latitude. Not every
gyro compass was in fact compensated; for uncompensated gyros, cards were used
giving the errors expected at a range of speeds and latitudes, and the gyro compass
readings then had to be adjusted by the user in a manner directly analogous to
adjusting a magnetic compass for variation and deviation. In a modern gyro
compass, velocity compensation is usually achieved automatically by interfacing the
gyro with the ship’s speed log; the system should already know the latitude to allow
for accurate VER compensation, and so it is a straightforward matter for the
compensations to be carried out electronically.
e. Effects of Loss of North/South Compensation. The effects of loss of

North/South velocity compensation on a settled gyro on a heading of North are
illustrated below in Fig 5-22.
Fig 5-22. Effect of Loss of North/South Speed Compensation

(1) Positions 1-3. If the North/South speed compensation is lost, then the
spin axis will start to tilt upwards at a tilt rate of V cos C (where V is ship’s
velocity in knots and C is the course). The gravity reference will detect the tilt,
and produces for Pc to precess the spin axis to the West and Pd to precess it
downwards. The spin axis deflects to the West of the meridian, so the effect of
the HER tilt rate will be downwards, which will combine with the downward Pd.
The HER tilt rate and Pd will steadily increase as the spin axis passes through
position 1 and position 2, so that by the time position 3 is reached, they will
cancel out the constant tilt rate induced by the northerly velocity. Pc, however,
will continue to precess the spin axis to the West through position 3.
(2) Positions 4-5. As the spin axis moves further to the West, HER tilt rate
continues to increase. The combined effect of HER tilt rate and Pd overcomes
the effect of the northerly movement and causes the spin axis to move
downwards. This movement reduces Pd and Pc to zero when the spin axis
reaches the horizontal at position 5. In position 5, however, the HER tilt rate
with the spin axis offset to the West will be greater than the effect of the
northerly movement, and so the spin axis will tilt downwards and reverse the
forces Pc and Pd to eastwards and upwards. This causes the spin axis to move
back towards the meridian.
(3) Positions 6-8. At position 6, the increasing Pd combined with the tilt due
to the northerly velocity overcomes the HER tilt rate. Pc however precesses the
spin axis through position 6 until the horizontal is reached once again at position
7. This will be due West of the starting position, so that the gyro compass is no
longer seeking the meridian. In position 7, Pc and Pd are both zero, but
northerly movement starts again, tilting the spin axis upwards once more,
although these effects are steadily countered by the spin axis becoming aligned
to the West of the meridian. Eventually, after several complete cycles, the spin
axis will settle on the horizontal at position 8.
(4) Result. Once settled at position 8, without any North/South speed

compensation, forces Pc and Pd are both zero, and the HER tilt rate is exactly
cancelled out by the tilt induced by the northward component of the ship’s
velocity. The situation is summarised in Fig 5-23 below. The heading error
therefore depends on the ship’s course, its speed and latitude. An incorrect
latitude setting can therefore introduce VER compensation errors and
North/South velocity errors as well.
Fig 5-23. Rates When Settled Without N/S Speed Compensation
f. Loss of North/South Compensation on a Southerly Course. The principles

involved are exactly the same when the ship loses North/South compensation when
heading South, with the exception that the gyro will settle to the East of the meridian,
as shown in Fig 5-24 below.
Fig 5-24. Effect of Loss of North/South Speed Compensation (Southerly Course)
0521. Accelerations – Ballistic Deflection, Ballistic Tilt and Schuler Tuning

In addition to the errors introduced by absolute velocities, an accelerating ship will
also introduce errors into the gyro compass as the gravity reference, which is key to the
functioning of the compass, will be affected.
a. Ballistic Deflection. Ballistic deflection is a precessional force caused by

accelerations or decelerations resulting from changes in the course or speed of a
manoeuvring vessel. The precession rate is proportional to the acceleration or
deceleration, and the precession will continue for as long as the acceleration (or
deceleration) does. Therefore, for a given change of course and/or speed, the total
change will be constant, irrespective of the rate at which the manoeuvre is carried

out. It is only the North/South component of any acceleration which is relevant; the
East/West component has no effect.
(1) Gravity Reference Deflection. When the vessel accelerates/decelerates

in a North/South direction (i.e. any direction other than due East/West) the
gravity reference will be deflected from the local vertical and will generate a
false signal. This signal will initiates Pc and Pd which will then precess the spin
axis away from the ideal position.
(2) Offset from the Meridian – HER. As soon as the

acceleration/deceleration finishes, the gravity reference will return to the true
local vertical but, as the spin axis has now been deflected from the meridian, the
compass will need to carry out a damped North finding settling curve to get back
to the meridian.
(3) Heading Errors. The consequence is that, in a non-Schuler tuned gyro,

there will be heading errors in the readings from a gyro on an accelerating or
decelerating ship until the gyro has settled back on the meridian.
(4) Minimising/Eliminating Ballistic Deflection. It is possible, through the

correct design of the gyro compass, to minimise or even eliminate ballistic
deflection, by ‘Schuler tuning’ the gyro. See Para 0521 sub para c below.
b. Ballistic Tilt. If the gyro is not Schuler tuned, the acceleration or deceleration
which causes ballistic deflection and a deflection in heading, will also cause a
deflection in tilt in the spin axis, known as ballistic tilt. This in turn produces a small
deflection in heading before being damped out as part of the gyro’s normal North
finding behaviour.
c. Schuler Tuning. The German engineer Maximilian Schuler, who worked with
Anschutz on the early gyro compass designs, realised that if a gyro was constructed
such that its undamped period is 84.4 minutes, it will tend to behave like a pendulum
that keeps pointing at the centre of the Earth when its support is suddenly displaced.
With this insight, through correct design of the machine it is possible to ‘Schuler
tune’ a gyro compass such that for most practical purposes, North/South speed
errors, ballistic deflection and ballistic tilt can be all but eliminated. The Schuler
period is given by:
Earth' s radius 6378388

Schuler period = 2π = 2π = 84.44 min utes
Gravity 9.81
d. Non-Schuler Tuning - Minimising Manoeuvring Errors. If a gyro is not

Schuler-tuned, it is common to use conventional damping measures with a
compromise gyro period of about 120 minutes. This will minimise the effect of
ballistic deflection and ballistic tilt, but some heading deflection may occur after
manoeuvring. If so, it should be damped relatively quickly.
0522. Inter-Cardinal Rolling Error

In some warships (such as the RIVER class OPV) and many merchant vessels, the
gyro compass is installed at some distance above the vessel’s axis of roll. If this is the case,
when the vessel is on an inter-cardinal heading and starts rolling, the resulting lateral
accelerations in the North/South and East/West axes will generate an error in the gyro

compass known as the inter-cardinal rolling error. The gyro equipment’s specific damping
performance is of most importance when it comes to limiting the inter-cardinal rolling error,
but it is possible when rolling heavily on an inter-cardinal course that an error of several
degrees can quickly build up.
0523. Constant Torques

It is not possible to manufacture a frictionless electro-mechanical gyro which is so
perfectly balanced as to produce no inherent residual torques about its two suspension axes.
These residual torques, no matter how small, will produce constant precessional forces on
the spin axis. The magnitude and direction of the force acting to precess the spin axis
depends on the magnitude and direction of the torque.
a. Constant Torque about the Vertical Axis. An inherent torque about the
vertical axis is equivalent to a constant turning force being applied to the spin axis.
This precessional force will tilt the spin axis away from the ideal position, producing
an effect that is similar to the loss of North/South speed error compensation. The
effect can be eliminated by applying a compensating force to precess the gyro by an
equal and opposite amount.
b. Constant Torque about the Horizontal Axis. An inherent torque about the
horizontal axis is equivalent to a constant tilting force being applied to the spin axis.
This precessional force will turn the spin axis away from the ideal position, producing
an effect that is similar to the loss of VER correction. The effect can be eliminated
by applying a compensating force to precess the gyro by an equal and opposite
amount.
0524. Power Supply Voltage Variations

The power supply voltage provides the reference for the control and compensation
precession signals that are used to control the gyro compass. A change in the reference
voltage will alter the strength of the precession signals, which will in turn generate
precessional rates which differ from those required and so produce gyro compass errors.
The reference voltage must therefore be kept constant at the specified level. As a matter of
course, NOs should be familiar with the electrical supply arrangements for all their
equipment including gyros and INS, and the consequences of interruption or disturbance in
them.
SECTION 4 – RING LASER AND FIBRE OPTIC GYROS
0525. Introduction to Optical Gyros

The theory and principles of the gyro compass which were discussed in Section 1 to
Section 3 related to the true gyro compass, in which the physical properties of a rapidly
spinning object (a gyroscope) are used to locate true North, and thus determine the ship’s
instantaneous heading in real time. Gyro compasses which operate on this basis are still in
extremely common usage in merchant ships, warships and submarines, although they are
gradually beginning to be replaced, especially in high accuracy systems, by optical gyros.
Although still described as a ring laser ‘gyro’ (RLG) or a fibre optic ‘gyro’ (FOG), these sorts
of devices do not utilise the gyroscopic principles of rigidity in space and precession, but

they exploit different physical effects to act as high precision rotation sensors. The major
advantage of optical systems over older ‘true’ gyro compasses is enhanced accuracy, but
almost as importantly reduced space, weight and power demands.
Note. An optical gyro, whether a ring laser gyro or fibre optic gyro is not
strictly speaking a gyro at all. They have no gyroscope as part of their
mechanisms, and they do not operate on the basis of the gyroscopic
principles of rigidity in space and precession. Nevertheless, the general
term ‘gyro’ is used for these devices, and indeed for many others not
relevant to marine applications which are used to sense rotation or
orientation in space.
a. Rate Sensor vs Orientation Sensor. A conventional spinning mass gyro

measures orientation; it detects how much a vessel has moved from one orientation
into another. Optical gyros (and in fact all other types of gyro not based upon a
spinning mass) are rate sensors; they sense rotation rather than absolute orientation
in space.
b. Advantages of Optical Gyros. Unlike conventional gyros, optical gyros

contain no or very few moving parts. This means they do not require a long period
of time to warm up, have longer service lives, require less maintenance, are less
likely to suffer failures in operation, and have significantly reduced space weight and
power requirements. Modern systems are cost effective, and capable of matching
or surpassing the accuracy of all but the most esoteric spinning mass gyros. It is to
be expected that, in the near future, RLG/FOG systems will be suitable for use in
even the most demanding high accuracy applications (i.e. SSBN navigation).
0526. The Sagnac Effect
a. Introduction. Although the term ‘gyro’ continues to be in general usage, optical

gyros are not true gyros in as much as they have no moving parts and they do not
exploit the physical properties of rotating objects to find true North. They are gyros,
however, in the sense that they are capable of finding and maintaining true North,
and they are capable of sensing very small rotations with a very high degree of
accuracy. Whether the gyro in question is a ring laser gyro (RLG) or a fibre optic
gyro (FOG), they all work by exploiting an effect discovered by the French scientist
George Sagnac in the early twentieth century, in which rotation can be measured
extremely accurately by the changes in the propagation of a beam of light.
b. History. Sagnac effect was discovered by Sagnac in 1913, as part of a series

of experiments that were being conducted at that time in Europe and North America
to investigate Einstein’s theory of special relativity and search for proof of the
existence of ‘aether’, thought to be the medium through which light travelled.
Sagnac discovered what he thought was proof of the existence of aether when in
fact, what had been discovered was that if two beams of light were sent around a
ring in opposite directions, the relative phases of the two beams of light were shifted
by the angular velocity of the ring. Whilst the Sagnac effect had many interesting
implications for the theory of relativity and fundamental physics, it was of no practical
use until the invention of the laser and modern manufacturing techniques, and so
the first RLG was not produced until the early 1960s, when Sperry developed the

first RLG demonstration in 1963.
c. Explanation. The principle which underpins the Sagnac effect is that if two
waveforms with the same frequency are combined, a standing waveform will be
produced with a characteristic ‘fringe’ interference pattern. This interference pattern
is predictable, and changes in it are readily detectable with modern equipment
(indeed, Sagnac and others relied upon visual detection with the naked eye in their
experiments). The effect of rotation on the apparatus is to change the interference
pattern, as the relative phases of the two beams of light alter, even though they have
travelled the same distance around the ring and thus intuitively the phases should
be the same. An optical gyro is capable of detecting the changes in the interference
pattern and thus sensing both the direction and speed of rotation. Some
explanations will state that there is a difference in travel times for the two laser
beams; this is not strictly true (we are now in the realms of special relativity) but
serves as a useful analogy.
d. Uses. Whether an RLG or FOG, the optical gyro behaves similarly to a gyro
with a single degree of freedom. It does not remain rigid in space, and it will not
precess if an external force is applied. Multiple (i.e. at least three) gyros are
therefore required in most configurations. It was the invention of the laser in the
early 1960s which made optical gyros possible, as a laser produces highly
collimated light at a very discrete frequency such that it is possible to detect the
interference patterns with a high degree of accuracy.
e. Sensitivity. As the RLG or FOG relies on a laser for the measurement of

rotation, which by definition travels at the speed of light, an RLG/FOG can be made
very sensitive and linear across the full range of speeds. A modern optical gyro is
entirely capable of detecting the rotation of the Earth, and indeed relies upon this for
finding true North on start-up.
0527. Strapdown Technology

Most optical gyros utilise ‘strapdown’ technology. In a strapdown system, unlike a
conventional gimballed gyro, the sensors are attached directly to the structure of the platform
they are carried in, with no gimbals to isolate the sensors from base motion. The system
uses sophisticated processing techniques to create a ‘synthetic level’ no matter how the
platform moves in inertial space. One advantage of strapdown systems is that the possibility
of mechanical gimbal lock is avoided, although the system can still mathematically enter
gimbal lock due to the way that Euler angles are expressed in mathematical inertial space.
In practice, this will not be a concern for a naval platform as 90° pitch angles are hopefully
never going to be experienced, and it is possible to avoid the problem altogether by utilising
a different mathematical expression for the co-ordinates in the system.
0528. The Ring Laser Gyro

The ring laser gyro (RLG) was the first practical device to exploit the Sagnac effect,
and was first demonstrated by Sperry in 1963.
a. Laser Cavity. The RLG works by using a laser to inject a pair of beams into a
cavity. Despite the name, they are almost never circular or toroidal in shape, but
rather are usually triangular or square. Mirrors are placed at the corners of the
cavity, to reflect the laser beam around so that it carries out a complete circuit of the
light path. To ensure accuracy and stability under all conditions, the cavity will
typically be machined out a single block of ‘Zerodur’ glass which has an extremely
low coefficient of thermal expansion, and the mirrors and other components are

wrung onto the block under clean-room conditions.
b. Laser. The lasing effect is produced by the use of two anodes and one cathode
to excite the lasing medium, commonly helium-neon. The use of two anodes and
only a single cathode produces the two beams, which travel around the laser cavity
in opposite directions. RLGs are described as active systems because the laser is
generated within the gyro itself, and the laser beams actively resonate in the cavity.
c. Lock-In. Whilst RLGs have the capability to provide much more accurate
angular rate sensing than mechanical gyros, as many of the errors found in a
mechanical gyro do not apply, at very low rotation rates they do suffer from a
phenomenon called ‘lock in.’ When an RLG is locked in, the frequencies in the two
counter-rotating lasers become ‘pulled together’ and will become the same, meaning
that the standing wave pattern becomes steady and no rotation is sensed by the
device. This occurs due to the fact that the laser beams are oscillating in the cavity,
and back scattering in the mirrors, which will always contain tiny imperfections no
matter how well they are manufactured, ‘couples’ the two beams together in the
cavity. Lock-in is an inherent property of laser ring gyros, and has the effect of
producing a large dead-band centred on zero rotations in which slow rotations will
not be sensed.
d. Avoiding Lock-In Errors. Laser lock-in is an inherent property of RLGs and so

in one sense cannot be avoided; the only mitigation is to somehow keep the gyro
rotating sufficiently fast that it stays above the threshold for lock-in. This can be
achieved by rotating the entire gyro, or, more commonly, by oscillating (dithering)
the gyro at a high frequency (circa 400 Hz) such that the gyro is constantly sensing
rotation above the lock-in threshold. As the gyro is oscillating backwards and
forwards at a high frequency, no net rotation is output until the ship actually turns,
although there will still be moments of lock in when the dither motion stops and
reverses but these should cancel each other out over a long period of time. This
process is further assisted by adding a random frequency onto the base dither
frequency, to give a random rate bias rather than a mean bias; as they are white
noise, the bias will grow as the square root of time elapsed which nevertheless
means that, whilst small, the RLG lock-in bias error will probably be the single
biggest cause of heading drift in an RLG.
e. Finding True North. The mechanical gyro uses the horizontal Earth rate and
the damping force to ‘spiral in’ to true North. Optical gyros are capable of detecting
the rotation of the Earth, and, with accurate accelerometers, the force of gravity and
hence local vertical. It is then a trivial matter for the software controlling the optical
gyro to establish the orientation of the meridian and even in fact the latitude of the
compass. The software cannot discriminate between northerly and southerly
latitudes, and so the operator must specify this at start-up, and the more accurate
the initial position input the more quickly the system will align. Total alignment time
will be governed by the system’s latitude at start-up, as the Earth’s rotation varies
with the cosine of latitude, so at very high latitudes it may not actually be possible to
align the gyro as the rotational speed of the Earth is too slow.

f. Problems and Disadvantages. Compared with a conventional mechanical
gyro, there are relatively few problems or disadvantages. For the very highest
accuracy applications (such as SSBN navigation) specialised mechanical gyros are
still preferred, although this is likely to change in the future. The fact that moving
parts are required, even in a strapdown platform (for dithering), means that there are
still maintenance and lifetime issues, and the fact that there is a lasing cavity filled
with a medium means that, eventually, a RLG can in fact wear out. Nevertheless, in
most cases the RLG is superior to a conventional mechanical gyro due to the high
accuracy, and vastly reduced space, weight and power requirements.
0529. Fibre Optic Gyros (FOG)

The newest major type of optical gyro in common use is the fibre optic gyro (FOG),
sometimes known as the interferometer fibre optic gyro (IFOG). The FOG exploits the
Sagnac effect to detect angular rotation in the same manner as an RLG, but the physical
implementation of the sensor is different.
a. Passive Interferometer. In an RLG, the cavity is acting as an active resonator

for the lasers. This leads to the lock-in effect, and hence the need for a mechanical
dither to avoid this. By contrast, a FOG is a passive interferometer, in which a single
beam of laser light is injected by an external laser into a fibre optic coil in two
directions. Any rotation of the coil will result in a change in the relative phase of the
two beams of light coming out of the other end of the coil, which is detected by the
interferometer. As the system is entirely passive, lock in does not occur and so
there is no need for any mechanical dither, and the system is entirely solid-state (no
moving parts). However, as it is a phase change that is detected rather than a
frequency change, a FOG is in principle less accurate and less able to sense small
rotations than a RLG. This ‘in principle’ problem is mitigated by using a very long
length of fibre optics; a modern high performance FOG will have an effective coil
length of several kilometres, contained in an area a few 10s of centimetres across.
An AHRS or INS will use at least three FOGs and two level sensors to determine
attitude in space.
b. Solid State Technology. As there is no lock-in problem, there is no need to

mechanically dither the device, and so a FOG is built with no moving parts at all. It
therefore has very low space, weight and power requirements, a very low acoustic
signature, and is very resilient against shock. Moreover, the start-up time can be
measured in minutes as there are no moving parts to energise, and no need for any
part of the equipment to warm up.
c. Accuracy and Advantages of FOGs. As there is no need for mechanical

dithering, which artificially induces noise into the heading measurement, a FOG can
be built to be very close to the theoretical maximum accuracy, which is determined
by quantum limitations imposed by the universe itself. Developments in the near
future will likely see FOGs produced with accuracies an order of magnitude superior
to that of even the best RLG. FOGs are linear across the entire speed range of the
platform, and so are capable of reading both very slow and very fast rotations with
the same degree of accuracy. FOGs are also capable of extremely quick settling
times (less than 30 minutes). It is expected that FOG based AHRS and INS will be
introduced into service in the RN in the near future.

d. Disadvantages of FOGs. For naval and marine applications, there are no
meaningful disadvantages of FOGs, other than the cost relative to older systems,
which is decreasing all the time. FOGs do require an element of calibration but this
is not a concern for the user. FOGs are not yet capable of the very highest
precisions, required for SSBN navigation but at the present rate of technological
development this is likely to change in the near future.
SECTION 5 – INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
0530. Introduction to Inertial Navigation Systems (INS)

An inertial navigation system (INS) is a machine capable of deriving the
instantaneous position of a vessel, based on no external measurements or information
whatsoever, instead using nothing more than its own measurements of the vessel’s motion
in space and time away from a defined start position. As such, INS are ideal for use in
vessels such as submarines which will not have access to outside information, or may be
unwilling or unable to make active transmissions for the purposes of navigational information.
0531. History of INS

A true INS was not possible until the invention of the modern gyroscope in the early
th
20 century, which allowed for both an accurate gyro compass and accurate accelerometers
to be developed. Development of a practical INS was stimulated by the Second World War,
with a number of nations developing INS either as a guidance system for weapons (such as
the German V1 and V2) or for aircraft (such as the system developed by Charles Stark
Draper in the USA). The V2 rocket used by Germany in 1944 used a primitive (although not
by the standards of the age) inertial navigation system to control the rocket’s attitude and
heading and engine cut-off through the use of a number of gyros and integrating
accelerometers. The technology was subsequently improved and expanded, principally
following work by Draper, such that the first true INS flew in an aircraft in 1949 and then went
to sea in 1958 when the USS NAUTILUS used a missile-derived INS to travel under the
North Pole. Improvements in marine INS were largely prompted by submarine requirements,
in particular the requirement for an SSBN to have accurate aimpoint data at all times, and
the SSBN programmes ultimately led to the modern NATO SINS and ESGNs. The
increasing cheapness of modern RLGs/FOGs and accelerometers has meant that INS are
increasingly fitted to surface ships where previously only a gyro compass would have been
found.
0532. Principles of INS
a. The Basics. The basic principle underpinning an INS is that acceleration

integrated twice gives distance. If a submarine’s acceleration in all three axes can
be accurately measured, it is therefore possible to determine the distance that the
submarine must have travelled. Given an accurate start position, the INS can
therefore work out where the submarine must be now, given the distance it has
travelled. In order to do this, the INS will use a number of gyros (conventionally
three) to establish a reference frame or set of co-ordinates in which to measure
movement, and then the accelerometer readings will be integrated against that
reference frame to establish the vessel’s motion. A side effect of the INS
calculations is that the INS will be capable of giving highly accurate heading, roll and
pitch information, as well as velocity and position.
b. Kalman Filter. Most INS use a Kalman filter to smooth the position displayed
by the system. A Kalman filter is a mathematical technique which is very good at
determining the true value of a signal from the noise, in this case the true velocities
of the ship and hence position from the random ‘white noise’ errors in the
measurement. A Kalman filter works by setting a number of parameters, which in an
INS are established on alignment and then updated by injecting fixes into the system.
The consequences of injecting a bad fix into the INS is that the Kalman filter can
effectively become corrupt, and it will then take a large number of fixes to push the
bad fix out of the filter and reset the system covariances to reasonable values.
c. External Velocity Reference. An INS requires a source of external velocity

information to allow for vertical damping; in a naval vessel this will be the ship’s log
but in other cases it may be GPS or something else such as an odometer. The
external velocity reference allows the system to automatically damp Schuler
oscillations, which would otherwise cause the system to oscillate either side of true
with a period of just over 84 minutes. This is another reason why it is important to
have a correctly calibrated log that reads accurately across the whole range of
operational speeds.
0533. INS Errors

Even the most accurate INS onboard an SSBN will be subject to errors, and even

relatively small errors can compound over time to make for significant degradation of the
navigation solution. For example, a gyro drift in azimuth of 1/60th of a degree per day
(0.0007°/hour) will result in an INS position error of 1nm a day.
a. Drift Errors. INS are designed and constructed to be as accurate as possible.

Any random errors should, over time, be self-cancelling, meaning that any residual
errors will be drift errors that are not self-cancelling. These are often described as a
‘gyro bias.’ Biases/drift errors are not random and will tend to accumulate over the
time as the root mean square.
b. Fix Accuracy. It is worth being explicit that an INS only knows where it has
travelled from a specified starting position; it is a relative navigation tool and has no
means of fixing its position on the Earth’s surface directly. This means that
inevitably one of the single biggest sources of error is the starting position input into
the system. In practice, of course, the system will usually be started (aligned)
alongside, in a position which can be determined to a high degree of accuracy. It is
important to ensure that any instructions specific to the equipment are followed,
such as settling time, fix intervals etc. At sea, however, a major source of error is
the fix data used to update the system. One advantage of using GNSS to fix the
system is that the errors can be accurately quantified, whereas with a visual fix (for
example) the navigator must apply their judgement to assess the realistic fix
accuracy for injection into the system.
Note. It is vital to be as realistic as possible when assessing fix accuracy.

Applying too great a degree of accuracy risks inducing errors into the INS as
artificially low errors will be injected into the Kalman filter, which may
produce velocity or position errors. On the other hand, being unduly
pessimistic in the error assessment will mean that the Kalman filter applies
too little weight to the new fix and thus the value of the reset is reduced in
terms of improving the navigational solution.
c. Initial Position. As an INS only works by measuring displacement from a

known position, it is of course the case that an error in the initial position will
propagate through the system and accuracy will by definition be degraded. If a
manual position is used for the initial alignment rather than GNSS, care must be
taken to ensure that it is as accurate as possible, taking into account any datum
shifts on the chart, and any lever arm corrections necessary for the position of the
sensors used for the fix/the onboard position of the INS.
0534. INS Platform Management at Sea
a. Requirement. The ship or submarine’s inertial navigation platform is a vital,

often mission critical, piece of equipment. Although modern systems are highly
advanced with a significant amount of automation in-built, they still require careful
management if they are to be used to best effect. They should not just be left ‘to get
on with it.’
b. Policy. The policy for management of the INS should be specified by the
Command, and laid down in a suitable temporary memorandum. This should
specify, amongst other things, who is responsible for the operation and maintenance

of the system, reset and settling policy, and system configurations. For systems
which can accept a manually entered fix, it is sensible to insist upon a two-man rule
for entering fixes to guard against the risk of inadvertently disturbing the platform
through an error in fix entry. The operation of the INS should be an integral part of
the navigation planning for the transit or operation, including operational modes, fix
intervals, and monitoring.
CAUTION
Injecting a manual fix into an INS is potentially a hazardous operation

as gross errors can render the INS useless for navigation. It is
recommended that a 2-man rule is used in most circumstances.
c. Fix Sources and Fix Intervals. Fix intervals need to be carefully planned, to
avoid inadvertently introducing errors into the system. In particular, as the INS
errors will tend to oscillate (in the absence of Schulering) on a 24 hour cycle, fixes
should not be entered at any multiple of six hour intervals. Doing so does not allow
the system to correctly update the Kalman filter as it cannot be determined
whereabouts on the sine wave oscillation the system is; in particular, fixing every 24
hours must be avoided if at all possible. Operational considerations, such as
availability of GNSS reception, will also affect the decision of when to fix or not.
Although a navigational decision, in an operational context the planning and taking
of fixes will need to be discussed with Command.
0535. INS Common Misunderstandings

Although the submarine community has built-up a good understanding of INS, INS
are beginning to be introduced into the surface community in which at present the depth of
understanding is relatively shallow. This will of course change with training and the growth
of practical experience; the Submarine Service, as with so much, learnt through getting
things wrong. The aim of this paragraph is to present, for those not familiar with INS, some
common misunderstandings concerning the operation of a generic INS and what actually
happens in reality.
a. INS Accuracy and Errors – the INS Position ‘Wandering.’ For reasons
explained above, INS errors are generally drift errors and they do not propagate in a
linear fashion. For example, if a platform has a designed accuracy of say 2nm in 48
hours, it does not follow that the accuracy of the INS displayed position will be 1nm
after 24 hours. In fact, immediately the last fix is entered and the system is set to
‘navigate’ then the displayed position may in theory move to 2nm from the ship’s
true position. This has some important implications.
(1) INS CANNOT Be Used for Pilotage. It should be self-explanatory but

even the best high-accuracy INS available today will not give a position that is
accurate enough during manoeuvres for pilotage. On a ship doing anti-FBA or
FIAC manoeuvring, expect Schulering to take place and the platform displayed
position to wander off by hundreds or even thousands of yards. The system is
only going to be as accurate as it is designed to be i.e. in the example, it will
stay within two miles for up to 48 hours, but within those bounds, anything is
possible.
(2) Monitoring Accuracy after Fixes. Keeping a performance log of INS

performance against fixes is helpful for long fix intervals, but large

displacements from fix positions do not necessarily indicate a problem. As
stated above, the system is only as accurate as it is designed to be; if after a
16hr fix interval, one platform is off by 1600 yards and the other by 800 yards
that does not necessarily indicate a problem with the first platform (or
conversely that there are no problems with the second).
(3) High Speed Manoeuvres Will Degrade Accuracy. The effects of high
speed manoeuvring will be to reduce accuracy in the short-term. A ship carrying
out anti-FIAC manoeuvres will probably see the INS position wander off from the
true position for the duration of the manoeuvres and for some time thereafter,
but as the platform settles once more the INS position should stop drifting and
may well return slightly towards the true position.
b. Fixes Will NOT Necessarily Reset the Displayed Position to the Fix
Position. As explained in Para 0529, most if not all INS use a Kalman filter to
smooth the displayed position. This filter weights all the information used to
generate the position information. What this means in practice is that the Navigator
does not necessarily have complete, or even any, control over the position that the
INS displays. Injecting a manual fix, such as from a visual position, merely updates
one piece of information used by the Kalman filter. The example below shows how
a generic system operates.
Fig 5-25. Fix Injection into INS

1
The INS derived position is at (1). A good three point visual fix is taken which puts
the ship at (2). This is entered into the INS, with a realistic fix error of 100m. The
INS Kalman filter is updated, but the new INS derived position only moves to (3)
rather than all the way to (2) because of the relative weighting assigned by the
Kalman filter to the visual fix. A DGPS fix with an accuracy of 5m would have
moved the INS derived position closer to (2), but it is most unlikely, especially in the
case of intermittent fixing, that inputting a single fix could ever move the INS position
to (2). This behaviour also explains why it can take a long time to undo the results of
injecting a bad or unreasonable fix.
Note. There is one exception to the above remarks. Some INS will allow
the INS position to be ‘slewed’ rather than fixed. In a slew, the position of
the INS is changed to the injected position but the Kalman filter is not
updated and neither are the velocities, errors etc used by the INS. This is
useful in certain situations but will NOT allow the INS to improve its
accuracy by correcting for errors.
0536. Bad or Unreasonable Fixes

Most INS will have the ability to internally assess the accuracy of any proposed fix or
reset data before it is actually ingested by the system. Generally speaking, the INS knows
what it is doing and has a very good idea of what a ‘reasonable’ fix would be (i.e internal
tests show that the updated Kalman filter would have covariances outside acceptable
tolerances). If, after inputting the fix, the system alarms or alerts to indicate that the fix is not
reasonable, then the first thing to do is to check that it has been entered correctly. Often, it
is the case that the error has been caused by an error (eg N instead of S latitude) and it can
therefore be quickly corrected. If not, and the system still suggests the fix is unreasonable,
then there will seldom be a good reason to enter the fix unless it is believed the system is
already out of alignment due to a defect or an earlier bad fix. If it is necessary to enter an

unreasonable fix, then there must be time afterwards to resettle the system with a number of
fixes at regular intervals. Otherwise, it is better to slew the system if necessary and then fix
again later with what is hopefully a more accurate fix.
CAUTION
Never force the system to accept an unreasonable fix unless there is a

good reason to do so and there is time to subsequently settle the
platform with a series of regular fixes afterwards. This MUST be a
Command decision.
The effects of injecting an unreasonable fix can be very serious, and result in the platform
becoming effectively unusable for navigation. See Para 0535 sub para b.
0537. INS Coupling with GNSS

The first INS were designed to be used independently of any aiding devices
(although one of the first models for an aircraft did incorporate star trackers), with the
exception of the ship’s log for an external speed reference. Subsequently, GPS and then
the other GNSS were developed, and it became possible to construct an INS which would
utilise GNSS aiding. This aiding can take several forms. In the simplest form, GNSS fixes
are used to update (reset) the INS at periodic intervals, updating the Kalman filter
coefficients for system drifts and biases and thus reducing system errors. The advantage of
a GNSS fix over say a visual or LORAN fix is that it is extremely precise, and an accurate
error estimate can be devised from the system itself, rather than the NO’s estimate. In other
forms of GNSS aiding, GNSS fixes are fed continuously to the INS which effectively acts as
a smoothing device, filtering out any noise in the GNSS position and covering any
interruptions in GNSS coverage. The NO must be aware of any GNSS/INS coupling on their
particular platform, and the way the position is derived, and what behaviour would be
expected in the event of GNSS denial. In tightly coupled systems, GNSS must be carefully
monitored, as the effects of any GNSS spoofing may be insidious over the course of hours
or even days; INS reasonableness tests will not trip as the GNSS position is only very slowly
pulled away from true, meaning in turn that the INS Kalman filter will build up a history of
‘bad’ fixes without operator awareness. This can have a non-trivial effect on INS accuracy,
as it will take a correspondingly long period of good fixes to push the bad data out of the
Kalman filter. Whilst by definition the errors are unlikely to be truly large (tens of miles) they
can conceivably be significant enough to interfere with warfare operations, such as precise
RV in the open ocean, minefield transits and so on.
0538. Blended INS Positions

Para 0537 discussed INS coupling with GNSS. A related concept is the blending of
two or more INS to give a smoother position. For example, in an SSN with two identical
SINS running in parallel, it is possible to display a position from each SINS and/or a
composite position which is the average of the two. In other systems, the displayed position
may always be a blended position. Modern airliner flight management systems will often use
a ‘triple mix’ weighted average position of the three inertial reference systems (IRS –
technically different from an INS because an IRS does not output position), with the errors
for the weighting derived by comparing the IRS with GNSS positions. The navigation
computer in the Type 45 displays the position that it feels is the most probable position but
the decision making is ‘under the hood’ and the NO has no influence over it other than to

exclude a NAVAID; the position displayed is inherently a blended or fused position.
0539. Some INS Things to Do – and Not to Do

Experience has taught navigators that there are a few standard things to do, and,
just as importantly, not to do with regards to the operation of INS at sea. The list is not
exhaustive but is provided as guidance, especially for those who are not experienced at
operating an INS.
a. INS Things to DO
(1) Do ensure that the correct position is entered for an alongside realignment.
If GPS is not being used, make sure that the position is entered in WGS84 and
that any datum shift for the chart in use has been accounted for.
(2) Do ensure that the system time is accurate if GPS is not being used.
(3) Do ensure that the system is in the correct mode for a cold move, whether
it be shut down or set to navigate (check equipment guidance for details).
(4) Do, if at all possible, test the system alongside in navigate before sailing. It
is much better to discover that you have an unhappy platform alongside rather
than prior to diving!
(5) Do, before diving, settle the system with at least four fixes over the longest
possible time period.
(6) Do ensure that regular resets are entered to allow the system to correct the
Kalman filter and maintain it accurately.
(7) Do be careful when entering a reset – errors cannot be undone once a bad
fix is ingested by the system.
(8) Do use a correctly weighted bottom contour fix if nothing else is available –
but be realistic in your assessment of the weighting.
(9) Do ensure that the system is correctly configured to change over power
automatically in the event of loss of primary supplies; if you do experience
electrical disturbances onboard, make sure as part of control room rounds or
mini-SOCS that the INS is checked to ensure it is not operating on battery.
b. INS Things Not to Do
(1) Do not allow just anyone to enter information into the INS (and consider
the use of a 2-man rule in any case).
(2) Do not use a hot restart when there is time for a cold restart.
(3) Do not, if operationally acceptable, cross the continental shelf at right

angles at high speeds, as the system may become unstable.
(4) Do not force an unreasonable fix into the system unless there is time to

settle the system afterwards with regular resets; it is better to slew or increase
the fix error assessment and then enter another fix.
(5) Do not blindly rely on a blended position of the two INS; compare each
position individually and check each one for sensibleness/gross errors.
(6) Do not be surprised that, when conducting a large number of manoeuvres

at high speeds, the INS position may drift away from the ship’s DR position.
(7) Do not worry when conducting high speed manoeuvres at RONA if all fixes
become unreasonable. An INS can be affected by magnetic anomalies and so
the answer is to slew and then every four hours fix and update the filter.
(8) Do not automatically discount the ocean current information provided by

the INS, as this can be a valuable guide to the current or tidal stream
experienced by the vessel (and sometimes it will be the only source of
information available).
(9) Do not forget that the accuracy of the INS platform is specified and the
system should remain within those specified limits, but it is not possible to
assess the error linearly; most naval INS can be relied upon to provide a
reasonably accurate position even after many days without a fix.
ANNEX 5A
NAVAL COMPASS STABILISER Mark 1 (NCS1)
1. Summary
The Naval Compass Stabiliser Mk 1 (NCS1) is a combined gyro compass and weapon
stabiliser, which provides accurate references to the local vertical axis, and to the azimuth
axis. The azimuth gyro is north finding, and level to provide heading. The vertical gyro
maintains the local vertical to provide weapon stabilisation. NCS1 also provides pitch and
roll outputs, and maintains an estimate of current latitude and longitude.

2. Accuracy and Performance Parameters
a. Accuracy. The dynamic and static accuracies of NCS1 are given in Table 5A-1
below. The dynamic accuracies are valid under the conditions listed in Table 5A-2.
Table 5A-1. NCS1 Accuracy
PARAMETERS GYRO COMPASS ACCURACY DG MODE ACCURACY

Heading Dynamic: ±14.0 arc minutes x Dynamic: drift rate less
secant of local latitude than 0.3°/hour
Static: ±8.5 arc minutes x secant
of local latitude
Pitch Dynamic: ±3 arc minutes Dynamic: ±3.0 arc
Static: ±0.8 arc minutes minutes
Roll Dynamic: ±3 arc minutes Dynamic: ±3.0 arc
Static: ±1.1 arc minutes minutes
Latitude & longitude Dynamic: 0.7°/hour Dynamic: 0.7°/hour
(optional)
Acceleration, N & E Dynamic: 0.15m/sec2 Dynamic: 0.15m/sec2
(optional)
Velocity, N & E Dynamic: 3.0m/sec Dynamic: 3.0m/sec
(optional)
Table 5A-2. NCS1 Dynamic Accuracy Limiting Conditions
PARAMETER LIMITATION
Latitude Up to 70° (North finding mode)
Sea state Up to sea state 9
Manoeuvring Turns up to 3°/second
Pitch Up to 10°
Roll Up to 25°
Speed log error Up to 1 knot
Tidal streams and currents Compensation must be input manually
b. Parameters Directly Affecting Performance. The following factors will all directly
affect NCS1 performance.
• Altering course
• Rolling, pitching and yawing
• Speed log error
• Vibration and shock
• Latitude
• Temperature and pressure variations
• Magnetic field effects
• Gyro drift (in DG mode)

• Accelerometer bias
• Analogue to digital conversion noise
NCS1 consists of the following three main elements, in addition to a maintenance
cabinet (MC) and built-in test equipment (BITE).
a. Space Reference Unit (SRU). The space reference unit (SRU) is the core of
NCS1, and comprises two ‘rotation packages’ mounted on a stable platform. One
rotation package contains the vertical gyro, which has two accelerometers mounted on
the side of its casing. The other rotation package contains the azimuth gyro. The gyro
compass units are modified versions of the Arma Brown Type 20.
b. Electronics Panel (EP). The electronics panel (EP) processes data from the SRU
and the speed log for precession control of the two gyro compass units. The EP also
converts power to the voltages and frequencies required by NCS1. It is fitted with
switches and indicators for operating, monitoring and fault finding.
c. Resilient Mount Assembly (RMA). The resilient mount assembly (RMA) provides
a resilient mount to eliminate shock and maintain alignment. It is fitted with adjustments
to allow it to be accurately aligned to the ship’s datum.
d. Maintenance Cabinet (MC). A maintenance cabinet provides a shock-protected

stowage for a spare gyro and spare accelerometers. The MC is provided with power
supplies to enable the spare gyro to be run up periodically.
e. Test Equipment. Built-in test equipment (BITE) monitors specified signals and
parameters continuously while the unit is operating. BITE indicates a fault if a
monitored signal deviates outside of predetermined tolerances; detailed fault analysis
may then be made by key-inserted test codes.
Fig 5A-1. NCS1 Main Units (EP, SRU and RMA)

4. Space Reference Unit (SRU) – Detailed Description
a. Summary. The SRU is mounted on the RMA in accurate alignment with the
vessel’s ‘master training datum’. The SRU contains the sensing elements in a
temperature controlled environment. These sensing elements comprise a vertical gyro
with two accelerometers, and an azimuth gyro with a spin axis controlled to point North.
The two gyros are mounted on rotation packages on a stable platform which is held in
pitch and roll gimbals. Two electronic boxes are fitted on the forward end of the SRU;
these contains the PECs for the power amplifiers, specialised power supplies,
temperature controls and the BITE.
Fig 5A-2. NCS1 SRU

b. Rotation Packages. The two rotation packages are fitted in the stable platform
component of the SRU pitch gimbal; their rotation axes are normal to the stable
platform. The azimuth gyro and the vertical gyro (with two accelerometers) are each
located on their respective rotation package. Each rotation package has its own servo
motor and slip ring unit; the slip rings carry supplies and signals between the stable
platform and the gyros/accelerometers.
(1) The azimuth rotation package servo motor turns the azimuth gyro case until the
‘azimuth pick-off signal’ is nulled out.
(2) The vertical rotation package servo motor rotates the vertical gyro around its
spin axis at 12 revolutions/hour. This is known as cluster rotation.
c. Gyro Functions. The vertical and azimuth gyros have the following functions.
(1) Vertical Gyro – Base Motion Isolation. The function of the vertical gyro is to
maintain the platform’s attitude in space irrespective of the angular motion of the
vessel. This is the basic stabilisation or ‘base motion isolation’ function.
(2) Azimuth Gyro – True North Azimuth Reference. The azimuth gyro is
controlled by the vertical gyro to align its spin axis accurately on true North to
provide an azimuth reference.
d. Gyro Description. Each gyro spins at 11,800rpm and is driven by a 26 volt 400Hz
three phase supply. In each gyro the rotor, stator and bearings are enclosed in a sealed
‘gyro ball’ which has two degrees of freedom provided by horizontal and vertical
suspension wires from a primary (or floating) gimbal. The gyro unit case is filled with
‘Fluorolube’, a fluid with stable density and viscosity (Fluorolube remains liquid at all
temperatures above -10°C and the specific gravity is constant within a temperature
range of -10°C to 50°C). At the operational temperature of 65°C, the gyro ball has
neutral buoyancy; this takes the weight of the gyro ball off the suspension wires so that
they act as guides only.
e. Gyro Axis Terminology. Each gyro unit fitted in the SRU has two pre-aligned

mounting faces to enable fitting either to the azimuth rotation package or to the vertical
rotation package.
(1) Azimuth Gyro. When a gyro unit is used as the azimuth gyro, the horizontal
axis is known as the spare axis and the vertical axis as the Z axis.
(2) Vertical Gyro. When a gyro unit is used as a vertical gyro, the horizontal axis
is known as the Y axis and the vertical axis as the X axis.
f. Gyro Pick-off and Torque Functions. The pick-off function measures the
misalignment between the gyro ball axis and the gyro case.
(1) Induced Voltage. Two formers are fitted on the inside of the gyro case. Each
of them has two sets of coils, one in the vertical axis and the other in the horizontal.
The magnetic flux produced by a 2.2kHz excitation current induces voltages into
these sets of coils.
(2) Alignment – Self-Cancelling Induced Voltages. When the gyro case is in

alignment with the gyro ball, the induced voltage cancel each other out (as they are
180° out of phase, the outputs are nulled).
(3) Non-Alignment – Induced Voltage Output. When the gyro case and gyro
ball are not aligned, the coils produce a voltage which is proportional to the degree
of misalignment. The output may be from either the vertical or horizontal coils or,
more realistically, from both.
(4) Torque Function. A 225mA DC current in the excitation coils produces a

magnetic flux so that, when a DC torque current is applied to the pick-off coils in the
formers, a magnetic reaction occurs which causes a torque to precess the gyro.
g. Accelerometers. The two accelerometers are mounted at an angle of 90° to each

other, on an accelerometer assembly which is fitted to the azimuth mounting face of the
vertical rotation package. One accelerometer is fitted along the vertical gyro X-axis and
the other along its Y-axis.
(1) Functions. The accelerometers perform several functions. Firstly, they are
used to level the stable platform when starting NCS1. Once the system is running,
they measure the acceleration, roll and pitch of the stable platform for control and
computation (navigation) purposes.
(2) Construction. The two accelerometers are identical, being pendulum units
with a forced-feedback loop. The pendulum arm is supported on very thin metal
hinges which are very precisely machined to give the exact degree of stiffness
required for an accurate scale factor to be injected into the accelerometer output.
The lower end of the pendulum arm is ‘spade’ shaped and hangs between the
poles of four pick-off coils; movement of the pendulum between the coils is inhibited
by fixed stops. The bridge formed by the pick-off coils is supplied with an
‘accelerometer excitation supply’ (AES) at 19.2kHz.
(3) Operation. If the accelerometer pendulum is deflected from a central position,

the coils produce a pick-off output signal of 10mV per minute of arc. The phase of

the output signal in relation to the AES indicates the direction of the movement.
The output pick-off signal goes to an amplifier where the 19.2kHz signal is
demodulated to produce the ‘restoring coil current’ (RCC). This is fed back to the
accelerometer restoring coils, located on the pendulum arm; the effect of the RCC
is to force the pendulum back to its initial position, balancing the output of the pick-
off coils (the RCC is an analogue of the initial deflection force). Another amplifier
amplifies the RCC to produce two outputs per accelerometer for calculations within
the EP.
Fig 5A-3. NCS1 Accelerometer
h. Accelerometer Deflection. The accelerometer pendulums will be deflected from

the null (central) position for one or both of the following two reasons; the output may
therefore be the result of one force in isolation or the net effect of the two:
• Own ship’s acceleration, sensed along the acceleration-sensitive input axis.

• Tilt of the accelerometer, producing angular rotation from the vertical.
i. Accelerometer Fragility. NCS1 accelerometers are mechanical devices, which

rely upon the detection of tiny movements in the internal components to detect
acceleration; they are extremely fragile. When fitting or handling an accelerometer, the
utmost care must be taken to ensure that it is not knocked, dropped, or otherwise
mishandled. Any impact may distort the metal hinges and result in the scale factor
being measured incorrectly, in turn resulting in output bias. In extreme cases, the hinge
may break or jam, rendering the accelerometer useless.
CAUTION
NCS1 accelerometers are extremely fragile and must be handled with

the utmost care and attention. Knocking or dropping the
accelerometer may damage it such that it is no longer fit for
navigation.
5. Basic Control
a. Accelerometer Level Mode.
(1) Purpose. The accelerometer level mode is used during NCS1 start-up. It
allows the spin axis of the azimuth gyro to be set closed to horizontal and North,
and the spin axis of the vertical gyro to be put into the local vertical before the gyro
rotors are run up. This reduces the settling time when the system changes to gyro
compassing mode.
(2) Heading Input. After the SRU and gyros have been heated to their
operational temperatures, the ‘heading’ light flashes on the control indicator panel.
The operator then used the keyboard to enter ship’s head, obtained from the NO.
(3) Selecting Accelerometer Level Mode. When the heading has been entered,
the system selects accelerometer level mode when latitude and longitude are
entered. NCS1 will remain in this mode until gyro compass mode is automatically
selected later in the starting sequence.
b. System Actions in Accelerometer Level Mode. Three basic actions are

performed automatically by the NCS1 control electronics when in accelerometer level
mode.
(1) Vertical Gyro. The vertical gyro is immediately rotated to 0° with reference to
the roll axis. This has the effects of putting the X-axis accelerometer onto the
vessel’s roll axis, and the Y-axis accelerometer onto the vessel’s pitch axis.
(2) Platform Levelling. If (as is likely) the platform is not perfectly level, outputs
from the accelerometers will drive the platform, and hence the vertical gyro, until the
outputs are nulled and the platform is level, and the vertical gyro approximately
vertical.
(3) Azimuth Gyro. The spin axis of the azimuth gyro is pointed at North by
comparing the output from the heading synchro with the manually input heading. If
there is a difference, an error signal drives the azimuth gyro, and with it the heading
synchro, until the difference is reduced to zero.
c. Gyro Compassing Mode. NCS1 will automatically enter gyro compassing mode
after the accelerometer level mode preliminaries have completed to within system
tolerances. As the spin axes of the gyros have freedom to float within 1½°, they will not
necessarily be in the precise positions required. In gyro compassing mode, the spin
axis of the vertical gyro is accurately aligned to the true vertical, and the spin axis of the
horizontal gyro to true North and the horizontal. In gyro compassing mode, therefore,
NCS1 generates accurate outputs measuring heading, pitch and roll.
d. Control of the Vertical Gyro. If the spin axis of the vertical gyro is not in the true
vertical when the platform is aligned to it, the platform is said to be tilted. As a result,
the accelerometer pendulums will be displaced, and therefore produce output about the

X and Y axes. These output signals are used to precess the vertical gyro, which is
followed by the platform, nulling out the accelerometer outputs. When the
accelerometer outputs are reduced to precisely zero, the spin of the vertical gyro will be
vertical, and the platform will be level. Pitch and roll angles are measured from the
platform’s level datum, and transmitted through slab-type synchros to customer
equipment.
e. Control of the Azimuth (Horizontal) Gyro. When NCS1 is gyro compassing, the
horizontal gyro control circuits carry out three functions.
(1) They precess the spin axis of the horizontal gyro level with the platform,
through the spare axis control loop.
(2) They align the azimuth rotation package to the horizontal gyro spin axis.
(3) Using the effects of the Earth rate on the vertical gyro, the electronics control
the precession of the horizontal gyro spin axis to true North.
f. Cluster Rotation. The purpose of cluster rotation is to remove any small

accelerometer bias which may be present, by ensuring that they are cancelled out over
complete rotations of the package. It also updates NCS1 for any alterations in the
vertical gyro drift rates along the X and Y axes.
g. Vessel Speed Inputs. The SPEED push-button on the control indicator (see Fig
5A-4 below) is used to select between inputs either directly from the ship’s speed log
(button depressed) or by manual injection (button not depressed). Speed must be
injected manually when the ship is alongside, by initially entering 0.000 knots using the
keypad. At sea, the log will usually be selected. When the system is fully run up and
settled, ‘log not available’ (LNA) mode is available for selection, which assesses the
vessel’s speed from the accelerometer outputs (i.e. the system becomes inertial). The
system may be forced into LNA by the operator in the event of a failure or defect in the
log, or alternatively the control electronics will automatically select LNA mode if the
system assesses that speed log inputs are outside of system speed parameters. In
LNA, NCS1 can be expected to maintain reasonable accuracy for 12-24 hours,
depending on the degree of manoeuvring conducted during the period.
Fig 5A-4. Control Indicator on the Electronics Panel (EP)

6. Summary of Operating Modes
NCS1 has five main operating modes which may be selected by the operator manually
using the push buttons on the control panel. The modes are summarised below.
a. OFF. The system is shutdown, although anti-condensation heating will remain on.
b. STAND BY (Stand By Mode). In STAND BY, the interior of the SRU is maintained
at the designed operating temperature (55°C), but the gyros are spun down.
c. GC (Gyro Compassing Mode). This is the normal mode for operations in latitudes
up to 84°. In GC mode, NCS1 produces synchro outputs of vessel heading with respect
to true North, and vessel pitch and roll. A digital readout of latitude and longitude is
displayed on the EP.
Note.
NCS1 will display own ship’s latitude and longitude on the control panel on
the EP; whilst not accurate enough for true inertial navigation, it is more than
sufficient to compromise the ship’s position. Therefore, if ship position is to
be secure (i.e. for operations above UK SECRET), then a secure cover
must be placed over the panel to prevent unauthorised viewing/access to
the panel.
d. DG (Directional Gyro Mode). DG is the standard mode for operating in high

latitudes. Above 84°, NCS1 will issue an alarm and automatically enter DG mode, but
the operator can select it manually in any latitude. Prior to operating in high latitudes, it
is sensible to run NCS1 in DG mode for a period of time (at least six hours) to establish
DG drift rates prior to needing to rely on the compass for navigation in DG mode. In DG
mode, the synchros output vessel heading with reference to polar grid (NCS1 utilises a
standard polar grid), and vessel pitch and roll.
e. LNA (Log Not Available Mode). In LNA mode, the vessel’s speed is derived from
the accelerometers. LNA mode is used when entering or leaving harbour or on other
occasions when the speed log has to be raised/shut down, or when the ship is making a
sternboard at more than two knots. Manual speed may be input at any time via the
LOG SPEED MAN sub-mode button and is used at start up.
7. Navigational Calculations
A number of calculations are carried out by a computer within the electronics panel.
a. Latitude Correction. The computer automatically computes and applies the Earth
rate for the ship’s current latitude.
b. Ship’s Movement over the Earth’s Surface. Coriolis correction is applied to

compensate for East-West errors.
c. Gyro Drifts

(1) Fixed gyro drift errors (biases) are continuously monitored in GC mode and
corrections applied.
(2) Random drift errors in the vertical gyro are compensated for by cluster rotation.
d. Earth’s Radius. The computer utilises the same average value for the Earth’s
radius in all calculations.
e. Meridian Convergence. In GC mode, a meridian convergence term is included to

provide East-West compensation.
f. Drift. The effects of drift (i..e tidal streams, currents and surface drift as opposed to
gyro drifts or bias errors) are sensed in NCS1 as ship movement. These effects can
only be accounted for by setting expected/measured values manually (unlike in a true
inertial navigation system which is automatically able to calculate set, drift and ocean
currents).
g. Northerly Speed Correction. Errors due to northerly speed are automatically

corrected. Any uncorrected error in northerly speed causes a heading error of 7.4 x
secant latitude arc minutes for each metre/second of error.
8. NCS1 Starting Sequence

The NCS1 full starting sequence, from OFF, is summarised in Table 5A-3 below. Full
performance takes approximately three hours to achieve.
Table 5A-3. NCS1 Starting Sequence
MODE ACTION
OFF Check EP and SRU anti-condensation heaters are ON
STANDBY Select ‘STANDBY’ mode.
SRU heaters are energised and commence heating SRU towards 55°C.

As the temperature rises through 40°C, a thermostat closes which:
- Illuminates ‘STANDBY MODE ACQUIRED’ (after approximately 15 to
20 minutes in normal environmental conditions)
- Enables the circuits to allow selection of the next mode
GC Select GC mode.
If speed is in manual, SPEED reminder will flash and the operator must
enter a valid speed using the keypad.
Gyro heaters are energised to bring the gyros up to operating temperature

(65°C). As temperature rises through 50°C, another thermostat closes
and the HEADING reminder flashes (approximately 15 minutes).
Enter vessel heading.
System automatically enters accelerometer level mode:

- Azimuth gyro is rotated onto ship’s head (spin axis North)
- Vertical gyro is rotated to 000° with reference to the roll axis
- The stable platform is level by the accelerometer outputs
- After 7 to 8 seconds, LAT and LONG reminders flash.
Operator enters best known value of AZIMUTH DRIFT (which should

have been noted when NCS1 was shut down).
Operator enters LATITUDE and LONGITUDE:

- Gyro supplies are connected and they commence spinning up
- After approximately two minutes, vertical gyro package rotation
starts, GC mode is entered and the system starts to settle
- After 27 minutes, internal accuracy checks begin
- When the system is within limits for navigation, the MODE indicator
lights (about 1hr 15mins after starting)
- When the system is within operational limits, STATUS and GC
ACQUIRED indicators light (about 1h 30mins after starting).
Optimum performance will not be achieved until about three
hours after starting.
Once the ship is at sea, select LOG speed.
Strength and direction of the ocean current together with the vessel’s
position should be entered and subsequently updated daily/as necessary.
This enables the DR/EP facility to be used.
ANNEX 5B
SPERRY MK39 ATTITUDE AND HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM (AHRS)
1. Summary
The Sperry Mk 39 attitude and heading reference system (AHRS) is a simplified version
of the more sophisticated Mk 49-based NATO SINS. The Mk 39 utilises much of the same
technology as NATO SINS, including the same triple ring laser gyros, but it has a hard
operating limit of 85°, no polar (DG) mode, does not make use of indexing, and therefore
has much less intensive software processing. Both the Mk 39 Mod 0 (LPH) and the Mk 39
Mod 2 (LPD) are full gyro compass stabilisers; the Mod 2 was designed with a limited inertial

navigation capability, although this was never implemented in the RN fit.
2. Accuracy and Performance
a. Accuracy. The dynamic accuracy of the Mk 39, up to latitude 85°, is given in Table
5B-1 below, in terms of the ‘root mean square’ (RMS) and peak accuracies.
Table 5B-1. Mk 39 Dynamic Accuracy
PARAMETER ACCURACY
Heading RMS: ±4.0 arc minutes x secant of local latitude
Peak: ±9.0 arc minutes x secant of local latitude
Pitch RMS: ±1.7 arc minutes x secant of local latitude
Dynamic motion limit: ±40°

Roll RMS: ±1.7 arc minutes x secant of local latitude
Dynamic motion limit: ±15°

Speed Dynamic motion limit: ±60 knots
b. Output Parameters
(1) Mk 39 Mod 0. The Mod 0 outputs heading, pitch and roll to the PDM 5(2) in
analogue form, and from there to the appropriate data distribution unit (DDU).
(2) Mk 39 Mod 2. The Mod 2 outputs heading, pitch and roll to the platform
information distribution system (PIDS) and from there into the combat system
highway.
c. Settling Performance. Mk 39 expected settle times are in Table 5B-2 below.
Table 5B-2. Mk 39 Settle Times
CONDITION SETTLE TIME

Alongside in harbour 10 to 15 minutes to full accuracy
At sea 30 to 40 minutes to full accuracy
Without manual input of ship’s head and 4 hours
latitude
d. Power Supplies. To operate, each Mk 39 requires 24V DC, derived by transformer

rectifier units. In the event of a loss of supply, the 24V DC supply is supported by
batteries in the Mk 39. Each Mk 39 also requires a 24V DC maintained supply for a
static frequency inverter, which converts it to a 115V AC 400Hz single phase output for
data transmission.
3. Description
a. Concept. The concept behind the Mk 39 is that it is designed to be an accurate,

autonomous system designed to provide attitude and heading data to the combat
system, weapon systems and other customer equipment, with a minimum of operator

intervention. It is built around three commercial-grade, orthogonally mounted ring laser
gyros (i.e. their rotation axes are mounted at 90° to each other in the X, Y and Z planes)
in a strap down mounting. The Mk 39 utilises high speed digital processing, similar to
NATO SINS, in the inertial measurement unit to determine the ship’s attitude in space
and rotation rates. Output data is provided in digital or analogue form to customer
equipment. The Mk 39 has no directional gyro mode, and therefore cannot operate in
high latitudes (above 85°).
b. Major Components.
(1) Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU). The IMU is mounted within the ‘main unit’,
which itself is mounted within a precision mounting tray, which is aligned with the
ship’s master training datum and strapped down to the deck.
(2) Replacement of the Main Unit. In the event of a catastrophic failure, the
entire main unit can be replaced in the mounting tray. A one-time alignment
process is required when the mounting tray is emplaced, but the procedure can be
achieved at sea.
(3) Replacement of IMU. It is not possible to replace the IMU separately from the
main unit. The IMO contains printed electronic circuits, some of which are matched
to the specific IMU and must remain with that IMU.
ANNEX 5C
ARMA BROWN MK 12 GYRO COMPASS
1. Summary
The Arma Brown Mk 12 (AB Mk 12) gyro compass is a conventional spinning rotor,
North finding gyro compass capable of provide heading relative to true North up to 75°
latitude. It is not Schuler-tuned, and is affected by some ballistic deflection when
manoeuvring. AB Mk 12 has a directional gyro (DG) mode for high latitude navigation, and
provides a reasonable heading reference when in DG mode. Although the heading may be
read directly from the large bearing display on the unit, in practice it is transmitted by

synchro to remote displays and customer equipment. Although AB Mk 12 has been in
service for many years, it is still fitted to some platforms, in non-magnetic variants where
appropriate. In comparison with other gyro compasses/AHRS fitted to RN warships, the AB
Mk 12 is relatively basic, but it has proven to be reliable, including in under-ice operations.
All remaining AB Mk 12 compasses are due to be replaced as part of the Navigation
Compass Replacement Programme.
Fig 5C-1. Arma Brown Mk 12 Gyro Compass
a. Accuracy. Dynamic and static accuracy for the AB Mk 12 is given in Table 5C-1
below. Dynamic accuracies are valid under the condition limits given in Table 5C-1.
Table 5C-1. AB Mk 12 Accuracy
PARAMETER GYRO COMPASS ACCURACY DG MODE ACCURACY

Heading Dynamic: ±1.5° Dynamic: drift rate less
than 2°/hour
Static: ±0.75°

Static: drift rates less than
1°/hour
Dynamic accuracy limitations:
- Latitude: up to 75°
- Speed and manoeuvring: speeds up to 35kn, turn rates up to 5°/sec
- Pitch and roll: pitch up to ±10°, roll up to ±30°
b. Settling Times. The unit will settle to an accuracy of 2° within 25 minutes of

starting, but will require four hours to achieve full accuracy.
c. Power Supplies. AM Mk 12 requires a three phase 115V AC 400Hz or a three

phase 26V AC 400Hz supply, depending on fit, plus an additional single-phase 115V AC
60Hz supply for anti-condensation heaters, and 24V DC for control and indication.
3. Description
The AB Mk 12 utilises the Arma Brown two-axis, fully floated, non-temperature
stabilised (i.e cold!) gyroscope element. Details of the AB Mk 12 gyro compass are
contained in the BRf 0361 series, and the manufacturer’s handbook.
a. Arma Brown Main Units. The AB Mk 12 consists of three main components: the
main compass unit, the compass mount and electronic drawer, and the remote control
unit.
(1) Main Compass Unit. The main compass unit comprises two assemblies
which are normally assembled as one unit, however the control box can be
detached from the main unit for servicing/fault finding without disconnecting cables
or affecting operation of the gyro compass itself. The two assemblies are the
sensitive element, with associated gimbal system and frame, and the control box,
which houses the electronics and controls.
(2) Compass Mount and Electronic Drawer. The compass mount and electronic
drawer physically isolates the compass from shock, and indicates faults.
(3) The Remote Control Unit. The remote control unit permits the manual
selection of the RUN or DG modes, and the AUTO/HAND input of own ship’s
speed. Transmission of heading from the AB Mk 12 to customer equipment is by a
360°/10° synchro chain.
b. Start and Fail Safe Restart Facilities.
(1) Starting Sequence. A single switch on the control panel initiates the fully
automatic starting cycle. The azimuth and tilt servo systems are automatically
brought into operation once the gyro rotor approaches its normal operating speed.
(2) Fail Safe Restart. The servo loops disable if the rotor speed falls below a
predetermined value, so that the AB Mk 12 will fail safe if power is lost, and restart
when power is restored.
c. Operating Modes.

(1) SETTLE or RUN. The system switches from SETTLE to RUN automatically,
without operator intervention.
(2) RUN or RUN IMPOSED. The system is switched from RUN to RUN imposed
by a manually operated switch.
(3) RUN or DG. Switching between RUN (RUN IMPOSED), gyro compassing,
and directional gyro (DG) mode is by manual user selection.
4. Components
a. Sensitive Element. The gyroscope is known as the sensitive element, and is

illustrated in Fig 5C-2 below. The sensitive element frame contains the gyro ball, which
is centred in the primary gimbal by two horizontal torsion wires of 0.007” diameter. The
rotor is driven by a squirrel cage induction motor, and a heavy ‘spinner’ is mounted to
each end of the rotor shaft to give it the required angular momentum. These spinners
are enclosed in copper hemispheres, which are filled with helium and sealed to prevent
oxidisation and to promote heat transfer.
Fig 5C-2. AB Mk 12 Sensitive Element

b. Tank Supporting the Sensitive Element. The tank is a container filled with
fluorolube which supports the sensitive element at neutral buoyancy. Fluorolube
remains liquid at all temperatures above -10°C, and its specific gravity is constant within
a temperature range of -10°C to 50°C. This arrangement has the effect of minimising
the acceleration and friction effects, and provides a measure of shock protection.
Movement of the gyro ball is limited to a few degrees.
c. Torsion Wires. The torsion wires provide almost frictionless support for the
sensitive element, and perform two other functions in the process.
(1) Controlling Torques. The torsion wires are the means by which controlling
torques can be applied to the vertical and horizontal axes of the gyroscope.
(2) Electrical Supplies. The torsion wires carry the electrical supplies to the gyro
ball.
d. Secondary Gimbal System. The tank is free-swinging in the secondary gimbal

system. The tilt gimbal allows up to 60° of movement about the horizontal axis, and the
azimuth gimbal, which supports the tilt gimbal, allows movement about the vertical axis.
Both gimbals are servo driven, and their arrangement is illustrated in Fig 5C-3.
e. Tank Alignment Follow-Up System. The tank alignment follow-up system keeps
the tank in alignment with the spin axis both vertically and horizontally. To detect any
misalignment between the tank and the spin axis, excitation coils are fitted at each end
of the gyro ball in line and parallel to its spin axis. Adjacent to these are similar pick-off
coils fitted to the tank. Any displacement of the tank in relation to the spin axis will result
in an output from the pick-off coils. These signals are amplified to drive the azimuth

motor and tilt motor to move the tank until the signals are nulled and alignment is
restored.
Fig 5C-3. Follow-Up Servo Control and Secondary Gimbals
f. Gravity Reference Pendulum Unit. The gravity reference pendulum is located in

a sealed unit on the side of the tank, mounted parallel to the spin axis.
(1) Construction. The pendulum unit comprises a heavy rectangular bob

suspended from the top cap of the unit by two beryllium strips. On top of the bob is
a soft iron armature, used to induce a voltage in the pick-up coils.
(2) Arrangement of Coils. Mounted close above the pendulum bob is a stack of
E-shaped laminations carrying the excitation coil (primary) and pick-up coils
(secondaries), which are wound in opposition. This arrangement is known as an ‘E
and I bar displacement sensor’ or an E-type pick-off. Connections to the coils are
by separate terminals located on the top cap for excitation and output.
(3) Pendulum Movement. The pendulum’s range of movement is limited to 43

minutes of arc either side of the vertical.
(4) Damping. The AB Mk 12 is not Schuler-tuned. Unwanted ballistic deflection

and ballistic tilt errors (caused by North-South acceleration effects – see Para 0520
and Para 0521) may occur after manoeuvring. To minimise these errors, the gyro
compass period is optimised, and the pendulum bob is immersed in a viscous
silicone fluid which gives the pendulum a 60 second time constant which helps to
damp short-term accelerations.
(5) Pendulum Outputs. When the tank is level, the pendulum armature is central
relative to the pick-off coils and generates a null output. When the tank is tilted, the
pick-off coils are displaced and produce an output proportional to the angle of tilt,
with the phase giving the direction. North-south accelerations will also displace the

armature.
Fig 5C-4. Gravity Reference Pendulum
5. Compensation and Control Arrangements
a. North Finding Controls. The AB Mk 12 carries out a conventional North finding

precession automatically, either after the initial tank alignment has taken place or on
completion of tilt/azimuth slewing. During the normal run-up and settling cycle, the
compass will change from RUN to SETTLE and back again automatically as the
pendulum output rises and falls above/below 30mV.
b. Latitude and Speed Settings. The latitude setting must be applied manually via
the control panel. Ship’s speed may be applied manually or automatically from the
speed log.
c. VER, North-South Speed and Acceleration Compensation. Conventional

compensations are applied to the AB Mk 12 for vertical Earth rate (VER) and North-
South speed error. Compensation arrangements for North-South accelerations, ballistic
deflection and ballistic tilt have been described in Para 4 sub para f.
6. Control Box
The control box is mounted on the right-hand side of the equipment, and contains both
the user controls and the electronic components of the system.
a. User Controls. The user controls are located on the control panel, and control the
various functions over which the user has a choice. Most of the system’s operation is
automatic and operator intervention is neither necessary nor possible.
b. Motherboard and Other Circuit Boards. A printed circuit motherboard and six
other boards connected to the motherboard are located in the bottom of the control box.

(1) Control Board. This board controls the pendulum unit output signal, to enable
either the SETTLE mode or the RUN mode to be automatically selected.
(2) Azimuth and Tilt Board. This board drives the gimbal servo motors.
(3) Power Supply Board. This board control the gyro rotor speed.
(4) Fail Safe Board. This board prevents control precessions being applied to the
gyro rotor when it is below operational speed (start up, power failure). When the
correct gyro rotor speed is achieved, the OPERATIONAL lamp illuminates.
(5) Select on Test Board. This board carries installation and test components.
(6) Heater Board. This board drives the anti-condensation heating within the
control box when the Mk 12 is switched off, or there has been a loss of 26V 400Hz.
Relays provide power to the heater and the heater ON lamp.
7. Remote Control Unit

The AB Mk 12 remote control unit is shown in Fig 5C-5 below. It has two functions:
switching between RUN and DG settings, and switching between AUTO and HAND speed
settings (and adjusting the speed set when in HAND).
Fig 5C-5. Remote Control Unit

a. RUN/DG Switch. The RUN/DG switch allows the AB Mk 12 to be switched from
RUN (North finding compass mode) to DG (directional gyro) mode. When in DG mode,
the FREE SLEW ON lamp below the switch is illuminated. The following considerations
are relevant to DG mode.
(1) Latitude Limits. DG must be selected at latitudes above 75°, but if may be
used in lower latitudes if required. When DG mode is enabled, the North seeking
capability is removed (by definition) but the VER and North/South
movement/acceleration compensations remain connected.
(2) Gyro State. The AB Mk 12 should be allowed to run up and full settle before
selecting DG mode.
b. AUTO/HAND Switch. The AUTO/HAND switch allows the operator to switch the
AB Mk 12’s speed input from the speed log (AUTO) to a manual input (HAND), entered
using the dial. Before changing from AUTO to HAND, the speed control should first be
set to the ship’s approximate speed.
8. Alarms
a. Visual Alarm Indications. Two alarm indications are shown on the from panel of
the electronic drawer.
(1) RED Lamp. A RED lamp marked MAIN ALARM FAIL illuminates on the loss of
any or all phases of the mains power supply.
(2) RED and GREEN Lamps. RED and GREEN lamps marked FAIL and
AVAILABLE indicate the state of the tilt and azimuth pick-off coils. When their
combined output exceeds the designed limit, the FAIL light illuminates.
b. Alarm Reset Switches. Two RESET switches are adjacent to the alarm indication
lamps. The switch next to the MAIN ALARM FAIL lamp resets the remote alarms, and
the switch next to the FAIL lamp resets the local alarms.
9. Summary of Starting Sequence

The AB Mk 12 starting sequence is summarised in Table 5C-2.
Table 5C-2. Summary of AB Mk 12 Start Sequence
MODE ACTION
OFF Check that power is available

STARTING Set power switch to OFF (check the inverter; if necessary ensure that
the inverter is ON LOAD before switching it on, i.e. switch on the
compass before switching on the inverter)
HEATER lamp lit. All other lamps unlit.
Set local latitude on the latitude dial of the control box.
Set RUN/RUN IMPOSED switch to RUN.
Set RUN/DG switch on remote control unit to RUN.
If starting alongside, set HAND on the remote control unit and set to 0
knots.
If starting at sea, and/or speed log is available, set AUTO on the remote
control unit.
Set power switch to ON.
- HEATER lamp goes out
- Power is applied to gyro rotor which start to spin up
WHEN GYRO The following occurs automatically after powering on:
ROTOR AT - OPERATIONAL lamp lights after approx. five minutes
CORRECT - Power switched on to tilt and azimuth amplifiers
SPEED - Power switched on to control board
- Tank aligns itself to the spin axis
- Azimuth slow and tilt slew become available
Slew the compass so that the spin axis is approximately North and level
GYRO The control board automatically selects SETTLE or RUN depending on
COMPASSING pendulum output; RUN light illuminates in run mode.
BEGINS After 25 minutes compass will be accurate to ±2°
After 4 hours compass will have achieved full accuracy and the RUN
lamp will burn continuously
Once at sea:
- If speed log available, set AUTO on the remote control unit
- Set the control panel RUN/RUN IMPOSED switch to RUN
IMPOSED
STOPPING THE Set power switch to OFF; the heater lamp should be on and all other
COMPASS lamps off.
If applicable, switch off the inverter
ANNEX 5D
RAYTHEON-ANSCHUTZ STANDARD 20/22 GYRO COMPASS
1. Summary
The Raytheon-Anschutz Standard 20/22 are modern, commercial off-the-shelf spinning
rotor North-finding gyro compasses, capable of providing accurate heading relative to North.
Although strictly different models, they are functionally the same so far as the user is
concerned. Standard 20s are fitted in RIVER Class Batch 1, and Standard 22 in CLYDE.
CLYDE’s fit is shown in Fig 5D-1 below, but the Standard 20 is very similar in appearance
i.e. a grey drum with a very basic LED display and power and data connections. Neither

model has a DG (polar) mode.
Fig 5D-1. Raytheon-Anschutz Standard 22 Gyro Compass (Twin Installation)
a. Accuracy. Dynamic accuracy of the Standard 20/22 is given in Table 6D-1 below.
Table 5D-1. Standard 20/22 Accuracy
PARAMETER ACCURACY
Heading Static: ±6.0 arc minutes x secant of local latitude
Dynamic: ±24.0 arc minutes x secant of local

latitude
b. Settling Performance. In FAST SETTLE, the compass should settle to ±3° within
an hour. A normal settle takes three hours to achieve full accuracy.
3. Description
a. Concept. The Standard 20/22 gyro compass provides heading (with respect to
true North) for ships up to a maximum speed of 70 knots. It is based on a twin
gyroscope design, with two horizontal gyros mounted with spin axes 90° apart to allow
North to be resolved.
b. Inputs. There is no manual input of aiding data (latitude, speed etc) to the
compass, but it can accept position/speed data in NMEA format from GPS or the speed
log as appropriate. The only power supply required is 24V DC.

c. Outputs. The Standard provides two heading outputs (designated CHn1 and
CHn2) and another output onto a ‘course bus’, along with a rate of turn output. Status
messages are also passed, including system available/not available and whether or not
speed error corrections are available (SEC, requires latitude and speed log or GPS
speed data inputs).
d. Quick Settle Limitations. The quick settling function is activated by pushing the
QUICK SETTLING button, which illuminates when the function is active. This reduces
the time to settle from approximately three hours to one hour. It operates by storing
ship’s head when the gyro was switched off, and using that as the starting point when
settling when next switched on. Quick settle cannot be used if ship’s head has
changed between switching off and switching on, and it cannot be used during setting
to work after first installation.
ANNEX 5E
NATO SINS (NSINS)
1. Summary
a. Introduction. NATO SINS (NSINS) is a naval inertial navigation system, which

utilises ring laser gyros RLG) and high-precision accelerometers to measure a vessel’s
movement in space. It was procured under a collaborative programme between the
Dutch, Spanish, Royal Canadian and Royal Navies, and in RN service it is now found
exclusively in SSNs. Full details of NSINS are in CB8768.

b. Description. NSINS is parallel development of the Sperry Mk 49 RLGN (ring laser
gyro navigator); the two systems are fundamentally the same and differ mainly in their
interfaces and some performance aspects (essentially, nations which were on the
NATO SINS committee use NSINS, all others use the Mk 49). The Mk 49 is found in
both NATO (slightly modified as WSN-7 in the USN) and non-NATO navies, such as in
ANZAC class frigates in RAN/RNZN service, whereas NATO SINS by definition is only
fitted to NATO SINS committee nations’ vessels. NSINS uses three single-axis aircraft
grade strap down RLGs and three accelerometers, with advanced ‘indexing’ techniques
to provide real time, continuous outputs of position, horizontal and vertical velocity
components, and angles, magnitude and rates for heading, roll and pitch.
c. Capability. NSINS is a fully self-contained navigation system, capable of operating

across the entire globe, including high latitudes. It is designed to maintain a position
accurate to within 1.3nm after 30 hours since the last fix. NSINS also provides highly
accurate heading and very accurate roll and pitch data for weapon stabilisation
purposes. In high latitudes, NSINS operates in polar (DG) mode, utilising a polar grid.
d. Inputs. NSINS continuously and automatically accepts vessel’s speed data from
the speed log or GPS (if available and links open). Fix data may be input from external
sources (i.e. GPS), or entered manually. NSINS also accepts true depth information,
and reference vertical velocity.
2. The Ring Laser Gyro Navigator

The general principles of the RLG are explained in Para 0528. The details of how these
principles are applied to NSINS are explained below.
a. Basic Construction. At the heart of NSINS are three single-axis RLGs and three
accelerometers, mounted orthogonally at the centre of the inertial measurement unit
(IMU). The RLGs sense all sensor block rotation rates, measured in inertial space,
whether due to the movement of the Earth, movement of the vessel, or the indexing
process (see below). The accelerometers measure all linear accelerations along the
sensor block axes. NSINS uses Honeywell GG1342AE RLGs with a 42cm path length,
such that one interference fringe is approximately equivalent to 1.8 arc seconds of
rotation. Although the RLGs are of a commercial design for aircraft use, manufactured
in bulk, only the best performing units are selected for mounting into marine systems.
The RLGs are dithered to avoid lock in (see Para 0528).
b. Light Path Configuration. NSINS uses an isosceles triangle configuration for the
light path. As is standard, the lasing cavity and light path are machined out of a single
block of Zerodur glass, used because of its extremely low thermal coefficient of
expansion, and the mirrors are wrung onto the block under clean room conditions. The
mounting of the Zerodur glass block and the output optics to the photodiode sensor
provide good thermal stability over a wide range of temperatures. One of the mirrors is
mounted on a piezoelectric base that is servo controlled to stabilise the length of the
light path.
c. Interference Pattern Detection. A symmetric discharge between a single cathode

and two anodes is used to excite a helium-neon laser. The discharge is trigged at 3500

volts, and lasing is sustained at 900 volts. The direction of rotation is measured by
comparing the phase of the signals at two detectors spaced at quarter of one fringe,
with rotation measured by counting the fringes in an up/down counter.
d. Power Supplies. NSINS requires a 115V supply (essentially fed in a submarine),

and is provided with its own integral battery backup. In the event of loss of supplies, the
battery will provide enough power to support NSINS for approximately 20 minutes, after
which (or when the battery becomes exhausted), the system will automatically execute
a controlled shutdown. Loss of 400Hz supplies affects heading distribution and, in this
instance, only the azimuth repeaters at the ship control console and navigation console
will be provided with a heading reference.
e. Interface to WECDIS. In submarines, two identical NSINS are installed

(designated SINS A and SINS B). They each operate independently and in parallel, and
both feed positions into WECDIS. One will be designated as master, supplying the
heading reference to ship control and other outstations.
3. Indexing (Cluster Rotation)

As explained in Para 05XX, all gyros, whether mechanical, RLG or FOG, are imperfect,
and will experience drift. Large drifts can be measured during startup or alignment, and
accounted for by system software, but residual drifts will remain, and high accuracy INS
must find a way to account for them; NSINS achieves this by using an indexing or cluster
rotation technique.
a. Indexing (Cluster Rotation). NSINS uses indexing, which involves physically

rotating equipment on the sensor block, to ensure that drift errors are self-cancelling
over a period of time. It is sometimes known as cluster rotation as the technique
involves rotating the cluster which mounts the RLG and accelerometer.
(1) Reversing Direction (Indexing). The direction of the accelerometers and

RLGs in the system are routinely revered so that an uncorrected bias in any given
direction is automatically cancelled out when the direction of the RLG (or
accelerometer) is reversed. The indexer acts in all three axes to compensate all
three RLGs. It is for this reason that a three-axis accelerometer cluster is
necessary in a marine INS.
(2) Rotating the RLG and Accelerometer Cluster. The indexer cycle involves
the rotating the RLG and accelerometer cluster through ±90° or ±180 in roll or
azimuth respectively every 2½ minutes. The total indexing cycle consists of 32
moves in one direction, followed by 32 moves in the opposite direction; the whole
64 move cycle takes 2 hours 40 minutes. The process can be completed this
quickly because the RLGs do not require to be precessed by control torques during
the process.
(3) Individual Indexing Movement Time. Each of the 64 individual indexing

movements takes only a few seconds. The system measures the indexing and
accounts for it, so position determination and outputs are continuous.

(4) Sensor Block Assembly Stabilisation. The two indexer axes are also used
to stabilise the sensor block assembly (part of the RLG and accelerometer cluster)
in roll and azimuth. This ensures that changes in heading do not prevent the
indexer changing exactly 90° or 180°.
(5) Changing RLG Position in Cluster. Another benefit of the indexing process
is that, over the course of the complete cycle, each RLG and accelerometer
performs all of the different functions in turn.
(6) Earth Rate and Vertical RLG Calibration. As the vertical Earth rate at a
given position is precisely determined by a strict mathematical relationship (see
Para 0517 sub para d), it is possible to accurately calibrate the vertical RLG.
b. Failure of the Indexing System. Although the indexing system is key to the
accurate operation of NSINS, the system will continue to operate in the event of a failure
of the indexing equipment. Performance, however, should be expected to slowly
deteriorate, and it should be closely monitored. If the operational conditions allow, the
period between fixes should be reduced to allow the Kalman filter to start to measure
and account for the biases which will now no longer be cancelled out by indexing. It is
also possible to manually disable the indexing process; this may be necessary to
provide more accurate velocity data for the initialisation of some weapon systems.
During this period, RLG biases will not be corrected, and so it should be re-enabled as
soon as possible.
4. Kalman Filters
a. Concept. A Kalman filter is a mathematical technique, invented by a NASA

engineer, which is used to sort the signal from the noise. In NSINS, the controlling
software uses a 26-state recursive Kalman filter to estimate remaining errors (biases) in
the system, and to process external position/velocity inputs and to correct NSINS
outputs.
b. Application. The majority of the variables (technically, it is co-variances which are

measured) are only estimated during a static dockside alignment. The Kalman filter
software is invoked periodically by the navigation computer to update its estimate of the

magnitude of the errors in NSINS (the size of the co-variances). The error propagation
is generated by error models in the software, not directly measured.
(1) Measurement Errors. When a measurement from some external device,

either a velocity or a position, is input into NSINS, it is accompanied by an estimate
of the measurement error. It is essential that this is accurate and realistic.
(2) Kalman Filter Processing. When comparing values, such as GPS latitude
against NSINS latitude, the Kalman filter uses its estimate of the NSINS error, the
external device value, and its measurement error to calculate how much of the
difference between the two values to apply as an update to NSINS.
(3) Further Errors. After the update, the NSINS error estimates are reduced by
the amount of the difference applied. If the NSINS true errors do not match the
error model in the Kalman filter, or the external device measurement error is badly
estimated, further (unquantifiable) errors will result.
c. Effect of the Kalman Filter. The operation of the Kalman filter has several effects.
In the first place, it is designed to make NSINS as accurate as possible. Secondly, it
smoothes the position output. As far as the operator is concerned, however, it means
that great care must be taken when putting fixes into NSINS, and that NSINS will not
automatically be reset to the precise position of the last fix that was injected. See Para
7 below.
Note.
The Kalman filter is usually invisible to the operator, but it affects everything
that NSINS does. A full and thorough understanding of the behaviour of the
filter, and how it treats information, is essential for the successful operational
use of NSINS.
5. Switching On and Starting Alongside
a. Initial Switching On. When the system is first switched on, it enters the standby
mode and will remain in this mode for at least 20 seconds whilst a number of internal
self-tests are carried out. It should then be put into DOCKSIDE ALIGN, and the
necessary data entered to enable it to complete a full alignment.
(1) Spheroid/Datum. In order to maintain consistency with GPS and WECDIS,

the position entered should be in WGS84. If a non-WGS84 chart is used to
determine the position, the corrections for satellite derived positions should be
applied. If NAVFIX (with P/Y code) is available, position from this can be used.

(2) UTC. UTC can be entered manually at start-up, but if NAVFIX is available
NSINS will automatically use UTC from GPS. NSINS only reads true UTC from
GPS when starting, and thereafter it uses the submarine’s frequency standard
(precise time and frequency standard equipment) pulses. It is important that NSINS
time is correct and aligned to GPS, so it is strongly recommended that NAVFIX is
available when NSINS is switched on.
b. Full Calibration Requirement. Once the system has achieved a full calibration, it
should not be necessary to repeat it within three months, provided system performance
does not give cause for concern, the system has not had to be re-calibrated at sea, and
none of the IMUs have been changed.
c. Vessel Movement. If the vessel has to move (change berth etc) which NSINS is in
DOCKSIDE ALIGN, it must be placed into NAVIGATE mode for the move and returned
to DOCKSIDE ALIGN once the movement is complete, with a new alongside position
entered. If NSINS has not reached the ALIGN-F stage at the start of the move, to keep
the correct position set, GPS should be selected as the reference for the move.
6. Operating Modes
NSINS has a number of operating modes, which will be entered automatically (under
navigation computer control) or at operator demand as required. Details on the use(s) of the
various modes are in the rest of the Annex.
a. OFF. When NSINS is turned OFF, volatile memory is supported by the internal
battery for approximately 60-70 days (20 minutes when running).
b. STANDBY. On powering-up, the system commences its internal self-tests. If these

complete satisfactorily, the system enters STANDBY about 20 seconds after being
switched on.
c. ALIGN MODES. Once the system has been given a reference position, it will
switch to an align mode. The choice of the align mode will depend on the vessel’s
situation and the availability of inputs.
(1) DOCKSIDE ALIGN. Dockside align mode allows a manual input of position
(which must be to a precision, and ideally an accuracy, of ±0.05nm).
(2) SLAVE ALIGN. A SLAVE ALIGN is used when another NSINS is aligned and
available; the second NSIN’s position and velocity outputs are used to align the
first.
(3) AT SEA ALIGN. An AT SEA ALIGN can be carried out at sea, using
continuous GPS fixes. For best accuracy, a military GPS with correct crypto loaded
must be used (i.e. NAVFIX/DAGR).
d. System Settling. While NSINS is settling, it will initially produce only attitude data,
known as COARSE ALIGN (ALIGN-C). When position and velocity data become
available, NSINS enters FINE ALIGN (ALIGN-F). If the Kalman filter required re-
initialisation, then a 16 hour settling period will be required. The only circumstances
when this should be required are replacement of the memory board, loss of the volatile
memory, or to remove a previously input bad position update. If a 16 hour settle is not
required, then a reduced four hour settle will be used automatically.

e. NAVIGATE. Once the system has left DOCKSIDE ALIGN and the ALIGN-F criteria
are met, the system enters NAVIGATE. NAVIGATE a polar sub-mode for use in high
latitudes.
CAUTION
Once at sea and in NAVIGATE, care must be taken to ensure that the
velocity reference is set to the ship’s log and the system is not left in
VMAN. Leaving NSINS with VMAN set (to whatever speed) is
dangerous and will rapidly result in large position errors
accumulating; in 2007, this lead to a USN destroyer running aground
in pilotage waters.
f. Reset Mode (Review/Accept). Not strictly an operating mode per se, NSINS when
in NAVIGATE can be configured to process position updates in one of two ways. In
‘review’, it allows fix data to be checked and validated before accepting it into the
Kalman filter. In ‘accept’, the data is simply accepted. The system should always be
operated in review mode.
7. Position Updates
a. Summary. NSINS is designed to be a highly accurate system, maintaining a

position with a maximum error of 1.3nm after 30 hours elapsed time since the last
position update. Due to the use of indexing and the Kalman filter, most of the errors that
enter the position will be due to white noise, as indexing/Kalman should either cancel
out or compensate for most systematic biases. The NSINS position accuracy will
therefore degrade over time, but the way it degrades will be entirely unpredictable, and
not necessarily linear i.e. a maximum error of 1.3nm after 30 hours does not imply a
maximum error of 0.65nm after 15 hours. If a reliable fix is available, it may be input
into NSINS (without a realistic assessment of accuracy) to update NSINS and the
Kalman filter co-variances.
(1) Resets and Slews. There are two types of position updates which can be
entered into NSINS. Resets are true ‘fixes’ in that they fully update NSINS; a slew
updates position only. See Para 7 sub para f below.
(2) Resets and the Kalman Filter. The Kalman filter makes ‘intelligent’ use of the
fix data to update its internal state. When the fix is first entered, Kalman checks it
for reasonableness, and if Kalman considers that it is unreasonable (i.e. a bad fix),
it will alert the operator. NSINS will not accept an unreasonable fix without beind
forced to do so. NSINS usually has a very good idea of what constitutes an
unreasonable fix, and NOs should only force an unreasonable fix into the system if
there is a very good reason to do so; it may be better to consider a slew and then
re-fixing at a later time.
(3) The Effects of a Bad Fix. It is not possible to undo or rollback a ‘bad’ fix. The
only options are to start fixing frequently until eventually the bad fix drops out, or to

re-initialise the Kalman filter.
b. Fix Input Procedure. Fixes may be entered manually, via the control panel (either
in the SINS room or in the control room), or automatically from the selected position
source (which will usually by GPS). The conditions for fix input may be set by the
operator from the front panel. After every NSINS reset or slew, WECDIS must be re-
fixed in order that any bias being used is recalculated.
(1) Reasonableness of Fix. Once the fix details are entered, NSINS checks it for
reasonableness. An alarm is displayed if NSINS considers the fix to be
unreasonable.
(2) Kalman Filter. The fix is then assessed by Kalman and the derived weighting
will be determined by the confidence that the Kalman filter places on the fix. The
Kalman filter will then step to the fix position, or near it, and predict the errors that
occur.
(3) Latency. NSINS can accept a fix that is up to 60 minutes time late (i.e. the
position can be recorded at PD and the fix entered when deep and things calm
down in the control room).
(4) Effect of a Bad Fix. The potential consequences of forcing NSINS to accept
an unreasonable fix are so severe that they bear repeating. Once a reset has been
made with a fix that NSINS considers unreasonable, the bad data cannot be forced
out of the Kalman filter manually, and will take at least 16 hours alongside and 24
hours at sea to remove from the system. If an incorrect fix (error in co-ordinates or
time) is forced into the system, it must be switched OFF and a slave align carried
out (if second NSINS available) or an at sea align conducted.
c. Slew. A slew consists of the same information as a reset (fix), i.e. time and
position, but without an assessment of accuracy. The slew facility enables the operator
to move the vessel’s position, as displayed by NSINS, to an exact latitude and longitude
at the time specified. Only the latitude and longitude in the NSINS Kalman filter are
updated, and no other errors or co-efficients within the filter are changed. The slew
facility is therefore of use when the operator knows that NSINS position to be in error
and wants to correct it without causing the Kalman filter to create velocity, heading and
bias corrections. If slews are used in normal operating conditions when a reset could be
achieved, NSINS performance will be degraded compared to the case where a suitable
reset was applied. After every NSINS reset or slew, WECDIS must be re-fixed in
order that any bias being used is recalculated.
d. Reset Mode. The choice of reset mode affects how NSINS treats data from GPS
before it is entered. The fix is compared with the NSINS position and, if the distance
between them is too great, the operator is alerted. The operator then decides whether
or not to inject the fix. There are three possible options for the reset mode.
(1) Auto-Position. Auto-position automatically resets the NSINS position for good
fixes and rejects bad fixes.
(2) Auto/Review-Position. Auto/review position automatically accepts resets

when they are considered good fixes, but bad fixes are held for the operator accept
or reject.

(3) Review. In review, all fixes are held for operator acceptance or rejection.
e. Manual Fix Entry. If GPS is unavailable or unreliable, NSINS can make use of
fixes from any other source, provided that a realistic fix accuracy assessment is made.
When a fix is entered manually, fix accuracy can be expressed either as separate sigma
latitude (FSN) and sigma longitude (FSE) to a one sigma confidence level (68%
expected error limits), or as a radial position error (RPE) to 95% circular error probable
(CEP). After every NSINS reset or slew, WECDIS must be re-fixed in order that
any bias being used is recalculated. It is strongly recommended that, where fixes
are entered manually, a two man rule is used to ensure against errors.
f. Monitoring. The GPS to NSINS difference should be monitored to assess the

performance of each NSINS. Both NSINS should be reset to GPS at approximately
eight hour intervals, operational circumstances permitting. Avoid exact multiples of
six hours. This enables any drift rates that may be present to build up to a large
enough positional offset for the system to learn from the rest, and corrects any 24 hour
oscillations which may be present.
8. Alongside Procedures
The following procedures apply when the submarine is alongside.
a. Alongside for Less than 24 Hours. If the submarine is planning to be alongside

for less than 24 hours, the system should be left in NAVIGATE (with VMAN set to
0.00kn and AUTOD [auto damped] set). One hour before sailing (i.e. harbour stations),
NSINS should be slewed to current position. GPS positions should be enabled to ‘trim-
up’ the NSINS position and biases. If GPS is not available, accurate position fixes
should be entered as often as possible, and at least every eight hours. More frequent
fixes are desirable; once again, fix intervals of multiples of six hours should be
avoided. DO NOT LEAVE NSINS IN VMAN ONCE AT SEA.
b. Alongside for More than 24 Hours. If the submarine is planning to remain

alongside for more than 24 hours, or at the point when a shorter stay becomes
extended, NSINS should be fixed to an accuracy of 0.05nm (96.6m) or better, and
AUTOD and VMAN of 0.00kn selected. The operating condition of NSINS can be
readily checked by inspection of inertial velocities, which should remain below 0.5kn,
and that fix data is not being rejected. DO NOT LEAVE NSINS IN VMAN ONCE AT
SEA.
c. Alongside for More than One Week. If alongside for over a week, NSINS should
be placed into NAVIGATE for at least 72 hours. At least three resets should be entered
manually whilst in NAVIGATE, and all sensor inputs should be checked.
(1) Five Days Prior to Sailing. Prior to sailing, NSINS, should be operated in
DOCKSIDE ALIGN for at least 24 hours and then in NAVIGATE for a maximum of
96 hours to improve settling performance and highlight any problems (sometimes
termed a ‘SINS groom’). Use an eight hour fix interval (avoid fix intervals of
multiples of six hours).
(2) 15 Minutes Prior to Sailing. 15 minutes before sailing, NSINS should be

placed in MANU (manual undamped). Once a steady speed log output is achieved,
the system should be placed in AUTOU (auto undamped). It is normal for the
system to run in AUTOD for short periods of time before reverting to AUTOU.
d. Post-Maintenance. If NSINS performance gives cause for concern, and/or work

has been conducted which affects the navigation performance of the system (i.e.
IMU/navigation processor maintenance), then the Kalman filter must be re-initialised
before entering DOCKSIDE ALIGN. Following maintenance, NSINS should be placed
in NAVIGATE for 24 hours to highlight any problems. When alongside for any
prolonged periods, at least three fixes (at eight hour intervals) should be entered before
placing NSINS into DOCKSIDE ALIGN.
e. Quarterly. On a quarterly basis, as operational conditions and tasking allow, the

Kalman filter should be re-initialised with DOCKSIDE ALIGN mode.
f. Prolonged Periods Alongside. If alongside for a prolonged period, place NSINS

into DOCKSIDE ALIGN mode.
9. Surfaced Operations
The following procedures and considerations apply when the submarine is at sea, on
the roof.
a. GPS Available. The normal fixing interval should be multiples of eight hours,
avoiding multiples of six hours. If a fix is rejected, but is verified to be accurate in
terms of position and time, NSINS may be slewed to the indicated position and another
(new) fix entered at the next opportunity. Subsequent rejected fixes may be forced if
required until NSINS begins to accept fixes automatically. If a fix is to be forced into
NSINS, the NO, WEO and CO must be informed.
b. GPS Not Available. If GPS is unavailable for any reason, or unreliable, fixes may
be entered manually, using a RPE estimate of 0.2nm. Ensure that time of fix is correctly
entered, and do not force fixes. Use the same eight hour interval if possible.
c. Heading Reference. One NSINS should be selected as the primary (master) and
the other as the alternate (slave). The primary NSINS should be selected for the
transmission of heading via the ship’s compass transmission system (SCTS)
changeover switch. If the primary NSINS fails, unless an auto-changeover switch is
fitted, the maintainer must switch SCTS over to the alternate NSINS manually.
10. Dived Operations

The following procedures and considerations apply when the submarine is dived (deep
or PD).
a. GPS Data No Longer Available. Once a submarine dives and GPS data is no
longer available (whether deep or at PD with an intermittent look or the mast washing),
each NSINS should be left to operate independently in the inertial mode. The GPS to
INS links may be left ON in the sensor page, but the reset mode should be set to
REVIEW to ensure no fixes are accepted without operator knowledge. Once GPS data
is lost, the status tag will also be set to invalid, and NSINS will ignore GPS data.
Subsequent propagation of position errors is primarily affected by the initial system

errors on entry into NAVIGATE, the availability of a stable velocity reference for
damping, and system latitude.
b. Fixing. At sea, the use of GPS fixes via the automatic links is at the discretion of
the NO, taking advice from the WEO. Consideration should be given to using the GPS
position/time of fix data but entering the fix manually. In any case, ensure that the
system is in review mode, and NSINS is set to AUTOD (auto damped). If the system is
not stable in AUTOD, set it to MAND (manual damped). Fixes and slews must NOT
be accepted while NSINS is undamped.
(1) Fix Received. When a fix is received, NSINS displays a fault 221 on the
panel.
(2) GPS Fix Acceptance/Rejection Criteria. With a GPS fix, the reset data to be
applied should be reviewed on the NSINS panel. If the fix reset data is reasonable
and NSINS is operating correctly, the fix may be accepted. If there is any doubt
about the fix, reject it, and take another fix (usually available within one minute)
instead.
(3) Rejected Fix. If a fix is rejected, or the operation of NSINS gives any cause for
concern, then the exact position and time should be noted. There are then two
options. The first is to enter the same data as a manual fix, with an increased RPE
estimate. The second is to slew NSINS to the fix position, taking particular care
that the position and time of fix are entered precisely correctly. Then look for
another opportunity to fix properly, avoiding a fix interval that is a multiple of six
hours.
c. WECDIS. Both NSINS provide data to WECDIS. WECDIS position sources and
position source hierarchies should be configured in accordance with the guidance in
BRd 45(8).
d. Damping. NSINS should normally operate in AUTOD (auto damped), although it

can be expected to drop into AUTOU (auto undamped) from time to time. NSINS
should not be allowed to operate in AUTOU for greater than one hour; NSINS will alarm
and display an error 223 if the system has been undamped for more than 84 minutes. If
excessive periods of AUTOU operation are observed, MAND (manual damped) should
be selected for at least one hour, after which NSINS should be returned to AUTOD. In
this instance, NSINS performance should be monitored closely for the next several
hours, and a fix entered at the earliest opportunity commensurate with the operational
situation.
e. Damping during PD Runs. As part of the RTPD checks, NSINS should be

monitored to ensure that it is stable in AUTOD. If not, MAND should be selected. If
NSINS is in MAND and the PD run exceeds 60 minutes, as soon as NSINS is stable at
PD, NSINS should be placed in AUTOD and a new fix obtained at the earliest
opportunity.
f. Dived Manoeuvring Prior to RTPD. If manoeuvring hard prior to RTPD, whether

for ranging or stern arc clearances, all of which are circumstances which can generate
an erratic speed log output, damping must not be forced. AUTOU is required during the
manoeuvres to protect NSINS. After stabilising NSINS at PD, the use of MAND is
acceptable (see above). Forced damping when the speed log is known to be erratic is

poor submarine practice.
g. Damping Following a Schuler. Except for when the speed log is defective, or
when heavy manoeuvring is underway, if NSINS has been undamped for an hour or
more, it should be manually redamped (MAND). Approximately two hours of MAND will
be required to reducer Schuler oscillations in NSINS. NSINS may be returned to
AUTOD when stable and the vessel is ready to resume normal manoeuvring again.
h. Crossing the Continental Shelf. The STOP for crossing the continental shelf is to
be followed in every case. The procedure with respect to NSINS is obtain a fix prior to
crossing the continental shelf, and slew NSINS to this position whilst ensuring that
NSINS is manually damped. After crossing the continental shelf, obtain another fix,
enter it manually, and slew NSINS to it again. When possible, enter three fixes at eight
hour intervals or less (avoiding a fix interval which is a multiple of six hours).
11. Reset Policy

As with any inertial system, the positional accuracy of NSINS will degrade as time
elapses since the last fix. As explained in Para 7 above, NSINS makes intelligent use of
external information, but relies upon the operator to ensure that the information is accurate,
and that an accurate estimate of fix error is injected. Failure to ensure one or both of these
will potentially result in corruption of the Kalman filter.
a. Incorrect Fix Data. If an incorrect fix is entered (such as South latitude rather than
North) it will distort the outputs from the next run of the Kalman filter. NSINS makes
extremely sensible assessments of fix reasonableness, and alarms if it considers a fix to
be unreasonable. If an incorrect fix is entered, it will take a minimum of 16 to 25
hours to purge the erroneous data from NSINS. The consequences of entering a fix
with gross errors will be enormous velocity errors, and NSINS position solution diverging
wildly and dangerously from the true position.
(1) Two Man Rule and SQEP. In submarines, it is recommended that a two man
rule be in force when making manual NSINS resets, to guard against gross errors.
Further, the officers involved must be suitably qualified and experienced. In
practice, this will mean that at sea, the only two people in a watch involved in
resetting NSINS should be the watch navigator (WNO) and the on-watch WE officer
(DWEO/TWO or CISE).
(2) Forcing an Unreasonable Reset. It has been stated many times earlier in this
Annex, but is so important that it bears repeating: only in the most exceptional
circumstances should a reset which NSINS has assessed as being
unreasonable be forced into NSINS. If an incorrect fix is forced, then the Kalman
filter will be corrupted and must be fully re-initialised.
CAUTION
If NSINS assesses a fix as unreasonable, it should only be forced into

NSINS in the MOST EXCEPTIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES. If NSINS uses
an incorrect fix, serious velocity, position and heading errors are likely

to result and the unit affected will be rendered unusable for
navigation.
(3) Use of Slews. If for any reason it is considered essential to use a fix which
NSINS considers unreasonable, then it is probably to input the information as a
slew. This will reset the NSINS position, but not affect the Kalman filter.
(4) Incorrect but Reasonable Fix – Recovery by Slew. It may on occasion

happen that an erroneous fix (whether the co-ordinates or time are wrong) is
entered into NSINS but NSINS does not detect the problem and assesses the fix as
reasonable. The Kalman filter will still be affected, although the errors are likely to
be smaller and less noticeable than for a gross error which fails the tests of
reasonableness. If this happens, an attempt may be made to restore NSINS by
immediately entering a good fix, slewing once if necessary. More good fixes should
be entered as often as possible; in this case it may be necessary to force NSINS to
accept them due to the disturbance in the Kalman filter.
b. Use of GPS in Submarines. In submarines, position updates will only be possible

when the submarine returns to PD. If GPS is available, this will normally be used to
update NSINS. The reset mode should be set to review to guard against the possibility
of inaccurate GPS information being used whilst the receiver is generating its first fix.
Once the GPS receiver has refined its position to an assessed accuracy of 10m or
better (100m in extremis), the position should be checked against the EP and any other
sources of information (lines of bearing, sounding, pool of errors etc) for
reasonableness. If considered reasonable by the WNO, the GPS fix can then be used
to update each NSINS in turn. All other things being equal, the GPS fix interval should
be about four hours, to allow NSINS to settle after the injection of one fix before
receiving another. Putting a fix into NSINS is a significant event which requires
careful consideration by the NO and the Command, to ensure that the
submarine’s navigation system remains in the best possible state to support the
command aim. A record should be made of NSINS position errors against GPS after a
reset, so that the performance of the system can be monitored. The watch leader
should be briefed on the fix once achieved, and the Command should be updated on
NSINS performance as a matter of course at O group.
c. Use of GPS in Surface Ships. Surface ships may set NSINS to accept GPS fixes
continuously, meaning that resets will be carried out on a frequent basis. This will
maintain maximum accuracy of NSINS in the event of GPS denial or degradation.
NSINS should be operated in fully inertial mode at least once a month to monitor its
performance, and ensure that watchkeepers are comfortable with using the system.
12. Performance Monitoring

It is essential that NSINS actual performance at sea, as opposed to designed or nominal
performance, is monitored to ensure that the system is operating correctly. NOs should
therefore make sure that a record is kept of the position errors at each update. A locally
produced form should be used to track the fix error/daily degradation (DN and DE in NSINS)
against the fix positions.
13. Polar Mode

NSINS has a full polar mode (DG) capability, and in fact offers increased performance
at high latitudes as the system is not affected limitations on gyro torque rates as in a
conventional (spinning mass) system. In AUTO, NSINS automatically changes from the

normal mode to polar mode based on the submarine’s latitude; going North, NSINS enters
polar mode at 86°N, and going South, it returns to normal mode at 84°N. This two degree
gap prevents the system fluttering between different modes when the submarine is operating
near the changeover latitude. Alternatively, the NSINS can be forced to operate in polar
mode (MTXVS) or normal mode (MNORM), and will alarm if the system is in the wrong
latitude for the mode chosen. In AUTO, NSINS will display either ANORM or ATXVS for
normal or polar modes respectively.
Note.
No UK SSN has, at the time of writing, operated under the ice with the full fit
of NSINS, WECDIS, SMCS and Sonar 2076. Whilst all these systems are
designed for polar operations, the practical use of the systems has not been
trialled at sea. Detailed SOPs and drills for high latitude navigation are
being worked up as part of the planning for programmed UK participation in
a future ICEX. This Annex will be updated as necessary; the following
remarks are based upon operation of NSINS in high latitudes, but with paper
charts, and should therefore be treated with caution at this stage.
a. NSINS Polar Grid. NSINS utilises a grid in which the latitude/longitude grid is
rotated through 90°, with an imaginary pole on the equator at 180°E/W. The operator
can choose to have position and heading information displayed in either polar or normal
grid, regardless of the current system co-ordinate mode.
b. Grid Heading Output. The synchro output of heading is controlled from the MODE
menu (option five). It may be best to have the synchro output in manual control as it
may be necessary to use grid heading from 80°N.
c. Changing to/from Grid Navigation. The change to/from grid navigation must be
carefully planned and controlled, and will ultimately be a Command decision. However,
WECDIS will automatically change to a polar stereographic display when the chart
centre is above 80°N (or South as appropriate). When WECDIS is in a polar
stereographic display, it is recommended that it be set to polar mode to pass position,
bearing and heading information to connected equipment in polar grid mode (although
OSDI always passes true latitude and longitude alongside polar co-ordinates if in polar
mode).
Note.
The interaction of the various pieces of equipment’s polar modes is yet to be

proven at sea.
d. Using GPS in High Latitudes. If using GPS fixes in WGS84, it is necessary to

change the co-ordinate display mode in NSINS back to true latitude/longitude so that
the fix can be entered. This can be achieved without changing the actual operating
mode of the system.
e. Operation of NSINS in High Latitudes. It is recommended that both NSINS be

left in AUTO. Once the systems are operating in ATVXS, they are in the equivalent of
directional gyro (DG) mode, and no longer use horizontal Earth rate to maintain a north-
finding capability. Some small heading drift is therefore possible, in the order of two
minutes of arc per day. If intending to operate above 85°N for prolonged periods, it is
recommended that a heading comparison plot is maintained for both Arma Brown and

the two NSINS platforms. It is also worth testing both NSINS in polar mode at a lower
latitude to check their performance is acceptable before the submarine is committed to
going North.
14. Summary of NSINS Operations at Sea

NSINS is a very powerful, capable piece of kit, the correct operation of which is key to
SSN mission success. Although much of the system’s operation is automatic, the platforms
require careful, proper management, which must be carefully considered and planned ahead
of time. In particular, fixes must be carefully planned; the optimum time for a NSINS fix may
well not coincide with broadcasts or other considerations which dictate when the submarine
can return to PD, and so the Command must be kept informed of the state of NSINS, and a
plan developed in conjunction with the Ops Officer to keep NSINS within limits. Although the
WEO maintains the platforms, the NO will be expected by the CO to be the submarine’s
SME with respect to NSINS, and so the NO must make it their business to fully understand
how NSINS operates, and how it will react to various circumstances.
ANNEX 5F
ELECTROSTATICALLY SUPPORTED GYRO NAVIGATOR (ESGN)
1. Summary
The electrostatically supported gyro navigator, ESGN, is one of the marvels of modern
technology which is key to the SSBN’s invulnerability. A full description of the ESGN’s
design, capabilities, performance and operation is precluded here due to the classification of
this publication, but an outline summary can be provided. The ESGN is a high-precision
inertial navigation system, capable of operating with high accuracy even after prolonged
periods without a fix.

2. Accuracy and Performance Parameters
The ESGN is an extremely accurate, high performance system, but it is large, heavy,
and expensive, both to procure and to operate. It requires monitoring by dedicated
navigation system personnel. ESGNs are therefore only found on board SSBNs, in support
of the strategic deterrent.
3. Description
a. Basic Design. The gyroscope element of an ESGN is a spinning ball of beryllium,

which is electrostatically supported in a vacuum to eliminate (for all practical purposes)
friction. Each ESGN uses two beryllium balls, as well as three accelerometers, all
supported in a complex five-axis gimbal system. There is no torque in the sense of a
conventional spinning mass gyroscope, and the ball has total angular freedom. Each
SSBN has two ESGNs, as well as an NCS1 backup heading reference.
b. Gyro Ball. The ESGN gyro ball is a sphere of beryllium nominally 1cm in diameter.
As it is not possible without current techniques to manufacture a perfect sphere, it is
necessary to defines axes within the ball during its manufacture to ensure that it spins
about a known direction. This is achieved by deliberately manufacturing the ball to have
slightly different moments of inertia along its axes, meaning that the ball can then spin in
a stable state about its major moment of inertia. This is achieved by inserting a radial
mass imbalance, which is perpendicular to the major moment of inertia; when the ball is
spun up to an extremely high speed, it will spin almost about its centre of mass, but it
will wobble in a sinusoidal manner. This motion is detected by the support electrodes,
and is then used to determine the spin axis vector.
c. Electrostatic Support. To enable the ESGN to function, the gyro balls must be
spun up to an extremely high speed, which is only achievable by placing them in a
vacuum and removing as many sources of friction as possible; in practice, this means
electrostatic support. A stable electrostatic suspension requires at least three, and
ideally four, pairs of electrodes. In the ESGN, there are eight electrodes in total, four
formed into each of two hemispherical seats which encompass the gyro ball with a
nominal all-round clearance of about five microns when the ball is centrally suspended.
Each electrode is a spherical octant, i.e. covers an eighth of the inside surface of a
spherical shell, and each electrode pair produces a force on the rotor proportional to the
displacement of the rotor from the centre of the cavity, meaning that they will always act
in concert to maintain the ball at the centre of the cavity. The complete cavity assembly

is surrounded by three sets of orthogonally mounted motor windings, used for gyro ball
spin up/spin down, orienting the spin axis, and fixing the spin axis with respect to the
rotor. The ball’s operating speed is nominally 2590 revolutions per second, and the
ESGN is designed to maintain the nominal speed to within a very tight tolerance.
d. Physical Suspension. For effective use as an INS, each ESGN requires two
gyroscopes, one with spin axis nominally aligned to North with elevation equal to the
local latitude, and one aligned due East with elevation also equal to the local latitude.
Although it is technically (computationally) possible to have a strapdown ESGN, in
operational use each ESGN is mounted on a gimballed platform in such a way as to
keep the spin axis vectors in the same orientation to their electrodes. The three
accelerometers are Earth-referenced, but as the gyro balls are unrestrained, the overall
ESGN uses a complex five gimbal system. Furthermore, as the ESGN is inherently
more vulnerable to shock than an optical gyro, the entire system is physically
suspended in very complex shock mounts, and an additional external laser reference to
the SSBN is also provided.
4. Start-up, Shut-Down and Operation
a. Start-Up. During the start-up of the gyro ball, it must be toppled to ensure that it
spins along the correct moment of inertia, and any deviation from this must be damped
out. Above a certain speed, the suspension electronics induce an acceleration torque
on the ball and, through the introduction of a ‘notch filter’ into the electronics, the
spinning ball reaches and remains at its running speed without any further assistance
from the eddy current motor.
b. Shut-Down. As there is virtually no friction in a hard vacuum such as that found in

the gyro ball cavity, the motor has to be reversed to stop the ball under controlled
conditions.
c. Operation. Operation of the ESGN at sea is a complicated business, hence the

need for dedicated personnel in the Nav Centre, and the requirement for a Strategic
Navigation Officer. Further comments are beyond the classification of this publication.
d. Vulnerability. The ESGN is inherently more vulnerable to shock and accelerations

than other systems, hence the requirement for complicated gimballing and shock
mounting. If the spinning ball were to bottom whilst at or near operating speed, it will
disintegrate and render the ESGN useless at a stroke. The ESGNs are therefore
supported by a motor-generator which is supplied from within the battery breakers to
ensure continuity of supplies in the event of a scram or other electrical failure.
ANNEX 5G
MARINE INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM 2 (MINS2)
1. Summary
The Type 45 is fitted with an integrated bridge system, which includes as one of its key
elements, two redundant units of the proprietary Raytheon Maritime Inertial Navigation
System 2 (MINS2). MINS2 is a fully capable inertial navigation system, although it is used in
the Type 45 navigation system primarily as an attitude and heading reference system, and
as a means of smoothing the GPS inputs into the Combat Management System (CMS). As
designed, the operation of MINS2 was very closely integrated with the Pathfinder ECDIS,

and in practice the operation of MINS2 and the Type 45 navigation system controller (NSC)
was obscure. The operation of MINS2 with Type 45 WECDIS (ECPINS retrofit) is still being
understood.
2. MINS2
a. Description. MINS2 is a strapdown configuration inertial navigation system, based

around a dynamic reference unit (DRU) which contains three Honeywell high-precision
ring laser gyros and three Honeywell accelerometers. Although the system is shock-
mounted, it is entirely strapdown with no base-motion isolation or gimballing at all. It
accepts log and GPS inputs for damping/aiding, and is capable of providing a number of
outputs to the navigation system. It is capable of operating at up to 82°N but does not
have a polar mode. In normal operation in Type 45, it operates with continuous GPS
input and is therefore extremely closely-coupled to GPS position; its main role is to act
as a smoothing device, through the operation of its Kalman filter, for the GPS position
data received by CMS, as MINS2 operates at a faster sampling rate than GPS.
Additionally, MINS2 provides attitude and heading data to the ship for weapons
stabilisation.
b. Architecture. Each Type 45 is fitted with two MINS2 units, which each consists of
three main components.
(1) Dynamic Reference Unit (DRU). The DRU is a sealed unit which contains the
inertial sensor assemblies, consisting of paired RLGs and accelerometers, and the
navigation processor.
(2) Control and Display Unit. (CDU). The CDU allows the operator to view
interact with and configure the system.
(3) Interface and Connection Unit (ICU). The ICU allows the MINS2 to
communicate with the various customer equipment, and to receive inputs from the
ship’s log and military GPS.
c. Accuracy and Performance Parameters. Nominal performance for MIINS2 is

given in Table 5G-1 below. MINS2 has no polar mode and is limited to operations
below 82°N.
Table 5G-1. MINS2 Accuracy
PARAMETER ACCURACY
Heading (with P(Y) code GPS available with ±0.7 mrad x secant of local latitude
HDOP <= 2.4)
Pitch ±0.7 mrad
Roll ±0.7 mrad

Latitude/longitude (with P(Y) code GPS ±15m (95%, 1.96σ)
available with HDOP <= 2.4)
d. Modes of Operation. By default, the primary speed source is the SOG input from
GPS. The STW from the speed log may be selected automatically in the event of GPS
failure, at the CDU. In total, there are four discrete operating modes for MINS2:
(1) Default. By default, MINS2 operates accepting speed inputs from both GPS
and the speed log; failure of GPS will result in the log speed being used for
damping. MINS2 operates as a tightly coupled INS.
(2) GPS Only. At the CDU, MINS2 can be set to accept GPS speed inputs only if
the log is unreliable, for example.
(3) Speed Log Only. Alternatively, if necessary, MINS2 can be set to only accept
speed log inputs.
(4) Free Inertial. In fully free inertial mode, MINS2 operates without any speed
inputs. In this mode, there is no vertical damping, and so accuracy is degraded
compared to operating with at least the speed log.
e. Starting and Alignment. In common with most modern optical INS (RLG or FOG),
MINS2 is capable of an alongside alignment in less than 10 minutes, and an at sea
alignment in less than 20 minutes. In both cases, accurate positional data is
ESSENTIAL to the alignment process. If GPS is not available, manual position
updates to MINS2 will be required. If this is to be done at sea, the ship should either be
anchored or proceed on a steady course at bare steerage during the alignment to
ensure that the position data provided is as accurate as possible.
f. Loss of GPS Inputs. If GPS is denied or sufficiently degraded, MINS2 will

commence operating in the inertial mode. Manual position updates may be made, but
readers should consult Annex 5E (NATO SINS) for an understanding of how the Kalman
filter treats position updates. In general, operators should not expect the MINS2
position to ‘jump’ to the fix position, as the Kalman filter is only using it to refine the error
estimates. Care should also be taken that appropriate fix errors are used. Operators
must be aware that INS errors do not propagate linearly; therefore the MINS2 position
can be expected to be many yards ‘in error’ after a matter of minutes since GPS was
lost but this does not indicate a problem with the system. It is just a function of the way
that INS operate. When entering updates into MINS2, care should be taken to avoid fix
intervals which are multiples of six hours. Four or eight hour intervals have been found
to work well in NATO SINS.
g. Interaction between MINS2 and WECDIS (ECPINS Retrofit). MINS2 sits at the
heart of the Type 45 navigation system. The introduction of RN WECDIS (ECPINS
retrofit) into Type 45 introduces another layer of complexity into the system dynamics,
and it is to be expected that there is more to be learnt about how the various systems
will interact at sea.
ANNEX 5H
MARITIME INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (MARINS)
1. Summary
The Maritime Inertial Navigation System (MARINS) M7 is a fully capable inertial
navigation system and attitude and heading reference system which is to be fitted to HMS
AUDACIOUS, the QUEEN ELIZABETH class CVs, and, in due course as part of the Naval
Compass Replacement Programme, to all major surface units and submarines. Produced
by iXBlue, MARINS utilises fibre optic gyro (FOG) to achieve high accuracies in a system
with a fraction of the space, weight and power requirements of other INS/AHRS (NATO

SINS or NCS1 which MARINS will primarily replace).
Note.
Although its procurement has been announced, and it has been fitted in
QNLZ, MARINS has not yet been deployed operationally at sea by the RN.
The information given below is therefore to be considered as for general
awareness only, and it will be updated/amended as and when more detailed
information becomes available.
a. Accuracy. Unaided MARINS M7 accuracies are given in Table 5H-1 below.
Table 5H-1. MARINS M7 Accuracies
PARAMETER ACCURACY
Position 1nm/72 hours
Velocity 0.4 knots (RMS)
Heading accuracy 0.01° secant of local latitude
Roll/pitch accuracy 0.01°
b. Settling Time. Full data is available after 15 minutes both alongside and at sea.
Coarse data is available after five minutes.
c. Power Supplies. MARINS requires only a 24v DC power supply to operate,

although the control terminal (laptop based) requires its own power supply. MARINS
can withstand brief (20ms) power interruptions, and in a submarine they are essentially
fed to guard against loss of power.
d. Outputs and Inputs. MARINS is a full INS and AHRS, and so provides customer
equipment with position (lat/long and depth), velocity (three dimensions), attitude,
heave/surge/sway and rates information. MARINS accepts GPS inputs, speed log
inputs, as well as manual position updates.
a. Fibre Optic Gyro. MARINS is based around three fibre optic gyros (FOGs) and
three accelerometers. FOGs are described fully in Para 0529, but in summary they are
highly accurate rotation sensors, which use the Sagnac effect to detect changes in
rotation of the sensor assembly. FOGs do not suffer from lock in, and so there is no
need for dithering of the sensors, meaning that MARINS has no moving parts at all, with
a consequent reduction in space/weight/power demands, reduction in acoustic
signature, and increase in reliability. FOGs do require calibration but this is achieved
during construction and as part of settling and is not of concern to the user.

b. MARINS Sensor Assembly. MARINS is an entirely strapdown system, with no
need for any gimballing whatsoever. The MARINS inertial measuring unit consists of
three orthogonally mounted FOGs and three accelerometers. The main unit also
houses the electronic blocks for the navigation processing and the power and control
systems; the sensors are thermally isolated from both the electronics blocks and the
external environment. The navigation processing boards carry out all navigational
calculations, including the Kalman filtering, and there are no other cabinets or
equipment required, other than a laptop computer for HMI.
c. North Finding. The sensors in MARINS are sensitive enough to reliably detect the
slow drift of apparent gravity in inertial space due to the rotation of the Earth. Over the
settling time, the slow drift of apparent gravity describes a cone, whose major axis is the
Earth’s rotational axis. By measuring apparent gravity and measuring its movement, it
is therefore trivial to calculate true North, and MARINS does this continuously, filtering
out movements/accelerations due to vessel movement.
d. Kalman Filter. MARINS, like any other INS, uses a Kalman filter to process errors
and biases in the system. The MARINS Kalman filter is designed to allow the system to
autonomously manage all the available sensor information, automatically rejecting
erroneous (‘unreasonable’ in NATO SINS parlance) information. Alternatively, sensors
can be manually activated or deactivated as required.
4. Operational Use of MARINS

In the submarine community, MARINS should operate as a ‘straight swap’ with NATO
SINS, albeit one with an order of magnitude greater capability, and one that is even more
straightforward to use. In SURFLOT, MARINS is being procured as an AHRS to replace
NCS1 and other legacy systems, but it will be a fully capable INS, and it will therefore need
to be managed more intensively than the gyro compass was in years gone past. In
particular, NOs will need to understand how a FOG-based INS works, and to understand the
consequences of operating with GPS denial. SURFLOT NOs will need to understand how to
plan and input fixes into MARINS to ensure that the maximum benefit is gained from the
system.
CHAPTER 6
THE MAGNETIC COMPASS AND DEGAUSSING
CONTENTS
Para
0601. Introduction and Scope of Chapter 6
0602. The Earth’s Magnetic Field
0603. Magnetic Poles
0604. Angle of Dip

0605. Magnetic Latitude
0606. Magnetic Variation
SECTION 1 – PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION OF MAGNETIC COMPASSES
0607. The Magnetic Compass

0608. Permanent Magnetism
0609. Induced Magnetism and Its Components
0610. Induced Magnetism Vertical Sub-Components
0611. Correcting Induced Magnetism with Soft Iron
0612. The Horizontal Directive Force H
0613. Sub-Permanent Magnetism (Guassin Error)
0614. Deviation Change with Change in Magnetic Latitude
0615. Heeling Error and Method of Correction
0616. Magnetic Compass Swing/Adjustment Requirements
SECTION 2 – DEGAUSSING (DG) PRINCIPLES AND METHODS
0617. Principles of Degaussing

0618. A Ship’s Magnetic Signature
0619. DG Ranging
0620. M Coils
0621. L Coils
0622. Fi and Qi Coils
0623. A Coils
0624. Other DG Coils
0625. DG Course Correction Compensation
0626. Magnetic Treatments
SECTION 3 – THE FLUXGATE COMPASS
0627. Fluxgate Compass Principles

0628. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fluxgate Compasses
0629. Fluxgate Compass Fitting Policy
ANNEXES
Annex 6A Summary of RN/RFA Magnetic Compasses

Annex 6B Magnetic Compass Correction Procedures
Annex 6C Magnetic Coefficient Correction Tables
Annex 6D DG Charts No 1 and 2
CHAPTER 6
THE MAGNETIC COMPASS AND DEGAUSSING
0601. Introduction and Scope of Chapter 6

The marine magnetic compass is one of the oldest methods of establishing direction
at sea, and whilst numerous other systems have been developed, the magnetic compass
still has the one major advantage of being reliant on no outside inputs at all, other than the
Earth’s magnetic field. Magnetic compasses are required to be carried by SOLAS compliant
ships, and are fitted to all RN and RFA ships with the exception of submarines, and so,
despite their effective obsolescence for all practical purposes by major ships (naval and

merchant), a description of the principles underpinning the magnetic compass is contained
within this volume and will be so for the foreseeable future. Moreover, magnetic compasses
continue to be widely used by smaller craft. Also contained within this chapter is a
discussion of ship degaussing, and its effects on the magnetic compass.
0602. The Earth’s Magnetic Field

The fact that the Earth possesses a magnetic field is undeniable, but even in the
st
early 21 century, why this should be the case, and what causes the magnetic field to exist,
is poorly understood. It is presently believed that the source of the Earth’s magnetic field is
the dynamo effect operating in the Earth’s core (the ‘geodynamo’), which produces a
magnetic field through a positive feedback loop.
a. Ferromagnetism. Strictly speaking, whilst all magnetism is of the same class

of physical phenomena, there are several different types of magnetism. This
chapter is concerned with ferromagnetism, which is the property exhibited by certain
ferrous materials, in particular iron, which means they are attracted to magnets and
can themselves be made magnetic. Magnetism itself is a quantum-mechanical
force, which cannot be explained by classical physics; the explanation for how the
force is generated is well outside the scope of this book.
b. Source of the Earth’s Magnetic Field. The Earth’s core consists of iron alloys,
solid in the centre and molten further out, at very high temperatures. Heat flowing
out of the inner core (temperature 5,730°C) drives convection currents in the molten
outer core, meaning that the iron alloys in the outer core are in constant motion. As
iron is electrically conductive, the motion of these iron alloys in the Earth’s existing
magnetic field produces an electric field which in turn produces a magnetic field. As
long as the outer core remains in motion, the effect will continue, and equilibrium is
reached. The dynamo effect requires a ‘seed’ field to start, as a pre-existing
magnetic field is required, and it seems likely (although far from certain) that this
was provide by the Sun’s magnetic field at a much earlier time in the Earth’s life,
when the solar wind was much more intense than it is now.
c. Characteristics of the Earth’s Magnetic Field. Although the source of the

Earth’s magnetic field is totally different, the Earth’s magnetic field can be thought of
as being the same as that of a bar magnet. The Earth has two magnetic poles,
North and South, and is therefore dipolar; magnetic flux lines run between the South
and North poles. At sea level, the Earth’s magnetic field has a strength which
ranges between about 0.25 – 0.65 gauss; by contrast, a standard fridge magnet will
have a field strength of about 100 gauss (0.01 tesla). The flux lines of Earth’s
magnetic field are illustrated in Fig 6-1 below.
Fig 6-1. Magnetic Fields Surrounding the Earth

0603. Magnetic Poles
In a bar magnet, the poles are situated about 1/12 of its length from each end, and
by convention are known as north and south. The lines of magnetic flux join the north and
south poles; by convention they are shown as leaving at the north pole and re-entering at the
south pole but strictly the magnetic flux has no direction. The Earth has a dipolar magnetic
field because it has two poles, situated in the northern and southern hemisphere; the poles
are an artefact of the chaotic conditions in the Earth’s core, and so they are not situated
directly opposite one another on the Earth’s surface, and they are not fixed. The magnetic
North pole was first located by James Clark Ross in 1831, near Cape Adelaide on the
Boothia Peninsula in the Canadian Arctic. Since then, it has moved northwards at a speed
of as much as 40km a year, and is currently continuing towards Siberia; the reason for this
migration is not currently understood. Strictly speaking, the North magnetic pole is actually a
south pole (because it attracts North poles), and it is defined as the position where the flux
lines of the Earth’s magnetic field are at 90° to the Earth’s surface. The magnetic north pole
is also subject to diurnal variations as it oscillates in an ellipse about its mean position on a
daily basis, but these can be ignored by the navigator as they are not meaningful on a global
scale.
0604. Angle of Dip

The magnetic north pole is defined as the point on the Earth’s surface where the
lines of magnetic flux run at 90° to the Earth’s surface i.e. they point straight down. At the
magnetic North Pole, therefore, a freely suspended compass needle would point directly
down, at the ground. At the magnetic Equator, on the other hand, a freely suspended
compass needle would be perfectly horizontal. At magnetic latitudes in between, the needle
will point downwards towards the Earth at the ‘angle of dip’ (hence why the magnetic poles
are sometimes referred to as ‘dip poles’).
0605. Magnetic Latitude

Imaginary lines around the Earth’s surface which join all the lines of equal dip are
known as ‘isoclines’ and define the magnetic latitude. They are conceptually similar to the
geographical parallels of latitude. The isoclinal lines of force are resolved into a horizontal
(H) and a vertical (Z) component, related by the formula below, H being the horizontal
directive force.
Z
Tan Dip =
H
0606. Magnetic Variation

The line of direction assumed by a freely suspended compass needle is called a
magnetic meridian; the angular difference between that and the true meridian is called
magnetic variation, usually referred to simply as variation in this context. Magnetic variation
is subject to change on both long and short timescales; the diurnal variation can to all intents
and purposes be ignored but the secular variation changes on an annual basis, as the
compass moves across the face of the Earth. Variation is only accurate for a given area,
and a long transit (unless exactly along an ‘isogonic’ line of equal magnetic variation) will
require a continual adjustment of the variation in use. Magnetic variation and the annual
value of the secular change is encoded within an ENC (in the MAGNAR field) and can be
interrogated from the chart (see NP5012 for the symbology), or it is displayed in the
compass rose on an ARCS/paper chart. Variation is given as the recorded figure for a year,
and then the annual change such as the example below:
‘Variation 6.00°W 2015 (8’E)’ – means variation in 2015 in the area of the compass rose was
6°W, and it is decreasing by 8’ every year so in 2016 the variation to use would be 5.52°W
SECTION 1 – PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION OF MAGNETIC COMPASSES
0607. The Magnetic Compass
a. Definition. A magnetic compass is a navigational direction finding device. In its

simplest form, it comprises a magnetic needle pivoted to move in the horizontal
plane and fixed to a graduated card. The card may be graduated in degrees or
cardinal points.
b. Marine Magnetic Compass. The marine magnetic compass is a specialised

version of a compass which is used to determine a vessel’s heading relative to the

magnetic meridian. It comprises a magnetic needle with a compass card attached
to a float in a bowl of alcohol and distilled water. In some instruments, the magnetic
element is in the form of a ring magnet fitted within the float. The purpose of the
liquid is to damp the small shocks and vibrations to which the magnetic compass is
likely to be subjected in a ship at sea.
c. Deviation. In Para 0606, it was explained how the compass will be deflected
from the true meridian by the magnetic variation. A compass on a ship at sea will be
further deflected by a further amount caused by ‘deviation’. Deviation is due to the
magnetic properties of the ship interacting with the compass needle and comes from
two sources.
(1) Permanent Magnetism. Each vessel has a permanent magnetic field,

due to the materials and techniques used in its construction. See Para 0608 for
more details.
(2) Induced Magnetism. The motion of a ship through the Earth’s magnetic
field will induce magnetism in the ship. The effect depends upon the ship’s
instantaneous heading but is independent of speed. See Para 0609 for more
details.
0608. Permanent Magnetism

In a ship of ‘normal’ steel construction (i.e. not a ship built of fibreglass or wood), the
iron used in construction acquires permanent magnetism from the Earth’s magnetic field,
moderated by changes caused by vibrations (hammering, riveting) and heating (welding).
The strength, direction and polarity of this permanent magnetism depend on both the
direction in which the ship was lying during construction, and the magnetic latitude of the
construction site. Some of the permanent magnetism is not in fact permanent, as it will be
removed by vibration when the ship moves, but some will remain and will settle at a more or
less constant value, which can be resolved into three components: vertical, fore and aft, and
athwartships. These are illustrated in Fig 6-2 below.
Fig 6-2. Permanent Magnetism in a Vessel built on a NW Heading in a Northerly

Latitude

a. Effect of Permanent Magnetism on a Magnetic Compass. The effect of
permanent magnetism on a magnetic compass on a ship depends on several
factors.
(1) The position of the compass needle relative to the vessel’s structure.
(2) The value of the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field (H).
b. Permanent Magnetism Components. The magnetic field caused by the

vessel’s permanent magnetism may be divided into fore-and-aft, athwartships and
vertical components at the compass binnacle. These components may be
considered as three imaginary permanent magnets P, Q and R located within the
vessel and oriented as in Fig 6-3 below.
Fig 6-3. Components of the Vessel’s Permanent Magnetism

c. Fore-and-Aft Component (P) of a Vessel’s Permanent Magnetism. The
fore-and-aft component (P) of the vessel’s permanent magnetism will have the
following effects on a magnetic compass sited within the vessel.
(1) Magnetic Heading North/South. If the vessel’s heading is due magnetic

north/south, the compass needle will not be deflected as the deflecting force,
acting in line with the compass needle, is either increasing or decreasing the
directive force acting on the needle.
(2) Magnetic Heading East/West. If the vessel’s heading is magnetic

east/west, the compass needle deflection will be at a maximum, as the
deflecting force is acting at a right angle to the needle.
d. Athwartships Component (Q) of a Vessel’s Permanent Magnetism.

Applying the logic at Para 0608 sub para c above to the athwartships component Q
and assuming a north pole to starboard, maximum deflection of the compass needle
due to permanent magnetism will occur on a north/south magnetic heading, with
zero deflection ocurring on an east/west magnetic heading. As with component P,
the magnitude of the horizontal directive force H will depend on the vessel’s
magnetic latitude.
e. Vertical Component (R) of a Vessel’s Permanent Magnetism. With an

upright vessel, the vertical component R of the vessel’s permanent magnetism has
no deflecting effect. However, if the vessel heels, then a gimballed magnetic
compass will remain horizontal. The magnetic pole of the vertical component R then
moves to one side relative to the magnetic compass and thus has a horizontal
deflecting effect. In a heeling vessel with a north magnetic pole at the top, the
compass will tend to oscillate, being deflected to the high side of the vessel.
f. Correction for a Vessel’s Permanent Magnetism. To correct for the effects of

a vessel’s permanent magnetism, permanent magnets are placed in specific
locations in the vessel’s magnetic compass binnacle. This is explained in more
detail in Annex 6b.
0609. Induced Magnetism and its Components
a. Cause of Induced Magnetism. When a ship moves though the Earth’s

magnetic field, magnetism is induced in the iron of the ship’s hull. The direction of
this induced magnetism depends on the vessel’s instantaneous heading and is
independent of speed.

(1) Heading North. A vessel with a heading of north will have an induced
magnetic north pole at the stern and south pole at the bow.
(2) Heading East. A vessel with a heading of east will have an induced
magnetic north pole on the starboard side and a south pole on the port side.
(3) North Magnetic Latitudes. Similarly, a vessel in northerly magnetic

latitudes will have an induced magnetic north pole topside and an induced south
pole on the keel.
b. Induced Magnetism Components. The magnetic field caused by a vessel’s

induced magnetism may be divided into fore and aft, athwartships and vertical
components in exactly the same way as for permanent magnetism.
c. Magnitude of Induced Magnetism Components. The magnitude of the effect

caused by the induced magnetism components varies inversely with magnetic
latitudes, because the horizontal directive force H at the magnetic compass and hte
horizontal induced magnetism in the vessel are both functions of the Earth’s
magnetic field.
d. Effect of Induced Magnetism Components. The effects on the magnetic

compass of the fore-and-aft and athwartships components of the induced
magnetism are summarised in Table 8-1 below. The vertical component of induced
magnetism has to be divided into sub-components which should be considered
separately; they are discussed in Para 0610 below.
Table 6-1. Effects of Fore and Aft and Athwartships Components of Induced
Magnetism
SHIP’S FORE & AFT COMPONENT ATHWARTSHIP COMPONENT COMBINED

HEAD MAGNETISM EFFECT MAGNETISM EFFECT ON EFFECT ON
INDUCED ON INDUCED COMPASS COMPASS
COMPASS
North Red Fwd Zero Zero Zero Zero
Blue Aft
North Red Fwd Maximum Red Port Maximum Maximum
East Blue Aft Blue Stbd

East NIL Zero Red Port Zero Zero
Blue Stbd
South Blue Fwd Maximum Red Port Maximum Maximum
East Red Aft Blue Stbd
South Blue Fwd Zero Zero Zero Zero
Red Aft
0610. Induced Magnetism Vertical Sub-Components
a. Induced Magnetism Vertical Sub-Components. The vertical component of a

ship’s induced magnetism must be broken down further into two sub-components,
which have slightly different effects.
(1) ‘Hull Type’ Induced Vertical Magnetism. Hull type induced vertical
magnetism includes the hull and all decks below the weather deck.
(2) ‘C Type’ Induced Vertical Magnetism. ‘C type’ vertical induced

magnetism includes large items of superstructure above the weather deck,
including funnels, masts, sensors etc.
b. Effect of Hull Type Induced Vertical Magnetism. Hull type vertical induced
magnetism has exactly the same effect as permanent vertical magnetism (see Para
0608 sub para e).
c. Magnitude of Hull Type Induced Vertical Magnetism. The magnitude of hull

type vertical induced magnetism is proportional to the angle of heel, but for a given
angle of heel it will vary with the vessel’s magnetic latitude. This is because the
horizontal directive force H varies inversely with magnetic latitude and the vertical
force Z varies with magnetic latitude. Heeling error may vary with heading, as
induced magnetism in the soft iron near the magnetic compass will vary with both H
and the angle between heading and the magnetic meridian.
d. Effect of C Type Induced Vertical Magnetism. The c type vertical induced

magnetism may be thought of as an imaginary vertical magnet standing on the
weather deck, either before or abaft the magnetic compass, according to the
position of the binnacle. Assuming that the magnet is abaft the magnetic compass
of a vessel in northern magnetic latitudes (i.e. the magnet has a ‘blue’ magnetic pole
at the top), it will have certain effects on the magnetic compass.
(1) There will be zero effect on a heading of due North or due South as the
magnet will be in line with the compass needle.
(2) The effect will be greatest on a heading of due East or due West as the

magnet will be at right angles to the compass needle.
e. Magnitude of c Type Induced Vertical Magnetism. The magnitude of the c

type induced vertical magnetism varies with Z. If c type induced vertical magnetism
is successfully compensated for by the Flinders Bar, it will be eliminated at all
latitudes. However, the successful elimination of ‘c’ is not possible, as H varies
inversely with magnetic latitude and the induced magnetism in any residual ‘c’ varies
with magnetic latitude; the effect of coefficient B (deviation on an East or West
heading) will vary as the vessel moves away from the magnetic latitude on which the
compass was adjusted.
0611. Correcting Induced Magnetism with Soft-Iron
a. Correction of Fore and Aft/Athwartships Induced Magnetism Components.

The fore-and-aft and athrwartships components of induced magnetism combine
algebraically and are corrected for by the use of two soft-iron spheres.
(1) Centre-Line Magnetic Compasses. For magnetic compasses which are

placed on the centre-line of the ship, the soft-iron spheres are always placed
athwartships of the magnetic compass, because the athwartships induced
magnetism component is always larger than the fore-and-aft induced magnetism
component. The magnetic poles of the soft-iron spheres are closer to the
magnetic compass needle and so have more effect than the ship’s field. The
amount of the correction obtained is governed by the size of the spheres, and
their distance from the magnetic compass. Tables are given in Annex 6C.
(2) Offset Magnetic Compasses. If the magnetic compass is offset from the
centreline, then the soft-iron spheres must be slewed from the athwartships
orientation.
b. Correction of Vertical Hull-Type Induced Magnetism. The vertical hull-type

induced magnetism sub-component is corrected by placing permanent vertical
magnets in the magnetic compass binnacle. The positions of the permanent
magnets are only valid for the magnetic latitude in which the correction takes
place. A change of magnetic latitude requires the compass to be re-swung (and/or
re-adjusted as required) to create a new table of deviations (RNS 387).
c. Correction of Vertical c-Type Induced Magnetism. The vertical c-type

induced magnetism sub-component is corrected by mounting a ‘Flinders bar’ on
either the forward or after side of a centreline magnetic compass. The Flinders bar
is placed on the opposite side to the imaginary vertical magnet and counteracts the
unwanted induced forces.
0612. The Horizontal Directive Force ‘H’

The horizontal directive force H is the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic
field and can be defined as the horizontal force acting on an uncorrected compass needle
which causes the needle to point towards magnetic North. Its value can be calculated with
the ship’s head lying on the cardinal points, or it can be observed directly with a

magnetometer. The mean value below denotes the ratio between the mean directive force
at the magnetic compass and the directive force ashore at the same location. Para 0615
gives the relationship between the figure for ashore and onboard.
Mean directive force at magnetic compass

λ=
H
Mean directive force at magnetic compass = H
0613. Sub-Permanent Magnetism (Gaussin Error)

Sub-permanent magnetism (Gaussin error) is a general term which is applied to the
phenomenon whereby part of the vessel’s magnetic field alters during a passage due to
vibration or other causes, but not so rapidly that it could be termed induced magnetism. It
has to be corrected at the same time as permanent magnetism, and is most noticeable on a
change of course after a long time on a steady course. If allowance is not made for sub-
permanent magnetism, it will cause a temporary deviation towards the heading on which the
sub-permanent magnetism was produced.
Fig 6-4. Temporary Deviation Caused by Sub-Permanent Magnetism
0614. Deviation Change with Change in Magnetic Latitude

A change in magnetic latitude will cause the deviation to change, as it varies
inversely to H. In high (polar) latitudes where H is small, deviation will be at its greatest; at
the magnetic equator, where H is at its strongest, the deviation will be least. As the vertical
hull-type induced magnetism is corrected with permanent magnets, a change in magnetic
latitude will cause the deviation of the magnetic compass to change and will also introduce
heeling error. The deviation change for different magnetic latitudes may be calculated from
the formula below:
Zk
Deviation =
H

Example. On a particular course off India, the deviation was observed to be 10°E, H=0.36
and Z=0.25. What will the deviation be on the same course off South Africa, where H=0.16
and Z=-0.32?
Deviation × H 10°× 36
k (off India ) = =
Z 0.25
Zk − 0.32 10°× 0.36

Deviation (off South Africa ) = = × = − 29° = 29° W
H 016
. 0.25
0615. Heeling Error and Method of Correction
a. Heeling Error. When a vessel heels (rolls) or pitches, a gimballed magnetic

compass remains horizontal. The forces acting vertically through the centre of the
magnetic compass cause no deviation when the vessel is upright, however when the
vessel is not upright, the vertical forces then affect the compass needle direction
and cause a heeling error.
Fig 6-5. Heeling Error
b. Heeling Error Instrument. The heeling error instrument is a device by which a

magnetic compass may be corrected to minimise or eliminate heeling error. It
consists of a needle on a balance mechanism (North end inscribed with a ring) with
a movable weight to adjust according to the magnetic latitude. A typical heeling
error instrument is shown in Fig 6-6 below.
Fig 6-6. Heeling Error Instrument

c. Heeling Error Adjustment Ashore. The instrument is set up ashore in a
‘clean’ magnetic environment (i.e. where the only magnetic field is the Earth’s) in line
with the magnetic meridian. The movable weight is adjusted to level the needle. A
note is taken of the position of the weight, and this numerical position is multiplied by
0.9 for an upper deck magnetic compass, and 0.8 for a between decks compass.
The movable weight is then re-set to the appropriate position for the compass to be
adjusted.
d. Heeling Error Adjustment Onboard. Full details of the heeling error and DG
adjustment preparations and procedures for DG and non-DG ships in harbour are in
Annex 6B which should always be consulted. The procedure for non-DG fitted
vessels is summarised below.
(1) Remove the magnetic compass bowl.
(2) Place the heeling error instrument in the binnacle (with the movable weight
adjusted as in Para 0616 sub para c), so that the needle is in the magnetic
meridian and in the same horizontal plane as the compass card. Non-magnetic
spacer blocks may be required to achieve this.
(3) Adjust the binnacle permanent vertical magnets until the needle is level
and record their positions. Replace the magnetic compass bowl.
0616. Magnetic Compass Swing/Adjustment Requirements

Full procedures for magnetic compass swinging/adjustments are contained in Annex
6b which must be consulted. The occasions for a swing, and details of the planning and
preparation are summarised below.
a. Occasions for Swinging Ship. The mandatory occasions for swinging the ship
are listed below.
(1) Before sea trials of a new vessel.
(2) After extensive structural alterations near the magnetic compass location.
(3) After a considerable change in the magnetic latitude.
(4) After a refit.
(5) If any of the magnetic compass correctors have been altered.
(6) After any modifications or repairs to the ship’s installed DG equipment.
(7) After any wiping, flashing or deperming treatments.
(8) At least every two years.
b. Planning. A compass swing is an important operation which must be planned

in advance. The NO should maintain a close liaison with the Operations Officer and

the engineers to ensure that the requirement for a swing is identified early and a
suitable point in the ship’s programme identified. This will allow the method to be
identified, i.e. whether the ship is to be swung at a buoy with a tug, or underway, and
to predetermine the variation and bearing of the shore marks and transits to be
used. The Sun’s bearings, where applicable, should be worked out beforehand for
the anticipated duration of the swing. As a general rule, a full swing with DG will
take 3 hours, a swing without DG will take 1.5 hours, and harbour adjustments will
take 1 hour (not including any transit time to/from the swing location).
c. Preparations. The following should be carried out about a week before the
swing to ensure that there is sufficient time to identify any problems and address
them.
(1) Check the record of the last swing (RNS 374A) and note any remarks.
Adjust the positions of the soft iron spheres (coefficients D and E), and check
the lubbers line of the steering magnetic compass (coefficient A).
(2) Line-up the lubbers line of the standard magnetic compass.
(3) Locate the binnacle keys, and check that the binnacle can be opened.
(4) With the vessel secured alongside or on an absolutely steady course,

check the compass card for friction by deflecting it about 2° with a magnet and
releasing it. If the compass card returns close to its original position, the card
can be assumed to be reasonably free of friction.
(5) Check internal and/or radio communications lines.
(6) Check the azimuth circle prism.
(7) Ensure that spare magnets, spanners, screwdrivers and forms RNS 374A
(Record of Observations for Deviation) and RNS 387 (Table of Deviations).
(8) If applicable, check availability and operation of the DG system and coils.
SECTION 2 – DEGAUSSING (DG) PRINCIPLES AND METHODS
0617. Principles of Degaussing
a. Purpose and Historical Background. The proliferation of iron and then steel
warships and the development of technology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
made it possible to construct cheap mines, which could be triggered by the ship’s
magnetic field. The RN was particularly concerned by these developments, as the
large-scale use of mining by an opponent was seen as a way in which a less
capable adversary could nullify the Grand Fleet’s overwhelming preponderance of
capital ships. It was realised that the same technology used to sense a ship’s

magnetic field could also be used to change it, with beneficial effects; early
techniques used electric currents to greatly amplify the ship’s magnetic signature, so
that mines would be detonated at a greater range, but it was soon realised that it
was a more effective solution to use the electric currents to reduce a ship’s
signature. Originally called de-magnetising, the system came at some point during
the First World War to be known as degaussing (DG) and this term remains in use in
the present day.
b. Units of Measurement. Magnetic fields are measured using the modern SI unit
the ‘nanoTesla’ (nT). One nt is equivalent to 1/100,000 Gauss, the Gauss being the
old (pre-SI) unit of magnetic field density which led to the term degaussing. In
practice, it is unlikely that the NO will have to worry about specific measurements of
magnetic field strength or density, only their effects or consequences.
c. References. DG is a highly technical subject, and it forms an important part of

the overall signature reduction strategy for a platform. There are therefore several
references which should be consulted.
(1) BRd 9348. BRd 9348(1) – Fleet Signature Reduction and Management
Manual Volume 1 – contains a wealth of information on magnetic signatures and
DG.
(2) BR 825 Series. The BR 825 series consists of a number of handbooks

addressing various aspects of DG, ranging from the theoretical underpinning, to
the conduct of a DG ranging officer. The appropriate volume of BR 825 should
be consulted before carrying out any work such as DG ranging.
(3) Equipment BRs. The specific equipment BR for the ship fit in question
must be consulted if required; only summary details are provided in this volume.
(4) Specialist Publications. For certain evolutions, such as a visit to the

King’s Bay Magnetic Silencing Range, specialist publications will need to be
consulted.
0618. A Ship’s Magnetic Signature

A ship or submarine’s magnetic field has an influence on the Earth’s magnetic field
surrounding it, which is observable and known as the vessel’s magnetic signature. This
magnetic signature is made up of a number of components, each arising from different
causes. These include the permanent and induced magnetism of the ship’s hull, eddy
currents from onboard electrical systems, the material of the ship’s hull interacting with the
sea, and more. For full details see BRd 9348.
0619. DG Ranging
a. Purpose and Configuration of DG Coils. The principal method of reducing

the magnetic signature of a vessel is by the use of DG compensating coils. The
configuration of these coils and the current passed through them is designed to
produce magnetic effects which are equal and opposite to the combined permanent
and induced magnetism of the vessel. The current passing through the coils need to
be adjustable in order to allow for frequent changes in the vessel’s induced
magnetism with position, as well as changes in permanent magnetism over time.
The DG coils are further described in Para 0620 to Para 0624 below.

b. DG Ranging. DG settings cannot be arbitrarily determined; rather, they are
ascertained scientifically through the use of purpose-built ranges. DG calibration
runs are made on magnetic intercardinal headings in both directions along the
range, in order to measure the strength of the various fields (as well as other
aspects of the vessel’s signature). From the readings measured, the DG Range
Officer will calculate corrections to the settings for each coil to reduce the vessel’s
residual magnetic signature to its lowest achievable level. Once the corrections
have been applied, additional check runs are made to ensure that the effects are as
anticipated.
c. DG Ranging Records. Details of coil settings should be recorded on DG charts

and retained within the vessel’s DG folder (BR 825). See Annex 6X for examples of
DG charts.
d. Magnetic Compasses. Any change to the DG coil settings following DG

ranging will necessitate a re-swing of the magnetic compass.
0620. M Coils
The main coils, known as M coils, reduce or eliminate the vertical magnetic
signature. There are usually three distinct M coils, MF (main forward), MM (main midships)
and MQ (main quarterdeck), as illustrated in Fig 6-7 below. The M coils all lie in the
horizontal plane, so that they have vertical magnetic axes, but they may be constructed at
differing heights above the keel in order to provide a better fit to the ship’s magnetic
signature. Due to the shape of the ship’s hull, the compensating field generated by the MF
field may be a poor match to the ship’s actual magnetic signature, in which case the coil
intensity can be increased by the additional of a re-entrant loop. M coils also partially
compensate the vessel’s longitudinal permanent magnetism. It should also be noted that
some vessels are fitted with more than 3 M coils. Coils may be connected in series, with the
effect of an individual coil varied by reversing turns, or the coils may be electrically separate.
The current passing through a coil may include a fixed value, to compensate for the vessel’s
permanent vertical magnetism, and a variable value to compensate for the induced vertical
magnetism.
Fig 6-7. DG M Coils

0621. L Coils
Longitudinal coils, known as L coils, reduce or eliminate the longitudinal magnetic
signature of the vessel. The L coils are fitted inside the hull and run as close to the vessel’s
side, bottom and top decks as possible. L coils have a longitudinal magnetic axis, and may
be connected in series or supplied and adjusted independently; the number and spacing of
the coils will depend upon the dimensions of the vessel. The effect of individual L coils can
be varied by reversing turns. The current through the L coils may include a fixed value to
compensate for permanent longitudinal magnetism, and a variable value to compensate for
the longitudinal induced magnetism. L coils are illustrated in Fig 6-8 below.
Fig 6-8. L Coils
0622. Fi and Qi Coils

As an alternative to L coils, ‘forward induced’ (Fi) and/or quarterdeck induced (Qi)
coils may be fitted. These coils are each between one third and one quarter of the ship’s
length long, and are fitted in the horizontal plane above the MF and MQ coils. The axes of
their magnetic fields are vertical, although the Qi coil is reversed. The external effects of the
Fi and Qi coils in the area where the mine may be situated is to reduce the vessel’s
longitudinal magnetic signature over a certain area and depth, but the compensation is not
as thorough as can be achieved by L coils; there may be over-compensation in shallow
water and under-compensation in deep water.
0623. A Coils

A coils are athwartship coils which are designed to reduce or eliminate the
athwartship magnetic signature of the vessel. The A coils are fitted in the vertical plane,
parallel to the ship’s side; each A coil is built in two parts, which are connected in series.
The current through the A coils will include a fixed value to account for permanent
magnetism and a variable value to account for induced magnetism.
Fig 6-9. DG A Coils
0624. Other DG Coils
a. Ai Coils. Athwartships Ai coils may be fitted to reduce or eliminate

athwartships induced magnetism only.
b. Ap Coils. Athwartships Ap coils may be fitted to reduce or eliminate

athwartships permanent magnetism only.
c. ME and AE Coils. ME and AE coils are sometimes fitted and are used to
reduce or eliminate the effect of the magnetic fields resulting from eddy currents.
d. Individual Equipment Coils. Vessels designed to have a low magnetic

signature, such as MHC or SRMH, may have coils fitted to specific items of
equipment to reduce or eliminate the signature generated by those items.
e. Magnetic Compass Corrector Coils. Small DG corrector coils are fitted

around the magnetic compass to compensate for the effects of the DG. The
compass corrector coils are adjusted during the compass swing to adjust for the
heeling error when DG is switched on.
0625. DG Course Correction Compensation

Modern DG systems are capable of course correction compensation, to allow the
system to automatically take account of changes in the vessel’s magnetic signature on
different magnetic headings.
a. Factors Affecting DG Correction for Course Compensation. Several factors

are relevant to the design of course compensating DG equipment.
(1) Permanent Magnetism. A vessel’s permanent magnetism, despite the

name, does change with time albeit very slowly. The vessel’s permanent
magnetic field may change instantaneously if the hull is subjected to great

stress or shock, such as an explosion or collision.
(2) Induced Magnetism. A vessel’s induced magnetism changes very rapidly

with time and the vessel’s heading and location.
(3) Vertical Magnetism. Vertical magnetism alters with magnetic latitude,

reversing as the vessel moves between northern and southern magnetic
latitudes.
(4) Longitudinal Induced Magnetism. The maximum value of longitudinal

induced magnetism varies with magnetic latitude; it is at a maximum when
moving along the magnetic meridian, and it varies with the cosine of the angle
of the heading to the magnetic meridian.
(5) Athwartship Magnetism. The maximum value for athwartship magnetism

is on an easterly or westerly heading, and it varies from the maximum with the
sine of the angle of the heading to the magnetic meridian.
b. DG Course Correction Systems. Modern DG control systems are becoming

increasingly complicated. Generally speaking, course correction systems will use
either an AC/DC transformer rectifier with resistor/transformer tap control, or a motor
generator controlled by a magnetometer or a gyro controlled computer programme.
See BRd 9348 for details.
0626. Magnetic Treatments

Onboard DG coils are effectively ‘self help,’ but not every ship will be fitted with DG
coils, for reasons of space, weight or expense, and some vessels will require extremely low
magnetic signatures (MCMVs, submarines). These vessels can receive magnetic
treatments at a shore installation, which deliberately introduces a permanent magnetic field
into the ship to reduce or eliminate its magnetic signature. Often, the idea is that the
treatment, either wiping or deperming (although other types exist), will lower the signature to
a level such that it can then be adequately controlled by onboard DG equipment. Currently,
only submarines receive magnetic treatments although in the future it may be the case that
RN surface ships will have access to a deperming facility belonging to a NATO ally.

a. Wiping. Wiping is a method used by vessels which do not have sufficient
onboard electrical power to energise DG coils; it is not suitable for vessels over
about 2,000 tonnes. Wiping can be thought of as similar to the way a ferrous
material can be magnetised by stroking it with a magnet; the procedure is described
below.
(1) To wipe a vessel, a coil of electrical cable is wrapped temporarily around

the vessel, parallel to the waterline.
(2) A direct current is passed through the coil, and whole cable is then
physically raised up the side of the hull. The cable is then de-energised, and
the cable is then lowered to the bottom once more. The current is then
switched back on, and the cable raised again; the process is repeated as many
times as necessary.
(3) The DC power in the cable is adjusted so that the vertical magnetism
wiped into the hull is sufficient to reduce or eliminate the vessel’s vertical
permanent magnetism and vertical induced magnetism in the area where
optimum protection is required. The process must be tailored to the area where
it is anticipated the ship will be operating, or will be under threat from
magnetically actuated weapons, rather than the location in which the wiping is
taking place.
b. Deperming. The longitudinal permanent magnetism of a vessel should be kept

as low as possible to increase the efficiency of the DG coils; deperming is a method
of reducing the longitudinal permanent magnetism. A vessel which has undergone
wiping may also require to be depermed to give greater safety over mines.
(1) Deperming Rig. A rig for deperming consists of a number of separate

lengths of capable, each forming one turn, connected up such that they form a
complete solenoid. The spacing between turns is approximately two thirds the
beam width of the vessel concerned, with the end turns one third beam width
from the bow and stern.
(2) Detailed Arrangement and Checking of Solenoid. The turns of the

deperming solenoid lie in the vertical athwartships plane and the cables
connecting the turns to the power supply must be arranged non-inductively.
Turns of the solenoid must be connected in the same direction. A small current
is passed through the solenoid and the polarity of each turn is checked with a
pocket compass before using full power.
(3) Deperming Power. A direct current of up to 4000 amps is passed through

the solenoid in ‘shots’ of 20 to 30 seconds, at 90 second intervals, to ensure
that eddy currents have time to die away and the full benefit of the deperming
current can be realised. The current is reduced before breaking the circuit.
(4) Preparations and Safety. Before a vessel is depermed, a detailed list of

magnetically sensitive equipment onboard will be produced, which must be
removed or decommissioned prior to energising the current.
c. Other Treatments. There are other types of treatment available, such as

overwiping, dewiping, flashing, and athwartships deperming, which are all ‘variations

on a theme.’ The NCHQ signature reduction team will advise if any non-standard
treatments are to be used.
d. Safety Precations. All relevant safety precautions detailed in BRd 9348, BR

825 series, and the local treatment facility handbooks and OPORDERs MUST be
complied with. Magnetic treatment uses significant currents and produces strong
magnetic fields which can be hazardous to personnel with pacemakers, for example.
SECTION 3 – THE FLUXGATE COMPASS
0627. Fluxgate Compass Principles

Fluxgate compasses are a modern innovation, which still utilise the Earth’s magnetic
field to find direction, but do not require moving parts and they do not reply on a magnetic
compass needle. Instead, they rely on the characteristics of certain materials which undergo
precise, measurable changes when under the influence of an externally powered drive
circuit. The fluxgate principle, based on Faraday’s law, states that “a changing magnetic
field will induce an electric current in a coil of wire.”
a. Fluxgate Core Gating. As the Earth’s magnetic field is constant (along the

timescales relevant to navigation at least), it will not induce a current, but it can be
detected and measured when it is forced in and out of an electromagnetically
permeable material. At the heart of a fluxgate compass is a toroidal core of wire.
The Earth’s magnetic field is very rapidly pulled into and released from the core; this
is known as gating the core, and it will induce a pulse proportional to the Earth’s
magnetic field.
b. Unsaturated Fluxgate Core. When no drive current is applied, the core is in

an unsaturated state; it has high electromagnetic permeability and offers a low
impedance path for the geomagnetic field. Since the impedance of the core is less
than that of the surrounding air, the Earth’s magnetic field is ‘drawn in’ to the core.
c. Saturated Fluxgate Core. Primary drive wires wrapped around the core create
a small electromagnet. An electric current passed through the drive wire puts the
core into a state of magnetic saturation. At saturation, the permeability of the core
becomes very low and it no longer exhibits low impedance characteristics, so the
Earth’s magnetic field is forced to the area outside of the core. If secondary coils of
wire are wound round the entire circuit, they can then detect the induced voltage
which is directly proportional to the external geomagnetic field.
d. Calculating Magnetic Heading. The induced voltage in the secondary coil

windings depends on their orientation relative to the arrival angle of the Earth’s
magnetic field. The voltage is highest when the relative directions are
perpendicular, and almost zero when they are parallel. Two sets of perpendicular
secondary windings are used to avoid any directional ambiguity. Magnetic heading
can then be determined by calculating the arctangent of the ratio of the two winding
outputs.
0628. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Fluxgate Compass
a. Advantages
(1) Adjustment/Calibration. Rather than the time consuming full swing

required to compensate a conventional magnetic compass, because a fluxgate
is driven by electronics a modern fluxgate compass will effectively swing itself.
Equipment documentation should of course be consulted, but in principle it is
necessary simply to turn the ship through one or more full circles at low speed,
and the compass software will automatically adjust it.
(2) Electronic Outputs. As the compass is electronically driven, it is very

straightforward to provide a digital output that can be supplied to other
equipment and used to update remote displays. For this reason fluxgate
compasses are often included in small boat autopilots (whether the operator is
aware of this or not).
b. Disadvantages
(1) Power Requirements. A fluxgate compass requires an electrical power

supply to operate, unlike a traditional magnetic compass. They are therefore
unsuitable for use as the ultimate reversion.

(2) Horizontal Stabilisation. As with a magnetic compass, a fluxgate
compass requires to be stabilised in order to provide accurate readings. This
can be achieved physically, by gimballing the compass sensor or fluid-
stabilising it, or electronically by the use of three-axis magnetometers etc to
produce a synthetic level.
(3) Variation. Sophisticated compasses can accept a feed from another

system to update variation automatically, but otherwise it must be manually
applied as with a standard magnetic compass; some compasses will allow the
variation to be manually entered into the unit but in this case it must be updated
along the passage. Users should be wary of the false precision seemingly
offered by the fluxgate compass, and local tallies should be applied to indicate
whether or not variation has been applied to the course displayed by the
compass.
0629. Fluxgate Compass Fitting Policy

SOLAS compass carriage requirements mandate ships to carry a compass which is
capable of operating independently of any power supply. As a fluxgate compass does
satisfy this requirement, they are not fitted in RN vessels larger than 300 GRT. They are
permitted in non-SOLAS vessels under 300 GRT, and in the RN fluxgate compasses are
fitted to some vessels of this size, such as the LCVP Mk5, as well as some boats.
ANNEX 6A
SUMMARY OF RN/RFA MAGNETIC COMPASSES
1. Magnetic Compasses in RN /RFA Service

Commonly fitted magnetic compasses in RN/RFA service include the MOD Type
190/195 and Henry Browne Sestrel Mark II Reflector Outfit. The T45 is fitted with a
commercial-type transmitting magnetic compass connected to the integrated navigation
system. Commercial magnetic compasses are likely to be the norm in future classes.
Further details of magnetic compasses in RN/RFA service are contained in BR 100
(Magnetic Compass Information and Rules for the Arrangement of Structures and Fittings in

the Vicinity of Magnetic Compasses).
2. Summary of Type 190 Binnacle/Type 195 Magnetic Compass Bowl
a. Standard and/or Steering Compass. The MOD Type 190/195 magnetic

compass may be fitted as the ‘standard’ and/or ‘steering’ compass outfit. It is
gimballed and has a 6 inch compass card graduated in one degree steps. There are
two versions of the Type 190 binnacle, both of which have the same wooden body.
An exploded diagram of the Type 195 compass bowl is at Fig 8A-1 (below). A
dimmer switch is fitted for compass card lighting.
(1) Type 190 Binnacle with DG Compass Corrector Coils. This variant is
fitted with a fibreglass domed hood and a ‘compass corrector unit’ containing 3
windings for each of the ‘B, ‘C’ and ‘HE’ DG compass corrector coils (see
Fig 6A-2). A dimmer switch is fitted for compass card lighting.
(2) Type 190 Binnacle without DG Compass Corrector Coils. This variant
is as above, except that no compass corrector unit is fitted.
Fig 6A-1. Exploded Diagram of MOD Type 195 Compass Bowl
Fig 6A-2. Pattern 190 Binnacle

3. Henry Browne Sestrel Mark II Reflector Outfit
The Henry Browne Sestrel Mark II Reflector Outfit is a combined ‘standard’ and/or
‘steering’ magnetic compass for use in ships where the bridge is immediately above the
wheelhouse. It comprises a compass bowl mounted in a reflector binnacle. The compass
bowl is gimballed and has a 7½ inch card with graduations every degree. The lubber’s line
and about 20° of the card on either side is reflected down onto a ground glass screen to the
helmsman below. ‘B’, ‘C’ and ‘HE’ DG corrector coils can be fitted. Lighting is provided for
the reflector system and binnacle.
ANNEX 6B
MAGNETIC COMPASS CORRECTION PROCEDURES
1. DG Compass Corrector Coils - Effect on Magnetic Compass

To counter the effect of the magnetic influence of a vessel’s main DG coils in the
horizontal, vertical and athwartship planes, small corrector coils are fitted around the
magnetic compass to give an equal and opposite influence, such that the magnetic compass
should have the same deviation whether DG is switched ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’. These compass
corrector coils are linked to their respective main DG coils so that the current in the corrector
coil is always proportional to the current in the main DG coil. Therefore, unless changes are

made in the composition of the main DG coils, these small corrector coils automatically
provide DG correction whenever DG is in use. The settings for the corrector coils are
adjusted for heeling error during the adjustment and swing of the magnetic compass (see
Para 2 below.
2. Harbour Adjustment of Heeling Error and DG Compass Corrector Coils

Items marked * are still required to be undertaken by vessels which are NOT fitted
with DG coils.
a. Preparations. The following preparations are to be made before adjusting

magnetic compass DG corrector coils in harbour.
(1) The DG system is to be available and should be switched ‘ON’

approximately 4 hours prior to adjustment to reach operating temperature.
(2) Maximum ampere turns should be used on DG coils for the adjustment.
(3) Direct communication must be available from each magnetic compass

position to the compartment(s) where the DG coils are switched ‘ON’/‘OFF’ and
the relevant resistance boxes are adjusted.
(4) ME department personnel must be available to switch the DG coils

‘ON’/‘OFF’ and to adjust resistances.
*(5) No welding is to take place on board during the adjustment.
*(6) There should be no magnetic disturbances affecting the magnetic

compass (ie boats, guns, cranes etc should remain in their in their stowed
positions).
(7) There should be no extraneous ferrous metal near the magnetic compass.
(8) DG course correction equipment (if fitted) must be correctly lined up to

ship’s head.
b. Adjustment Procedures On Board in Harbour. Before carrying out the

procedures detailed below, refer the notes at the end of this paragraph, which
provide further guidance to avoid common pitfalls. In theory, the procedure in Para
2b above should be repeated at sea with the vessel on a heading of magnetic
East/West. In practice, the harbour adjustment should normally suffice. The
magnetic compass heeling error harbour adjustment is described in Para 0615
primarily for vessels without DG coils but, for clarity, is also included here in the
procedure for DG-fitted vessels.
(1) Ensure the DG system is switched ‘OFF’ and then remove the Magnetic
Compass bowl.

*(2) Place the Heeling Error Instrument in the binnacle (with the movable
weight adjusted as in Para 0615) so that the needle is in the magnetic meridian
and in the same horizontal plane as the compass card (non-magnetic spacer-
blocks may be needed to achieve this).
*(3) Adjust the binnacle permanent vertical magnets until the needle is level
and record their positions.
(4) Switch each DG coil ‘ON’ in turn and adjust the appropriate ‘HE’ compass
corrector coil to bring the heeling error Instrument needle level. Then switch all
DG coils ‘ON’ and check that the heeling error instrument needle remains level.
(5) Switch all DG coils ‘OFF’, replace the magnetic compass bowl and (with a
small bar magnet) deflect the compass card at right angles to the compass
corrector coil under adjustment, in accordance with BR 100 Chapter 2 Para
35(5)].
(6) Switch on each DG coil in turn and adjust the appropriate ‘B’ resistance for
each coil (if fitted), to bring the card back to its original heading. Then switch all
the DG coils ‘ON’ and check that the heading remains un-changed.
(7) Switch all DG coils ‘and (with a small bar magnet) deflect the compass
card at right angles to the compass corrector coil under adjustment, in
accordance with BR 100 Chapter 2 Para 35(5)].
(8) In a similar procedure to Step (6), switch on each DG coil in turn and
adjust the appropriate ‘C’ resistance for each coil (if fitted), to bring the card
back to its original Heading. Then switch all the DG coils ‘ON’ and check that
the Heading remains un-changed.
(9) Switch ‘OFF’ all DG coils.
See Notes below for additional information and common pitfalls to be avoided.
Notes:
1. Allow plenty of time for the magnetic compass to settle after switching on
the coils.
2. If the wiring to the DG coils has been disturbed since the previous
adjustment, check that the DG coils are connected correctly. To check this,
remove the fuses, switch the DG coils ‘ON’ and note the position of the
heeling error instrument needle or ship’s head. When the fuses are
replaced, the heeling error instrument needle should return towards its DG
‘OFF’ position. If the opposite movement takes place, reverse the supply

leads to the resistance box concerned
3. If there is movement on the vessel, use the bearing of a distant object
instead of the ship’s head for making ‘B’ and ‘C’ resistance adjustments.
The compass card must be deflected as appropriate (see above).
4. In resistance boxes fitted with adjustment sliders, the slider clamping
screws must be tightened after every movement. Failure to do so may
affect the readings.
5. Where fitted, follow the adjustment instructions inside the resistance
boxes.
6. If possible, avoid leaving the resistance box sliders or resistance dials at
the extreme end of their travel.
7. Note the resistance box slider or resistance dial settings and (if
appropriate) the linkages used. Enter these details on Form RNS 374A
(Record of Observations for Deviation).
8. When checking adjustments with all the adjusted DG coils switched ‘ON’,
do not switch on DG coils for which no magnetic compass correction is
provided, as these may have marginal effects on the magnetic compass.
3. Swinging Ship with DG ‘ON’ and DG ‘OFF’

‘Swinging ship’ is the acid test of the efficacy of the harbour adjustments. Items
marked * are still required to be undertaken by vessels which are NOT fitted with DG coils.
a. Preparations. The following preparations must be made before adjusting and

swinging the Magnetic Compass on the swinging ground.
(1) If fitted, DG must be switched ‘OFF’.
*(2) The vessel must be in a seagoing condition, with no magnetic

disturbances affecting the magnetic compass (ie boats, guns, cranes etc should
remain in their in their stowed positions).
*(3) There should be no extraneous ferrous metal near the magnetic compass.
*(4) No ships should be within three cables.
*(5) If a comparison with the gyro compass is likely to be required, check the
gyro error. This check must be repeated during the swing.
*(6) Correct the heeling error if necessary.
b. Deviation Correction. Before carrying out the procedures detailed below,

refer to the notes at the end of this paragraph, which provide further guidance
on how to avoid common pitfalls. To correct for deviation, carry out the
following procedure.
*(1) With the ship’s head East/West, remove all deviation using the fore and aft
binnacle magnets.
*(2) With the ship’s head North/South, remove all the deviation using the
athwartship binnacle magnets. If there was a large deviation remaining, repeat
Step (1) above and then repeat this step.

*(3) With the ship’s head at the reciprocal of that in Step (1) above, halve the
remaining deviation using the fore and aft binnacle magnets.
*(4) With the ship’s head at the reciprocal of that in Step (2) above, halve the
remaining deviation using the athwartship binnacle magnets.
*(5) Check that the deviation has been halved at Steps (1) and (2). If it is not
possible to halve the deviation consistently, then there may be a defect in the
compass card; the most likely defect is that the delicate pivot of the compass
card has been damaged and might be sticking.
Notes:
1. Magnets at right angles to the North/South line of the compass card will
correct the magnetic compass. Red repels North.
2. More magnets fitted low down/far away are better than a few higher
up/close in.
3. When using a ‘magnetic hut’, the process can be hastened by first
making an approximate adjustment by gyro compass comparison.
4. Adjust any other magnetic compass on board by comparison with the
standard magnetic compass, remembering to allow for the deviation of the
latter.
5. If communicating using telephones or microphones, do not allow them
near magnetic compasses.
6. When swinging a magnetic compass, if the body being observed is not a
‘distant object’, an appropriate allowance must be made for parallax.
c. Swing with DG Switched ‘OFF’. If fitted, DG must be switched ‘OFF’, then

make the following observations and recordings during a complete 360° swing,
which should NOT TAKE LESS than 40 minutes (ie a maximum turning rate of 9°
per minute).
*(1) Observe and record deviations on the cardinal, inter-cardinal and inter-
mediate points.
*(2) Compare any other magnetic compasses with the standard magnetic
compass on the same points and record comparisons and deviations.
*(3) Comparisons should be made exactly on the standard compass points,

and deviations observed as near to the points as possible.
*(4) When the standard magnetic compass is wooded, deviations can be

obtained by gyro compass comparison, taking any gyro error into account.
d. DG Adjustment. Having first ensured that the correct zone settings have been
applied to the DG coils:
(1) With the ship’s head East/West, repeat Para 2b Step (6).
(2) With the ship’s head North/South, repeat Para 2b Step (8).
e. Swing with DG Switched ‘ON’. Ensuring that the correct zone settings have

been applied to the DG coils, repeat Para 3 sub para c (above) but with all DG coils
switched ‘ON’ including, where applicable, the use of DG course correction
equipment (which must be correctly lined up to ship’s head).
f. Completion of Swing. On completion of the magnetic compass adjustment

and swing, carry out the following.
(1) Record the positions of all magnets, spheres and the Flinders Bar. Secure
the magnets and lock the binnacle doors.
(2) Complete Form RNS 387 (Table of Deviations).
(3) As convenient, complete Form RNS 374A (Record of Observations for

Deviation).
(4) Calculate the magnetic coefficients in accordance with Para 5.
4. Effect of DG on Other Equipments

It has been found that where the DG coils pass close to gyro compasses,
chronometers and watches, appreciable errors may be caused in these equipments. In no
circumstances should it be possible for these equipments to be subjected to magnetic fields
stronger than 100,000nT (ie 1 Gauss). These factors should be taken into account during
the design and construction of the vessel.
5. Analysis of Deviation and the Magnetic Coefficients

When a Table of Deviations (RNS 387) has been obtained after a magnetic
compass adjustment and swing, any errors remaining and their causes may be determined
by calculating the magnetic coefficients from residual deviations (δ), where easterly deviation
is positive (+) and westerly deviation is negative (-). There are many magnetic coefficients,
but for practical purposes, only the five shown below need be considered. Table 6B-1
provides a summary of the parameters of magnetic coefficients A-E. A worked calculation
with deductions from its results is given below.
a. Magnetic Coefficient ‘A’. Although a true magnetic coefficient ‘A’ cannot be

corrected, it is calculated from the formula below and removed from a steering
magnetic compass by slewing the binnacle.
δN + δNE + δE + δSE + δS + δSW + δWδ + δNW
Magnetic Coefficien t A =
8
An apparent magnetic coefficient ‘A’ can arise from any of the following causes.
(1) Using the wrong Variation.
(2) Using the wrong magnetic bearing.

(3) Using the wrong Gyro error when making a comparison.
(4) Using the wrong time, when taking Sun’s bearings.
(5) In a comparison swing, the Lubbers Line not being aligned correctly.
(6) Faulty Azimuth Circle.
(7) Too rapid swing of the vessel.
b. Magnetic Coefficient ‘B’. Magnetic coefficient ‘B’ is calculated from the

formula below; it is caused by the vessel’s fore and aft permanent magnetism and
symmetrical ‘c type’ vertical induced magnetism. The former is corrected by fore-
and-aft horizontal permanent binnacle magnets and the latter by a Flinders Bar.
δE − δW
Magnetic Coefficient B =
2
c. Magnetic Coefficient ‘C’. At a well placed magnetic compass, magnetic
coefficient ‘C’ is caused by the vessel’s athwartship permanent magnetism, and is
corrected by athwartship horizontal permanent binnacle magnets. At a badly placed
or off-centre-line magnetic compass, asymmetrical ‘c type’ vertical induced
magnetism also produces an effect on magnetic coefficient ‘C’. It is calculated from
the formula below and corrected by slewing the Flinders Bar. See Annex 6C.
δN − δS
Magnetic Coefficien t C =
2
d. Magnetic Coefficient ‘D’. This is caused by symmetrical fore-and-aft and
athwartships induced magnetism. It is calculated from the formula below and
corrected by soft-iron spheres, the positioning of which is given at Annex 6C.
δNE − δSE + δSW − δNW
Magnetic Coefficient D =
4
e. Magnetic Coefficient ‘E’. This is caused by asymmetrical fore-and-aft and
athwartships induced magnetism and is calculated from the formula below and
corrected by slewing the soft-iron spheres.
(δN + δS ) − (δE + δW )
Magnetric Coefficien t E =
4
Table 6B-1 Summary of Magnetic Coefficient Parameters
Magnetic Cause(s) Correction Max Min Change Remarks

Coefficient Effect Effect with Mag
Latitude
A Assymetrical soft-iron Not correctable Constant on all No Should be
but see Para 5a Headings zero in a
well-placed
compass,
and must be
under 1°

Horizontal fore-
Fore-and-aft Permanent and-aft
B Magnetism permanent East North
magnets & & Yes
Symetrical vertical ‘c Type’ Flinders Bar West South
Induced Magnetism
Horizontal
C Athwartship Permanent athwartships
Magnetism permanent North East Should be
magnets & & Yes zero in a
Assymetrical vertical ‘c Slew Flinders South West well-placed
Type’ Induced Magnetism Bar from fore- compass
and-aft position
D Symetrical fore-and-aft Soft-iron Quad- Card- Nearly
and athwartship Induced Spheres placed rantal inal No always
Magnetism athwartships points points positive and
should be
under ¾°
E Assymetrical fore-and-aft Slew soft-iron Card- Quad- Should be
and athwartship Induced Spheres from inal rantal No zero in a
Magnetism athwartships points points well-placed
position compass
Example. Using the formulae in Para 5 above, the information in Table 6B-1 above, and the
residual deviations (δ) below, what are magnetic coefficients A-E and what can be deduced
from them?
Deviations (δ): N=2°E, NE=2°E, E=1°E, SE=1°W, S=½°W, SW=0°, W=1°E, NW=1½°E.
+ 2 + 2 + 1 − 1 − ½ + 0 + 1 + 1½ + 7½ − 1½
Magnetic Coefficien t A = = = + ¾°
8 8
Analysis - Magnetic Coefficient A. Magnetic coefficient A is under 1° and is acceptable
(see Table 6B-). If it were larger than 1°, its cause would have to be established.
+ 1 − ( +1) + 1 − 1
Magnetic Coefficien t B = = = 0° .
2 2
Analysis - Magnetic Coefficient B. Magnetic coefficient B is zero and shows that the fore-
and-aft permanent magnets were positioned correctly during the adjustment of the magnetic
compass.
+ 2 − ( −½) + 2 + ½
Magnetic Coefficien t C = = = + 1¼ °
2 2
Analysis - Magnetic Coefficient C. Magnetic coefficient C should be zero and, at 1¼°,

shows that the positioning of the permanent athwartship magnets could have been improved
during the adjustment of the magnetic compass.

+ 2 − ( −1) + 0 − ( +1½) + 2 + 1 + 0 − 1½
Magnetic Coefficien t D = = = + 38 °
4 4
Analysis - Magnetic Coefficient D. Magnetic coefficient D shows that soft-iron spheres

require moving inwards because the remaining magnetic coefficient D is positive. It should
be under ¾° (see Table 6B-1) and, as the result is half of this, the soft-iron Spheres may be
left in place and the effect on the residual deviations accepted.
( +2 − ½) − ( +1 + 1) + 1½ − 2
Magnetic Coefficien t E = = = − 18 °
4 4
Analysis - Magnetic Coefficient E. Magnetic coefficient E should be zero in a well placed

magnetic compass with no asymmetrical soft-iron around it but, as this result is very small, it
may be accepted together with its effect on the residual deviations.
ANNEX 6C
TABLES FOR CORRECTION OF MAGNETIC COEFFICIENTS
Table 6C-1. Correction of Magnetic Coefficient ‘C’ by Flinders Bar

(Type 190/Henry Browne Reflector)
Value of Magnetic Coefficient ‘C’ 3 inch Flinders Bar

0.01 5.6 inches
0.02 7.0 inches
0.03 8.0 inches
0.04 9.1 inches

0.05 10.0 inches
0.06 10.8 inches
0.07 11.6 inches
0.08 12.4 inches
0.09 13.2 inches
0.10 14.0 inches
0.11 14.8 inches
0.12 15.6 inches
0.13 16.4 inches
0.14 17.2 inches
0.15 18.0 inches
0.16 18.9 inches
0.17 19.8 inches
0.18 20.8 inches
0.19 21.8 inches
0.20 22.9 inches
0.21 24.0 inches
Distance from Centre of Magnetic Compass to Centre of Flinders Bar
Type 190: 9.5 ins.
Henry Browne Reflector: 10.0 ins
Table 6C-2. Amount of Magnetic Coefficient ‘D’ Corrected by Spheres

(Type 195 Compass/190 Binnacle)
Distance
Centre of Amount of Magnetic Coefficient ‘D’ Corrected by a Pair of Spheres:-
Compass to 4 Inch. 5 Inch. 6 Inch. 7 Inch. 8 Inch. 9 Inch.
Centre of Spheres Spheres Spheres Spheres Spheres Spheres
Sphere
12.50 inches 0° 30‘ 1° 10‘ 2° 30‘ 3° 50‘ 6° 10‘ 10° 05‘
12.25 inches 0° 35‘ 1° 20‘ 2° 50‘ 4° 10‘ 6° 55‘ 11° 25‘
12.00 inches 0° 40‘ 1° 35‘ 3° 10‘ 4° 35‘ 7° 45‘ 12° 50‘
11.75 inches 0° 50‘ 1° 50‘ 3° 30‘ 5° 05‘ 8° 35‘ 14° 30‘
11.50 inches 1° 00‘ 2° 05‘ 3° 50‘ 5° 40‘ 9° 30‘
11.25 inches 1° 10‘ 2° 20‘ 4° 10‘ 6° 15‘ 10° 30‘
11.00 inches 1° 20‘ 2° 35‘ 4° 35‘ 6° 50‘ 11° 35‘
10.75 inches 1° 30‘ 2° 50‘ 5° 00‘ 7° 30‘
10.50 inches 1° 40‘ 3° 10‘ 5° 25‘ 8° 10‘
10.25 inches 1° 50‘ 3° 30‘ 5° 55‘ 9° 00‘
10.00 inches 2° 00‘ 3° 50‘ 6° 25‘
9.75 inches 2° 15‘ 4° 10‘ 7° 00‘
9.50 inches 2° 35‘ 4° 35‘
9.25 inches 2° 55‘ 5° 05‘
9.00 inches 3° 20‘
8.75 inches 3° 50‘
Table 6-C3. Magnetic Coefficient ‘D’ Introduced by Fitting a Flinders Bar –

(Type 190 Binnacle)
Inches of Magnetic
Flinders Bar Coefficient ‘D’
Introduced
6 inches 1° 10‘
9 inches 1° 50‘
12 inches 2° 30‘
15 inches 2° 50

18 inches 3° 05‘
21 inches 3° 15‘
24 inches 3° 35‘
ANNEX 6D
DG CHARTS NUMBERS 1 AND 2
Fig 6D-1. DG Chart No 1
Fig 6D-2. DG Chart No 2
CHAPTER 7
DIGITAL CHART SYSTEMS, RADARS AND AIS
CONTENTS
Para
0701. Scope of Chapter
0702. Legacy Information – SNAPS
SECTION 1 – DEFINITIONS, REQUIREMENTS AND PERFORMANCE

0703. e-Navigation vs Digital Navigation
0704. Digital Navigation System Definitions
0705. Radar Definitions
0706. Radar Plotting Aids Carriage Requirements
0707. Radar Plotting Aids Carriage Requirement Exemptions
0708. Typical Performance of Navigational Radars
0709. Principles of ARPA Operation
0710. Latency of ARPA Information
0711. Accuracy of ARPA Information
SECTION 2 – SUMMARY OF RN/RFA DIGITAL CHART SYSTEMS AND RADARS
0712. WECDIS and ECDIS

0713. NAUTIS
0714. Radar Type 1007
0717. Radar Types 1047 and 1048
0718. Submarine Portable Emergency Radar
0719. SNAPS
SECTION 3 – AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS (AIS/W-AIS)
0720. AIS Concepts

0721. AIS Operation
0722. AIS Aids to Navigation (AtoN)
0723. Virtual or Pseudo AIS Contacts
0724. Incorrect AIS Data
0725. AIS in GNSS Denial
0726. Limitations of AIS
0727. Using AIS for Collision Avoidance
0728. Misuse of VHF for Collision Avoidance
SECTION 4 – NAVAL USE OF CIVILIAN AIS
0729. RN AIS Equipment

0730. Civilian and Naval Use of AIS
0731. Operational Use and Verification of Received AIS Information
0732. Internet-Based AIO Monitoring
SECTION 5 – WARSHIP AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (W-AIS)
0733. Management of W-AIS

0734. W-AIS Transmission Modes
0735. RN W-AIS Transmission Policy
0736. Guidance for Changing W-AIS Settings
0737. Deceptive use of W-AIS
0738. W-AIS Miscellaneous Remarks
ANNEXES

Annex 7A NAUTIS
Annex 7B Radar Type 1007
Annex 7C Radar Type 1008
Annex 7D Submarine Portable Emergency Radar
Annex 7E Radar Type 1009
Annex 7F Radar Types 1047 and 1048
Annex 7G Navigation Radar Replacement – to Be Issued
Annex 7H Legacy Equipment - SNAPS
CHAPTER 7
DIGITAL CHART SYSTEMS, RADAR AND AIS
0701. Scope of Chapter

Chapter 7 contains a very brief description of the various digital navigation systems
in use in the RN, and, more importantly, the various digital radars in and about to enter
service. The section on digital navigation systems is not intended to be exhaustive and
readers should consult BRd 45(8) for anything other than the most basic, high-level
overview.

0702. Legacy Information – SNAPS
Some information on legacy systems, in particular SNAPS, is retained in this volume
to allow readers of BR 134 (“Hits and Misses”) who are not familiar with the legacy systems
to understand some of the cases in that book. Once BR 134 has been updated, the legacy
information will be removed from this book.
SECTION 1 – DEFINITIONS, REQUIREMENTS AND PERFORMANCE
0703. e-Navigation vs Digital Navigation

In the early 21st century, a fundamental difference in the way ships at sea were
navigated became possible with the development of lightweight, highspeed computers that
were sufficiently reliable to display electronic charts. With the proliferation of technology,
however, comes an equal proliferation in terminology, some of which is confusing, especially
the common shorthands (across the English speaking world) of using ‘e’ as a shorthand for
‘electronic’ and ‘d’ for digital.
a. Digital Navigation. Digital navigation is the term used within the Naval Service

to describe the navigation of a ship or submarine utilising ENCs or RNCs on an
ECDIS/WECDIS, rather than on paper charts. It is the Navy Board’s policy that all
Naval Service navigation shall be conducted digitally, with the exception of some
training (P2000s) which will be carried out on ‘traditional’ paper charts.
b. e-Navigation. e-Navigation is a term provisionally adopted by the IMO to

describe the hypothetical “harmonised collection, integration, exchange, presentation
and analysis of maritime information onboard and ashore by electronic means to
enhance berth to berth navigation and related services, for safety and security at sea
and protection of the marine navigation”. e-Navigation should not be confused with
digital navigaiton as they are two fundamentally different concepts; digital navigation
is a necessary part of e-navigation, but e-navigation is a much bigger idea, which
incorporates VTS, maritime communications, collision avoidance systems and so
forth.
0704. Digital Navigation System Definitions

A full discussion of the differences between the various types of system is contained
in BRd 45(8), but for the convenience of readers an outline summary is contained here.
a. Electronic Chart System (ECS). An electronic chart system (ECS) is the

generic term for a system that displays electronic charts but which does NOT
satisfay IMO SOLAS requirements and is NOT justified for use as an alternative to
corrected official charts. An ECS may be used legally alongside corrected paper
charts, and can help to improve situational awareness and navigation safety when
used in that mode, provided sufficient care is exercised.
b. Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS). An elctronic chart

display and information system (ECDIS) is a navigational information system which
complies with the IMO performance standards and, with adequate backup, can be
accepted as complying with the carriage requirements of Chapter V Regulation 19 of
the 2002 IMO SOLAS Convention. The presence of a second ECDIS system, a
robust uninterruptible power supply and/or the immediate availability of adequate,
corrected paper charts covering the operating area are deemed adequate back-up
by the IMO, RN and MCA. RN ships are no longer required to carry a paper back-up
folio (see BRd 45(8)).
Note. When WECDIS (see below) was first introduced, RN vessels were
mandated to carry a back-up ‘get you home’ folio sufficient to navigate to a
safe haven in the event of a WECDIS failure. This requirement was removed
in 2013, following analysis which showed that in the years following the
introduction of WECDIS in 2005 no ship or submarine had ever had to resort
to the back-up folio. Ships operating in areas where ENCs are not available
will still require corrected official charts.
c. Warship Electronic Chart Display and Information System (WECDIS). A

WECDIS is an ECDIS with additional functionality to make it able to support

warfighting and naval operations in addition to navigation. In general, the term
WECDIS in the RN is used to refer to Outfit 4LAA and the ECPINS-W Sub software
but strictly speaking WECDIS is a generic term.
0705. Radar Definitions

IMO SOLAS regulations define a number of different types of radar plotting aids.
Performance standards are mandated for each.
a. Electronic Plotting Aid (EPA). EPA equipment enables electronic plotting of at

least ten targets but not automatic tracking. 1007 JUF is an EPA.
b. Automatic Tracking Aid (ATA). An ATA enables manual acquisition and

electronic plotting and automatic tracking and display of at least ten targets.
c. Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA). ARPA equipment provides for manual
or automatic acquisition of targets, and the automatic tracking and display of all
relevant information for at least 20 targets for anti-collision support. It also allows trial
manoeuvres to be carried out.
0706. Radar Plotting Aids Carriage Requirements
a. EPA. Ships between 300 and 500 gross tonnage must, as a minimum, be
equipped with an EPA. Targets are plotted manually but the EPA performs the target
calculations for each manual plot. EPA equipment enables the electronic plotting of
at least ten targets.
b. ATA. Ships of 500 gross tonnage and over must, as a minimum, be equipped
with an ATA. ATA equipment enables manual acquisition and electronic
plotting/automatic tracking of at least ten targets. Ships with two radars must have at
least a second ATA fitted.
c. ARPA. Ships of 10,000 gross tonnage and over must have an ARPA fitted; the
second radar must be an ATA or ARPA capable radar.
Note. It is Navy Board policy that all RN ships will be fitted with an ARPA
radar. Guidance on the systems to be fitted will be published when available.
d. Watchkeeping Standards. Watchkeepers must be fully conversant with the

operation, capabilities and limitations of the equipment, including the accuracy
standards. The equipment and its procedures should be regularly exercised in clear
weather to improve operator skills and understandings.
e. Performance Standards. Modern radars are sophisticated items of equipment,

with a high degree of dependency on other systems. In order to ensure that the
radar is working correctly, several checks should be made on an ongoing basis.
(1) Performance. The set’s performance must be continuously assessed and

refined when in use, taking into account the prevailing weather, visibility and

traffic conditions. Every opportunity should be taken to check the index error.
(2) Testing. Full use should be made of the in-built test programmes to check
the validity of the plotting data.
(3) Heading, Speed and Other Inputs. The ARPA is reliant on information on
ship’s head and speed to accurately plot and track contacts, and often on GPS
to provide ground stabilisation. If course and speed are provided automatically
from another system or systems, these connections should be checked to
ensure they are working correctly and transmitting accurate data.
0707. Radar Plotting Aid Carriage Requirement Exemptions
a. Exemptions for Ships of Over 10,000GRT Built After 1 July 2002. IMO
carriage requirements are detailed in Para 0706. IMO SOLAS regulations allow flag
states and national governments to exempt ships from these regulations where it is
considered ‘unreasonable or unnecessary’ for the equipment to be carried, and
warships are exempted from SOLAS Chapter V in any case. However, it is HM
Government’s policy that RN vessels shall comply as closely as practicable with
SOLAS regulations.
b. Exemptions for Ships of Over 10,000 GRT built before 1 July 2002. Ships
built before 1 July 2002 need only comply with the 1984 SOLAS regulations, which
required the carriage of a single ARPA. Exemptions can still be granted to the 1984
standard.
0708. Typical Performance of Navigational Radars

Typically, 3 cm navigation radars fitted in FF/DD sized vessels should expect to
achieve the minimum detection ranges stated in Table 7-1 below. Table 7-1 assumes that
the equipment has been designed and built to the appropriate performance specifications, is
free from defects, and is correctly tuned and operated.
Table 7-1. Typical Minimum Detection Ranges for 3cm Navigation Radars
TARGET TYPICAL DETECTION RANGE

Nab Tower 18 nautical miles
Eddystone Light 16 nautical miles
Medium tanker 14 nautical miles
Frigate/destroyer 12 nautical miles
Radar buoy 7 nautical miles
Navigational buoy 5 nautical miles
0709. Principles of ARPA Operation

ARPA displays are usually fitted on the bridge, although there is no technical reason
why one could not be fitted in the Ops Room or elsewhere. In very old installations the
equipment may be a standalone computer display connected to a radar, but in modern sets it
will be an integral part of the radar itself. The set should be designed such that, in the event
a fault in the ARPA processing, the raw radar ‘underneath’ is still visible to the operator.
Modern systems often provide ARPA and radar video capabilities as part of an integrated
bridge system, in which there may not even be a dedicated radar terminal, the radar being
allocated ot one of a number of multi-function displays.
a. Computer Processing and Display. An ARPA unit is ultimately a piece of

hardware or software which is capable of analysing the raw radar returns received by
a radar and extracting data from them. Conceptually, it differs from a basic radar
with no plotting or tracking capabilities in a number of ways.
(1) Display of Information. The processed data is converted and displayed to

the user in as alphanumeric strings and vector plots. The vector’s length will be
proportional to the speed of the vessel and the direction in which it points can be
set to either true or relative motion.
(2) Acquisition and Tracking. ARPA equipment can acquire targets

manually, following operator intervention, or automatically. Automatic acquisition
can happen across the entire area of radar coverage, or within operator defined
areas often known as guard zones (although specific terminology varies from
manufacturer to manufacturer). Alternatively, it is possible to exclude areas from
automatic acquisition on some systems. Once steady state tracking is
established, the ARPA will display critical information such as target’s course,
speed, and CPA. The ARPA is required to be capable of automatically alerting
the operator to dangerous contacts i.e. those with a close CPA.
(3). Trial Manoeuvres. An additional requirement for an ARPA is that, in

addition to predicting CPA and time to CPA (TCPA) for tracked contacts, it
should be capable of predicting target motion if ownship manoeuvres. This
feature is known as a ‘trial manoeuvre’; the OOW can use it to trial, for example,
the results of a contemplated (or planned) alteration of course and/or speed, at
some point in the future.
b. Collision Avoidance Parameters. ARPA is capable of alerting the operator to

any possibly dangerous contact i.e. one which poses a risk of collision. These alerts
may be visual and/or audio. The ARPA system is of course ‘dumb’ in that it has no
intrinsic knowledge of what a close CPA may be for a given ship in a given situation,
so it relies upon parameters which are specified by the operator. Certain minimum
parameters may not be overwritten, but the operator always has the option of
dropping a target; this may be useful when operating in close company or RASing, to
avoid constant alarms.
c. Data Collection and Analysis. The precise means by which the system
detects, acquires and tracks targets will depend upon the system. In general,

however, the processor assesses the noise/clutter level around the ship in the
designated acquisition area/guard zone and compares this with the threshold level of
any echo that remains nearly constant in the same area for a certain number of
sweeps. Target status (and probably a track number or letter) will be allocated to
any return that satisfies the criteria. After about a minute, coarse tracking should be
available and the system should display a general trend of target motion; after three
minutes, full ARPA data should be available. A target’s course and speed may be
displayed in a number of ways, either as a data block close to the contact on the
radar picture, or in a tote or box elsewhere in the display. The tote may display a list
of some or all targets being tracked, or simply full details on one selected target.
The accuracy of the output will depend critically on the accuracy of the speed and
heading input into the radar, hence speed log and radar calibrations must be carried
out accurately and gyro errors frequently checked and applied if necessary.
WARNING
ARPA IS ONLY A COMPUTER WHICH AVERAGES THE POSITION OF

THE SAMPLED DATA OVER A PERIOD OF TIME. THERE IS NO
SUBSTITUTE FOR THE MONITORING OF VISUAL BEARINGS AND/OR
RAW RADAR DATA.
d. Decision Making when using ARPA. ARPA can provide a great deal of
information on a target, including its course, speed, CPA, TCPA, and it is even
possible to determine where the CPA will occur (i.e. on the bow, on the beam etc).
ARPA is not, however, a qualified OOW and ARPA cannot and does not excuse the
OOW from their decision-making responsibilities. It remains incumbent on the OOW
to make the correct decision with regards to manoeuvring own ship (even if that is to
stand on, that is still a decision) to pass at a safe distance. In accordance with the
COLREGS, early and bold action is required to ensure that any alteration is
perceived both visually and on radar by the other ship(s). Guard zones, if used,
should therefore be established to give early warning of vessels likely to pose a risk
of collision. The use of a trial manoeuvre may be useful but should be treated with
caution; this is amplified in Para 0709d sub para (1) below.
(1) Use of Trial Manoeuvre. Course alterations may be simulated using trial
manoeuvre, to ensure that the intended alteration will have the desired effect.
Moreover, a trial manoeuvre can be used to ensure that a proposed manoeuvre
does not have any ‘unintended consequences’ and increase the risk of collision
with another vessel. Trial manoeuvre must be used with great caution, however,
as problems can be caused if an incorrect turn radius is used, or if the trial
maneouvre is carried out with an incorrect time delay. Collisions have been
caused, for example, by an OOW utilising an ‘instant’ trial manoeuvre but then
altering course (in accordance with company policy) in 5° steps at 15° of wheel
to avoid discomfiting the passengers.

CAUTION
Trial manoeuvre functions are immensely useful for assessing the

safety and effectiveness of a proposed manoeuvre but they must be
used with great caution. Users must ensure the settings are correct to
avoid the risk of being given false or misleading information by the
system.
0710. Latency of ARPA Information

It must be recognised by all users of ARPA radars that all ARPA-derived information
(i.e. course and speed vectors, CPAs and TCPAs) is fundamentally historical, as it relies on
the analysis of a sequence of plotted observations of the target to assess its current position,
course and speed, and to make predictions for the future. If a vessel manoeuvres boldly, it
may take some time for an ARPA to build up sufficient track history for an accurate reflection
of the contact’s new course and speed. Users should remember that mandated performance
standards give ARPA three minutes to achieve accurate steady state tracking. Visual
observation of a target, especially its bearing rate and target will almost always reveal an
alteration before ARPA does.
Example of ARPA Latency. A classic example of ARPA latency is shown at Fig 7-1 below.
A summary of the situation is given here, but full details of the scenario are given in BRd 134
Case 605. A warship was carrying out noise ranging in daylight, in an area of restricted
visibility. Having completed one run, the warship, initially on a course of 180°, altered hard to
port to a course of 120° as the first part of a Williamson turn, before planning to alter to
starboard to complete the Williamson. The screenshot in Fig 7-1 was taken from a nearby
fast ferry’s ARPA after the incident. It shows that the warship’s ARPA-derived course and
speed vector remained on about 195° throughout the incident, whereas the ARPA readout
(not shown in the screenshot) showed the warship on a course of 150°. The ferry’s radar
trail showed the warship’s course correctly to be 120°, but at the moment of the screenshot
the warship was applying full starboard rudder to complete the Williamson turn. As the
incident took place in restricted visibility, and the ships never gained visual contact with one
another, it was only observation of the warships target trail (as opposed to ARPA data) that
enabled the ferry to take appropriate action. Readers are encouraged to refer to BRd 135
Case 605 for a full examination of the case.
Fig 7-1. ARPA Latency – Screenshot from Fast Ferry

0711. Accuracy of ARPA Information
The IMO has defined performance standards for ARPA systems, which the operator
must bear in mind when using the set. They illustrate perfectly the difference between
precision and accuracy; an ARPA is perfectly capable of giving a very precise reading on a
target’s course, speed and CPA, which can be significantly, even dangerously, wrong, but all
too often is believed because it is presented very precisely on a computer screen by a
machine. IMO performance standards are complex, and pertain to a whole swathe of radar
characteristics including screen size, visibility, antenna siting etc, which are all relevant, but
of particular concern are the performance minima for its plotting of targets.
a. Pre-2008 Standards. The pre-2008 standards defined ARPA performance in

terms of a number of scenarios, of different closing courses and speeds. An ARPA
is required to generate ‘coarse’ accuracy after one minute of steady state tracking,
and ‘fine’ accuracy after three minutes of tracking; readers may be surprised at just
how large the potential errors can be.
Table 7-2. Pre 2008 ARPA Performance Standards
Relative Relative CPA (nm) TCPA True course True speed

Course (°) Speed (minutes) (°) (knots)
(knots)
Accuracies after 1 minute steady state tracking, head-on situation
11 2.8 1.6 - - -
Accuracies after 3 minutes steady state tracking, head-on situation
3.0 0.8 0.5 1 7.4 1.2
Note. The above table bears closer examination. In Test Scenario 1, the

two ships are closing head-on with zero CPA, but the mandated accuracy of
ARPA is only 0.5nm for the CPA readout. The illustrates perfectly the
requirement to continually check the bearing movement of the other ship, as
it remains the best way to bowl out any inaccuracies in the ARPA plot. It
also serves as a reminder of why the OOW should always be wary of
accepting close CPAs, especially when derived by ARPA. Note also that
there are three more test scenarios, with different mandated accuracies.
b. Post-2008 Standards. The standard adopted for ships built after 2008 is
considerably simpler, as it does away with the various standards and simply has two levels of
accuracy, for one minute tracking and three minute tracking.
Table 7-3. Post-2008 ARPA Performance Standards
Time of Relative Relative CPA (nm) TCPA True True

steady course (°) speed (minutes) course (°) speed
state (knots) (knots)
(minutes)
1 min: 11 1..5 or 1.0 - - -
trend 10%
(whichever
is greater)
3 min: 3 0.8 or 1% 0.3 0.5 5 0.5 or 1%
motion (whichever (whichever
is greater) is greater)
c. Importance of Accuracy Standards. It is worth restating the point made

above. Although there is no reason why an individual set won’t have better
performance, they only need to be as good as the minimum standards. This is
particularly the case with commercial radars, and especially those on ships built prior
to 2008. The OOW must in all cases monitor the visual bearing movements of all
ships, and treat ARPA-derived CPAs with extreme caution, especially in cases
where it is intended to accept close range CPAs. It is a matter of good seamanship
that officers should not automatically accept close CPAs unless there is a compelling
reason to do so (which there may be).
SECTION 2 – SUMMARY OF RN/RFA DIGITAL CHART SYSTEMS AND RADARS
0712. WECDIS and ECDIS
a. WECDIS. The standard WECDIS installation in the RN (ships, submarines and

RFAs) is Outfit 4LAA, which consists of ECPINS-W Sub software running on
dedicated terminals. It is this system which is generally known by the term
‘WECDIS’ although as discussed above this is strictly a generic term for any ECDIS
which meets STANAG 4564 Edition 2 criteria. QUEEN ELIZABETH class CVs will
be built with ECDIS-N as part of an integrated bridge system, which also meets
STANAG requirements and is therefore classified as a WECDIS. See BRd 45(8) for

full details of WECDIS.
b. ECDIS. Type 45 are fitted with a Raytheon Pathfinder ECDIS which is not
STANAG compliant and therefore is not considered a WECDIS. It has very limited
capabilities to support warfare operations, and Type 45 is not authorised for digital
navigation within two nautical miles of danger. As of March 2016, a programme is in
hand to retrofit Type 45 class ships with ECPINS software as part of their integrated
bridge system. See BRd 45(8) for full details on Raytheon Pathfinder ECDIS.
0713. NAUTIS
HUNT and SANDOWN class MCMVs are fitted with the Naval Autonomous
Information System (NAUTIS), NAUTIS-3 in HUNTs and NAUTIS-4 in SANDOWNs, to
support MCM operations. NAUTIS is specifically designed to support MCM operations, from
the planning stage, through passage, search, location, identification and prosecution of the
mine. NAUTIS is capable of displaying electronic charts and radar data; see Annex 7A for
details.

Radar Type 1007 is a legacy I-band radar used for navigation, blind pilotage,
helicopter control and warfare. It is usually associated with display Outfit JUF or JUQ, but
may also be used in association with a Kelvin Hughes ‘naval tactical display’ (NTD). 1007 is
obsolescent and due to be replaced in the near future.

Radar Type 1008 is based on a commercial Racal-Decca Bridgemaster 250, and
uses raster scan techniques and a coloured daylight viewing display. It is an F-band (10cm)
radar, with full ARPA and ‘geographics’ capabilities, meaning it is capable of displaying
navigational constructs. It is interfaced to the ship’s log, gyro and GPS/DGPS. 1008 is
obsolescent and due to be replaced.
Note. Some classes of ships such as RIVER or ECHO have commercial

radars that, while technically different, are directly comparable to 1008 in
terms of both performance and operation.

Radar Type 1009 is fitted only to early boats in the ASTUTE class. It is a Kelvin
Hughes I-band navigation radar, similar to 1007 but with more modern hardware, and utilises
a NTD rather than the legacy JUF display. 1009 is fully interfaced with the boat’s tactical
weapon system highway, and ownship data distribution system for log/gyro and position
data. It can cut contacts through to SMCS.
0717. Type 1047 and 1048

Type 45 destroyers are fitted with Type 1047, which is a commercial-type I band
radar with similar performance to 1007, and Type 1048 which is a commercial-type E/F band
radar with similar performance to 1008. Both are available to the integrated bridge system
and in the Ops Room, and both have full ARPA capability and the ability to underlay an ENC.
0718. Submarine Portable Emergency Radar

Submarines carry a SL72 radar, which is a self-contained 2Kw unit of the type often
fitted to yachts and other small craft. It is an emergency capability which can only be rigged
when the submarine is on the surface. The radar is not interfaced to any system other than a
power supply, and so it does not provide a stabilised picture.

0719. SNAPS
As explained in Para 0702, the Ship’s Navigation and Processing System (SNAPS)
was an early computerised navigation system that provided a link between the navigation
solution being run on the bridge and the ship’s command system. It is no longer fitted in any
RN platforms, but was a critical factor in some of the incidents in BRd 134 and so it is
retained here until such time as BRd 134 is updated. The critical point to understand is that
in some modes (in particular ‘computed position’ or CP), SNAPS generated its own position
for the ship or submarine based on an algorithm that was entirely mysterious, despite more
than ten years of investigations, such that in 2002 submarines were forbidden entirely from
operating SNAPS in CP mode. Successful use of SNAPS involved a high degree of practice,
luck, and generally some superstition (it was never clear how many times one had to press
‘inject’ on the Navigator tote page to take navigation, so SOP became to press it at least
seven times to ensure it had worked).
a. Basic Operating Principles. The Ship’s Navigation and Plotting System

(SNAPS) was an early navigational computer, capable of accepting inputs from
sensors and navaids (gyro, log, GPS) and performing calculations on them. In
addition to outputs onto the combat system highway/TWS databus, SNAPS drove a
positional display, by projecting a spot of light onto the underside of a chart placed
on the chart surface of the machine. To be used, the chart had to be registered on
the system which was a relatively time consuming position which involved manually
driving the spot to three suitable positions on the chart to allow SNAPS to orientate
the chart. The chart had to be physically secured to the table before it could be
used; changing charts on a SNAPs table was therefore relatively involved as, in
addition to the usual chart change drill, the correct chart had to be recalled from
memory and the chart registered before it could be used with SNAPS. Fixes could
be injected into SNAPS which would reset some system values for drift and error,
and generate assessments of tidal stream/set and drift; the true way in which this
operated was poorly understood and generally mysterious for much of the system’s
life.
b. Operating Modes. SNAPS could be operated in a number of modes; in some

(eg GP) it displayed a position derived from a navaid, GPS in the case of GP mode,
or SINS in the case of IA or IB. In others, the situation was more complicated;
SNAPS could generate a DR, although it wasn’t very good at DRing around corners,
or an EP, or a ‘computed position’ or ‘calculated position’, CP mode, in which case
the position was based on another position, such as DR or EP, but updated by
SNAPS’ own internal assessment of what turned out to be entirely unknown system
variables. Although there was clearly a logic underpinning how the machine worked,
the practical upshot of CP mode was that the Navigator could not in fact be sure how
the position was derived, meaning it was to all intents and purposes useless for
navigation. This contributed directly to at least one grounding (see BRd 134).

c. SNAPS Errors. SNAPS was in fact a relatively robust system, albeit
unsophisticated by modern standards. Common errors are described below.
(1) Inaccurate Mode Appreciation. In addition to driving a spot of light,

SNAPS had a basic display on its keyboard handset. Simply inspecting the
position of the spot of light on the chart did not give the ship’s position, rather
one had to check the mode that the system was in by consulting the handset.
Some modes were more obscure than others, and even in ‘ownship’ mode it was
relatively straightforward to misread or miss the line on the tote display which
confirmed what the system was using to derive its position.
(2) Poor Chart Registration. Some charts always gave a ‘poor fit’ error when
registering, but there was also nothing from presenting the careless or inattentive
operator from registering the chart poorly, by inaccurate driving of the spot.
Similarly, an error could arise if the chat was inadvertently moved or otherwise
came unstuck from its position. For this reason, it was good practice on taking
over the watch to ensure that the chart was correctly registered.
(3) Injection of Bad Fixes. Injecting a bad fix, either deliberately or

inadvertently, would cause the system to generate erroneous values for
variables such as set and drift, which would then propagate throughout the
system in a way which was not always well understood.
d. Lessons to Take Away from SNAPS. SNAPS is now long withdrawn from
service in the RN but it serves to emphasise several enduring lessons. In particular,
navigators must ensure that they are aware of the mode in which their electronic
systems are operating, and how that mode actually operates; i.e. if the ECDIS is in
EP, how does it actually generate that EP? If you don’t know the answer, then you
need to treat the position which is displayed with a good deal of caution, especially in
cases where you don’t have an independent means of cross-checking your
navigation solution (i.e. poor visibility, GPS denial, a dived submarine).
SECTION 3 – AUTOMATIC IDENTIFCATION SYSTEMS (AIS/W-AIS)
0720. AIS Concepts
a. Summary. The Automatic Identification System, AIS, was first introduced in

2002 and became mandatory for all ships over 300 GRT and all passengers ships by
2004. It consists of a network of shipboard transponders and shore stations that
exchange information via VHF, and is used to transmit information on a ship’s
identity, position, course and speed, as well as amplifying information such as cargo
and destination, to other AIS stations. W-AIS is ‘warship AIS’ as used in the RN.

b. Aims and Objectives of AIS.
(1) Aims. The ultimate aim of AIS is to enhance the safety of life at sea, the
safety and efficiency of navigation, and the protection of the marine environment.
(2) Objectives. To support the overall aim of the system, there are a number
of specific objectives.
(1) To help identify vessels.
(2) To assist in contact tracking, both by ships but also by VTS and shore
authorities.
(3) To simplify information exchange by reducing the need for VHF

exchanges.
(4) To provide additional information to assist situational awareness.
c. Classes of AIS. There are several distinct classes of AIS which have different
capabilities and limitations.
(1) AIS Class A. AIS class A provides full functionality, including station to
station text messaging, and has been a carriage requirement for all ships since
2007. The baseline display for AIS is by minimum keyboard display (MKD), but
AIS data may instead be interfaced to an ARPA radar and/or ECDIS/WECDIS
for graphical display. An AIS ‘pilot port’ is required to allow an external display
(such as one carried by a pilot, hence the name) to be connected to the ship’s
system. Class A transmissions are assured, guaranteeing they will be received.
(2) Warship AIS (W-AIS). W-AIS provides full Class A capability as well as
additional military functions. See BRd 45(8).
(3) Inland AIS (AIS Class A Derivative). Inland AIS is a derivative of AIS
Class A, specifically authorised for use in inland waters. Inland AIS covers the
main features of AIS Class A whilst also covering the specific requirements of
inland navigation and enabling direct data exchange between seagoing and
inland vessels in mixed traffic areas. Inland AIS specifications vary regionally,
but typically may include replacing the MKD with a graphical display, the removal
of VHF DSC, and the addition of some additional features such as a dedicated
‘persons on board’ field, and in increase in the message transmission rate.
(4) AIS Class B. AIS Class B provides a reduced maritime functionality and
may be carried optionally by vessels not required to carry Class A. AIS Class B
has much reduced message fields and transmission intervals; tracks may be
automatically inhibited in high traffic areas, and due to the message transmission
protocols, Class B transmissions may be subject to mutual interference meaning
that Class B AIS is not assured.
0721. AIS Operation
a. Communications Bearers. AIS operates on two dedicated VHF channels, AIS-

1 at 161.975 MHz (VHF Channel 87B) and AIS-2 at 162.025 MHz (VHF Channel

88B). Modern Class A transponders are two-channel units, capable of utilising both
frequencies simultaneously, but some older installations are single-channel only, and
will monitor both frequencies on a time-share basis. This can cause longer update
rates in congested environments. AIS is capable of utilising alternative frequencies if
the primary frequencies are unavailable regionally, either by manually setting the
new frequency or via a tele-command from a competent authority. Such changes
are transparent to the user who may not be aware that their receiver settings have
changed.
Note.
AIS can be commanded to use a different frequency than AIS-1 or AIS-2 by
manual entry into the unit or a remote command from a shore station (AIS
channel management message). Such changes will remain effective in the
unit’s memory until five weeks have passed or the unit moves more than 500
miles from the defined area. Units operating on alternative frequencies will
not be visible to units on standard frequencies and vice versa; this is a
credible failure in AIS. For example, between July and August 2010, the
USCG inadvertently commanded a large number of AIS users on the
eastern seaboard of the US to change to alternative channels. Ships
subsequently entering the area were not affected, and so there were
effectively two distinct AIS systems running, which could not see each other.
AIS/W-AIS should therefore be regularly checked to ensure it is working on
the correct channels.
b. AIS Data Fields. AIS transponders broadcast (and receive) three different types
of information.
(1) Static Data. AIS static information is broadcast every six minutes or on
request by a competent authority, and includes the vessel’s MMSI number and
IMO number, the ship’s international radio call sign and name, its length, beam
and the type of ship, and the precise location of the navaid in use (referenced to
the bow, stern and beams). As the name suggests, static data is usually set on
installation/setting to work, and would not be expected to change regularly if
ever.
(2) Dynamic Data. AIS dynamic data is broadcast at a much higher update
rate than the static data, although the precise update rate depends on factors
such as the vessel’s speed. AIS dynamic data fields are shown in Table 7-3
below.
Table 7-4. AIS Dynamic Data
DATA FIELD REMARKS

Ship’s position with accuracy indication and Automatically updated by the GNSS
integrity status connected to AIS.
Position time stamp (UTC) Automatically updated by the GNSS within
AIS. Precise to nearest second UTC
Course over ground (COG) Automatically updated by GNSS within AIS,
subject to GNSS receiver capability. Precise
to 1/10°
Speed over ground (SOG) Automatically updated by GNSS within AIS,

subject to GNSS receiver capability. Precise
to 1/10 knot.
Heading Automatically updated by ship’s heading
sensor connected to AIS
Navigational status Manually updated by OOW from a pre-
defined list, including underway on engines,
at anchor, NUC, RAM etc
Rate of turn (ROT) Automatically updated from ROT sensor or
derived from gyro if connected
Note.
AIS data precision should not be confused with accuracy; SOG data is
broadcast in ‘steps’ of 1/10 of a knot, so a ship with a ‘true’ SOG of 10.44
knots would broadcast a speed of 10.4 knots. This is of course independent
of the accuracy of the GNSS derived information itself.
(3) Voyage Related Data. AIS voyage related data is updated manually by
the operator on a voyage by voyage basis, and is broadcast every six minutes or
on request by a competent authority. Voyage related data includes the vessel’s
draught, what type (if any) of hazardous cargo it is carrying, and the vessel’s
destination/route and ETA (at the Master’s discretion).
c. Data Sources. Most data is input into AIS automatically from the connected
system, in particular the integral GNSS receiver which is fundamental to the system,
but some is configured manually either on first setting to work, or on an ongoing
basis. Before sailing or as and when changes occur (eg on anchoring or weighing
anchor), the OOW or NO should ensure that the relevant fields are updated.
Otherwise, there is a risk of broadcasting incorrect information.
d. Data Transmission and Network Configuration. AIS utilises a time division

multiple access (TDMA) system to allow for multiple transponders to all operate
together (the technique is similar to that employed by Link 16). The system allocates
transponders to broadcast slots, each of 29.7 milliseconds in length.
(1) Class A AIS – Self-Organising TDMA. Class A AIS transponders utilise

‘self-organising’ TDMA techniques to ensure that units can send without
conflicts. The technique relies on an accurate time reference to determine the
time slots i.e. GNSS. Without GNSS, system operation can be sustained for a
few hours in a fall-back mode. Base stations and aids to navigation have fixed
time slots for broadcasting.
(2) Class B AIS – Carrier Sense TDMA. Class B AIS utilises ‘carrier sense’
TDMA in which transponders look for a ‘vacant’ slot and quickly grab it to
broadcast; conflicts are possible if two transponders both try to get the same
slot.
e. Range of Operation and Network Loading. As AIS coverage is based on VHF

ranges, coverage is usually limited to within about 20-30 nautical miles of the ship,
unless substantial shielding by a land mass occurs. This range can be considerably
extended if transmissions are rebroadcast by a shore station, enabling AIS to ‘see’
around corners and over intervening land. Ranges in excess of 100nm have been
observed in areas of ducting/ANAPROP. In high traffic densities, AIS will

automatically drop the furthest contacts to minimise network loading; it is assessed
that AIS can be overloaded by 500% and still provide 100% cover out to 10nm in the
ship to ship mode. Satellite tracking of AIS transponders is also possible.
f. Safety Related Messages (SRM). AIS allows users to send short (156
character) text messages, known as safety related messages (SRMs) to individual
MMSIs or as a broadcast (safety related broadcast) to all ships and shore stations.
Such messages can be useful, but they must not be relied upon for collision
avoidance and safety purposes. They do not replace the proper GMDSS messages
and alerting systems.
0722. AIS Aids to Navigation (AtoN)

Although originally developed as a means of reporting position and status
information from ships, it was soon realised that AIS has immense utility as aids to navigation
as well. This can take several forms, discussed below; the term AtoN is used to distinguish
an aid to navigation such as a buoy or beacon from a navigation aid (NAVAID) such as
GNSS or LORAN. The beauty of AIS AtoN is that the broadcast of AIS data allows the AtoN
to be readily displayed on an ECDIS as well as an AIS receiver.
a. AIS Equipped AtoN. An AtoN such as a buoy can be equipped with a GNSS
receiver and AIS transponder, enabling the buoy to broadcast its position and status,
and in some cases meteorolgical/oceanographic information. This allows shore
authorities and ships at sea to rapidly determine if a buoy is off station, for example,
and can also be of great assistance at night and in reduced visibility. It also allows
for AtoNs to be detected at greater range than visual or radar detection would allow.
b. Synthetic AtoN. A synthetic AIS AtoN is when AIS information on a real AtoN is
broadcast by a different station, either a shore station or another AtoN. There is still
a physical buoy or beacon, but the physical marker is monitored, and the AIS
broadcast made, from elsewhere.
c. Virtual AtoN. A virtual AtoN is one that is broadcast via AIS (message 21 with
virtual flag set) but which has no real-world counterpart. The virtual AtoN appears in
AIS as an aid to navigation, although it is clearly marked as virtual using agreed
symbology. They will mark on ECDIS and can be interrogated as for any other AtoN.
Virtual AtoNs can be used for a number of purposes including the marking of new
wrecks or other uncharted hazards, to mark virtual shipping lanes, to replace real
AtoN which have gone off station, or indeed for any situation in which it is needed to
rapidly, accurately mark a point in the ocean.
0723. Virtual or Pseudo AIS Contacts

As the discussion of AIS aids to navigation in Para 0722 above shows, an AIS
contact does not need to have any real-world counterpart, or to be broadcast from the point
in question.
a. Virtual AIS Contacts. Certain AIS equipment has the ability to generate virtual
AIS contacts with a defined position, course, speed and other attributes. Often this
is used for synthetic or virtual aids to navigation (see Para 0721) but it can also be
used to rebroadcast data from ships to other ships which are shielded from one
another by land, or to broadcast a position for a ship which does not have AIS. In
particular, a virtual contact can be useful in a SAR situation, to mark (for example)

the position of a man overboard or non-AIS equipped lifeboat, or to mark the position
of a distressed vessel with damaged or malfunctioning AIS.
b. False AIS Contacts. By extension, it can be seen that it is possible to generate

entirely false AIS contacts, either inadvertently or deliberately. AIS users should
make every effort to correlate an AIS track with a realworld track, either visually, by
radar, or sonar if applicable. See BRd 1982 for more details.
0724. Incorrect AIS Data

AIS is a ‘dumb’ system. Although there is often a degree of autonomous integrity
monitoring in the GNSS receiver of a modern system, the receive side of an AIS unit will
simply plot whatever data it receives, regardless of whether it is sensible or not. Since the
widespread introduction of AIS, many instances have been observed of ships broadcasting
patently incorrect information. Sometimes this is clearly deliberate (the ship with a
destination of ‘the Moon’), sometimes inadvertent (an eastbound ship in the North Atlantic
with a destination of Boston), and sometimes it is possible that the sending ship is not even
aware. The example below was taken from the approaches to the Solent, and shows a ship
broadcasting a position nearly half a mile from its true location as determined by VTS ARPA.
The cause is unknown, but could quite conceivably have been a problem with the GPS
receiver on the ship in question. Regardless, it serves to illustrate that data received via AIS
must always be treated with a healthy degree of caution and correlated with all other
sources of information.
Fig 7-2. Ship Broadcasting Dangerously Incorrect AIS Information

0725. AIS in GNSS Denial
AIS is critically dependent on precise timing for the SOTDMA technique to work,
although short duration outages can be managed. The most credible circumstance in which
the timing signal would be lost is a situation of GNSS denial, which would also result in AIS
transponders losing their most important positioning source. In conditions of prolonged
GNSS denial, users should probably expect AIS to become almost completely unreliable.
Users can inject manual or DR positions into receivers, but the accuracy will not match that
of GNSS, and it may take some time for ships to become aware of the GNSS denial. This
will be compounded by synchronisation errors in the SOTDMA network due to the loss of
timing reference.
0726. Limitations of AIS

AIS is an immensely powerful tool for building situational awareness, but there are
certain limitations and features of the system of which users should be aware if they are to
use the system safely. In particular, AIS does not necessarily provide a complete picture of
the situation around a vessel, for many reasons. Not all ships are equipped with AIS, and
those that are may have it switched off. AIS may be transmitting incorrect data (see Fig 7-2
above). There are many floating objects such as buoys, wreckage or debris, submarine
periscopes, which will have a radar return but are not equipped with AIS transponders. If a
sensor is not installed (eg gyro compasses are not required in ships under 500 GRT) then
the information cannot be transmitted; if the sensor is defective or otherwise providing false
information, then accurate information cannot be transmitted. In other words, there are many
dangers to shipping that will not show up on AIS under any circumstances, and those that do
show on AIS may not be where AIS says they are.
0727. Using AIS for Collision Avoidance

Collision avoidance at sea is governed by and carried out in accordance with the
International Regulations for the Prevention of Collision at Sea 1972 (as amended) (the
COLREGs). There is no specific provision in the COLREGs concerning the use of AIS,
although clearly it comes into ‘all available means’ as mandated by Rule 5 and Rule 7. See
caution below.
CAUTION
MCA guidance is that collision avoidance must be carried out in strict

compliance with the COLREGs and there is no provision in the

COLREGs for the use of AIS. Therefore decisions should be based
primarily on visual and/or radar information.
0728. Misuse of VHF for Collision Avoidance

The dangers of VHF in collision avoidance are well known (see any number of MAIB
or similar body accident investigation reports); see BRd 9424 Para 0211. The MCA view is
that identification of a target by AIS does NOT remove this danger. Decisions on collision
avoidance should be made strictly in accordance with the COLREGs.
CAUTION
MCA guidance is that the use of VHF in collision avoidance is

dangerous. Decisions should be based primarily on visual and/or
radar information.
SECTION 4 – NAVAL USE OF CIVILIAN AIS
0729. RN AIS Equipment

In most RN ships, AIS is integrated with ECPINS in the form of W-AIS, in a variety of
installations. In other ships, commercial-type AIS may be fitted. The standard W-AIS
configurations are described below.
a. Configuration S-706311 – Large Ships. This configuration uses one AIS

transponder, two workstations in the Ops Room (one for SPS, one for PWO), an
MKD on the bridge, and a transponder control switch (TCS) to allow for selection of
either workstation or the MKD as the controlling terminal.

b. Configuration S-706321 – Small Ships. This configuration is the same as for
large ships, with only a single terminal in the Ops Room.
c. Configuration S-706322 – Small Ships without WECDIS. This is a variation of

configuration S-706321 for ships that do not have WECDIS (eg Type 45), and
includes equipment for connecting to NMEA 0183 compliant sensors and analogue
sensors.
d. Configuration S-706332 – Submarines. This configuration consists of a single

AIS integrated with WECDIS in the Control Room, an MKD, and two transponders.
One transponder is a receive-only unit, for use when dived, and the other is a fully
capable transmitter and receiver for use when on the roof. Both transponders can
be connected to the VHF and GPS aerials in the WT mast and search periscopes,
system line up being controlled by the TCS and sensor selection switches.
0730. Civilian and Naval Use of AIS
a. Civilian Use of AIS. AIS was designed with civilian users in mind, as a system
to enhance the safety and security of lives at sea, to assist with vessel identification
and tracking, and to simplify information exchange at sea. Since its mandatory
introduction at the beginning of the 21st century, AIS has had a profound effect on
the situational awareness of ships at sea and of VTS/port authorities, comparable
only with the introduction of GPS in the 1980s.
b. Small Craft AIS. Due to its enormous utility and steadily lowering cost and size,
Class B AIS transponders are increasingly being fitted by many yachts and small
vessels not required to carry Class A AIS. Many yachts operating in the vicinity of
large vessels and major traffic routes consider AIS essential for their own safety by
increasing the likelihood of their vessel being seen by the larger vessels, even
though Class B units generally have a lower power and lower range response than
Class A units. Class A transponders are getting cheaper all the time, and they are
fitted in smaller and smaller boats all the time. Class B units are not appropriate for
some very fast small craft, as the distance they can travel in the time between Class
B updates would render the carrying of one pointless.
c. Naval/Military Use of AIS. In terms of naval operations, the widespread advent

of AIS has significantly enhanced the operational capability of units and
organisations engaged in building the recognised maritime picture (RMP). The
capability of AIS to provide ‘at a glance’ coverage across wide areas, as well as
detailed information on individual ships, has dramatically simplified the problems of
building a white picture at long ranges. However, by making available such data to
everyone with internet access, it has also increased the problem of maintaining own
ship’s operational security.
d. AIS Track Reporting for the RMP. When operating as part of a task group, the
OPTASK RMP will specify duties for the compilation of the RMP, including the

monitoring of AIS. An AIS reporting unit will be directed to report the AIS picture
back to Northwood for input into the RMP. W-AIS is capable of automatically
collating AIS tracks within a specified area and outputting the results appropriately
formatted as an OTH GOLD message, which can in turn be automatically ingested
by other systems.
0731. Operational Use and Verification of Received AIS Information
a. AIS Contribution to the Global RMP. The majority of merchant ship tracks in
the RMP will originate from warship WAIS returns to Northwood. Although not all
white shipping tracks held will always be released to the RMP, it is nevertheless the
case that the majority of merchant shipping tracks shown on any given RMP will be
from AIS. It is therefore vital that onboard staff correctly manage their WAIS (see
BRd 45(8)) and their own RMP on RN CSS to quality control the information before
broadcast back to Northwood.
b. Validity of AIS Contacts. As explained above, there is no need for any AIS
contact to exist in the real world. It is therefore possible for spurious or false
contacts to enter the RMP via (W)AIS, either inadvertently or potentially deliberately.
Navy N2 does not have the capacity to individually confirm every AIS track received
for release to the RMP and so in areas where RMP accuracy is of particular concern
or where specific contacts of interest are involved, units must incorporate some
mechanisms for checking the validity and accuracy of AIS contacts.
c. AIS Validity Checks. It is good practice, wherever possible, to attempt to

correlate any AIS tracks received with at least one other source of information. This
is especially important when dealing with rebroadcast or internet-derived tracks. AIS
information is included in the ‘surface investigate’ procedure (see BRd 1982).
Standard methods for correlating an AIS track are described below; for more details
on picture compilation see BRd 1982.
(1) Radar Image Overlay (RIO). In exactly the same way as RIO is used to
prove WECDIS is correct navigationally, the presence of a RIO paint underneath
an AIS track is a good indication that there is some sort of real contact there.
RIO in itself will not reveal any information on the movement of the contact,
however.
(2) ARPA Tracking. Similar to RIO, if a contact is painting on ARPA in the

same position as an AIS track, then it should be a trivial exercise to acquire the
contact and confirm its AIS-derived position, course and speed.
(3) TMA Correlation. Submarines are capable of utilising standard TMA

techniques to build a surface picture, which can then be correlated with the AIS
picture. Although inaccurate TMA fire control solutions are more likely to be
encountered than inaccurate AIS data, TMA correlation will be a useful tool to
bowl out gross errors. In reality, it will often be the case that the AIS picture is
used to gain confidence in the TMA-derived surface picture, rather than the other
way round.
(4) ESM Association. A bearing-only association of the radar transmitter of

an AIS contact allows a means of verifying the identity of the contact in the case
of fingerprinted, unique, or otherwise readily identifiable transmissions.

(5) Visual Correlation. Visual means still provides the quickest and surest
means of confirming not only that a contact exists and that its position, course
and speed are accurate, but that the contact really is what it says it is. WAIS
includes an integral shipping database (currently Lloyds Fairplay but this may be
subject to change in the future), and it should be a matter of routine to confirm
that any and all visual contacts are checked against the associated AIS track
and shipping database. Discrepancies should be investigated in the usual
manner.
(6) Other Means. There are of course many other means of confirming the
existence and identity of a contact, including the use of organic assets (aviation
or boats), ‘radio boarding’ or correlation with all-source information such as
known ferry timetables or sailing schedules. In the future, drones may be
expected to become a key part of the AIO.
0732. Internet-Based AIO Monitoring
a. Real-Time Internet AIS Sites. A basic internet search will reveal a number of
websites which offer real-time monitoring of AIS contacts, either particular to an area
or globally. It must therefore be assumed that real-time monitoring of AIS is being
conducted by a number of sites ashore by a number of authorities. The implication
for operational security is obvious, and this fundamental risk is just one of the
reasons why it is vital that WAIS is operated in accordance with mandated policy.
b. Use of Real-time AIS Sites by RN Units. Naval service units are provided with
a comprehensive suite of intelligence products by Navy N2 and other parts of the DI
organisation, based on their operating area, mission and threat. This will inevitably
include all source assessments, including the use of AIS data, and so the products
received onboard should take account of available AIS data. Nevertheless, units
may wish to utilise publicly available AIS information when carrying out navigational
or operational appraisals prior to deploying or theatre entry. AIS websites can be a
useful way of assessing traffic densities, patterns, routes, types etc prior to the
delivery of specialist intelligence products. When using AIS websites, units must be
aware of the limitations of such information, and ensure that all relevant security
requirements are followed.
SECTION 5 – WARSHIP AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (W-AIS)
0733. Management of W-AIS

W-AIS is an extremely powerful tool for building situational awareness, but it has the
critical weakness in that it is perfectly capable of revealing own ship’s identity, position,
course and speed to the whole world if not configured and operated correctly. Responsibility
for W-AIS settings and operation lies with the OOW in bridge control and PWO in ops
control, but the equipment is (in many cases) physically sited in the Ops Room and so it can
be difficult for the OOW to exercise oversight. It is therefore important to ensure that the
policy to be followed is clearly specified.

a. Control of W-AIS Settings.
(1) Transponder Control Switch (TCS). Control of W-AIS is exercised from

one of the Ops Room terminals or the bridge MKD. Only one terminal may be
active at any one time, and the selection of the active terminal is made by the
TCS. W-AIS terminals not selected at the TCS CANNOT change W-AIS settings
and will not display the current settings.
(2) WECDIS/ECPINS. If the TCS is set to either of the ops room workstations,
then interaction with W-AIS is through the ECPINS software which is identical to
that used in WECDIS. See BRd 45(8) for more details.
(3) MKD. If the TCS is set to the MKD, then W-AIS settings are controlled
through the bridge Saab type R4 MKD. See Annex 7A for more details.
b. Record of Settings. W-AIS settings, and any changes made to them, must be
recorded on the OOW’s stateboard on the bridge, and in the Ship’s Log. They must
also be communicated to the Ops Rm.
c. Tx/Rx Indication. It is recommended that a dual-sided laminated card be

fabricated locally and secured with velcro to the top of the bridge MKD showing
‘RECEIVE ONLY’ on one side and ‘TRANSMIT’ on the other. This acts as a visual
cue/reminder to Command (and the OOW) to consider W-AIS settings.
0734. W-AIS Transmission Modes

W-AIS is capable of operating in several modes; the mode to be selected at any
point in time will depend upon the ship’s location, operation, and ultimately the CO’s
discretion with regards to safety. The standard modes are described in Table 7-5 below; see
Para 0734 for a discussion of W-AIS transmission policy. The default mode is always
‘RECEIVE ONLY’; it is recognised that this may make warships stand out on an intelligence
plot as radar contacts that are conspicuously silent on AIS. Care must be taken when
entering the MMSI number, as transmitting with the true MMSI number will effectively
fingerprint the platform. In considering how to operate W-AIS, notwithstanding the guidance
below, ships should consider the consequences on other users of AIS, in particular other
ships and VTS/port authorities; the existence of multiple ships identifying as ‘COALITION
WARSHIP’ can cause significant confusion and has led to near misses in the past. Discreet
mode is not authorised for routine use.
Table 7-5. Available W-AIS Modes
MODE W-AIS SETTINGS COMMENTS

OVERT Ops Rm or Bridge control Refer to specific OPORDER where
Sensor set to transponder applicable
VHF transmission ON
Set TX A&B/RX A&B True setting for dynamic data including
Name: HMS/RFA XXXXXXX navigational status (ordered by
MMSI: unit’s true number OOW/NO, set by W-AIS Op)
Vessel type: military Voyage data fields blank
All other static data blank

Transmit safety message if relevant
DISCREET Ops Rm or Bridge control True settings for dynamic data including
Sensor set to transponder navigational status (ordered by
VHF transmission ON OOW/NO, set by W-AIS Op)
Set TX A&B/RX A&B
Name: generic (eg Voyage data fields blank
WARSHIP, COALITION
WARSHIP etc) THIS MODE IS NOT AUTHORISED
MMSI: 232002833 FOR ROUTINE OPERATIONS
Vessel type: military
All other static data blank
RECEIVE Default mode CO will override where required for
ONLY Data is received, nothing is safety of life or the ship
transmitted
Units with AIS only are to select a
passive mode or else switch the
equipment OFF
0735. RN W-AIS Transmission Policy

W-AIS has the potential to cause significant breaches of operational security, and
thus its use must be carefully monitored. RN W-AIS policy at the time of writing is laid-down
below, but units should ensure that FLOOs are consulted prior to sailing to ensure they have
the most up-to-date guidance. The operation of W-AIS is one area in which warships must be
prepared to exercise their exemptions from the SOLAS conventions if OPSEC is to be
maintained.
a. Open Water. When in open water or under restricted EMCON policy, HM

warships and RFAs will operate W-AIS in the RECEIVE ONLY mode, unless
required for safety of life or ship safety in which case the DISCREET mode should
be selected. Any units fitted with AIS only should have it set to OFF or a receive
only mode if available.
b. Within Commercial Port Limits and Traffic Schemes in which use of AIS is
Mandated. Within commercial ports, or traffic separation schemes in which the use
of AIS is mandated, ships are to operate with W-AIS set to the OVERT mode, with
ship’s name transmitted including the appropriate prefix (HMS or RFA). All voyage
data is to be omitted.
c. Within HM Dockyard Ports and/or Where OVERT Mode is Legislated under

Port/State Regulations. Ships conducting non-operational moves in HM dockyard
ports, or any other port in which applicable port or state regulations explicitly
mandate the display of full operation, will operate W-AIS in the OVERT mode. All
voyage data is to be omitted. Once clear of the mandated area, ships are to revert
to the RECEIVE ONLY mode.
d. Operational Movements and EMCON. When operational movements or

EMCON requirements dictate a covert move, the advice of QHM is to be sought
before the move commences. Furthermore, these instructions do not affect the
EMCON policy of specific OPORDERS concerning the movements of RN warships

and auxiliaries; these will always retain primacy over the use of W-AIS
transmissions. Individual ship EMCON plans will need to take account of W-AIS an
ensure that, so far as is navigationally safe to do so, ships cannot be fingerprinted on
the basis of OVERT mode W-AIS and other emitters. The CO retains the discretion
to select OVERT mode at any time if the safety of life or ship safety requires.
0736. Guidance for Changing W-AIS Settings
a. W-AIS SOPs. Due to the fact that it is not necessarily possible to establish the
current W-AIS configuration at a glance, and that control can be remoted to another
position, it is necessary for a robust set of internal SOPs to be established to ensure
that W-AIS is placed into the correct posture at the correct time.
b. W-AIS Command Input. W-AIS is a Command tool, and therefore clear and
unambiguous instructions as to the mode of operation to be employed must come
from the Command. This may be delegated through the OOW or the PWO
depending on the circumstances, on the basis of clear guidance in the form of
standing orders and Captain’s periodic orders. Such guidance should be based on
this chapter and the guidance on AIS in FLOOs.
c. W-AIS in Ops Control. When in ops control, in ships fitted with two AIS
workstations in the ops room the TCS should be set to the SPS position as master.
Changes to W-AIS settings should be made by the SPS under the explicit direction
of the PWO. In single workstation ships, a similar procedure is to be carried out.
After any changes have been made, and whenever it is necessary to view the W-AIS
transmission status, the following procedure should be carried out.
(1) Check that the TCS is in the SPS position.
(2) From the W-AIS (ECPINS) main menu, select ‘Main Menu > Screen Layout
> AIS’.
(3) Press ‘CTRL’ + ‘P’ to display the AIS status page options.
(4) Highlight ‘Display Channel Assignment’ then press ‘Select’ and ‘Exit’.
(5) In the AIS Status Page window, the transmit/receive status should now be
visible.
(6) Inform the OOW of any changes so that the OOW is aware of the
transmission status of AIS at all times.
d. W-AIS in Bridge Control. When in Bridge control, the TCS should be set to
‘transponder display’ as master. All changes to W-AIS settings are to be ordered by
the OOW and made using the MKD. After changes are made or at any other time it
is desired to review the W-AIS transmission status, the following procedure should
be followed.
(1) Check the TCS is set to the ‘Transponder Display’ option.

(2) Commencing from the MKD ‘target list view’ (normal mode), select ‘MODE
> Config (soft key) > Ship/AIS Static (soft button) > VHF Radio Settings’ (soft
button).
(3) The true transmit/receive status will now be displayed.
(4) Inform the PWO/SPS (as applicable) of any changes so that the ops room
is aware of the transmission status of AIS at all times.
(5) Ensure that the W-AIS mode tally on the MKD is correct.
e. Handover Reports. In all cases, the PWO, OOW and SPS should include the
state of W-AIS transmissions and the TCS setting in their handover and should
report them in the same way as for radar states. The OOW must also record this
information on the OOW stateboard and the Ship’s Log. It is probably prudent to
check the state of W-AIS at a convenient moment having taken over the watch, as
part of bridge/control room/ops room rounds.
0737. Deceptive use of W-AIS
a. Effect of Deceptive W-AIS Transmissions. W-AIS is capable of operating in a

number of deceptive modes. When electing to utilise one of these modes, it must be
remembered that AIS is ultimately a global system designed to enhance the safety of
life at sea. Users considering deceptive transmissions must consider the likely
effects of AIS manipulation on surrounding traffic and traffic monitoring
organisations. Deceptive transmissions must always be made with the utmost
discretion and with due regard for the possible implications on the wider community
which utilises AIS.
b. Detection of Deceptive W-AIS Transmissions. Previous attempts at W-AIS

manipulation have been detected very quickly by the International
Telecommunications Union and the MCA, resulting in calls to NCHQ requesting the
immediate cessation of the ‘erroneous’ transmissions. This has also been the case
when units conducting maintenance or defect rectification have inadvertently
transmitted incorrect information. W-AIS users should be aware that other mariners
will often have little or no hesitation in reporting a UK warship or auxiliary which they
see to be transmitting patently false information to shore authorities and potentially
other vessels, so that deceptive use of W-AIS may in some circumstances be
positively counter-productive.

c. W-AIS Deceptive Postures. Table 7-6 below provides an indicative list of W-
AIS deceptive modes, and implications and considerations. It is by no means
exhaustive.
Table 7-6. W-AIS Deceptive Postures
DECEPTIVE CAPABILITY IMPLICATIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS

Off-setting own ship The position displayed will not correspond to unit’s true
position location
There will not be a radar image associated with the new track
Own ship will stand out as not having an AIS track
corresponding to the radar image
Display of track history will reveal any sudden jumps in
position
Transmitting multiple own Not all, and possibly none, of the displayed tracks will
ship tracks correspond with true position
There will be no radar targets associated with the false tracks
VHF DF will give the bearing of the transmitter i.e. the actual
ship
Reception of tracks outside the true transmission range myay
reveal the presence of false target transmissions
Transmitting false targets Same as transmission of multiple own ship tracks
(pseudo or virtual targets) Realistic identities will prove difficult to create
Realistic traffic profiles will be difficult to conform to
Transmitting false ID for Realistic identity is difficult (but not impossible) to create
own ship Chosen identity must be outside the reception footprint and
able to withstand a Llloyds Fairplay (or equivalent) search
Identities seen not conforming to their historical movements
may draw attention to themselves
d. Military Utility of Deceptive AIS. Examining Table 7-3 above, it is clear that
the use of W-AIS in the deceptive mode suffers from some serious disadvantages.
In particular, as the transmissions will always originate from the spoofing unit, that
unit will always be vulnerable to VHF DF, and the standard methods uses to validate
an AIS track will rapidly reveal a contact to be false, and thus warn other users that
spoofing is being carried out. It is therefore considered that deceptive use of W-AIS
does not have much military utility and should not be carried out unless specific
operational guidance has been issued by the appropriate Operational Control
authority. Units believing that they have an operational need to use deceptive W-
AIS should submit a request to their OPCON authority detailing their proposed
deception plan for approval on a case-by-case basis. In other words, deceptive use

of W-AIS is not considered to have much military utility but may be of use in certain
circumstances as part of a properly considered deception plan, in which case it may
be used provided prior authority has been granted.
0738. W-AIS Miscellaneous Remarks
a. EMCON Plans. AIS (both warship and civilian) is allocated a line in the standard
NATO EMCON plans in ATP1G (Line 130). NOs must ensure that they have
understood the implications of the ordered EMCON plan on the operation of W-AIS
(should be minimal as W-AIS can operate in receive only) and, as importantly, they
must ensure that the system is correctly configured. Units should also ensure that
their EMCON plans reflect the fact that OVERT mode will broadcast the ship’s true
name and MMSI number, and thus there is a requirement to deny other nations the
opportunity to fingerprint the ship where commensurate with navigation safety.
b. Effect of (W-)AIS Silence. The RN’s default policy for W-AIS is to operate in
RECEIVE ONLY. It is recognised that by not transmitting on AIS, units will stand out
on local sensor plots. This is an unavoidable consequence of the widespread
adoption of AIS and is only likely to get worse as space-based AIS becomes more
widely used. Readers should refer to MWC tactical guidance for more detail on this,
and other W-AIS tactical considerations.
c. Common MMSI Number. It is important that, when required in either the

DISCREET mode, the correct generic MMSI number is used. Use of the generic
MMSI number reduces the risk of fingerprinting the platform, but it can cause
problems for other users. AIS receivers are only capable of displaying one contact
for each MMSI number, hence if a force enters an area all broadcasting in
DISCREET mode with the same MMSI number, the results for other users, both
ships and shore stations, will be unpredictable. Units transmitting the generic MMSI
will no longer be able to see one another on AIS, and other users may see the
displayed contact jumping randomly between the various ships, or they may see one
contact displayed at random. As of 2016, NCHQ is investigating ways to mitigate
this problem, such that naval units can maintain an adequate degree of OPSEC
without compromising the needs of other users in peacetime.
d. Voyage Data. Voyage data is not to be transmitted in any of the authorised W-

AIS modes.
ANNEX 7A
NAVAL AUTONOMOUS INFORMATION SYSTEM (NAUTIS)
1. Scope of Annex 7A
Annex 7A provides an overview of the ‘Naval Autonomous Information System’
(NAUTIS). NAUTIS-3 is fitted in the HUNT class MHCs and NAUTIS-4 in the SANDOWN
class MHCs, but for the purposes of Annex 7A, both systems are referred to as ‘NAUTIS’.
Full details of the system and its operating procedures are contained in the BRd 8413/CBd
8413 series (SANDOWN) and BRd 8513/CBd 8513 series (HUNT) which should be
consulted for further details.

2. Summary of Naval Autonomous Information System (NAUTIS) Capability
a. NAUTIS Functionality. To assist in performing the ships primary task of mine

hunting, NAUTIS interfaces with other equipments to perform the following functions.
(1) Navigation. Provide accurate navigation for MCM tasks.
(2) Storage and Display. Provide storage and display of contacts, reference
points and other related data.
(3) Track Keeping. Provide outputs to assist with track keeping, hovering and
sonar control for MCM tasks, including the continual display of an underwater plot.
(4) AIO Functions. Provide the facilities required for the performance of general
AIO functions and safe navigation, including the continual display of a general
surface plot.
b. NAUTIS Hardware Configuration. The system comprises three NAUTIS

Command Consoles. Two consoles are located in the Operations Room and are
designated the Mine Hunting Director's (MHD) Console and the Mine Warfare Officer's
(MWO) Console, one display is located on the Bridge and is designated as the
Navigators (NO) Console. All three consoles are linked by a dual Redundant LAN and
each is capable of controlling the AIO system depending upon the selected role.
c. Interfaces. Each NAUTIS Command Console interfaces with Radar 1007 with the
necessary controls/menus for radar data processing and display. All the consoles are
interfaced with the ships navigational aids and ‘Ship Manoeuvring System’. During Mine
Hunting operations the MWO normally takes control of ‘Position Fixing’ and thus ground
stabilises the system. Interfacing with other ships systems/equipments is achieved via
a Dual Redundant LAN. Interfaced equipments include:
• Sonar 2093 (SANDOWN class)/Sonar 2193 (HUNT class)
• Mine Warfare Tactical Support System (Replacement) (MTSS[R]).
• Global Positioning System (GPS).
• SEA FOX Mine Disposal System (MDS).
• Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS).
• Towed Body Locator System (TBLS) – SANDOWN class only.
• Ships Positioning and Control System (SPCS) – SANDOWN class only.
• Gyro Compass.
• Doppler Speed Log.
• AGI EM2 Speed Log.
UK OFFICAL-SENSITIVE 7A-1
3. NAUTIS Displays and Controls
a. Display Layout. NAUTIS displays, each consisting of a high resolution 21.3

inch flat panel colour display, provide a combined radar and synthetic display. The
general arrangement of the NAUTIS suite in a SANDOWN class Operations Room
is shown in Fig 7A-1 (below).
Fig 7A-1. SANDOWN Operations Room - NAUTIS and Sonar 2093 Console Suite

b. Label Plan Displays (LPD). The NAUTIS ‘Label Plan Displays’ (LPD)
provide independent views, as selected by the operator. Each screen is capable of
displaying up to 16 task orientated, configurable tiled layouts The LPD allows the
operator to monitor the air, surface and sub-surface tactical pictures.
c. LPD Controls. The associated controls provide the operator with the tools to
manage the LPD content, according to the operational task, and to interact with
external systems and embedded Office applications.
7A-2 UK OFFICAL-SENSITIVE
ANNEX 7B
RADAR TYPE 1007
1. Summary
Radar Type 1007 is a legacy I-band radar designed for navigation, pilotage, surface
surveillance and helicopter control in surface ships and submarine. It is due to be replaced
in all platforms as part of the navigation radar replacement project. This Annex provides
very brief details of the major features of RT 1007 Outfit JUF in NAV and mapping modes.
Full details of the system are contained in BRd 1982.

a. General. RT 1007 consists of an aerial (several different outfits are available),

transmitter/receiver and monitor, data distribution unit, and display outfits JUF or NTD.
It can be arranged in a master and slave system, which is capable of accepting,
processing and displaying data from other radars. For helicopter control, the radar is
interfaced to Outfit RRB. RT 1007 has no ARPA facilities but does have some limited
plotting capabilities (through the ‘e-Plot’ function).
b. Specification. The physical characteristics/specifications of RT 1007 are given in

Table 7B-1 below.
Table 7B-1. Radar Type 1007 Characteristics and Specifications
PARAMETER VALUE
Frequency 9410MHz ± 30MHz
Peak power output 23kW nominal
Pulse duration 0.08µs/0.3µs/0.8µs
PRF (pulses/sec) 1600 (short)/800 (medium/long)/400 (long)
Receiver bandwidth 25MHz (short)/10MHz (medium)/2.5MHz
(long)
Range resolution 20m in short pulse
Minimum range 25m in short pulse
Azimuth data outputs 4096 pulses per 360° scan, resolved into 2
outputs for use by ship weapon systems and
6 outputs for use by radar display outfits
Range ring accuracy The greater of 25m or ±0.5% of the range
scale in use
Intermediate frequency 60MHz
Bearing accuracy Better than 1°
Horizontal beamwidth 1° for 2.4m arrays, 0.75° for 3.1m arrays
Vertical beamwidth 18° ± ½°
Aerial rotation speed 26 rpm
Polarisation Horizontal
Aerial gain 31dB for 2.4m arrays, 33dB for 3.1m arrays
c. Submarine Operations at Periscope Depth (PD). RT 1007 is designed to be

operable at PD, but depth-keeping is as important as ever when at PD with the radar
mast raised. Although the system has design features (such as a slipping torque clutch)
to prevent damage to the aerial motor in the event of masthead immersion, the radar
picture will suffer if the aerial has waves or spray breaking over it. In the worst case, the
mast can be physically damaged.
3. JUF Display
The main display associated with Type 1007 is the JUF, although there are others
(including JQA, the CO’s display also fitted in submarines).

a. JUF Specifications. Outfit JUF has an effective screen diameter of 14 inches. It
has position markers controlled by an integral joystick, and is capable of generating a
variable range marker (VRM) and an electronic bearing line (EBL). Nine range scales
are available, each of which has a set of range rings associated (0.375, 0.75, 1.5, 3.0,
6.0, 12.0, 24.0, 38.0 and 96.0 nautical miles).
b. JUF Capability. JUF has the capability to save and display geographic line ‘maps’
when in the mapping mode, and to save and display parallel indices (PIs) when in the
NAV mode (itself a subset of mapping mode). JUF’s mapping/NAV functionality is
extremely powerful, and the unit is capable of displaying many more PIs than the IMO
mandatory minimum, meaning that JUF is supremely well-suited to blind pilotage and
radar relative navigation. Consult BRd 1982 for full details.
4. Operating the NAV Mode Facility

The following guide for setting PIs is provided to accompany the guidance in BRd 1982
but must not be read in isolation from it. NAV mode provides enhanced facilities for blind
pilotage, and can only be used in RELATIVE MOTION, with a non-mobile EBL and a
modified VRM which enables lines to be constructed on the display. A maximum of 16 lines
may be constructed in each map.
a. Creating a Parallel Index (PI)/Set of PIs. A PI/set of PIs is created by following

the process below.
(1) Step 1. Set the EBL to the selected bearing at which the lines are required to
be drawn.
(2) Step 2. Select NAV MODE. The integral indicator will illuminate, and the
joystick will now control movement along the NAV MODEX axis, at 90° to the EBL.
(3) Step 3. Set the beam range, as indicated on the VRM readout display, to the
necessary value.
(4) Step 4. Select MOD MODE. The VRM marker will change to an ‘X’, and the
VRM is suppressed and readout is zero.
(5) Step 5. Position the ‘X’ using the joystick only on a bearing parallel to the EBL
setting.
(6) Step 6. Select the position required and press the ‘LINE ____’, ‘LINE _ _ _’ or
‘LINE …….’ as required.
(7) Step 7. Using the joystick control, position the ‘X’ at the length required and
press ‘END/N LINE’.
(8) Step 8. Place the joystick ‘X’ just above or below the first marker line and
repeat steps 5-7 for a second line opposite the bearing line.
(9) Step 9. Press MOD MODE and reposition the joystick to a new range and
repeats steps 4-7.
b. Modifying an Existing PI. An existing PI may be modified using the following

procedure.

(1) Step 1. Select the desired PI.
(2) Step 2. Place joystick cursor on line origin.
(3) Step 3. Press ‘SELECT (E-PLOT)’ and note cursor goes to line origin.
(4) Step 4. Press ‘DELETE (E-PLOT)’ to clear the line.
(5) Step 5. Create new lines using the procedure above.
c. Saving PIs. A group of PIs may be saved by selecting the desired group and
pressing SAVE MAP.
d. Deleting PIs. A group of PIs can be deleted by selecting the desire group and
pressing ‘SAVE MAP’ and ‘DELETE’ simultaneously, followed by SAVE MAP again.
5. Operating the Mapping Mode Facility

The following description of setting mapping lines amplifies the information at BRd 1982,
but should NOT be read in isolation from it. Geographical ‘maps’ using a maximum number
of 16 lines, may be created, modified and Saved as follows:
a. Creating a Map. A new map may be created as follows:
(1) Step 1. Depress ‘SELECT MAP’ and hold, and then move the joystick until
the required map number is indicated on the readout panel (01-20).
(2) Step 2. Press the ‘EBL OFFSET’ switch, move the joystick cursor to start of
map line.
(3) Step 3. Rotate the EBL control to the desired line direction/bearing.
(4) Step 4. Rotate the VRM control (note that a small intersect line is visible on
the EBL dashed line) to determine the length of the line and depress ‘LINE ____’,
‘LINE _ _ _’ or ‘LINE ....’ as required.
(5) Step 5. Reposition the joystick cursor to the beginning of new line origin and
repeat Steps 3 & 4 above.
(6) Step 6. At the end of mapping procedure, select ‘SAVE MAP’ to store.
b. Modification of an Existing Map. An existing map may be modified as

follows:
(1) Step 1. Select desired map.
(2) Step 2. Place joystick cursor on to line origin.
(3) Step 3. Press ‘SELECT (E-PLOT)’ and note cursor goes to line origin.
(4) Step 4. Depress ‘DELETE (E-PLOT)’ to clear line.

(5) Step 5. Create new lines (using the procedure above).
c. Saving a Map. A map is saved by selecting the desired map and pressing
‘SAVE MAP’.
d. Deleting a Map. A map is deleted by selecting the desired map and pressing
‘SAVE MAP’ and ‘DELETE’ simultaneously, followed by ‘SAVE MAP’.
6. NTDs
Two navigation and tactical displays (NTDs), associated with RT 1007, are currently
(fitted in the BAY class RFAs and are interfaced to Outfit RRB for helicopter control. The
NTDs are fitted with a UPS. The NTD is designed for a seated operator and has a high-
definition LCD flat-screen, touchscreen display with a three-button trackball. Most functions
are carried out from the touchscreen using menus, toolbars and dialogue boxes,
supplemented by the trackball. The NTD is a multi-function device, capable of displaying the
radar video, electronic charts and operator manuals, and it can be configured as either an
IMO-compliant radar, ECDIS, or both at the same time. NTD provides full ARPA and
mapping facilities.
ANNEX 7C
RADAR TYPE 1008 (ARPA)
1. Summary and Scope

Radar Type 1008 is an obsolescent legacy F-band ARPA navigation radar, which is due
to be replaced as part of the navigation radar replacement project. This Annex provides
amplified guidance for the operation of RT 1008 which supplements the guidance contained
in BRd 1982 and the BR 9169 series which should be consulted for further information.
Although specific to RT 1008, it is a commercial radar set, and so the guidance will be
broadly applicable to most commercial ARPA radars, even if terminology and screen layouts

differ.
Radar Type 1008 is based on a commercial Racal-Decca BridgeMaster 250, utilising
raster scan techniques with a 250mm colour daylight display, 3.7m F-band antenna rotating
at 26.5rpm, and full ARPA capability with a ‘geographics’ facility. RT 1008 requires to be
interfaced to the speed log, gyro compass and (commercial or military) GPS/DGPS for full
use of its features (stabilisation/ARPA). The radar is capable of operating in a number of
stabilisation modes (head-up, north-up and course-up), which can each be operated with
different presentation modes (relative motion, true motion, or ground or sea stabilised ‘fixed
origin true trails [FOTT]). Understanding the interaction of these various modes is key to the
safe operation of RT 1008.
Fig 7C-1. Radar Type 1008 (ARPA) Fitted in a Type 23 FFGH
a. Ground Stabilisation. RT 1008 may be ground stabilised by interfacing NAVAID

inputs (GPS etc), such that fixed objects (land, lighthouses, beacons etc) appear to
remain stationary. This has the advantage of allowing moving contacts to be readily
identified.
b. Sea Stabilisation. RT 1008 may be sea stabilised by interfacing speed log and
gyro compass inputs, so that fixed ojects (land, beacons etc) appear to move under the
influence of set and drift (i.e. tidal stream, current and surface drift). This has the
advantage of indicating set and drift.
Fig 7C-2. RT 1008 Display Control Panel
Fig 7C-3. RT 1008 Display Screen Layout
c. Operational Settings. The selection of the combination of modes to be employed

will vary with the operational task (eg pilotage, coastal navigation, air operations, ocean
navigation etc). Details are given below.
d. Range Scales. The display has 11 available range scales, from 0.125 to 96
nautical miles, with picture off-centring of up to two-thirds radius available on all range
except 96 nautical miles.
Table 7C-1. Radar Range Scales, Range Rings and Pulse Lengths
RANGE SCALE RANGE RINGS AVAILABLE PULSE LENGTH

n.miles km n.miles km
0.125 0.25 0.025 0.05 Short - -
0.25 0.5 0.05 0.1 Short - -
0.5 1 0.1 0.2 Short Medium -
0.75 1.5 0.25 0.5 Short Medium -
1.5 3 0.25 0.5 Short Medium -
3 6 0.5 1 Short Medium Long
6 12 1 2 - Medium Long
48 96 8 16 - - Long
96 192 16 32 - - Long
e. Anti-Clutter. RT 1008 allows the user to select between manual and automatic
clutter suppression, and the processing system significantly improves the quality of the
picture in all weather conditions; automatic is strongly recommended. Further target
enhancement is available to the operator and, despite working in the F-band, picture
quality is good.
f. Tuning. The tune button should be rotated until the maximum number of bars are
generated on the tune indicator.
g. Range and Bearing. The following range and bearing facilities are provided.
(1) VRM and EBL. Two variable range markers (VRM) and electronic bearing
lines (EBL) are provided. VRM1 and EBL1 may be off-centred if required.
Measurement is to 0.1° for bearing and to two decimal places for range. Accuracy
of range measurement is the greater of 1% of the range scale in use or 25m,
whichever is the greater.
(2) Cursor. A joystick controlled cursor measures a target’s co-ordinates in range

and bearing and/or latitude and longitude.
h. Markers. Up to 20 cross-shaped markers (x) are available in relative and true

motion modes. Markers may be dropped/carried by own ship, by menu selection.
i. Parallel Index (PI) Lines. Up to 64 parallel index (PI) lines can be set and stored
using the menu on the 0.5 to 24nm range scales. PIs may be set in both unstabilised
and stabilised modes of operation, but not in true motion mode. PIs are organised in
16 groups of four, with any three groups selectable for display together. During
positioning, the display shows the angle of the line and its offset from own ship’s
position. There are three line styles, sold, dashed 4:12 and dashed 8:8.
j. Geographical Maps. In addition to PIs, RT 1008 can also display geographical

maps. The term ‘map’ in RT 1008 refers to lines located geographically (unlike in RT
1007 where it refers to PIs located relative to the ship). Provided that RT 1008 has a
reliable and accurate position input (such as GPS), the map facility may be used to

display navigational routes and to monitor the PIM, as well as to display exervise areas,
gunnery limits, ASW limits, MCM swept channels etc. These maps may be saved to a
data card via two PCMC1A slots at the side of the display. This functionality has been
almost totally subsumed by WECDIS.
k. Target Trails. Target trails are generated synthetically to give an indication of

target movement, and are optimised for each range scale by an operator choice of
‘short’, ‘long’, ‘permanent’ (actually 99 minutes) or ‘OFF’ (although target trails cannot
be switched OFF in FOTT mode). Stationary targets only generate target trails in
relative motion. See Table 7C-2 below.
Table 7C-2. Target Trail Length for Different Range Scales
RANGE (nm) SHORT TRAIL (seconds) LONG TRAIL (seconds)

0.125 10 30
0.25 10 30
0.5 15 45
0.75 15 45
1.5 30 90
3 30 90
6 to 96 inclusive 60 180
l. Rotating Parallel Cursor. The rotating parallel cursor is available via the main
menu. It consists of a single diameter white line plus seven equally-spaced lines
perpendicular to the single line and occupying half the radar circle, rotatable about the
centre of the display.
m. Guard Zones. Two guard zones, adjustable in range and angular coverage are
available. Up to ten targets, automatically acquired within each guard zone, will initiate
alarms and be indicated by a RED line through the target.
n. Constant Radius Turn. A facility to plan and display a change of heading via a
constant radius turn is provided on all range scales and in all presentation modes. The
proposed turn is displayed in RED and may be toggled on and off.
o. Own Ship Profile. The operator may select own ship’s profile to be displayed on
range scales up to and including 1.5nm. The profile consists of five RED lines giving a
nominal ship outline, aligned with the heading marker at all times and positioned with
respect to the antenna position (i.e. no lever arm correction).
p. Red First Strike. Two video modes are available. The default, NAV mode, utilises
a standard marine radar video presentation. In AIR mode, fast moving targets such as
aircraft are shown in RED (red first strike). In this mode, any target changing its position
between antenna scans is displayed in RED. Background noise beneath a
predetermined threshold is displayed in BROWN as normal.
q. Helicopter Approach Sector. In stabilised modes of operation, a helicopter

approach sector is available for display on all range scales. The helicopter approach
sector comprised three radial lines, separated by 15°, originating from own ship. The
bearing of the centreline is adjustable in 0.1° increments to any true or relative bearing.

r. Autotrack/ARPA Features. The following tracking/ARPA features are available.
(1) Tracking. Up to 40 targets can be tracked simultaneously between range

limits of 0.25-20nm on range scales 0.75-24nm. Range, bearing, course, speed,
CPA and TCPA of a target can all be displayed in a tote area on the screen.
Alternatively, limited information for five selected targets may be displayed in a tote.
Vectors, indicating each target course and speed are displayed for each tracked
target. In addition to the simulated afterglow (‘target trails’), the past positions of
each tracked target may be displayed on the screen in the form of four dots which
give an indication of the target’s past movement.
(2) Guard Zones. See Para 2 sub para m above.
(3) Trial Manoeuvre. A trial manoeuvre facility is provided so that the operator
may simulate a proposed future course and/or speed change up to 30 minutes
ahead, to determine the possible consequences of such a manoeuvre.
(4) Information Exchange. Information relating to targets being tracked is

available to suitably interfaced external equipment in the form of a track table.
s. Geographic Features. The main geographic features are summarised below.
(1) Geographic Maps. RT1008 can construct, display and maintain geographic
maps, which may be input from a variety of sources and saved to a data card.
(2) History Tracks. RT 1008 can record, maintain, output and display history
tracks.
(3) Own Ship Position. RT 1008 can maintain and display own ship’s position
(latitude and longitude) when derived from an echo reference target.
(4) Event Marking. RT 1008 can provide event marking on history tracks.
(5) Guard Lines. RT 1008 can display guard lines.
3. Display Options, Index Error and Blind Pilotage Facilities

In order to appreciate fully the display facilities of Type 1008, it is necessary to consider
the differences between the relative motion (RM), true motion (TM) and fixed origin true trails
(FOTT) modes. When setting up the display, the user has to select options in 4 basic areas
of the radar's operation (see Table 7C-3 below). Various combinations of these options can
be selected, all of which will have significant effect upon the information displayed on the
screen (see CAUTION below).
Table 7C-3. RT 1008 Display Options
Mode Orientation Stabilisation Velocity Vectors

Relative Motion North Up Sea Relative
True Motion Head Up Ground True
Fixed Origin True Trails Course Up
CAUTION
The RT 1008 operator MUST understand the differences and

interactions between the various display modes. Serious confusion
can be caused if the display is misinterpreted.
a. Illustrative Examples. Para 4, Para 5 and Para 9 present several different

scenarios in which it is necessary to operate RT 1008 in different modes/displays. Each
combination of options has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of
which to use will be determined by the shipping situation and geographic area involved.
b. Index Error. As with any radar, index error should be calculated and the current
value indicated on a tote on the radar display. See BRd 45(1).
c. Radar Relative Navigation. Although not primarily used for this purpose, RT 1008
is capable of conducting radar relative navigation and may be considered for this
purpose, especially in the event of a defect or failure on RT 1007.
4. Scenario 1 – Recommended Methods
a. Situation. Consider the situation shown in Fig 7C-4 below. The effect of the
recommended display options is described below.
Fig 7C-4. Scenario 1 Situation
b. Option 1 – Recommended for Ocean/Coastal Navigation. The following settings

are recommended for ocean or coastal navigation. The effect on the radar display of
applying this combination of settings is shown in Fig 7C-5 below.
• Fixed origin true trails (FOTT).

• North up.
• Sea stabilised.
• Relative vectors.
Fig 7C-5. Fixed Origin True Trial Display with Relative Vectors (Sea Stabilised)

Notes:
1. Target 1. Target 1’s relative velocity vector shows that Target 1’s CPA
will be close. The true target trail means that it is possible to assess Target
1’s true course , and hence the target’s aspect from own ship.
2. Fixed Aid to Navigation. Similarly, the fixed aid to navigation has a
relative velocity vector which indicates a CPA to port, and a true trail which
indicates that tidal stream is setting the ship to the East.
3. Summary. It is the ability to have both the relative velocity vectors and
true target trails that makes the FOTT mode very useful to the OOW for
ocean and coastal navigation.
c. Option 2 – Recommended for Pilotage/Blind Pilotage. The following settings

are recommended for pilotage or blind pilotage. The effect on the radar display of
applying this combination of settings is shown in Fig 7C-6 below.
• Fixed origin true trails (FOTT).

• North up.
• Ground stabilised.
• Relative Vectors.
Fig 7C-6. Fixed Origin True Trail Display with Relative Vectors (Ground Stabilised)

Notes:
1. Target 1. Target 1’s velocity vector will now represent relative

movement, taking into account the effect of tidal stream, which is similarly
affecting both ships.
2. Fixed Aid to Navigation. Similarly, the fixed aid to navigation has a
relative velocity vector indicating a CPA to port, but no target trail, making it
easier to identify fixed points.
3. Summary. The FOTT (ground stabilised) mode is very useful to the NO
during pilotage and blind pilotage.
5. Scenario 2 – Methods NOT Normally Recommended
a. Situation. The situation in scenario 2 is different. The effects of various

combinations of settings, which are not recommended, are illustrated below to
demonstrate the dangers and confusion which can be caused if the radar is not
configured appropriately.
Fig 7C-7. Scenario 2 Situation
b. Option 3 – NOT NORMALLY RECOMMENDED. Consider the effects of the

following combination of settings, which are not normally recommended. The
differences from the settings in Option 1 are underlined for clarity.
• Relative motion.
• North up.
• Sea stabilised.
• Relative vectors.
Fig 7C-8. Relative Motion Display with Relative Vectors (Sea Stabilised)

Notes:
1. Contact Velocity Vectors and Target Trails. Contact velocity vectors

and target trails are displayed relative to own ship.
2. CPA Indication. The velocity vector of a contact with a CPA of zero will
point to the origin of the display.
3. Similarity to 1007/JUF/JUD Displays. This display is the same as the
conventional relative motion picture shown on 1007/JUF displays. It is
generally easy to interpret, and gives an instant warning of a potential close
quarters situation developing.
c. Option 4 – NOT NORMALLY RECOMMENDED. Consider the effects of the

settings are the same as those in Option 1, with the exception of those which are
underlined.
• Fixed origin true trails.

• North up.
• Sea stabilised.
• True vectors.
Fig 7C-9. Fixed Origin True Trail Display with True Vectors (Sea Stabilised)

Notes:
1. Own Ship/Target 1 Velocity Vectors. Own ship now has a true velocity
vector. Target 1 has a velocity vector of 10kn.
2. Own Ship/Target 2 Velocity Vectors. Target 2 is stopped in the water
and therefore has no velocity vector. As the display is sea stabilised, both
own ship and Target 2 are being set to the East at the same rate and
therefore there is no target trail on the contact.
3. Fixed Aid to Navigation/Set and Drift (Tidal Stream and Wind). The
fixed aid to navigation is apparently heading to the West, with a true velocity
vector that represents the reciprocal direction of the true set and drift (tidal
stream, current and wind). This can be used to measure/check the actual
set and drift being experienced, rather than relying on predictions or
calculations alone.
4. Zero CPAs. Contacts with a zero CPA are more difficult to detect. The
existence of a risk of collision will only become apparent if the ends of the
true velocity vectors touch (i.e. do not cross) at an appropriate time period.
d. Option 5 – NOT NORMALLY RECOMMENDED. Consider the effects of the

settings are the same as those in Option 1, with the exception of those which are
underlined.
• Fixed origins true trails.

• North up.
• Ground stabilised.
• True vectors.
Fig 7C-10. Fixed Origin True Trails Display with True Vectors (Ground Stabilised)

Notes:
1. Velocity Vectors/Course Made Good. Velocity vectors new represent

course over the ground (COG)/course made good (CMG).
2. Own Ship and Target 1. Own ship and target 1 both have a velocity
vector of 10kn, but the velocity vectors no longer point directly at each other.
3. Target 2. Target 2, although stopped in the water, has a COG(CMG)
and speed over the ground (SOG)/speed made good (SMG) of 090 at 3kn,
due to set and drift, and therefore now has a velocity vector.
4. Fixed Aid to Navigation. The fixed aid to navigation now has no target
trail or velocity vector, and is therefore more easily identified.
5. Zero CPA. Contacts with a zero CPA are more difficult to detect. The
existence of a risk of collision will only be apparent if the ends of the true
velocity vectors touch (i.e. do not cross) at an appropriate time period.
6. Initial Start-Up and Settings

The start-up procedure, with recommended initial settings, is given in Table 7C-4 below.
Range/range ring/pulse length combinations are in Table 7C-5. The index error should be
checked whenever an opportunity presents.
Table 7C-4. Start-Up Procedure and Initial Settings
Switching the Display On. Provided power is available

to the radar, the display is switched on by a short press of
the ‘PULSE - ST BY’ button.

One short press
Adjustment of the Display. Adjustment of the display
should be left in manual with the “AUTO/ENH’CE” facility
NOT used. This will ensure that returns from small vessels
and contacts close to own ship are not suppressed. The
picture quality should be adjusted using the ‘GAIN’, ‘RAIN’
Remain in manual
and ‘SEA’ anti-clutter controls in the normal manner.
Pulse Length. Where available, the appropriate pulse
length should be selected using short presses of the
‘PULSE/STBY’ switch dependent on weather conditions
and targets of interest. Range/range ring/pulse length
combinations are at Table 7C-5.
Toggle with short presses
through until the desired
pulse length is selected.
Table 7C-5. Range/Range Ring/Pulse Lengths Available
Range Scale (nm) Range Rings Available Pulse Lengths

(nm)
0.125 0.025 Short
0.25 0.05 Short
0.5 0.1 Short Medium
3 0.5 Short Medium Long
6 1 Medium Long
12 2 Medium Long
24 4 Medium Long
48 8 Long
96 16 Long
7. Mode Selection
a. Normal Cruising State (Ocean/Coastal Navigation). Recommended settings for

the normal cruising state (i.e. ocean or coastal navigation) are in Table 7C-6 and Table
7C-7 below.
Table 7C-6. Recommended Settings for Normal Cruising State
Type 1008 Cruising Settings. For ocean/coastal

navigation, RT 1008 should be set as follows:
• Fixed Origin True Trails (FOTT).

• North Up.
• Sea Stabilised. through until the FOTT is
• Relative Vectors. selected.
This presents a sea stabilised picture with own ship in the
centre of the display, targets’ true course and speed are
indicate by their true target trails, and CPAs by their
relative velocity vectors.
North Up. North Up is selected via the ‘STAB / UNSTAB’

button.

until North Up is selected.
Sea Stabilisation. Sea stabilisation is selected via the

‘SPEED’ button which results in a menu of available speed
inputs being displayed. ‘PULSE LOG’ should be selected
with the use of the joystick.
Press to get to Speed inputs
menu then select ‘PULSE
LOG’ via the joystick and
press ‘#’ button.
Table 7C-7. Recommended Settings for the Cruising State Continued…
Relative Vectors. Relative vectors should be selected

to indicate CPAs on the display graphically, via the
‘VECTOR/TIME’ button.
Toggle between ‘True &
Relative Vectors’ with short
In FOTT mode the default option is for true vectors. If presses.
relative vectors are selected, the vector details will be
displayed in RED. Unless switched off, relative vectors
will time out and revert to true vectors after 30 seconds.

To switch this time out facility OFF, enter the ‘MAIN
MENU’. Press ‘MENU’ once, select
‘MORE>>’ and using the
joystick press ‘#’;
Then press ‘INITIALISATION’,

then ‘SYSTEM SETUP’ and
finally ‘VECTOR TIME OUT’.
True Target Trails. True target trails cannot be switched
off in FOTT mode. The length of the target trails is a
function of the range scale in use; they should be set to
the maximum variable length. The use of permanent
target trails should be avoided. True target trails are not
affected by own ship manoeuvres, unlike relative target
trails seen on a relative motion display.
Short presses of the ‘TRAILS’
button will toggle through the
Latency. After a change in range scale or shifting the
trail lengths available.
origin of the display, the radar will take time to build up
the target trails.
Vector Lengths. Vector lengths can be changed by Hold down and adjust vector
holding down the ‘VECTOR/TIME’ button and adjusting length using EBL or VRM
the length of the vector (in minutes) using the data control knobs.
control knobs (EBL or VRM controls). Vector lengths
should avoid being too long; a default rule of thumb is to
have their lengths the same as the range scale in use (ie
6 minute vector lengths when on the 6nm range scale).
b. Pilotage State. Settings should be as in Table 7C-8 below for pilotage and blind
pilotage. A ship profile may be displayed, such that when the range scale in use is
1.5nm or less, a nominal scaled ship’s outline aligned with the heading marker is
displayed. The SSD OOW may find RT 1008 useful on correlating anti-collision
information, although this must not be allowed to detract from the OOW’s primary
duties.
Table 7C-8. Recommended Settings for Pilotage/Blind Pilotage
1008 Pilotage Settings. For Pilotage/blind pilotage, RT FOTT, north up & vector
1008 should be set as follows: option selections made as for

• Fixed Origin True Trails (FOTT). normal cruising state
• North Up (ocean/coastal navigation) in
• Ground Stabilised Table 7E-6 and Table 7E-7.
• Relative or True Velocity Vectors
Ground Stabilisation. ‘Ground’ stabilisation is selected
via the ‘SPEED’ button which results in a menu of
available speed inputs being displayed. Either ‘NAV G’
or ‘ECHO REF’ should be selected with the use of the
joystick. ‘NAV G’ is only available if a GPS input is Press ‘SPEED’ Button and
provided. available options are displayed
in the menu. Use the joystick
‘ECHO REF’ requires an acquired fixed object such as a and the ‘#’ button.
navigation buoy or beacon to be designated as the
reference point; follow the instructions in the prompt.
The use of a navigational buoy is acceptable as the
purpose is to ground stabilise the ARPA to a stationary
object. However, a RACON should not be used as the
radar will attempt track the whole of the RACON
response which will result in poor stabilisation.
Velocity Vectors. The use of relative velocity vectors is
at Table 7C-7 above. Additionally, If off-track and
steering a course to regain it, the time to regain will be
indicated by the position where the relative vector
crosses the appropriate PI.
When using true velocity vectors, the following points

should be considered:
• Ground stabilisation. Once ground
stabilised, own ship’s true velocity vector
will indicate the COG (CMG) and may be
used to support the pilotage plan, (eg to
ensure the own ship true velocity vector
remains within a buoyed channel.
• PIs. If a PI is also displayed, both own
ship’s true velocity vectors and relative
velocity vectors of stationary objects should
lie parallel to the PI when maintaining track.
8. Target Tracking
a. Features. RT 1008’s target tracking features are detailed in Table 7C-9 below.
Table 7C-9. RT 1008 Target Tracking Features
1008 Tracking. Type 1008 can track up to 40 targets. Position radar cursor at the
leading edge of the contact
Manual acquisition (‘MANUAL ACQ’) should be used with the joystick and the
when the Ops Room is providing an anti-collision press
service.

Type 1008 is an IMO-compliant ARPA radar. The target
tracking system conforms to IMO performance standards
and will display the following information: A GREEN square acquisition
box will appear over the
• 1 Minute. Within 1 minute of acquisition, an
cursor and the tracking
indication of target motion trend will be
process will commence.
shown.
• 3 Minutes. Within 3 minutes of acquisition,
the following alphanumeric data will be
displayed in the target tote:
Target present range and bearing.
Predicted CPA.
Time of CPA (TCPA).
Target Course & Speed.
Bow crossing range.
Velocity Vectors.
• Relative Velocity Vectors. ‘Relative Velocity
Vectors’ should be selected to indicate CPAs
graphically on the display via the ‘VECTOR /
TIME’ button. Toggle between True &
Relative Vectors with short
• True Velocity Vectors. ‘True Velocity
presses.
Vectors’ indicate the ‘True Course and
Speed’ of the target.
Velocity Vector Lengths. Vector lengths can be
changed by holding down the ‘VECTOR / TIME’ button
and adjusting the length of the vector (in minutes) using
the Data Control knobs (EBM or VRM controls). Vector
lengths should avoid being too long; a default ‘rule of Hold down and adjust vector
thumb’ is to have their lengths the same as the range length using EBM or VRM
scale in use, i.e. 6 minute vector lengths when on the 6nm control knobs.
range scale.
Target Tote. Once a target has been acquired, details
can be displayed in one of two ways.
• Either: Full target information
• Or: Limited 5 target information display.
Toggle between the
The tote format is changed using the ‘DATA SELECT’
alternative tote options with
button.
short presses of the button.
Table 7C-10. Tracking Features Continued…
Target Selection. To display information about an

acquired target, position the cursor over the target with the
joystick and press the ‘DATA/SELECT’ button.
Hold down the button to enter
an acquired target.
Past Position. In addition to ‘True Target Trails’ being
displayed, ‘Past Position’ should also be selected to give a
track history and assist with the interpretation of the radar

picture. The use of ‘Past Position’ assists in detecting
changes of target course. The interval at which the past A short press of the ‘ARPA
position ‘dots’ will be displayed is a function of the range CLEAR’ button will display
scale in use. the ARPA setting menu.
Select the ‘PAST POSN’
using the joystick and ‘#’
button.
CAUTION
ARPA calculations of target movements are always PREDICTIONS and

rely upon steady state tracking. Steady state tracking might not
always be achieved, and while the tracking capabilities meet IMO
performance standards, ALL ARPA CALCULATIONS REMAIN
PREDICTIONS and are subject to latency if vessels manoeuvre.
9. Other Features
a. VRM, EBL, SHM, Range Rings and Rotating Parallel Cursor Facilities. Use of
the VRM, EBL, SHM, range rings and the rotating parallel cursor are a matter of
personal preference, and they should be configured and used as required by the
operator. There are two pairs of VRM/EBL, one of which may be offset if required.
b. Guard Zones. The operator can establish up to two guard zones which will
automatically acquire up to 20 tracks (ten per guard zone) as they enter the guarded
area. Track acquisition triggers an alarm. To avoid unnecessary alarms and
distractions, in normal cruising watches with a surface plot closed up in the ops room,
the use of guard zones is not recommended. In open water passage without a surface
plot closed up, it may of merit to have the guard zones activated. Recommended
settings are an arc from RED 110 to GREEN 110 (through ship’s head), from 11nm to
10nm, and over the same sector from 5nm to 4nm. This is to assist in track
management and clearly does not and cannot replace the requirement for a proper and
effective lookout in accordance with the COLREGS.
Note.
In light to moderate traffic, it may be worth redeploying the SPC/SPS from

the ops room to the bridge to operate RT 1008, provided suitable training
has taken place and the picture is correlated with the other radar (1007).
c. Correlation Checks. With the radar Type 1008 properly setup in accordance with
the recommended settings earlier in this Annex, the OOW should be able to properly
correlate the shipping picture provided by the surface plot in the Ops Room, as well as
with the other bridge radar (probably radar Type 1007). In higher sea states and under
certain atmospheric conditions, it is possible that small contacts which are not detected
by RT 1007 will be detected by RT 1008; in good weather, the converse may well be
true.
10. Trial Manoeuvres
a. Purpose of Trial Manoeuvre Facility. RT 1008 is capable of injecting a proposed

‘trial manoeuvre’ into the ARPA tracking picture, for two purposes.
(1) Effect on CPAs. It is possible to use a trial manoeuvre to inspect the results of
a proposed alteration of course and/or speed on the CPAs of targets being tracked
by ARPA.
(2) Effect of the Navigation Plan. It is also possible to use trial manoeuvre to
check whether a planned alteration of course in accordance with the planned track
will cause close CPAs with other ships.
b. Use of Trial Manoeuvre Facility. The trial manoeuvre is a very useful tool, as it
allows the OOW to see visually, on a convenient display, the likely effects of a proposed
alteration of course and speed. Nevertheless, it is not foolproof, as although it can be
set to a delay, it does not take into account advance and transfer and the handling
characteristics of the ship. Nor does the computer have any understanding of the rules
of the road or of the wisdom of any given manoeuvre. Regardless of the results of the
trial manoeuvre, other ships must ALWAYS be monitored closely both visually and
by radar to ensure that they are passing safely. It should also be noted that in
ground stabilised mode, the ARPA will treat the course entered as course to be made
good rather than the course to steer, which may have a material impact on the projected
CPAs/TCPAs.
c. Setting up a Trial Manoeuvre. The trial manoeuvre controls and an explanation of

their use are in Table 7C-11 below.
Table 7C-11. Trial Manoeuvre Controls
The Trial Manoeuvre facility is selected by the ‘TRIAL

MAN’ button. The following tote will appear in the ‘TRIAL
MAN’ menu box:
Press the ‘TRIAL MAN’
TRIAL MAN button once, then use the
joystick to select ‘RUNNING’
RUNNING OFF and the ‘#’ button to switch to
CO -.- DEG ON.
SPEED -.- KTS

DELAY -.- MIN
TARGET --
CPA (T) -.- NM The next three lines are
TCPA -.- MIN selected using the joystick
and Data Control knobs (EBL
& VRM controls).
A flashing WHITE symbol will appear at the bottom of the
radar display to indicate that the ‘TRIAL MAN’ facility is
active:
(1) Course. The intended course on completion of the manoeuvre should be

entered into the CO line using the data control knobs.
(2) Speed. The intended speed on completion of the manoeuvre should be

entered into the SPEED line using the data control knobs.
(3) Delay. This is a useful feature which allows the OOW to assess the outcome
of the trial manoeuvre after a specified delay, commencing from the present. This
can be used to allow the OOW to assess the outcome and then make a normal
shipping report to the CO. The length of time required to complete the manoeuvre
should be factored into the time delay that the OOW enters; the NO should ensure
that times to complete various turns at a range of different speeds (taken from the
Navigation Data Book) are displayed in the vicinity of the RT 1008.
CAUTION
Although a delay can be specified, the trial manoeuvre DOES NOT take
into account advance and transfer, or acceleration/deceleration. The
results must thus be carefully assessed, especially when the close
CPAs are indicated.
Practical Example. The OOW wishes to alter to starboard for a shipping contact,
to avoid a close CPA. She assesses that an alteration of 30° will suffice, and from
the tote displayed on the radar that the turn will take one and a half minutes to
complete. She further anticipates that it will take her a further two and a half
minutes to assess the manoeuvre and make a shipping report to the Captain. She
should therefore use a delay of four minutes.
d. Display of Trial Manoeuvre. When a trial manoeuvre is injected, the relative

vectors of all acquired ARPA targets will change to display the situation as it will be on
completion of the manoeuvre. This allows the OOW to assess the CPAs of all targets
after the manoeuvre, rather than just the specific target or targets that are prompting the
manoeuvre. A typical display is illustrated in Fig 7C-11 below, noting that the T symbol
is omitted for clarity.
Fig 7C-11. Display of Trial Manoeuvre

11. Warfare Operations
a. Gunnery. Ships are to use RT 1008 when checking safety for gun and missile
firings. This is achieved by manning RT 1008 on the bridge with a competent operator
who has received the relevant MWS training.
(1) Clear/Foul Reports. At the order ‘CHECK SAFETY’, the OOW is to check on
the RT 1008 display for any contacts within the safety trace, and on completion of
the ‘Clear/foul visual’ report, are to report ‘1008 clear/foul’. Care is to be taken that
every OOW involved in gunnery/missile practices is fully conversant with radar clear
range procedures (see BRd 1043).
(2) Clutter Control. On closing up for a gunnery serial the RT 1008 operator must
ensure that the ‘AUTO/ENHCE’ anti-clutter function is NOT selected and that the
radar picture is optimised for detection of small surface/air targets within the safety
trace. Switching between range scales should be used as normal to provide a
comprehensive radar clear range service.
b. Air Threat Environment. RT 1008 has a ‘REF FIRST STRIKE’ (air mode) facility
to ease the identification of air tracks (see Para 2 sub para p above). When selected to
ON (through the ‘NAVAL’ menu ‘video mode’) the first paint of an air track will be RED in
order to draw the operator’s attention to the track. With RT 1008’s high detection
against air tracks, especially over land, this may be the first indication that a ship gets of
an incoming raid. Given this, COs may wish to have RT 1008 manned at air threat
warning RED. Additionally, as it is a commercial radar, RT 1008 may be radiated for
deception/situational awareness when the ship is otherwise radar silent.
c. Maps. RT 1008 does have the capability of displaying maps, which can be used for
MCM routes, exercises areas. In practice, WECDIS has greatly enhanced functionality

and so RT 1008 is unlikely to be used for this purpose any more.
d. Helicopter Control. In the event of a failure of RT 1008/Outfit RRB, 1008 may be

used for helicopter control and to provide a flight safety and aircraft recovery service.
An approach sector consisting of three radial lines originating from own ship can be
displayed via the ‘NAVAL’ menu/
e. SHIPHAZ. RT 1008 is a SHIPHAZ for the bridge roof. Switching RT 1008 to

standby will NOT prevent the aerial from rotating. Therefore full SHIPHAZ
procedures are required prior to sending personnel up to the bridge roof.
12. Similar ARPA Radars

The Kelvin Hughes Nucleus E/F (S) and I(X) band radars fitted to the RIVER class, and
the similar commercial radars fitted to the ECHO class, have similar functionality to RT 1008
although the controls are different. Annex 7C guidance on choice of operating modes
applies to these radars.
13. Summary
Radar Type 1008, with its ARPA capabilities, remains a very capable piece of
equipment, notwithstanding its age and approaching obsolescence. It MUST be configured
correctly to get the maximum benefit from its operation, and attention is drawn to the
preceding paragraphs and the recommended settings therein.
ANNEX 7D
SM PORTABLE EMERGENCY RADAR
1. Summary and Scope

Submarines are provided with a ‘proper’ radar (Type 1007 or Type 1009) which is
mounted on a mast, and can be operated at periscope depth or on the surface. The
submarine’s main radar is a fully capable navigation and anti-collision radar, but it has one
principal disadvantage as compared with surface ship radars in that the display is located in
the control room, and therefore the OOW cannot see the radar picture directly themselves.
Submarines are therefore provided with a portable radar; whilst often referred to as the

‘emergency’ radar this is not strictly correct, as the radar must be available to the OOW if
required, such as in prolonged periods of poor visibility. The portable radar display is
located in the bridge with the OOW, and therefore provides the OOW with a raw radar
picture which can be used for safety purposes.
The submarine portable radar comprises a self-contained 2kw Raymarine SL72 portable
radar (of the sort fitted to many yachts).
a. Antenna and Display. The portable antenna (which contains the transceiver) is
mounted on a bracket fitted to the navigation light mast. The water-resistant,
monochrome display may be mounted on either side of the bridge so that the OOW can
see it. The radar is powered by a dedicated supply from the bridge, and so there should
be no need to foul the conning tower lids with cables. All equipment must be removed
prior to diving.
b. Interfaces and Power Supplies. The system is entirely self-contained, with no

interfaces to any other parts of the TWS, other than the 24V power supply. As there is
no compass input, the picture is entirely un-stabilised and will always be a ship’s head
up, relative motion display.
c. System Facilities. The portable radar only provides the most basic facilities (no
ARPA etc) but it generally provides a good picture at relatively respectable ranges. Full
operating instructions are contained in the manufacturer’s handbook which should be
held onboard. All personnel involved in the use of the radar (OOW, maintainers,
lookouts who will need to assist in rigging) must practice the use of the radar, such that
it may be rigged swiftly and used safely when the Command requires.
d. Controls. The principal controls that the OOW will need are the range up/down
control to change range scales, and the cursor which can be used to get a range and
(relative) bearing of contacts. Contacts must be tracked, and their relative motion
assessed, manually. For full operating details, consult the manufacturer’s handbook.
Fig 7D-1. Submarine Portable Radar fitted on a Submarine Bridge

Fig 7D-2. Close-up of SM Portable Radar Display
ANNEX 7E
RADAR TYPES 1047 AND 1048
1. Summary
The Type 45 DDGH is fitted with two navigational radars, Type 1047 and Type 1048 as
part of its integrated bridge system. Although initially designed-in as part of the integrated
system, and therefore designed to operate with Raytheon Pathfinder ECDIS, the radars will
remain even after the ships are upgraded to full RN WECDIS (ECPINS). A summary of the
operation of the radars is given here; full details are in the manufacturer’s handbook which
should be held on board.

a. Summary.
(1) Type 1047. RT 1047 is an I-band fully ARPA-capable system, designed for
navigation, pilotage, blind pilotage, surface surveillance and helicopter control (to
which end it is interfaced with Outfit RRB). Two separate RT 1047 scanners are
fitted due to the blind arcs caused by the mainmast structure; the pictures from the
two RT 1047s cannot be fused into a single RT 1047 scanner and thus two MFCs
(see below) must be used to achieve a complete RT 1047 picture.
(2) Type 1048. RT 1048 is an E/F-band fully ARPA-capable system designed for
navigation and surface surveillance. It has a pilotage/blind pilotage capability, and
limited helicopter control functionality.
(3) Configuration. Both RT 1047 and 1048 are configured for a multiple
master/slave display system.
b. Radar Aerial Pedestals. Three aerial pedestals are fitted (two for RT 1047, one
for RT 1048) in Type 45. RT 1047/1048 is not an all up mast solution, and the aerial
pedestals only contain motors, alignment equipment and the waveguides. The
pedestals are located as follows.
(1) Foremast. One pedestal each for RT 1047 and RT 1048 are located on the
foremast above the bridge roof. The forward RT 1047 in particular suffers from a
large blind arc due to the mast structure, hence the need for a second 1047
scanner (see below).
(2) Hangar. A single RT 1047 scanner is located on the starboard aft corner of the
hangar roof.
c. Radar Equipment. Two radar transceivers (one for RT 1047 and one for RT
1048), the radar track correlator, radar track extractor, and forward Outfit RRB, are all
located in the Radar Office. The after RT 1047 transceiver, along with the aft Outfit
RRB, are located in FLYCO.
d. Multi-Function Consoles (MFCs). Both radars are displayed and controlled

through the multi-function consoles (MFCs) which form part of the integrated bridge
system. Each MFC is capable of displaying either one of the radars or the
Pathfinder/ECPINS display, although some have additional capabilities and limitations
(eg the charthouse MFC can be used to access the printer and CD burner), and not
every MFC is equipped with a UPS. Four MFCs are located on the bridge, one is in the
charthouse immediately after of the bridge, and the final MFC is located in the ops
room. Although the MFCs are nominally linked by a fast Ethernet LAN, hardwired links
are built-in between certain MFCs and certain radars, to ensure resilience in the event
of LAN failure.

3. System Control
a. Human-Machine Interface (HMI). The HMI between operator and radar is

achieved through the MFC’s integral keyboard and three-button trackball. Some
functions can be accessed through the radar operator panel (illustrated below).
Fig 7E-1. Radar Operator Panel
b. ECDIS/Radar Selection. On powering up, provided the use has logged in

correctly, each MFC presents the user with the ‘Eggshell’, a launcher menu for the
various applications available to the MFC. On selecting RADAR mode in the Eggshell,
the user is presented with a system configuration diagram, illustrated below.
Fig 7E-2. Eggshell and System Configuration Display
c. Master/Slave Configuration. In order to transmit, the radar must have an MFC

assigned as master and displaying a radar picture. Once a radar has a master display
MFC assigned, any number of available MFCs may be assigned as slaves. Each radar
display, known as A-F, is associated with a particular MFC (1 to 6), as shown in Table
7E-1 below. In the event of a failure of the radar switching unit or other problems,
hardwired links allow displays A, B and C to control individual radars.
Table 7E-1. Radar Displays and Associations with Particular MFCs
Display A B C D E F
Workstation 2 3 4 1 5 5

Hardwired Fwd 1047 Aft 1047 1048
link
d. Bridge Workstation Setup. The T45 integrated bridge system is capable of a

number of different combinations of display configurations; the question of which
screens to assign to each MFC is ultimately one for Command, and it should be
specified as part of Captain’s Standing Orders, sea orders, or by a temporary
memoranda. The situation is further complicated by the introduction of ECPINS
software into the system, and the removal of paper charts from the bridge, which
requires two MFCs to be devoted to WECDIS (or the one display in use must remain
IMO compliant at all times). It must be emphasised that there is no fused 1047
display; therefore to achieve a complete 1047 picture, both the forward and aft
scanners must be displayed on different screens. MFC1 must be used for ECDIS as it
has a UPS and can therefore maintain safety in the event of a TLF.
Table 7E-2. Recommended Setup – General Navigation
Workstation 1 2 3 4 5 6
Location Chart Centreline Centreline CO Charthouse Ops
table (port) (stbd) Room
Task ECDIS Fwd 1047 ECDIS Aft 1047 As required 1048
(WECDIS) (WECDIS)
Note.
The configuration above does not provide the OOW direct, ready access to
the RT 1048 picture. It is therefore recommended that, whenever the
charthouse MFC is not being used for other tasks (system management,
planning etc), it is configured to RT 1048.
CAUTION
Switching between radar displays is a non-trivial task which can take a

significant period of time as the MFC must be shut down and restarted
in a different configuration. Inadvertently shutting down a master
display can have significant consequences for other users, such as
loss of RIO or chart underlay. Changes in screen configuration MUST
therefore be planned in advance and the sequencing thought through
by the NO.
e. Radar Overlay/Underlay. Any of the radar scanners may be selected as the

source for a radar image overlay (RIO), provided the radar is first selected as master
somewhere in the system, and the MFC on which the RIO is to be displayed is then
selected as a slave for that radar. This must be done before the Pathfinder/ECPINS
application is started. It is not possible to change the RIO source from within
Pathfinder/ECPINS, so the choice of radar to be used must be carefully considered at
the planning stage, and any necessary reconfiguration of screens planned and briefed
in advance in order to ensure that neither the shipping nor navigation pictures are lost to
Command during a change of screen states.
f. Pulse Length Control. A total of four pulse lengths are available: short (SP),

medium one (M1), medium two (M2), and long (LP). The control of the pulse length will
be largely dictated by system software in accordance with the range scale in use on the
master MFC, as shown in Table 7E-3 below. There are optional user overrides which
may be used to change the pulse length within a band around the system default
settings; only the master MFC for that radar may change the pulse length.
Table 7E-3. Pulse Lengths – Default Settings and Optional Overrides Available
KEY DEFAULT OPTIONAL (OVERRIDE)

RANGE SCALES 0.125 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.5 3 6 12 24 48 96
SP 0.06µs
M1 0.25µs
M2 0.5µs
LP 1.0µs
g. SHIPHAZ. SHIPHAZ key switches for the forward RT 1047 and the RT 1048
scanners are in the radar office. The aft RT 1047 key switch is fitted in FLYCO.
Deselecting the radar(s) in the MFCs will not stop the aerial from rotating and therefore
full SHIPHAZ procedures must be adopted before allowing personnel to the bridge or
hangar roofs.
h. Outfit RRB. Two Outfit RRB transponders are fitted, one each for the two RT 1047
scanners. RT 1047 short pulse (SP) is too short to trigger the helicopter’s RRB
transponder, so when operating helicopters the radar should be on at least the 3nm
range scale in order to operate in medium pulse (M1 or M2). Switching to SP on the
bridge will deprive the ops room of RRB responses. RRB can be switched on and off
through the ‘FUNC’ menu in the radar software.
4. ARPA User Interfaces

RT1047/1048 are both fully IMO-compliant ARPA-capable radars, which utilise a very
standard human-machine interface (HMI). Soft keys show their current state, and, on being
pressed, cycle through the other modes (eg ‘TX’ in the bottom right corner indicates that the
radar is transmitting; pressing it will send the radar into standby). A typical display is shown
in Fig 7E-3 below, with explanations of the various highlighted areas below.
Fig 7E-3. Standard RT 1047/1047 ARPA Display

a. Box 1 – Scan-to-Scan Filter. All three radar displays have a ‘scan-to-scan’ filter
available. This is a processing technique which displays a contact at different levels of
brightness depending on its persistence; if the radar contact was seen on the last three
scans it will mark brightly on the screen, but it will mark less brightly if it was only seen
once or twice in the last three scans. The effect is to make random clutter disappear.
The filter should usually be left to FLT ON unless tracking fast (i.e. air) contacts, when
FLT OFF gives better results.
b. Box 2 – Radar Video Controls. As the scan-to-scan filter takes three scans to
function (see above), when adjusting radar video controls, three scans must be allowed
to complete before accepting the picture or making further changes. There is no
automatic anti-clutter facility, but the radar video is easy to adjust, and the system
generally displays an excellent picture in all conditions. Details of the radar video
controls are given below in Table 7E-4.
Table 7E-4. Radar Video Controls
CONTROL DESCRIPTION
TUNE It is possible to manually tune the set by pressing the AUTO softkey and
then adjusting the slider, aiming to achieve the highest level on the
indication. Generally, however, ‘auto tune’ is more reliable and the set
should normally be left in AUTO
GAIN As with legacy radars, GAIN should be adjusted by hand to provide a
light, random speckle of dim clutter. No clutter is a sign that gain has
been turned down too far, whereas too much clutter will mean that real
tracks are potentially masked or harder to spot. Gain does not need to be

adjusted when changing range scales, but it will need to be checked as
conditions change, and should in any case be checked periodically as
part of general good practice
SEA The SEA anti-clutter function has the most effect at short-range, reducing
to nil effect at 8nm or greater. It should be set to the minimum necessary
to provide a clear picture, as too much SEA will hide small, close range
contacts. FTC will help to regain small targets lost due to the application
of SEA anti-clutter
RAIN RAIN anti-clutter will reduce clutter at medium to long ranges, and should
be used when atmospheric returns and/or rain (particularly on the I-band
sets) are causing interference. Minimum RAIN should be applied for the
prevailing conditions
FTC Fast time constant (FTC, sometimes known as short time constant in
older UK publications) uses differentiation techniques to remove low
frequency components which are often due to weather effects. It has the
effect of highlighting the leading edge of targets, and often reveals ‘true’
targets hidden in clutter. About 10% FTC is a normal setting, increasing
to 20% or more as clutter increases; too much FTC risks losing contacts
entirely, and will shorten or even mask RACON responses.
c. Box 3 – Additional Video Controls. A number of additional controls are provided

to manage specific functions of the radar display.
Table 7E-5. Additional Video Controls
CONTROL DESCRIPTION
SART SART is a setting, mandated by the IMO, which is designed to widen the
frequency response of the transceiver to ensure the best possible
response when searching for a SART. It will not activate own ship’s
SART. When switched on, it will weaken normal contacts and so should
normally remain OFF except when needed in a SAR situation

PULSE If alternative pulse lengths are available (see Table 7E-3), the master
LENGTH display only may be used to cycle through the pulse lengths available
IR Interference rejection (IR) is designed to reject interference from other
radars operating at or near the same frequency. It should normally be
switched ON.
EXP Echo expansion (EXP) is a processing technique which is designed to
expand all radar video contacts, making small targets more visible. It is a
display artefact only, i.e. it does not affect the transceiver and does not
increase the detection rate of smaller contacts, it only makes them paint
as physically bigger tracks on the display. It should normally be switched
OFF except when tracking small targets such as the seaboat.
d. Box 4 – CURS Soft Key. The CURS option allows the operator to toggle two
settings. ‘ETA and TTG’ can be shown or hidden, and ‘MOUSE PARK POSITION’ can
be set to ON or OFF. The ETA and TTG function can be useful, but it is recommended
that MOUSE PARK POSITION is switched to OFF.
e. Box 5 – Motion and Orientation. Both RT 1047 and RT 1048 are fully capable of
relative and true motion displays. Relative motion allows the operator to display true or
relative target trails. The normal recommended setting is ‘relative motion – true’, RM(T),
in which moving contacts leave target trails and land and stationary targets do not. The
radar may be orientated north-up, heading-up, course-up or repeater-up, but north-up
should normally be used.
Table 7E-6. Display Orientation Modes
MODE DESCRIPTION
North-up North is at the top of the display; all system functions are available
Heading-up Radar video is not stabilised; only used if gyro compass input has failed.
The top of the display is aligned with ship’s head. True motion, target
trails, RAIN, SEA and FTC are not available. All radar bearings are
relative, but ARPA continues to function
Course-up Radar video is stabilised, with the top of the display aligned to ship’s
course. True motion, target trails, anti-clutter and true bearings are all
available. Course changes will move the ship’s head marker and
pressing ‘CSE UP’ on the panel will realign the display
Repeater-up The entire display rotates to keep the ship’s head marker at the top of the
display. Video is stabilised; anti-clutter, target trails and ARPA are
available but true motion is not available
f. Box 6 – Chart Underlay Modes. Four chart underlay modes are available from
the chart menu and should normally be selected, noting the CAUTION below. The
choice of the chart underlay data displayed is at the user’s discretion; details are shown
below. Chart underlays are only available with ENCs.
Table 7E-7. Chart Underlay Modes
MODE DESCRIPTION
Primary Displays coastlines, own ship safety contour, dangers to navigation and
aids to navigation
Base Displays primary mode data plus traffic separation schemes, built up

areas and caution areas
Standard Displays base mode data plus drying lines, fairways and channels, visual
and radar conspicuous features, prohibited and restricted areas, chart
scale boundaries and indication of cautionary notes
Full Displays standard mode data plus spot soundings, submarine cables and
pipelines, ferry routes, latitudes/longitudes, place names, all contour lines
and buildings
CAUTION
The operation of the chart underlay mode is currently (2016) under

investigation by NCHQ. Ships are to treat the underlay with caution
and continue to use independent checks on navigation accuracy until
advised otherwise.
g. Box 7 – Audible Alarm. The audible alarm should normally be switched OFF,
indicated on the display by a RED line through the word ‘AUDIBLE’.
h. Box 8 – Target Trails and Vectors.
(1) Relative/True Target Trails. Relative/true target trails are selected by

selecting ‘RM(R)’ or ‘RM(T)’ respectively. The length of target trails is selected by
toggling the soft key (from OFF through to six minutes). Past positions, up to 60
minutes, are useful for indicating alterations of course by other vessels, but they
may usually be switched OFF.
(2) Relative/True Vectors. True/relative vectors for ARPA tracks are selected by
toggling the appropriate soft key. Vectors may usefully be selected to relative,
which provides an effective combination with true trails. Vector length is adjustable
between zero and 30 minutes.
i. Box 9 – Ground and Sea Stabilisation. Ground and sea stabilisation are selected
by toggling between LOG speed and GPS speed. Ground stabilisation may normally be
selected for pilotage/blind pilotage, and sea stabilisation for ocean/coastal navigation.
See also Annex 7D for guidance and examples in the context of radar Type 1008 which
remain valid.
j. Box 10 – ARPA Target Symbology. ARPA target symbology is in accordance

with IMO regulations. Examples are in Table 7E-8 below.
Table 7E-8. ARPA Target Symbology
ARPA tracks 33
Lost ARPA tracks 33
Dangerous ARPA tracks 33
Correlated tracks from a non-IMO mode radar 33

AIS Tracks
5. Menus
a. FUNC Menu. The FUNC menu is used to access a number of generic functions,
including maintainer functions.
Table 7E-9. FUNC Menu
CONTROL DESCRIPTION DIALOGUE

MAP Allows true maps and PIs to be constructed
TRIAL Conducts ARPA trial manoeuvre
ROUTE There is no route function in RT1047/1048;
routes are automatically pulled through from
ECDIS
T-SCE Maintainer function (displays test radar
video)
ZOOM Displays a zoom window which is useful for
tracking small targets at long range
SEC BL Turns pre-set sector blanking ON/OFF but
does not allow sectors to be adjusted
SYSTEM Clears all plot symbols, maps, EBLs and
CLEAR VRMS, charts, routes and turns target trails
to OFF
CRP OFF Toggles the radar video centre between
antenna position and a common reference
point – should show CRP ON
MAG CUR Maintainer function (sets magnetron current
to high, used near end of magnetron life)
SENC Not enabled in 1047/1048; a radar fix option
is presented which should not be used
CHART Provides information on the currently
INFO displayed ENC underlay
RRB Turns RRB ON or OFF, and allows coded or
uncoded responses to be selected
b. ARPA Menu. The ARPA menu is used to enable/disable ARPA functions and
control the operation of the ARPA features.
Table 7E-10. ARPA Menu
CONTROL DESCRIPTION DIALOGUE

ZONES Allows creation, editing and deletion of
acquisition, guard and exclusion zones
PCP/CPA Potential collision points (PCP) (true
SYMBOLS vectors) or CPA points (relative vectors)
are displayed as a split-circle symbol

CPA WRN Draws circles around PCPs at the range
ON PCP defined at the bottom of the menu in the
CPA field
DEL ALL Drops all ARPA tracks
REF TGT Not enabled in 1047/1048
IMO Toggles between IMO and non-IMO
MODE modes
CPA Sets the CPA alarm range for ARPA
tracks
TCPA Sets the time to CPA alarm for ARPA
tracks
c. ARPA/AIS Info Display Menus. These menus call up display boxes which will
display track information on up to three ARPA or AIS targets. The maximum range for
AIS targets to be displayed can be adjusted, as can the ‘LOST RANGE’ within which the
system will alarm if an AIS target is lost.
6. ARPA Tracking – Non-IMO Modes and RTE

Each radar workstation performs its own radar tracking, and any tracks held are
automatically passed to the track correlator located in the radar office.
a. IMO Mode. In IMO mode, tracks may be held separately on multiple MFCs.
b. Non-IMO Mode. In non-IMO mode, a radar will receive tracks from the track
correlator and display them (although it will not perform any tracking on them). Tracks
from radars in non-IMO mode are in RED, but if a correlated track from another radar
operating in IMO mode is displayed, it is shown in WHITE. Raw radar video is
unaffected by non-IMO mode as each MFC only displays its own radar video. Each
MFC has a limit of 30 manual and 40 auto tracks.
c. Radar Track Extractors. Independently of the track correlator, four radar track
extractors (RTE) generate tracks from RT 1047 (I-band) radar video and Outfit RRB and
pass them into the Combat Management System (CMS). If the forward and after 1047s
are not transmitting, CMS will not receive tracks from the RTE. The RTEs do not
generate tracks from RT 1048. Contacts do not have to be tracked on a bridge MFC
for the RTE to generate CMS tracks on them; CMS track numbers and ARPA target
numbers will therefore be different. RT 1047 radar video is passed to CMS separately.
7. Loss of Power Supplies

The NO and all officer standing watch as OOW should know as a matter of course what
supplies the bridge equipment requires to operate, and therefore by definition the
consequences of electrical failures on the ship’s navigation system. The consequences of
broad failures are summarised in Table 7E-11 below.
Table 7E-11. Consequences of Electrical Failures
FAILURE CONSEQUENCE
Loss of 440V Complete loss of Radar 1047 and Radar 1048 (aerials cease rotation)
Loss of 115V Complete less of Radar 1047 and Radar 1048 (transceivers lose power)

Loss of 24V Degraded operation of Radar 1047 and Radar 1048:
Loss of MINS/DDUs
Loss of RSU (affecting all displays except A, B and C and RTE)
Loss of stabilisation; radars operable in heading-up mode only
ANNEX 7F
RADAR TYPE 1009
1. Summary and Scope of Annex 7F

RT 1009 is an ARPA capable radar fitted in early build ASTUTE class SSGNs, which is
expected to be replaced in due course as part of the navigation radar programme (NRP).
Annex 7F contains a very brief description of the system, and the navigation and tactical
display (NTD) which is used to operate it on board. Full details of the configuration,
operation and maintenance of the system are in the manufacturer’s handbook which should
be consulted for further information

a. Summary. RT 1009 is an I-band radar designed for navigation, pilotage/blind

pilotage and surface surveillance fitted only to early build ASTUTE class submarines.
RT 1009 is controlled from a navigation and tactical display (NTD). A second NTD with
two ‘portable auxiliary displays’ (PADs) allows the radar picture to be viewed for
navigation purposes, but it cannot control the radar. One of the PADs acts as master to
the NTD, with the second acting as slave, the choice of master PAD being made via a
selector switch. The system uses the same antena (AZL) as a conventional submarine
radar Type 1007, and the complete system consists of a number of elements including
the transmitter/receiver, waveguide assembly, and several safety interlocks.
b. Specification. The nominal specification of RT 1009 are in Table 7F-1 below.
Table 7F-1. Radar Type 1009 Specifications
PARAMETER SPECIFICATION
Frequency 9410MHz ± 30MHz
Peak power output 25kW nominal
Pulse duration Auto controlled at 4 pulse lengths
PRF (pulses/sec) 1600 (short), 800 (med), 400 (long), 200 (ext)
Minimum range 60m
Bearing accuracy Better than 0.5°
c. Interfaces. RT 1009 is interfaced to the following external equipment.
(1) Ownship Data Distribution System (OSDDS). The ownship data

distribution system (OSDDS) provides GPS, speed log and gyro compass into the
radar normalisation unit, for distribution to the NTDs.
(2) Tactical Weapon System Highway (TWSH). The TWSH allows range and
true bearing of targets to be cut through to the command system from the master
NTD.
(3) Platform Management System. The ASTUTE class platform management

system (PMS) accepts an overheat warning from the transmitter/receiver and
monitor and provides safety interlocks for the masts.
UK OFFICAL-SENSITIVE 7F-1
d. SHIPHAZ. In order to provide a safety feature for men aloft, a key switch is
provided in the radar normalisation unit. When the key is removed, the transmitter is
prevented from radiating into the antenna and the mains supply to the antenna is
inhibited, preventing the antenna from turning. For maintenance purposes, the
transmitter can transmit into DUMMY LOAD under LOCAL control when the key is in the
OFF position.
3. NTD Description
a. LCD Features. The NTD is designed for a seated operator and uses a high-
definition flat-screen LCD display, an LCD touchscreen display and a three-button

trackball. Most control functions are carried out from the touchscreen menus, toolbars
and dialogue boxes, which are used in conjunction with the trackball.
b. Multi-Function Capability. The NTD is capable of displaying radar video,

electronic charts and operator manuals.
c. Radar/ECDIS. The NTD can be configured as an IMO-compliant radar, or ECDIS,

or both at the same time, although the ECDIS functionality is not enabled in the
ASTUTE class.
d. ARPA and Mapping. The NTD is fully ARPA capable and provides mapping (PI)
facilities.
4. Normal and Backup Operation
a. Normal Operation. Under normal operating conditions, the transmitter/receiver is

controlled from the NTD with the fixed display and control interface unit. This NTD
controls all functions of the RT 1009 when the transmitter/receiver is set to ‘remote
operation’.
b. ARPA and MRAT Tracks. The NTD is capable of displaying up to a maximum of

50 ARPA surface tracks, 50 ARPA air tracks, and 50 locally-generated non-network
manual rate aided tracks (MRATs). Range and bearing data for targets may be
transferred to the TWSH using the ‘CUT’ control.
c. Backup Mode. The backup mode is required when the master NTD is unavailable
for remote operation, either due to a fault condition or during maintenance. The second
NTD (with the PADs) cannot take over as master NTD to control the
transmitter/receiver. The NTD configures the radar normalisation unit on power up;
thus, if the radar normalisation unit is switched off after NTD failure, the backup mode is
not available.
d. Backup Mode Facilities. In backup mode, the radar normalisation unit provides
the power supplies to the transmitter/receiver to permit antenna rotation and limited
operation of the transmitter/receiver under LOCAL control from the built-in local control
panel. The local control panel allows the radar to be switched on and off, to change
from ‘STANDBY’ to ‘RUN’, and pulse length control.
7F-2 UK OFFICAL-SENSITIVE
ANNEX 7G
Navigation Radar Replacement
To be issued
UK OFFICAL-SENSITIVE 7G-1
ANNEX 7H
LEGACY EQUIPMENT - SNAPS
1. Scope of Annex 7H
Annex 7H provides a very basic description of Outfit JNZ, Ship’s Navigation Processing
System (SNAPS). SNAPS is no longer in service in the RN, its functions completely
replaced by WECDIS and the CSIU, but it is retained here, in very much abbreviated form,
due to the central role of SNAPS in some of the case reports in BRd 134. This Annex
therefore contains a very brief description of SNAPS and its major operating features and
quirks, to enable readers not familiar with SNAPS to understand those cases in BRd 134 in

which SNAPS was a contributing feature. Once sufficient information can be transferred to
BRd 134, this Annex will finally be removed as redundant.
a. Main Components. SNAPS consisted of a plotting table, which housed a

complicated arrangement which drove a spot of red light to the ship’s position, or
another position as commanded by the operator. A paper chart was taped to the
plotting table, and had to be referenced to the system, a relatively time-consuming
manual process. Underneath the plotting table, were various drawers and shelves for
charts and navigational equipment, and the electronics drawer which housed the
navigation computer, and the power rack. Interaction with and control of SNAPS was
by a keyboard display unit (KDU) which used an alphanumeric display and another of
buttons to control the system.
b. Functions. SNAPS was designed to accept and process inputs from own ship
NAVAIDS (NSINS, log, gyro, GPS etc), to calculate own ship position/DR/EP, and to
operate in a tactical capacity by accepting and displaying tracks from the command
system or operator injected tracks, which could be DR or stationary. SNAPS was
theoretically capable of relatively complex navigation tasks such as pool of errors
navigation.
3. Modes of Operation
SNAPS was capable of computing and displaying own ship’s position in four different
modes.
a. DR (Dead Reckoning). In DR, SNAPS calculated own ship’s position based on the
last fix injected into SNAPS, and the ship’s course and speed as sensed by the gyro
compass and log.
b. EP (Estimated Position). EP was the same as DR, but with an operator estimate
of drift applied (which was configured in a separate menu page, and could be entered
manually or computed fix to fix by SNAPS).
c. Single Navaid. In single NAVAID made, SNAPS used an operator specified single
navaid position for ownship. These could be GP (GPS, using QYF, the predecessor to
NAVFIX), IA (filtered NSINS 1 data), IB (filtered NSINS 2 data), or IC (combined NSINS
1 and 2). On the surface, it was usual to use GP, and dived, submarines would
generally run in IC although if there was cause to doubt one of the NSINS, IA or IB
could be used as appropriate.
UK OFFICAL-SENSITIVE 7H-1
d. CP (Computed Position). Computed position, CP, was theoretically one of the

most useful functions of SNAPS and, at the same time, arguably its most dangerous.
The use of CP was ultimately banned in dived submarines as it became clear following
a number of incidents that the precise operation of the SNAPS CP algorithm was
essentially mysterious. CP was designed to provide a stabilised single navaid position,
with a bias included based on the apparent drift between the navaid position and the
last fix. SNAPS recalculated the CP from a comparison of the DR position, and the
included navaid plus bias, to calculate the drift, which was then applied to the next CP
position (CP thus ‘jumped’ at a thirty second update rate). Each CP jump was bounded
by a calculated gross error check that SNAPS performed, and SNAPS would alarm if
this test was failed more than a certain number of times, and SNAPS would further

alarm if the CP calculated drift rate differed excessively from the operator’s calculated
drift. As time elapse since the last fix, moreover, the included navaid bias would decay
down to zero. The net result of this complexity was that navigators could be operating
in CP with a position that was widely in error of the true position of the navaid, let alone
the submarine, and although SNAPS was often alarming, it was possible to take actions
to cancel the alarm without addressing the underlying problem. The use of CP was
therefore banned.
e. CP(EP). In the worst case, in which SNAPS assumed that the navaid was so
erroneous that it was totally unreliable, it would be automatically excluded by SNAPS.
SNAPS would alarm, reporting ‘NAVAID EXCLUDED’, and CP would revert to CP(EP)
in which the computed position was not based on a navaid, but on SNAPS own EP.
This therefore compounded any errors, and could give an operator a false impression
that the spot of light on the SNAPS table was linked to a navaid when in fact it was
simply an algorithm’s assumption of where the submarine probably was. It was
possible on SNAPS to cancel the audible alarm simply by pressing a toggle switch,
meaning it was perfectly possible for operators to miss important alarms, especially in a
busy control room.
4. Other Features and Capabilities

SNAPS had a myriad of other features and capabilities, including the ability to record
data onto magnetic tapes, and to operate as a GOP by reading tracks from the command
system’s track table. SNAPS could construct a pool of errors, although this function was
invariably not used in favour of manual construction. SNAPS was also fully polar capable.
The key point for readers not familiar with SNAPS to take away is that, whilst SNAPS offered
many of the same features as WECDIS, its interface was several orders of magnitude more
basic. SNAPS had to be correctly configured to operate correctly and safely, and many of
the configuration options were hidden away on different menu screens that were time
consuming to check. It was easy to think that SNAPS was configured and being operated in
one mode, when in fact it was setup slightly differently, meaning that the information being
conveyed was very different. Readers requiring more information are advised to contact the
Navigation Author at NPGO or Navy Historical Branch in HMNB Portsmouth for copies of
original documentation.
7H-2 UK OFFICAL-SENSITIVE
CHAPTER 8
MISCELLANEOUS NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
CONTENTS
Para
0802. Care and Custody of Navigational Equipment
0803. Navigational Equipment Cleaning Procedures

SECTION 1 – STUART’S DISTANCE METER
0804. The Stuart’s Distance Meter

0805. Description and Operation
SECTION 2 – HAND HELD LASER RANGEFINDERS (LRFs)
0806. Introduction and Definitions

0807. LRF Considerations and Constraints
0808. Availability of LRF Equipment
SECTION 3 – PRECISE TIME AND FREQUENCY STANDARDS
0809. Precise Time and Frequency Equipment (PTFE)

0810. PTFE Accuracy
0811. PTFE Fits
SECTION 4 – SUBMARINE SPECIFIC EQUIPMENT
0812. Submarine Navaid Antenna Switching Unit (NASU)

0813. Submarine Navigation and External Lights Control Panel (NELCP)
SECTION 5 – BAROMETERS
0814. Precision Aneroid Barometers (PAB)

0815. Dial Aneroid Barometers (DAB)
0816. Barograph
SECTION 6 – PLOTTING INSTRUMENTS
0817. The Station Pointer

0818. The Surveying Station Pointer
0819. Calibration
0820. Alternatives
0821. The Douglas Protractor
0822 Using a Douglas Protractor
CHAPTER 8
MISCELLANEOUS NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS

Over the years, a great many specialised instruments were developed to aid the
navigator in determining the position of the ship at sea. The development of modern
technology, in particular GNSS and (W)ECDIS, has rendered many of these instruments
obsolete at a stroke, but some are still of benefit and will be encountered in RN warships and
submarines. Some obsolete chart plotting aids are retained in this chapter for the time

being, as they may still be encountered in certain vessels or by officers on exchange duty
with other navies. It is to be expected, however, that items such as station pointers will not
remain in this book for long. Sextants are a highly specialised tool and as such are covered
in BRd 45(2); the care and maintenance of electronic items such as WECDIS RPTs is not
covered here and the maintainer/equipment BR must be consulted. Obsolete equipment
such as chronometers and deck watches has been removed from this edition. Laser
rangefinders are included notwithstanding none are currently authorised for use; this
Chapter explains why this is the case.
Note. Marine sextants are covered in BRd 45(2). Use of sextant angles for
fixing is in BRd 45(1)
0802. Care and Custody of Navigational Equipment
a. Vulnerability of Navigational Equipment. Equipment held on the NO’s PLR is

generally expensive, delicate, and easily damaged if proper care is not taken. The
equipment is often supplied with purpose-built boxes which are used for the stowage
and transport of the equipment. Specialist cleaning gear and maintenance tools are
often supplied.
b. Removing and Replacing Equipment. When equipment is removed from its

stowage, it must be handled appropriately, and carried using the carrying handle or
correct part of the equipment. On re-stowing, the equipment should be properly
adjusted so that it fits correctly back within the box.
c. Care of Equipment. Although all equipment is subtly different, it is true of all

equipment that it should never be left unboxed or unattended on surfaces from
which it may slide or fall. Whilst it may not be possible to keep the equipment dry
when in use, care must be taken after using it that any moisture or salt is cleaned off
as described below and/or in the equipment BR. Precision instruments should not
be left in direct sunlight when not in use. Equipment should never be stowed when
wet or damp. Appropriate lanyards must always be used.
CAUTION
Equipment lanyards must always be worn. Not to do so is lazy and

irresponsible and greatly increases the chance of damaging or even
losing equipment overboard.
d. Permanent Secure Stowages. When not in use, all equipment should be

stowed in a permanent locked stowage. This should be suitably subdivided, such
that individual equipment boxes may be stowed without too much movement in a
seaway.
e. Navigational Equipment Maintenance Routines. Ships require a rigorous

routine to ensure that navigational equipment is cleaned and maintained. For ships
still complemented with a Navigator’s Yeoman, this should be allowed for in their
weekly routine; for ships in which a NY is not borne, a suitable rating or ratings
should be identified. The weekly maintenance schedule should include all items on
the NO’s PLR and all fixed equipment. This will include equipment normally left at

outstations such as azimuth circles, and fixed items such as the magnetic compass
binnacle at the ECP and gyro compass repeaters. Defects should be brought to the
attention of the NO and the maintainer.
0803. Navigational Equipment Cleaning Procedures

The guidance below is by necessity generic; before cleaning any item of equipment,
care should be taken to ensure that the equipment BR is consulted (if applicable) and any
specific instructions for the particular piece of equipment are followed.
a. Cleaning Material. Cleaning material should not be stowed away if damp or

oily, due to the danger of mildew and spontaneous combustion respectively. A
number of items of cleaning material will generally be required.
(1) Cloths. A variety of cloths will be required, including a chamois leather

and ‘Vileda’ (J-cloth) cloths.
(2) Flanellette. This can be obtained from the Gunner’s Party.
(3) Spirits. Either methylated or surgical spirit should suffice, depending on

what is readily available.
(4) Light Oil. As supplied in the sextant box.
(5) Grease. Vaseline or light grease.
(6) Brushes. A bristle brush as supplied in the sextant box should suffice.
b. Cleaning Methods. The method of cleaning a piece of navigational equipment

will vary with the piece of equipment, but the following procedure provides basic
guidance which must be varied as required. In all cases, any specific guidance in
the equipment documentation must be complied with.
(1) Salt Spray. Wash off salt spray with a warm soapy chamois leather or
cloth, and dry with a soft cloth.
(2) Deeply Ingrained Dirt. Deeply ingrained dirt may need to be removed
from brass items such as azimuth circles and compass repeaters with a
proprietary cleaning agent.
(3) External Metal Surfaces. A chamois leather should be used for cleaning
external metal surfaces, after which they should be lightly greased.
(4) Optical Glass Surfaces. To avoid any risk of scratching optical glass
surfaces, they should be cleaned by firstly blowing on them to remove any gritty
particles off the surface before using flannellette. After any particles have been
removed by blowing, the optical glass should be gently wiped with flanellette,
which must itself be perfectly clean and should be lightly damped with spirit.
(5) Condensation Inside Optical Instruments. If an optical instrument

exhibits signs of moisture, usually condensation, on the internal faces of optical
faces, then it should be put in a warm, dry stowage with some silica gel to dry
out.
SECTION 1 – STUART’S DISTANCE METER
0804. The Stuart’s Distance Meter

The Stuart’s Distance Meter, illustrated in Fig 8-1 below, is a handheld passive
optical rangefinder, capable of ranging on an object of known height at ranges between ¼ of
a cable and 15 cables. Measurement of ranges greater than 15 cables is not reliable.
0805. Description and Operation
a. Summary. The Stuart’s distance meter consists of a long curved lens ‘A’,
attached to a distance scale which is graduated in radial lines from ¼ cable to 30

cables. The lens and the scale are mounted in a slide, which can be moved up and
down by a rack and pinion ‘B’. Alongside the moving lens, there is a fixed edged-
shaped lens ‘C’ attached to the frame. The telescope ‘D’, when fitted in the collar
and focused, will view an object through the two lenses as two superimposed
images. Movement of the slide alters the position of the moving lens, and so
changes the relative position of the two images. Details of the height scale ‘E’ and
operating procedures are given below.
Fig 8-1. Stuart’s Distance Meter
b. The Height Scale. The masthead (or height of the object) to be ranged is set
on the height scale engraved on the fixed metal bar (‘E’ in Fig 8-1 above). There is
a sliding pointer on this scale which may be set to any height between 0 and 220
feet (the height is set by moving the pointer such that the left-hand edge of the
pointer coincides with the height of the object). The masthead heights of ships likely
to be encountered (i.e. ships in the force) may be noted on the table on the back of
the instrument as a ready reference.
c. Normal Operating Procedure. To range a ship or object, set the left edge of
the sliding pointer to the masthead height (or height of the object) above the
waterline. Turn the milled knob B to bring the image of the masthead (or object) in
line with that part of the waterline that is immediately below it. Read off the range in
cables at the point where the index mark on the height scale intersects with radial
line on the moving distance scale. Some degree of interpolation may be necessary.
(1) Improving Accuracy. Accuracy may be improved by setting twice the

masthead (or object) height on the height scale and reading the range directly in
hundreds of yards rather than cables.

(2) Station Keeping in Column. When keeping station in column, it may not
be possible to see the waterline immediately below the mast, so by eye, select
an equivalent point on the ship (see Fig 8-2 below). At standard distance
between frigates and destroyers, this may be between 1/3 and ½ of the way up
the ship’s transom.
Fig 8-2. Use of Stuart’s Distance Meter
d. Alternative Operating Procedure – Horizon Method. The Stuart’s Distance

Meter may also be used to measure the range of an object of negligible or unknown
height. To do this, set own height of eye on the instrument, and by rotating the
milled knob, bring the waterline of the object in one image up to the horizon in the
other image. The error involved in this method is about 3% of the range measured
but it is useful at ranges below 1000 yards (5 cables). It is essential that the true
horizon is used. A ‘shore’ or ‘short’ horizon caused by reduced visibility will give a
false reading. If necessary, reduce one’s height of eye (move to a lower deck) to
reduce the horizon range.
e. Checking. The Stuart’s Distance Meter should from time to time be checked
against an object using a vertical sextant angle. This will give the NO and
Command some confidence as to the accuracy of the instrument and allow for any
gross errors to be detected.
SECTION 2 – HAND HELD LASER RANGEFINDERS (LRFs)
0806. Introduction and Definitions

To date, no LRF has been identified which meets the needs of the service and no
LRF is authorised for use on the bridge. The theory behind the devices is retained in this
book in the event that the situation is reconsidered in future years, or in case personnel
encounter LRFs in other navies.
a. LASER or Laser? The word laser is, in fact, an acronym but common usage
has it as a noun. Laser stands for ‘light amplification by the stimulated emission of
radiation’; a laser is a device for generating an extremely narrow (highly collimated)

and intense coherent beam of light or infra-red energy. Lasers have many uses,
including for range-finding, although they can also be used for communications,
target acquisition/tracking, and potentially in the future as a weapon (the USN has
deployed the AN/SEQ-3 Laser Weapon System operationally onboard the USS
PONCE).
b. Hand Held Laser Range Finder (LRF) Criteria. In order to be accepted into
service in the RN, a hand-held LRF must satisfy a number of criteria.
(1) Eye Safe. Hand-held LRFs must be eye-safe through-out their

operational range, and be capable of range-finding safely on friendly ships and
aircraft in all circumstances. This is an absolute requirement which is the
dominant consideration when selecting an LRF.
(2) Bridge Windows. Hand-held LRFs must be usable through the standard
type of RN/RFA bridge windows; this is particularly the case with the increasing
prevalence of fully enclosed bridges with enclosed bridge wings.
(3) Attenuation. Hand-held LRFs must not suffer from too great a degree of
attenuation in damp/wet weather.
c. LRF Spectrum. LRFs operate in the infra-red spectrum, at wavelengths of 1-10

micrometres (μm). Infra-red radiation covers the range between the limit of the
visible spectrum at about 0.78 μm and the shortest microwaves ( 1 μm). The infra-
red spectrum and typical LRF wavelengths are illustrated in Fig 8-3 below.
Fig 8-3. LRFs in the Infra-Red Spectrum

0807. LRF Considerations and Constraints
a. Laser Type. The properties of a laser are largely determined by the medium
used to create the lasing effect. Generally, due to size and power requirements,
hand-held LRFs will be of the solid state type, although a gas-based laser may also
be used. Other types of laser exist and are used for different applications. Four
potentially eye-safe LRF mediums have been identified.
(1) Raman-Shifted Nd YAG. Neodymium-doped (Nd) yttrium aluminium

garnet (YAG) is a crystal which is used as the lasing medium in a solid state
laser. Nd YAG lasers typically have a wavelength in the region of 1.064 μm; a
process called ‘Raman-shifting’ changes this to 1.540 μm which is less
hazardous to the human eye, at a cost in terms of efficiency. They are the most
common sort of laser used in range-finding and target designation. GPEOD
uses a low eye hazard laser (LHEL) of this sort.
(2) Erbium-Glass. Erbium-doped glass is another type of gain-medium used

in solid state lasers, which has been increasingly used in eye-safe rangefinders
since the late 1990s. Erbium-glass rangefinders have a typical wavelength of
about 1.544 μm.
(3) Holmium. Holmium lasers are similar to Nd:YAG lasers, but use holmium
instead of Nd. YAG can be used as the lasing medium or, for greater efficiency,
yttrium lithium flouride (YLF). A Holmium laser operates at 2.060 μm which is
outside the retinal hazard bandwith and is therefore safer than an Nd:YAG laser.
(4) CO2. A CO2 laser uses electron transitions within molecular energy levels
in carbon dioxide gas to cause the laser effect. CO2 lasers have a much longer
wavelength of 10.6 μm which gives greater power to penetrate mist and smoke
but can cause damage to the cornea.
b. Eye Vulnerability. Emissions from most industrial and military lasers (i.e. those
used for ranging, communicating, and tracking rather than for direct effects on
targets) are unlikely to cause fatalities directly, although very high power lasers
would be capable of this. Indeed, the power supplies of many lasers are probably
more likely to kill than the laser itself. However, soft tissue of the skin and in
particular the eyes is vulnerable to laser radiation. In the UK, lasers are classified by

British Standards into one of a number of classes.
(1) Class 1. Class 1 lasers are devices in which the ‘maximum permitted
exposure’ (MPE) value can never be reached. They are safe to view directly or
through optics. Class 1 lasers are found in equipment such as DVD players.
(2) Class 1M. Class 1M lasers differ from Class 1 in that their beams are
either highly diverging or very large in diameter, such that they are safe to view
with the naked eye. When viewed through magnifying optics such as
binoculars, they may not be safe.
(3) Class 2. These are low-power visible lasers (maximum power 1mW) with
a wavelength between 400 and 700nm. The natural ‘aversion response’ (such
as blinking and/or turning away) will protect the eye against exposure, but
repeated or deliberate exposures may not be safe. Barcode scanners often
utilise a Class 2 laser.
(4) Class 2M. As with Class 1M, these are similar to Class 2 but the aversion
response will not protect the eye if viewed through magnifying optics. Civil
engineering and surveying instruments often use a Class 2M laser.
(5) Class 3R. These are lasers with a maximum power of up to 5mW; the
beams from these devices exceed the permissible limits for accidental exposure
and there is therefore a risk of eye damage. Due to the conservative way in
which the limits are calculated, however, the risk of injury is still low.
(6) Class 3B. Class 3B lasers are relatively high powered lasers (up to
500mW) which may have sufficient power to injure the eye, both when viewing
the beam directly and when reflected. The aversion response will not usually
protect the eye but the extent of any injury will depend upon a number of factors,
including the absolute power of the laser, the radiant power which actually
enters the eye, the duration of the exposure and so on. Class 3B lasers are use
for specialist applications such as research or medical treatments. The beam
will not necessarily be visible.
(7) Class 4. Class 4 lasers are high power lasers with an output greater than
500mW; there is no upper limit. The output of a Class 4 laser will be harmful to
the eye whether viewed directly, reflected off a polished surface, or even after
being diffused by a rough or matt surface. The laser may be harmful to the eye,
the skin, or even capable of starting fires. Many military lasers use Class 4
beams, most of them with invisible beams.
c. Effect of Binocular Use. For any given laser, the ‘nominal optical hazard
distance’ (NOHD) is the distance at which at stated MPE is not to be exceeded.
The effect of using binoculars (or other magnification devices such as
telescopes) is that the minimum safe distance (can be though of as NOHD) will
increase by a factor approximately equal to the binocular magnification. Table
8-1 below shows indicative safe exposure distances for a number of LRFs using
a 10mJ pulse. Although several infra-red LRFs should therefore be inherently
eye-safe, a 10mJ pulse is not actually powerful enough to provide ranges out to
18,000m even in good weather.
Table 8-1. Safe Exposure Distances for LRFs

Laser Wavelength MPE NOHD NOHD Absorption
Type (Naked Eye) (x10 Sight) Coefficient of
Water/cm
Nd:YAG 1.064 μm 5 x 10-6 J/cm 950 10,000m 0.12
Erbium 1.540 μm 0.01 J/cm Zero Zero 11
Holmium 2.064 μm 0.01 J/cm Zero 160m 40
CO2 10.600 μm 0.01 J/cm zero zero 860
Although Table 8-1 would appear to suggest that a CO2 laser may be safe, the very
high absorption coefficient of water may render such a LRF impracticable when
ranging on wet targets, or through wet bridge windows, or in poor weather.
d. Atmospheric Attenuation. Transmission of an infra-red signal through the

atmosphere, particularly at or near sea level, is subject to scattering and absorption
in the atmosphere. Wavelengths around 1.5 μm and 2 μm are mainly free of such
effects, hence they are sometimes referred to as transmission ‘windows.’
Deteriorating visibility will quickly reduce the ranging capability of a handheld LRF.
Attenuation in fog and rain is high, rendering handheld LRFs virtually useless, with
raindrops producing spurious reflections giving incorrect ranges. Operating at
longer wavelengths (such as a CO2 laser) reduces attenuation due to fog and haze,
but is still subject to absorption by water.
e. Maximum Range. A high energy transmission is required to obtain even a

modest range, so the requirement to achieve a maximum range of 18,000m is likely
to conflict with eye-safe requirements. Pulse energies of the order of 10mJ are
required to obtain ranges of 5,500m to 7,500m even in clear weather, but to obtain
16,500m the energy needs to be increased by about 10 times. This would conflict
with all current eye safety regulations even in so-called eye-safe wavelengths. In
addition, the above ranges reduce rapidly with atmospheric attenuation. In wartime,
it might be necessary to accept a lower standard of safety to achieve the required
ranges.
f. Transmissions through Bridge Windows. For a hand-held LRF to be useful,

it must be capable of being operated from within the bridge (i.e. through the
windows) without suffering from range degradation or internal reflections. In reality,
the triplex laminated glass found in bridge windows is a poor transmitter of infra-red
wavelengths. Attenuation has been found to be too great for useful hand-held LRF
operation from within the bridge, with the exception of short-range LRFs operating at
wavelengths in the vicinity of 1.5μm.
g. Stabilisation. Hand-held LRFs have a small field of view (like binoculars) and it
is not easy to keep targets within the ranging graticule. Gyro-stabilisation can
improve the accuracy of ranging, but stabilised hand-held LRFs are difficult to use in
a rolling/pitching ship where the only visual reference through the eyepiece is the
stabilised horizon.
0808. Availability of LRF Equipment

Various hand-held LRFs have been commercially available for a number of years
now. None of them can be truly considered to be eye-safe, however, as filters must be
employed to reduce output power to acceptably safe levels. These considerably reduce
maximum useable range. For these reasons, and the combination of the various factors

considered in Para 0807 above, no hand-held LRF is authorised for use in the Naval
Service. Eye-safe laser rangefinders are fitted to various electro-optical directors available
on surface ships. See equipment BRs for more details.
SECTION 3 – PRECISE TIME AND FREQUENCY STANDARDS
0809. Precise Time and Frequency Equipment (PTFE)

Precise time and frequency equipment (PTFE, also known as frequency standards)
form a part of the communications outfit in RN/RFA vessels, but they are also of relevance to
the NO in the event of GNSS denial. The reality is that many systems in the modern era rely
upon GNSS time signals for their precise time, as an accurate time signal is a pre-requisite
for the
a. Atomic Clocks. PTFE are often known as atomic clocks, although in naval use
they are more correctly called frequency standards. They work by detecting the

microwave signal given off by electrons in an atom when they change energy levels.
Modern PTFE in naval applications will tend to be either a caesium or rubidium
fountain clock, in which provide a good tradeoff between accuracy and space,
weight and power considerations. PTFE will invariably be ‘GPS disciplined’ meaning
that it is synchronised to a UTC signal provided by GPS, with the atomic clock taking
over in the event that the GPS signal is lost.
b. PTFE Onboard Configuration. PTFE fitted to units varies in specification

according to requirement. This includes the overall accuracy required, the level of
redundancy, and the duration that the PTFE is expected to maintain accuracy in the
absence of GPS (i.e. SSBN vs CVS). System architecture varies by platform, but
there will invariably be the frequency standard itself, and some interface/distribution
equipment to transmit the precise time/frequency on to customer equipment
elsewhere in the ship/submarine.
0810. PTFE Accuracy

Precise time is usually distributed by GPS to an accuracy of at least 500ns. In the
event of a prolonged period of GPS denial (eg a dived submarine), rubidium or caesium-
rubidium based PTFE should be capable of maintaining sufficiently accurate precise time
and frequency outputs for up to 45 days at least. Modern PTFE is almost entirely self-
contained and will operate autonomously, with the possible exception of manual entry of
leap seconds as required (users manually tell the system that a leap second is to be
incremented/decremented to the UTC output, but the system will automatically apply the
leap second at the correct moment).
0811. PTFE Fits

PTFE is fitted in submarines, most major warships and above, and some RFAs.
Some ships (eg HMS SCOTT) have different variants included as part of other systems but
which achieve the same output. Although PTFE is usually found in the WT Office or MCO
and is not often thought of as part of the NO’s equipment, the NO, as the ultimate arbiter of
both position and time onboard, should have an understanding of the equipment fitted to the
platform and how it operates.
SECTION 4 – SUBMARINE SPECIFIC EQUIPMENT
0812. Submarine Navaid Antenna Switching Unit (NASU)
a. Description. The NASU is mounted in the control rooms of SSNs and SSBNs.
The layout, capabilities and operation of the unit varies between submarine
platforms depending on the masts and navaids available. A generic example of a
NASU control panel is shown in Fig 8-4 below.
b. Use. The NASU is the unit used to line up the navaids with aerials and
amplifiers. It enables navigation to be carried out independently of communications,

whilst using common aerials. Electrical interference to any radio navaid is unlikely.
In the event of difficulties in achieving a fix with radio navaids, the NASU is one of
the first things that should be checked. All control room officers must understood
how the NASU works, as well as any other equipment such as switch boxes to line
up GPS receivers to different masts, and a robust routine for checking system line
up prior to return to PD must be in place.
Fig 8-4. Generic SM NASU Control Panel
0813. Submarine Navigation and External Lights Control Panel (NELCP)

Each submarine is fitted with a means of controlling the navigation and external
lights. This may be via a dedicated control panel (NELCP) or via the platform management
system (PMS). Regardless of the precise submarine fit, each system provides indication of
availability of normal and alternative power supplies, and indication of light failure. There
may also be changeover switches located in other positions to change between red and
white lighting in conning tower and fin (and any other parts of the casing which may be fitted
with lights). Although the panel will usually be operated by Ship Control, all control room
watchkeeping officers must understand how to configure and operate the submarine’s
navigation and external lighting.

Fig 8-5. SM Navigation and External Lights Control Panel (NELCP)
Note. Fig 8-5 is indicative only. Refer to Class documentation for specific
fits onboard individual submarines.
Fig 8-6. Typical Locations of Submarine Navigation Lights

Note. The anti-collision light (‘amber flasher’) and masthead steaming light
are typically mounted on a mast which must be raised manually on
surfacing. Not shown in Fig 8-6 are the external illumination arrangements
provided in the conning tower, fin, and in some locations under the casing to
allow personnel to work in safety. External illuminations are usually capable
of either red or white light operation via a changeover switch.
SECTION 5 – BAROMETERS
0814. Precision Aneroid Barometers (PABs)

Precision aneroid barometers (PABs) are required for the operation of aircraft, and
thus all rotary or fixed-wing capable ships (whether with aircraft embarked or not) and
establishments are provided with at least two PABs. Each PAB must be in date for
calibration, which lasts 9 months; ships should endeavour to stagger the replacement dates
for their PABs such that there is always at least one in date for calibration.
a. Care of Equipment. PABs are sensitive, delicate instruments which are

correspondingly expensive. They are therefore issued to the NO and recorded on

the NO’s PLR. They are to be handled with the greatest care at all times, always
being transported in the correct packaging. When a new PAB is delivered (see
below) the packaging is to be retained onboard and re-used for the return of PABs to
Met Office stores.
b. Installation. PABs are particularly vulnerable to damage from sudden changes

in pressure and so should not be sited near doorways or hatches. Locations
adjacent to the bridge wing doors are particularly unsuitable. If two or more
PABs are located on the bridge, they should be placed as far apart as possible from
one another to spread the risk of damage. At sea, a damping cap should be fitted to
eradicate ‘pumping’ effects caused by the ship’s motion.
c. Supply of PABs.
(1) General. All PABs are supplied from and returned to Met Office stores
directly, not through the naval stores route. Calibrated PABs are automatically
supplied to authorised shore establishments every six months, but they are only
supplied to ships on receipt of a demand from an authorised platform.
(2) Demands. Demands from ships for the supply of a newly-calibrated PAB
are to be made by e-mail to UK Met Office at: stores@metoffice.gov.uk, using
the format below (note it is no longer possible to signal the Met Office).
SUBJECT: DEMAND FOR PAB
First line of text: FOR THE ATTENTION OF MET OFFICE STORES

ADMINISTRATION
A. BPFO number of demanding unit (establishments to provide

responsible person’s name and post title
B. Serial number of current PABs
C. Date of expiry of current PABs
D. Reason for demand (eg PAB unserviceable, out of date, new build
etc)
E. Type of PAB required and reference or NSN (Mk2 used by ships, MET
REF 20005)
F. Quantity of new PABs required
G. Date PABs required by
H. Any special instructions/comments
For ships, all PABs will be despatched to the NO unless noted otherwise in line
H of the demand. All demands must be sent at least 15 working days before the
required date; PABs will be dispatched direct to ships via BFPO and not through
naval stores. Subject to local exceptions, PABs can be despatched anywhere in
the world that a ship expects to receive mail.
(3) Replacement Timings. When two or more PABs are held, ships should
endeavour to stagger their returns such that one PAB is returned every three to
four months, and there is always one relatively newly calibrated PAB onboard.
Ships about to deploy for a prolonged period are strongly advised to demand
fresh PABs prior to sailing; subsequent demands for new PABs should be made

with as much notice as possible.
(4) Short Notice/Emergency Demands. In the case of unexpected, very

short notice deployments, calibrated PABs can be collected in person from Met
Office stores during normal working hours only. All such requests are to be
directed to NAVY OPS-JOMOC OC (9360 56105) or NAVY OPS-JOMOC Mar
Ops (9360 58123) or NAVY OPS as soon as the requirement is identified.
(5) Unfulfilled Demands. In the event that a demand cannot be satisfied for
any reason, the ship should retain any barometers held and make every effort to
check them against a recently calibrated instrument held by another unit.
Comparison procedures are detailed in JSP 847 Chapter 4. If a demand cannot
be met by Met Office stores, ships should signal JOMOC, for the attention of
NAVY OPS-JOMOC OC.
d. Return of PABs. Out of date or unserviceable PABs are normally to be

retained onboard until the replacement has arrived and has been proved correct by
comparison checks. Thereafter the previous PAB is to be returned to Met Office
stores within five working days; deployed ships are to retain discarded PABs
onboard until return to the UK. PABs may be returned direct from the Falkland
Islands.
(1) Damaged PABs. If a PAB is damaged, a full description of the damage

suffered and how it was caused is to be included with the PAB. In cases where
the PAB is known to have been damaged and/or it is giving wildly in accurate
reasons, and is therefore unable to be used operationally, it should be returned
to Met Office stores immediately without waiting for a replacement. In such
cases, Commanding Officers will need to give consideration to the ship’s ability
to conduct flying operations.
(2) Return Actions. Prior to dispatch, the PAB counter is to be set to 1050mb
before packaging, as detailed on the enclosed documentation attached to the
calibration card accompanying the instrument. PABs are to be firmly secured in
their wooden boxes using the triangular plate and securing bolts provided. The
wooden box is to be placed in the original foam-lined box and the return address
label attached. PAB damping caps are to be retained onboard for use with
the next PAB issued; during major refit periods damping caps should be
included with PABs when returned. Form RNS 549 is to be completed as a
transfer action, and boxed PABs are to be delivered to the relevant dockyard
central packing store for overpacking and onward transfer to the Met Office.
The naval stores system is not to be used.
e. Corrections. PABs indicate the pressure at the instrument; a correction for

height (0.3 millibar decrease per 10 feet above sea level) must be applied to give
reading for sea level pressure (QNH) or flight deck pressure (QFE). The correction
should be displayed with the equipment.
f. Calibration. Supply of accurate QNH and QGE data to aircraft is vital for
aviation safety. It is therefore imperative that PABs in use by ships are in date for
calibration; each calibration is valid for nine months and ships should ensure that
replacement PABs are ordered in plenty of time. Out-of-date PABs may still be used
operationally provided emergency comparison procedures in JSP847 Chapter 4 are

followed.
0815. Dial Aneroid Barometer (DAB)

The dial aneroid barometer (DAB) is supplied to ships and shore establishments not
requiring PABs to support aviation operations. It is a much simpler, more robust instrument
than the PAB.
a. DAB Adjustments and Corrections. The DAB only requires adjustment for
height, and periodic checks/adjustments to account for any slow changes in the
characteristics of the aneroid drum.
(1) Adjustments. Corrections of up to 5 millibars are made by means of an

adjusting screw accessible through a hole in the back of the case. Larger errors
may result from excessive vibration resulting in the pointer working loose.
(2) Actual Height Setting. DABs should usually be set to read correctly for
their actual height above sea level.
(3) QNH/QFE Corrections. If QNH or QFE readings are required, the

mathematical correction (almost always positive) should be displayed with the
equipment in the same way as for a PAB.
b. Check Calibrations. The DAB should be checked regularly and calibrated

against a nearby reliable barometer (eg QHM, RN warships fitted with a PAB, or a
shore establishment supplied with a PAB). A record of comparison is to be
maintained. When carrying out the comparison, care must be taken to ensure that
like is being compared with like i.e. does the other instrument read the pressure at
instrument altitude or at sea level (QNH?)
0816. Barograph
The barograph, if still fitted, is usually located in the CO’s cabin and, although
susceptible to some error due to fluctuations caused by the ship’s ventilation system, it
should normally be set to read correctly for its actual height above sea level.
a. Winding and Paper. The barograph must be wound and the recording paper
turned over weekly. The paper must be renewed altogether every fortnight. The
date of change should be written on the paper on each occasion. Consult HMOG
for guidance on ordering consumables.
b. Adjustments and Corrections. The barograph only requires adjustment for

height and periodic checks/adjustments by rotating the milled knob on top of the
bellows on the barograph. If QNH or QFE are required, the mathematical correction
(which is usually positive) should be displayed with the equipment and applied in the
same way as for a PAB.
c. Check Calibrations. The barograph should be checked regularly against the

bridge PAB or a recently calibrated DAB. As with the DAB, care must be taken to
ensure that it is known to what height above sea level the readings from the
barometer being compared with are referenced.
SECTION 6 – PLOTTING INSTRUMENTS
Note. The instruments listed in this section are largely obsolescent and will
not often be encountered outside of training establishments. They are
retained here for the time being, but readers should note that many ancillary
products required for their use such as calibration charts for station pointers
are no longer available. The advent of electronic charting has rendered
these instruments redundant.
0817. The Station Pointer

a. Use. A station pointer is primarily used for plotting a vessel’s position (on a
paper chart) from horizontal sextant angles (HSA) or relative bearings in the event of
a gyro failure. HSA plotting procedures are in BR 45(1). A station pointer may also
be used to established a fixed compass error; see BR 45(1) for details.
b. Description and Procedures – General Service Station Pointers. Station

pointers issued for general service in the RN/RFA were made of metal and
consisted of a graduated circle with a central ‘nick’ ), and three arms A, B and C.
The bevelled edges of the arms radiated from O.
(1) Centre Leg (OA). The centre leg (OA) was fixed, with its bevelled edge on
the zero of the circle, which is graduated in half-degrees from 0° to 180° on
either side.
(2) Left Leg (OB). The left leg (OB) was moveable, and could be clamped in
any position.
(3) Right Leg (OC). The right leg (OC) was moveable and could be clamped
in any position, except that the bevelled edge of OC could not be brought very
close to the bevelled edge of OA. Therefore, if the right hand angle was very
small, it was necessary to set OB to the small angle, and the right leg OC was
then moved all the way around the circle to the sum of the two angles. The
centre leg OA could then be placed on the right hand object on the chart.
Fig 8-7. The Station Pointer

0818. Surveying Station Pointers
Station pointers were also issued for surveying use; they came in different sizes,
and were fitted with vernier scales which read to one minute of arc on each movable leg.
They were therefore capable of greater accuracy than the general service models.
0819. Calibration
Station pointers required calibration prior to use if used infrequently, and frequently if
in frequent use. Calibration required the use of Chart 5007 which has been discontinued by
UKHO. If a copy of chart 5007 is not available, station pointers should be used with caution.
CAUTION
As Chart 5007 is no longer published by UKHO, it is not possible to

accurately calibrate a station pointer if one is still held. Uncalibrated
station pointers should be used with extreme caution.
0820. Alternatives
Readers unfamiliar with the instrument may not appreciate the sheer physical size of
the device. In use, it is entirely possible for the edges of the chart table, or other equipment
on or over the chart table to interfere with the placement of the legs of the station pointer, or
for nearby objects on the chart to lie under the rim of the instrument. In these cases, it
was/is necessary to use another instrument such as a Portland plotter or Douglas protractor.
0821. The Douglas Protractor
a. Use. Douglas protractors are used primarily for plotting to determine positions,
tracks, bearings and HSAs on paper charts. HSA plotting procedures are in BR
45(1). A Douglas protractor may also be used to establish fixed compass errors, in
accordance with the procedure in BR 45(1).
b. Description. A Douglas protractor (illustrated in Fig 8-8 below) consists of a

250mm transparent square protractor, graduated all round in degrees from 0° to
359° in both clockwise and anti-clockwise directions. At the centre is a hole large
enough to take the point of a well-sharpened pencil. The underside of the protractor

has a matt surface, allowing pencil lines to be drawn on the underside of the
protractor. Thus, when the protractor is placed matt side down on the chart, parallax
is eliminated.
Fig 8-8. Douglas Protractor
0822. Using a Douglas Protractor
a. Laying off a Course or a Bearing. Align the centre hole and the required
bearing on the inner scale along a convenient meridian on the chart. Adjust the
Douglas protractor along this meridian until the ruling edge (which is the left-hand
edge in Fig 8-8 above) passes through the point from which the course is to be laid
off.
b. To Read off a Course or a Bearing. Place the ruling edge of the Douglas
protractor (or one of the lines parallel to it on the protractor) along the course or
bearing, so that the centre hole sits on a meridian. Where this meridian cuts the
edge of the protractor, the figure on the inner scale gives the true bearing.
c. To Use as a Parallel Ruler. Align the Douglas protractor by one of its parallel
lines to the bearing required and draw a pencil line along the appropriate edge of the
protractor to the point required.
d. To Fix a Position by Angles. Lay off the observed angles on either side of the
N-S line on the matt side of the protractor, then place it matt side down on the chart

so that the pencil lines and the N-S line run through the objects observed. The
centre hole then represents the ship’s position. The angles must be reversed (left
for right and right for left) when they are laid off.
e. To Find Course made Good from a Series of Bearings of a Single Object.

Using the chart scale, mark off the distance run through the water between the times
of the bearings on one edge of the matt surface. Lay off the bearings on the chart.
Place the Douglas protractor over the bearings and adjust it until the bearings pass
through the corresponding points on the edge of the protractor. Provided there has
been no alteration of tidal stream/set and drift between the times of the bearings,
this edge will then be parallel to the ground track (COG/CMG). If there has been
any change in tidal stream/set and drift between the times of bearings, then an error
will occur.
f. To Find Vessel’s Position from a Line of Soundings. The Douglas protractor

may be used for plotting bottom contour navigation fixes, instead of tracing paper, in
accordance with BRd 45(9).
g. To Establish a Fixed Compass Error. The Douglas protractor may be used

instead of a station pointer to establish a fixed compass error, in accordance with
BRd 45(1).
CHAPTER 9
SMALL CRAFT (RN/RM) NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT
CONTENTS
Para
0902. P2000
0903. SCIMITAR
0904. LCU Mk 10
0905. LCVP Mk 5

0906. ISLAND
CHAPTER 9
SMALL CRAFT (RN/RM) NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT

The previous Chapters have discussed the theoretical underpinnings and operation
of the major items of navigational equipment in use in RN warships, submarines, and
auxiliaries. In addition to the major warships (which include MM/PP) there are a number of
small craft in the RN which have comprehensive suites of navigation equipment. These
small craft tend to have a variety of commercial ‘off the shelf’ (COTS) equipment fitted to
support their navigation requirements, which do not merit their own individual equipment

annexes in the earlier chapters. They are therefore listed here by class. This chapter
includes ‘major’ small craft but does not include boats.
Note. Due to the nature of support for small craft, individual units of a class
may have different equipment fits on a temporary or permanent basis.
0902. P2000
The P2000 (ARCHER class) are fitted (post life-extension) with the following
navigational equipment.
Table 9-1. P2000 Navigational Equipment
SYSTEM EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURER MODEL/TYPE

WECDIS 1 terminal in Lockheed ECPINS 5000 AML
wheelhouse, 1 on Martin/OSI/Kelvin
flying bridge (master Hughes
and slave)
Radar 1 x ARPA Decca Bridgemaster E
Gyro 1 x gyro, 3 x pelorus SG Brown Meridian gyro
GPS 1 x receiver/display Raytheon NAV398
Speed log 2 x displays Raytheon ST60
Echo sounder 1 x through-hull Raytheon ST60
transducer, 2 x
displays
Windgear Relative wind speed Raymarine ST60+
and direction
instrument
AIS AIS Class B
transponder
NAVTEX 1 x paperless McMurdo Smartfind
receiver
DSC VHF Radio DSC Class D VHF ICOM IC-M603
radio/antenna
Note. Due to the way the class is sustained, individual ships may have
differences in their equipment fits. In each case, onboard equipment
specific BRs and/or manuals must be consulted.
0903. SCIMITAR
The SCIMITAR class vessels used by the RN Gibraltar Squadron have a range of
navigational equipment which is similar to the P2000 in that it is overwhelmingly commercial
off-the-shelf. One point to note is that SCIMITAR class vessels are not fitted with a pelorus
for taking compass bearings, and therefore traditional relative navigational techniques
cannot be used.
0904. LCU Mk 10
The landing craft utility Mk 10, as used by the Royal Marines, has a full navigation
suite enabling it to conduct operations in the right conditions beyond visual range of mother.
Note that at the time of writing, LCUs are not due to be fitted with WECDIS but this may
change in the future; LCUs are fitted with an electronic charting system and supply of chart

fills should be by the channels detailed in BRd 6600(1) (Royal Marines Landing Craft and
Small Craft Operations). For further details on the configuration and operation of LCU Mk 10
navigation equipment, readers should consult BRd 6600(1) and DBR 7912(091).
Table 9-2. LCU Mk 10 Navigational Equipment

Radar/chartplotter 1 x master and 1 x Raymarine E120
slave displays
Radar scanner 1 x 4kW digital radar Raymarine RA1048HD
scanner (not SOLAS
compliant)
Gyro 1 x gyro, 1x remote Teledyne TSS Ltd Meridian Standard
control and display
unit, no pelorus
GPS 2 x DGPS receivers MX Marine MX420/2
Autopilot 1 x autopilot system Navitron Systems Ltd NT921G
with GPS/heading
interfaces
GPS Compass 1 x GPS compass Japan Radio Co Ltd JLR-20
(distinct from GPS)
Doppler log 1 x flush-mounted Japan Radio Co Ltd JLN-205
Janus configuration
transducer
Echo sounder 1 display, 1 FURUNO FCV-585
transducer
Wind instrument True and relative Raymarine ST60+
wind speed and dir
display
Navtex 1 x dual channel low FURUNO NX-700
profile paperless
receiver
DSC VHF Radio DSC Class D VHR ICOM IC-M603
radio/antenna
AIS AIS Class B SAAB R4
transponder
Optical bearing sight 1 x deckhead Scandinavian Micro SR02-01 Mk 4
mounted optical Systems
bearing sight
0905. LCVP Mk 5
The landing craft (vehicle and personnel) Mk 5, as used by the Royal Marines, has a
limited navigation suite as befits its role. This allows it to conduct limited operations away
from Mother in accordance with the provisions of BRd 6600(1) (Royal Marines Landing Craft
and Small Craft Operations). For further details on the configuration and operation of LCVP
Mk 5 navigation equipment, readers should consult BRd 6600(1) and DBR 7943(30) – LCVP
Mk 5 Navigation Suite.
Table 9-3. LCVP Mk 5 Navigational Equipment

Radar/chartplotter 1 x display in Raymarine E120W/C120W

wheelhouse
Radar 1 x digital radar head Raymarine RD424HD
Echo sounder 1 x transducer B&G H1100
GPS 1 x display in Raymarine RS-130 (replacing
wheelhouse RS-135)
Navtex 1 x low profile McMurdo Smartfind
paperless receiver
Log 1 x EM log Raymarine ST60+
transducer and
display
Magnetic Compass Handheld magnetic Silva 70-UN
compass – NOT TO
BE USED AS A
STEERING
COMPASS
VHF Class D DSC ICOM IC-M603
radio/antenna
Satellite Compass Satellite heading, FURUNO SC-30
pitch and roll data
0906. ISLAND
The RM ISLAND class is a militarised (up-gunned and up-armoured) version of a
commercially designed police launch built by Holyhead Marine. The ISLAND class
navigational suite consists of a range of Raymarine/Raystar equipment including chart
plotters and chart radars, DGPS, gyro compass and fluxgate backup, and class B AIS. See
equipment handbooks for more details.
CHAPTER 10
ASSET TRACKING
CONTENTS
Para
1002. WECDIS Asset Tracking
1003. Non-WECDIS Asset Tracking
1004. Future Asset Tracking Capabillity
CHAPTER 10
ASSET TRACKING

The nature of modern naval operations is such that warships are required to employ
seaboats for missions that are extended in duration and range, and will often require the
boat to operate over the horizon from Mother. To enable operations such as these to be
undertaken safely, and in a tactical environment, use is made of asset tracking systems;
other assets, such as helicopters, may similarly be tracked. W-AIS is itself a wide area asset

tracking system.
1002. WECDIS Asset Tracking

Full details of WECDIS asset tracking facilities are in BRd 45(8), but in summary,
when ECPINS is integrated with W-AIS, the technology and software is capable of
transmitting (sharing) WECDIS contacts/routes/constructions to other ships, by secure
encrypted AIS transmissions. There are differences in how the information replicates across
(for example, only the route legs and waypoints are received, with names, XTDs and turn
radii being omitted), but it enables the OTC etc to disseminate information rapidly between
units if desired. This facility is not enabled in the RN.
1003. Non-WECDIS Asset Tracking

Aside from WECDIS/W-AIS, there are other forms of asset tracking system
available. All work by using a combination of UHF/VHF bearers to transmit, as a minimum,
the position of the asset back to Mother, and, in more sophisticated systems, to transmit a
wide range of data including secure voice, imagery, e-mail/text, both to and from Mother.
XERES was a system introduced in 2001 to deliver such a capability, although it is rapidly
approaching end-of-life. See BR 925 for full details of the capabilities and operation of
XERES.
1004. Future Asset Tracking Capability

At the time of writing, NCHQ is procuring a new system or systems to replace Xeres
and T-ACT across the Fleet. The precise capability is not yet known, but it seems likely that
it will be based on a commercial off-the-shelf chart plotter with additional communications.
Further details will be promulgated as they are made available.

BR 45

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UK OFFICIAL-SENSITIVE BRd 45(3)

Issued February 2017

Dated May 2011

UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED

February 2017 Version 1

By Command of the Defence Council

UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED

Navy Author (NA) 10

Email: NAVYSEC-NPGOPUBSMAILBOX@mod.uk (FAO NA10)

All correspondence concerning this publication is to be forwarded to the NPGO Author

© UK MOD Crown Copyright, 2017

The Admiralty Manual of Navigation (BR 45) consists of nine volumes:

UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED

Volume 4 is a classified e-book covering the conduct of navigation in warships, submarines

Volume 5 is an A4 book containing exercises in navigational calculations (tides and tidal

Volume 6 is an e-book covering generic principles of shiphandling (propulsion of RN ships,

Volume 7 is a classified e-book covering all aspects of class-specific shiphandling

Volume 9 is a protectively marked A4 book covering operational navigation techniques that

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND COPYRIGHT

MOD and Royal Navy Staffs

UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED

The following conventions are used throughout this publication.

AN OPERATING PROCEDURE, PRACTICE OR CONDITION THAT MAY

Caution. An operating procedure, practice, or condition that may

Note. An operating procedure, practice or condition that it is essential to

RECORD OF CONFIGURATION CONTROL

Authored by Checked by Approved by

UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED

Date: Feb 2017 Date: Feb 2017 Date: Feb 2017

Edition/Change: Name: Name: Name:

Tally: Tally: Tally:

Date: Date: Date:

Edition/Change: Name: Name: Name:

Tally: Tally: Tally:

Date: Date: Date:

Edition/Change: Name: Name: Name:

Tally: Tally: Tally:

Date: Date: Date:

PROPOSALS FOR CHANGES

UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED

Chapter 2 Terrestrial Radio Aids to Navigation

Chapter 3 Satellite Aids to Navigation

Chapter 4 Echo Sounders and Speed Logs

UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED

Chapter 6 The Magnetic Compass and Degaussing

Chapter 7 Digital Chart Systems, Radars and AIS

Chapter 8 Miscellaneous Navigational Instruments

Chapter 9 Small Craft RN/RM Navigational Equipment

Chapter 10 Asset Tracking

UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED

0101. Scope of the Book

UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED

0102. What is an Aid to Navigation?

0103. Basis of Instructions and Guidance in the Book

Note. The CO retains ultimate discretion as to the settings to be employed

0104. What is Not in the Book

UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED

0106. What the Navigator Needs to Know about their Equipment

a. Standard Settings and Configurations. The NO should be familiar with the

b. Normal and Alternative Power Supplies (and Other Services). The NO

d. Breakdown and Emergency Procedures. The NO must be aware of all the

UNCONTROLLED WHEN PRINTED

TERRESTRIAL RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION