Course 6

D.Ed.
Special Education IDD
COURSE: VI
TEACHING APPROACHES
AND STRATEGIES
©specialeducationnotes.co.in
Unit 1: Teaching principles and techniques
1.1. Stages of learning – Acquisition, maintenance, fluency and generalization

1.2. Principles of teaching – concrete, iconic/representational, symbolic
1.3 Teaching methods – e.g., multisensory, play way, Montessori, Project, Teaching strategies –
Principles of reinforcement, task analysis, prompting, fading, shaping chaining
1.4. Selection and use of TLM, and Information and communication technology (ICT) for teaching.
1.5. Evaluation – continuous and comprehensive evaluation, progress monitoring anddocumentation.
Unit 2: Individualised Educational Programme and teaching strategies
2.1. Concept, components of Individualised Educational Programme (IEP) and Individualised family
support programme (IFSP)
2.2. Developing IEP for homebased teaching programme, special school setting and inclusive school
setting. Teaching strategies for group teaching in special schools, individual, small group and
large group instruction
2.3. Class room management - team teaching, shadow teaching, peer tutoring and cooperative
learning, use of positive behavioural intervention strategies (PBIS)
2.4. Teaching strategies for individual with high support needs.
2.5. Teaching strategies for teaching in inclusive schools - Universal design for learning and
differentiated instruction.
Unit 3: Teaching strategies for individuals with ASD
3.1. Structure and Visual Support (TEACCH, Structured Teaching)

3.2. Behavioural Strategies and Approaches (e.g., Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA), Verbal
Behaviour Analysis (VBA), Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT), Reinforcement
3.4. Social Strategies and Approaches (e.g.,social stories, Comic strips, Peer-Mediated Programs)
3.5. Strategies and Approaches (e.g., Learning Experiences and Alternate Program for Pre- schoolers
and their Parents (LEAP), Early Start Denver Model (ESDM), The Joint Attention, Symbolic
Play, Engagement & Regulation (JASPER), Floortime)
3.5. Consideration for Learning and Teaching Methods in ASD
Unit 4: Teaching strategies for students with ID
4.1. Teaching strategies for developing personal and social skills in students with ID including
mild to severe levels of ID, and individuals with high support needs
4.2. Strategies for teaching functional academics. Methods of curricular content and process
adaptations for students with intellectual disabilities
4.3. Management of challenging behaviours – functional assessment (antecedent, behaviour,
consequence), intervention strategies – Token economy, Contingency contracting, Response
cost, over correction, restitution and Differential Reinforcement and other behavioural strategies.
4.4. Group Teaching at various levels – pre-primary,primary levels, development and use of
TLM and ICT for ID
4.5. Various types of Evaluation: Entry level, Formative and Summative, Continuous and
Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) in the Indian educational system
Unit 5: Teaching strategies for students with SLD
5.1 Strategies for teaching reading and comprehension: Multisensory teaching (e.g., Orton -Gillingham
method, Fernald method), spelling rules, error analysis
5.2. Strategies for teaching handwriting (adaptations), spelling (phonics and spelling rules) and
written expression (grammar, ideation, language usage)
5.3. Strategies for teaching math (number facts, computation, application)
5.4. Strategies to develop Metacognition
5.5. Peer-tutoring, co-operative learning, Co-teaching strategies
Unit 1: Teaching principles and techniques
1.1 Stages of learning – Acquisition,

maintenance, fluency and generalization
1.2 Principles of teaching – concrete,
iconic/representational, symbolic
1.3 Teaching methods – e.g., multisensory, play
way, Montessori, Project, Teaching
strategies – Principles of reinforcement,
task analysis, prompting, fading, shaping
chaining
1.4 Selection and use of TLM, and Information
and communication technology (ICT) for
teaching.
1.5 Evaluation – continuous and comprehensive
evaluation, progress monitoring and
documentation.
1.1 Stages of learning – Acquisition, maintenance, fluency
and generalization
1. Acquisition
During this stage, a new task is introduced to the child for the first time.
Initially, you will find the child making errors and over the time, she learns to
perform the activity to a higher level of accuracy. During this stage, high level
of pupil-teacher interaction is necessary as the child is in the process of
learning a new task.
Ways of presenting the task

Modelling (demonstration): The first procedure while teaching a new skill is to
model the task for the pupil. The teacher starts by getting the child’s attention,
perhaps by saying, ‘It’s my turn, watch me, are you ready?’ and then proceeds
to complete the task, probably commenting on its key features as well.
Introducing new tasks in this way draws children’s attention to what is to be
learned and is preferred to relying solely on a verbal description. Verbal
presentation are rarely as effective as showing a child precisely what to do.
Usually, tasks are modeled on several occasions before moving on to the next
step.
Leading: Children complete each step of the task at the same time as the
teacher. While leading, the teacher says to the pupil, `Let’s do this together,
are you ready?’ The teacher then starts and the pupil joins in, copying exactly
what the teacher does. Teacher and pupil therefore perform the new task
together.
Imitation: This is slightly different from leading. When the child imitates her
teacher, the teacher performs the whole of the task first and only after it has
been completed does the child have a turn. When leading, teacher and pupil
perform the task together; when imitating the teacher completes it first and is
then followed by the pupil.
Instructions: On many occasions teaching methods are accompanied by verbal
instructions. Vocabulary and sentence structure should be within the pupil’s
range of competence and should be the same or similar from one day to the
next, as children can easily become confused if they are changed too often.
What may well seem like a small change in instructions will frequently lead to
the nature of the task being changed quite dramatically. This can be illustrated
by taking the example of teaching sight vocabulary to pupils with the aid of
flash cards. Typically the flash cards are laid out in front of the pupil. The
teacher points to each card in turn with the accompanying questions, `What
does this word say?’. This is a recall task and the child tries to remember the
name of the word. If the request is changed to `Point to the word which
says_______’, the task becomes one of the recognition rather than recall. In
this case the actual word is given to the child, who then scans the array of
words and points to the correct one. This is an easier activity than actually
reading the word.
Test: During leading and imitation the pupil performs the task after observing
the teacher. Once the task is completed accurately under these circumstances,
the teacher will want to see whether the child can perform it on her own,
following the appropriate instructions. Typically the pupil is told, `Now it is
your turn, are you ready?’ An instruction is given and the child then tries to
finish the activity without any teacher assistance.
2. Fluency
Once the child learns to perform the activity to a higher level of accuracy, you
need to concentrate on building fluency. Children work independently and are
provided with plenty of opportunities to practice. Unfortunately, many of
these activities that help increase fluency are repetitive and so are perhaps not
as enjoyable and interesting as we might want. To keep children’s motivation
high during this essential stage of learning, give regular feedback and rewards
for their progress. It is important that children learn to perform an activity to a
higher level of accuracy, as it makes all the difference between children
learning well or continuing to experience difficulties.
Teaching procedure for fluency building

Practice: Once a task is performed accurately, it needs to be practiced, so it
can also be completed fluently. Haring (1978) has defined practice as `the
opportunity to perform a task repeatedly until the quality and fluency of
performance increased to a specified level’. The purpose of practice therefore,
is to give the pupil as many opportunities as possible to perform the task.
At the acquisition stage of teaching, a high level of pupil-teacher interaction is
required when students perform a task in order to monitor their responses
carefully. This is not necessary for fluency-building. Pupils will already be able
to complete the task accurately. Therefore, a particular feature of providing
practice during fluency building is students working independently with as few
distractions as possible.
Feedback: A possible drawback of providing repeated opportunities for
practice, is where children lose motivation and interest through the repetitive
nature of the activities involved in developing fluency. Unfortunately, however,
this stage is essential for future progress and cannot be left out just because it
might not be appealing. Many children will acquire fluency very quickly and will
require little time devoted to practice activities.
Rewards: Feedback is usually paired with rewards, the two procedures
combining to sustain the child’s enthusiasm to work. The most likely
combination of rewards is social with token (points, starts, tokens, etc.) since
they can be given immediately and so are particularly effective during fluency
building.
3. Maintenance
We cannot afford the time to let children forget what they have learnt and
keep going back and reteaching skills. Over time, we want to ensure that
children maintain their levels of performance without any further teaching
taking place. However, we cannot wait for this to happen by chance, and so
this stage of the hierarchy aims to teach children to reach this position.
At the end of the maintenance stage, children should be able to complete tasks
on their own, with accuracy and fluency, without receiving any help
whatsoever from their teacher. Further more, it is to be hoped that as they
progress through each of these stages, they will become increasingly
motivated to learn new skills for themselves.
Teaching procedure for maintenance

Maintenance represents a change in role for the teacher from the active
involvement of acquisition and fluency to the more passive position of
facilitator. The teacher provides time during the school day for children to
work on activities so that they reach a point where no further practice is
required. It should be seen as a period where `learning’ can occur, a time
where the pupil performs a skill to high levels of accuracy and fluency, but
without being supported directly by the teacher and her use of teaching
methods. Pupils should be engaged with the same type of practice tasks that
were used during fluency building. However, any rewards that had been used
previously are gradually withdrawn. The aim is for students to continue using a
skill and derive intrinsic satisfaction, rather than being motivated by the
teacher and her use of rewards. At the end of this stage, pupils will be able to
complete tasks with accuracy and fluency without any help at all from the
teacher.
4. Generalization
While the first three stages of hierarchy concentate on skill/activity learning,
generalization represents a change in emphasis to skill/activity.
Up till now, children have been working on a single task. During generalization
they are presented with two or more tasks (which have both been taught
separately and progressed to the maintenance stage) and have to select the
right response. To do this pupils are shown to discriminate the critical features
of each task, for example, the signs for addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division in numerical operations.
A second type of generalization activity is known as differentiation. Children

give the same response to a task even through various aspects of it have
changed. For example, children are taught to identify/read a numeral 8,
presenting in different colour, size and or background. Another example is to
teach a child to cut on the straight line using different paper or cloth materials.
The child’s response will be same though the material presented is different.
We, the teachers should take entire role in teaching children how to generalize
skills, whether it is via the process of discrimination or differentiation.
Therefore, the teaching periods need to be followed by intensive practice
sessions where children are given a large number of generalization activities to
complete on their own.
Teaching Procedures for Generalization

The first three stages of the instructional hierarchy focus on presenting a pupil
with a single task within a familiar format which requires a single type of
response. However, eventually children need to use those skills in different
and more complex settings than the ones they have hitherto experienced.
Several teaching procedures can be adopted to teach children to generalize
(modeling, instructions, cues, testing, prompting, practice, feedback, rewards
and a correction procedure) which represent procedures used both before and
after the child completes the task. However, it is likely that suitable
instructions alone will be sufficient for most pupils with perhaps the occasional
prompt or use of cues.
1.2 Principles of teaching – concrete,
iconic/representational, symbolic
Each child is different from the other and hence requires individualized
instruction, there are certain fundamental principles that have to be born in
mind while imparting any skill to the child and so the teaching must always
proceed from:
 Simple to complex: Always start with a step in which the child is bound to
meet with success. This would motivate the child to learn further. Goals
which are too high for the child should be avoided. As the child learns the
simpler steps, gradually introduce the complex or different steps.For ex. –
While teaching brushing teeth, one should start from front teeth and slowly
proceed to the teeth on either side, then the inside of the teeth.
 Known to unknown: The child’s current level of functioning must be the
starting point for teaching the skill. Consider what he knows in a skill as a
beginning for teaching the rest of the skill. Thus, if a child need to be taught
reading the word ‘dog’, one has to start with the identification of picture of
the dog which is known to the child, match the word dog to the picture and
let him identify the written word dog in two choice or multiple choice
situation.
 Concrete to abstract: Every teaching must have concrete examples
associated with it.For ex. To give the child the concept of Sunday which is
abstract, associate it with the activities of Sunday such as father won’t go to
office on Sunday and there is no school on Sunday and so on.
 Whole to part: Any concept taught must be introduced as a whole. Before
teaching about the various parts of our body, introduce the whole self-This
is the man, this is hand, this is head, these are your eyes and so on.
Similarly, words must be introduced as a whole before the letters that
makeup that word. These principles must be remembered while teaching
any topic to the child.
 From analysis to synthesis: When we divide a thing into easy parts or
separate elements in order to understand it easily is called analysis. It is the
process which helps in understanding the hidden elements of a thing or the
cause of some incident or behavior. Synthesis is just opposite of analysis. All
parts are shown as a whole. For example while teaching digestive system, we
should first analyse the different parts of digestive system one by one and
then gives the synthetic view of it. Hence a good teacher always proceeds
from analysis to synthesis.
 From particular to general: A teacher should always proceed from particular
to general statements. General facts, principles and ideas are difficult to
understand and hence the teacher should always first present particular
things and then lead to general things. Suppose the teacher is teaching
continuous tense while teaching English, he should first of all give few
examples and then on the basis of those make them generalize that this
tense is used to denote an action that is going on at the time of speaking.
 From empirical to rational: Empirical knowledge is that which is based on
observation and first and experience about which no reasoning is needed at
all. It is concrete, particular and simple. We can feel and experience it. On the
other hand rational knowledge is based upon arguments and explanations.
For example suppose the students are to be taught that water boils on
heating. They should first be made to heat the water and see it boiling. Then
the teacher should explain the process.
 From induction to deduction: The process of deriving general laws, rules or
formulae from particular examples is called induction. In it if a statement is
true in a special situation, it will also be true in other similar situations. It
means drawing a conclusion from set of examples. For example when
hydrogen reacts with boron, it gives Boron hydride, potassium reacts
hydrogen, it gives potassium hydride, we come to the conclusion that all
elements when reacts with hydrogen they from hydrides. While using this
process in teaching, a teacher has to present particular examples or
experiences and tell about similarity of their attributes. Deduction is just
opposite of induction. In it, we derive a certain particular conclusion from
general laws, rules or principles. For example in language teaching, before
giving the definition of noun, the students are acquainted with the example
of noun like man, chair, Delhi etc and then they are led to general definition
of noun
 From psychological to logical: Modern education gives more emphases on
psychology of the child. The child`s psychological development is of utmost
important than any other thing. A teacher while teaching should follow this
maxim viz from psychological to logical. Psychological approach takes into
consideration the pupil his interests, abilities, aptitudes, development level,
needs and reactions. The teacher should keep in mind the psychological
selection of the subject matter to be presented before the pupils. Logical
approach considers the arrangement of the choosen content into logical
order and steps. It is child centered maximum. For example a teacher tells
the story of a poem to students when they are not interested in reading, with
this a teacher proceeds from psychological to logical sequence.
 From Actual to Representative: First hand experiences makes learning more
vivid and efficient than to give them representative ones. A teacher while
selecting the content for presentation should make all efforts possible to
present it through actual, natural or real objects than from their improvised
representative one’s like pictures, models etc. For example to teach about
‘Golden Temple Amritsar’, a teacher should try his best to visit the actual
place and that learning will be more vivid and the pupils will retain it for a
long time inspite of teaching through sketches, model or a picture.
Representative forms should be used at the higher classes than in lower
classes.
Jerome Bruner and Education
Cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner felt the goal of education should be
intellectual development, as opposed to rote memorization of facts.
This lesson will discuss Bruner's theory of development and his three modes of
representation. We will also explore his beliefs on learning, language, and
discovery and differentiate his views from those of Jean Piaget.
Bruner held the following beliefs regarding learning and education:
 He believed curriculum should foster the development of problem-

solving skills through the processes of inquiry and discovery.
 He believed that subject matter should be represented in terms of the
child's way of viewing the world.
 That curriculum should be designed so that the mastery of skills leads to
the mastery of still more powerful ones.
 He also advocated teaching by organizing concepts and learning by
discovery.
 Finally, he believed culture should shape notions through which people
organize their views of themselves and others and the world in which
they live.
Three Stages of Representation

Jerome Bruner identified three stages of cognitive representation.
1. Enactive, which is the representation of knowledge through actions.

2. Iconic, which is the visual summarization of images.
3. Symbolic representation, which is the use of words and other symbols
to describe experiences.
The enactive stage appears first. This stage involves the encoding and storage
of information. There is a direct manipulation of objects without any internal
representation of the objects.
For example, a baby shakes a rattle and hears a noise. The baby has directly
manipulated the rattle and the outcome was a pleasurable sound. In the
future, the baby may shake his hand, even if there is no rattle, expecting his
hand to produce the rattling sounds. The baby does not have an internal
representation of the rattle and, therefore, does not understand that it needs
the rattle in order to produce the sound.
The iconic stage appears from one to six years old. This stage involves an
internal representation of external objects visually in the form of a mental
image or icon. For example, a child drawing an image of a tree or thinking of an
image of a tree would be representative of this stage.
The symbolic stage, from seven years and up, is when information is stored in
the form of a code or symbol such as language. Each symbol has a fixed
relation to something it represents. For example, the word 'dog' is a symbolic
representation for a single class of animal. Symbols, unlike mental images or
memorized actions, can be classified and organized. In this stage, most
information is stored as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol
systems.
Bruner believed that all learning occurs through the stages we just discussed.
Bruner also believed that learning should begin with direct manipulation of
objects. For example, in math education, Bruner promoted the use of algebra
tiles, coins, and other items that could be manipulated.
After a learner has the opportunity to directly manipulate the objects, they
should be encouraged to construct visual representations, such as drawing a
shape or a diagram.
Finally, a learner understands the symbols associated with what they
represent. For example, a student in math understands that the plus sign ( + )
means to add two numbers together and the minus sign ( - ) means to
subtract.
1.3 Teaching methods – e.g., multisensory, play way,

Montessori, Project, Teaching strategies – Principles of
reinforcement, task analysis, prompting, fading,
shaping chaining
Multi-Sensory Approach
Multisensory Approach is the simultaneous use of visual, auditory, and

kinesthetic-tactile to enhance memory and learning.
Links are consistently made between the visuals (what we see), auditory (what
we hear), and kinesthetic- tactile (what we do or feel) which enable the learner
to store the information directly to the brain in its real sense.
MONTESSORI METHOD
Montessori is a method of education that is based on self-directed activity,
hands-on learning and collaborative play. In Montessori classrooms children
make creative choices in their learning, while the classroom and the teacher
offer age-appropriate activities to guide the process. Children work in groups
and individually to discover and explore knowledge of the world and to develop
their maximum potential.
Montessori classrooms are beautifully crafted environments designed to meet
the needs of children in a specific age range. Dr. Maria Montessori discovered
that experiential learning in this type of classroom led to a deeper
understanding of language, mathematics, science, music, social interactions
and much more. Most Montessori classrooms are secular in nature, although
the Montessori educational method can be integrated successfully into a faith-
based program.
Every material in a Montessori classroom supports an aspect of child
development, creating a match between the child’s natural interests and the
available activities. Children can learn through their own experience and at
their own pace. They can respond at any moment to the natural curiosities
that exist in all humans and build a solid foundation for life-long learning.
Hallmarks of Montessori
Components necessary for a program to be considered authentically Montessori
include multiage groupings that foster peer learning, uninterrupted blocks of
work time, and guided choice of work activity. In addition, a full complement of
specially designed Montessori learning materials are meticulously arranged and
available for use in an aesthetically pleasing environment.
The teacher, child, and environment create a learning triangle. The classroom
is prepared by the teacher to encourage independence, freedom within limits,
and a sense of order. The child, through individual choice, makes use of what
the environment offers to develop himself, interacting with the teacher when
support and/or guidance is needed.
Multiage groupings are a hallmark of the Montessori Method: younger children
learn from older children; older children reinforce their learning by teaching
concepts they have already mastered. This arrangement also mirrors the real
world, where individuals work and socialize with people of all ages and
dispositions.
Dr. Montessori observed that children experience sensitive periods, or windows
of opportunity, as they grow. As their students develop, Montessori teachers
match appropriate lessons and materials to these sensitive periods when
learning is most naturally absorbed and internalized.
In early childhood, Montessori students learn through sensory-motor activities,
working with materials that develop their cognitive powers through direct
experience: seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, touching, and movement.
In the elementary years, the child continues to organize his thinking through
work with the Montessori learning materials and an interdisciplinary curriculum
as he passes from the concrete to the abstract. He begins the application of his
knowledge to real-world experiences.
This organization of information—facts and figures—prepares the child for the
world of adolescence, when thought and emotion evolve into understanding
more abstract, universal concepts such as equity, freedom, and justice.
Inside A Montessori Classroom
Montessori classrooms are peaceful, happy places designed to meet the
developmental needs of each child in every stage of life.
They contain many places for children to learn and play, in many different ways:
by themselves, in pairs, in small groups, in large groups, inside, outside, at tables,
on the floor. All items in the environment are scaled to the child’s size, including
furniture, shelves, utensils, dishware, cleaning implements and the Montessori
materials themselves. There is no focal center to the classroom; this reflects that
the teacher is not the focus of the children’s attention, but that they are all one
community together. Bright and attractive colors, natural materials, fascinating
cultural objects and interesting pictures on the wall all offer the children
complex sensory and intellectual experiences. When children first enter a
Montessori environment, there is an immediate and touching moment when
they realize that this place is for them.
In Montessori classrooms, children are taught how to regulate their own social
interactions. Through fun role-playing activities and appropriate modeling, the
teacher demonstrates the best way to respond to arguments or new situations,
giving the child the ability to act confidently and pro-socially when the actual
problem arises. The result is a self-regulating classroom, in which natural social
tensions are resolved mostly by the children themselves.
Children move freely throughout the environment, choosing activities that
interest them, or working with the teacher, individually, or in small groups. Their
movement is unrestricted by the teacher unless it endangers themselves, other
people, or their surroundings. Outdoor environments are important in
Montessori schools, and offer opportunities to engage with the natural world.
Guiding Principles
The guiding principles of Montessori education are the same across all age
levels, and are grounded in over one hundred years of work with children
around the world.
RESPECT: Maria Montessori profoundly respected children and the
developmental powers that drive them to seek certain experiences.
Montessori education reframes the adult/child relationship to place the child
at the center of his own learning. In Montessori classrooms, teachers respect
children as separate and unique individuals. They guide children to respect the
people and objects in their environment, and as the child grows older, to
respect and understand the connectedness between all living and non-living
things, leading to the adolescent’s profound awareness of the complex web of
human existence.
PREPARED ENVIRONMENT: Children’s needs change as they move through
stages of development. At each level of Montessori education, this difference
is honored through the preparation of the classroom environment. The
environment is prepared in every way for optimal development: physically,
cognitively, socially and emotionally. By aligning the activities in the
environment with what each child needs at any moment, Montessori prepared
environments liberate children’s energy for growth and learning.
HANDS-ON LEARNING: Montessori classrooms are interactive environments in
which hands-on exploration is not only encouraged, it is necessary. By using
the mind, the body, and the senses, learning becomes an activity that engages
the whole self. Any parent will agree that children do; Montessori
environments follow this natural inclination of children towards activity by
offering an appropriate variety of objects and activities for meaningful
engagement.
DISCOVERY: One of the most profound differences between Montessori
education and conventional education is that, in Montessori, children are given
the experience of discovering the answer for themselves. This leads to a much
deeper learning experience, and creates a lifelong love of learning as a self-
directed process of problem-solving and discovery.
A MONTESSORI-TRAINED ADULT: The trained Montessori teacher links the
child to activities and experiences in the prepared environment. Specialized
training results in a deep knowledge of child development, the purposes and
use of each activity, and an understanding of how to foster and maintain social
harmony in the classroom.
IMAGINATION: Montessori classrooms support the development of imagination
and creativity at every stage of learning. The open-ended activities allow
children to explore new ideas and relationships, providing a foundation for self-
expression and innovation. In the early years, the building blocks of imagination
are firmly established through sensory exploration of the world, launching both
imagination and creative self-expression.
FREEDOM OF CHOICE: Maria Montessori recognized that when allowed
freedom of choice within clear, firm and reasonable boundaries, children act in
positive ways that further their development. Freedom is frequently
misunderstood, and many people take it to mean that children can do
whatever they want. Montessori believed that freedom without boundaries
was abandonment. In Montessori classrooms, expectations are clear, and
children experience the natural and logical consequences of their choices. This
freedom within limits allows for the natural development of self-regulation
within the society of the classroom, as well as mirroring behaviors expected by
society in general.
INDEPENDENCE: From the moment of birth onwards, humans strive towards

independence. Children feel this need very strongly; they want to do things for
themselves, and to participate in the world around them. In Montessori
classrooms, this natural drive towards independence is fostered through
practical, social and intellectual experiences. The child becomes an active agent
in her own education, saying, “Help me to do it myself”. We honor this by
helping children move to increasingly higher levels of independence and self-
reliance.
MONTESSORI LEARNING MATERIALS: Throughout the room, children will be
sorting, stacking, and manipulating all sorts of beautiful objects made of a
range of materials and textures. Many of these objects will be made of smooth
polished wood. Others are made of enameled metal, wicker, and fabric. Also
available to explore are items from nature, such as seashells and birds’ nests.
Montessori teachers make a point to handle Montessori materials slowly,
respectfully, and carefully, as if they were made of gold. The children naturally
sense something magical about these beautiful learning objects.
Ingenious
Each learning material teaches just 1 skill or concept at a time. For example,
we know that young children need to learn how to button buttons and tie
bows. Dr. Montessori designed “dressing frames” for children to practice on.
The frame removes all distractions and simplifies the child’s task. The child
sees a simple wooden frame with 2 flaps of fabric—1 with 5 buttonholes and 1
with 5 large buttons. His task is obvious. If he makes an error, his error is
obvious.
Built-in “control of error” in many of the Montessori materials allows the child
to determine if he has done the exercise correctly. A teacher never has to correct
his work. He can try again, ask another child for help, or go to a teacher for
suggestions if the work doesn’t look quite right.
Materials contain multiple levels of challenge and can be used repeatedly at
different developmental levels. A special set of 10 blocks of graduated sizes
called “the pink tower” may be used just for stacking; combined with “the brown
stair” for comparison; or used with construction paper to trace, cut, and make a
paper design. The pink tower, and many other Montessori materials, can also be
used by older children to study perspective and measurement.
Montessori materials use real objects and actions to translate abstract ideas into
concrete form. For example, the decimal system is basic to understanding math.
Montessori materials represent the decimal system through enticing, pearl-
sized golden beads.
Loose golden beads represent ones. Little wire rods hold sets of 10 golden
beads—the 10-bar. Sets of 10 rods are wired together to make flats of 100
golden beads—the hundred square. Sets of 10 flats are wired together to make
cubes of 1,000 golden beads—the thousand cube.
Children have many activities exploring the workings of these quantities. They
build a solid inner physical understanding of the decimal system that will stay
with them throughout school and life.
Later, because materials contain multiple levels of challenge, the beads can be
used to introduce geometry. The unit is a point; the 10-bar is a line; the hundred
square a surface; the thousand cube, a solid.
Montessori learning materials are ingeniously designed to allow children to
work independently with very little introduction or help. The students are
empowered to come into the environment, choose their own work, use it
appropriately, and put it away without help.
Invite Activity
Maria Montessori believed that moving and learning were inseparable. The child
must involve her entire body and use all her senses in the process of learning.
She needs opportunities built into the learning process for looking, listening,
smelling, touching, tasting, and moving her body.
When you look at Montessori materials, you are drawn to explore them with
your senses. For example, you would want to pick up the sound cylinders and
shake them. They consist of 2 matched sets of wooden cylinders containing
varying substances that create different sounds when shaken.
The child sorts the sound cylinders using only his listening skill. Two cylinders
have the barely audible sound of sand. Two have the slightly louder sound of
rice inside them. Others contain beans or items that sound louder still. After
matching the cylinders, the child can grade the cylinders—that is, put the
cylinders in order of softest to loudest, or loudest to softest.
“Grow” with the Child
Montessori materials are designed to follow the students throughout their
education; they are like familiar faces greeting them in their new classrooms as
they advance.
For example, exploring the “binomial cube”—made up of 8 red, black, and blue
cubes and prisms—the early childhood student develops visual discrimination
of color and form. The elementary child labels the parts to explore, concretely,
the algebraic formula (a+b) 3. The upper elementary child uses the binomial
cube as the foundation for work with more advanced materials to solve
algebraic equations.
Invite Discovery
Montessori-structured lessons are the “work” or procedures for each set of
materials. A teacher may give a lesson to a child or small group of children,
another child may give a lesson, a child may learn how a lesson works by
watching others, or a child may explore certain types of materials freely.
For a young child, the Montessori-structured lesson may be silent and may be
only a few moments long. This lesson models a method for laying work on a mat
or table in an orderly fashion. The lesson helps children develop work habits,
organization skills, and general thinking strategy, but it never teaches children
the answers.
Teaching children the answers steals their chance to make exciting discoveries
on their own—whether the child is a baby wondering “Can I reach that rattle?,”
a preschooler contemplating “Why did this tower of cubes fall down?,” an
elementary school student pondering “When you divide fractions, why do you
invert and multiply?,” or a high school student puzzling “How does city council
operate?”
For students of every age, the Montessori environment offers the tools to
discover the answers to their own questions. The teacher is their trusted ally
and the learning materials are their tools for discovery, growth, and
development. The teacher stays with the students for the entire span of their
multi-age grouping, usually 2 or 3 years, nurturing each child’s development
over that extended span of time.
Elementary and high school materials build on the earlier Montessori materials
foundation. Because older students have built a solid foundation from their
concrete learning, they move gracefully into abstract thinking, which
transforms their learning. Now they learn how to carry out research. At these
upper levels, students broaden their focus to include the community and
beyond. They learn through service and firsthand experience. The Montessori
materials support responsible interactive learning and discovery.
BENEFITS OF MONTESSORI EDUCATION
Montessori education offers children opportunities to develop their potential as
they step out into the world as engaged, competent, responsible, and respectful
citizens with an understanding and appreciation that learning is for life.
 Each child is valued as a unique individual. Montessori education
recognizes that children learn in different ways, and accommodates all
learning styles. Students are also free to learn at their own pace, each
advancing through the curriculum as he is ready, guided by the teacher and
an individualized learning plan.
 Beginning at an early age, Montessori students develop order,

coordination, concentration, and independence. Classroom design,
materials, and daily routines support the individual’s emerging “self-
regulation” (ability to educate one’s self, and to think about what one is
learning), toddlers through adolescents.
 Students are part of a close, caring community. The multi-age classroom—
typically spanning 3 years—re-creates a family structure. Older students
enjoy stature as mentors and role models; younger children feel supported
and gain confidence about the challenges ahead. Teachers model respect,
loving kindness, and a belief in peaceful conflict resolution.
 Montessori students enjoy freedom within limits. Working within
parameters set by their teachers, students are active participants in
deciding what their focus of learning will be. Montessorians understand
that internal satisfaction drives the child’s curiosity and interest and results
in joyous learning that is sustainable over a lifetime.
 Students are supported in becoming active seekers of
knowledge. Teachers provide environments where students have the
freedom and the tools to pursue answers to their own questions.
 Self-correction and self-assessment are an integral part of the Montessori
classroom approach. As they mature, students learn to look critically at
their work, and become adept at recognizing, correcting, and learning from
their errors.
Given the freedom and support to question, to probe deeply, and to make
connections, Montessori students become confident, enthusiastic, self-directed
learners. They are able to think critically, work collaboratively, and act boldly—
a skill set for the 21st century.
Role Play
Role-play is any speaking activity when you either put yourself into somebody
else’s shoes, or when you stay in your own shoes but put yourself into an
imaginary situation.
Imaginary people – The joy of role-play is that students can ‘become’ anyone
they like for a short time! The President, the Queen, a millionaire, a pop star
…….. the choice is endless! Students can also take on the opinions of someone
else
Play Way Method
Play way in education aims to introduce the spirit of play in all educational
institutions. The methods and techniques used for imparting education must
be able to create an environment in which the child can learn his lesson or
acquire the desired knowledge.
Play-way in education insists on child centered education. It advocates

educating children through activities in which children can put their heart and
soul and work in an atmosphere of freedom and spontaneity.
Project Method
Utilizing the project method of teaching in technology education (TE) is not a
new development. TE teachers have been using projects as a means of
teaching technical skills, tool usage, and problem solving since the very
beginning of the profession. The project method also provides an excellent
means for increasing student learning. Over the past decade, there has been a
paradigm shift in TE, leading the profession away from its roots, the project
method of teaching. With the infusion of new technology and computer
modules, some TE programs have been moving away from what worked for
the profession in the past. This paradigm change has caused a debate and a
split in the profession related to the methods used to teach TE. An overriding
question the profession must ask is, "Has this been paradigm shift been
beneficial for TE students?"
The project method is a teacher-facilitated collaborative approach in which

students acquire and apply knowledge and skills to define and solve realistic
problems using a process of extended inquiry. Projects are student-centered,
following standards, parameters, and milestones clearly identified by the
instructor. Students have control over the planning, refining, presenting, and
reflecting of the project. Through projects, students are engaged in innovation
and creativity.
Project method of teaching has evolved from the philosophy of

programatists. It is experience-centered strategy related to life-situation. This
teaching strategy focus on
1. To socialize a child
2. To achieve cognitive, affective and psychomotor objectives
This teaching strategy is based on the following principles
1. Principle of Utility. Choose those projects which are closer to the

social life.
2. Principle of readiness. Involve the learners in finding the solution of
the problem with their active participation.
3. Learning by Doing. Learner performs certain tasks and experiences
new things. This adds to his knowledge and results in learning.
4. Socialization. It develops the feeling of cooperation and group
work.
5. Inter-disciplinary Approach. To involve the knowledge of different
subjects in solving the social problems.
Types of Project Method of Teaching
According to Kilpatric, “A project is a whole-hearted purposeful activity
proceeding in a social environment. Kilpatric has classified the project method
in four types.
1. Constructive. When learners have to construct some things related
to social life. e.g. charts, models, maps, parcels etc.
2. Artistic. These projects are generally allotted in the aesthetic fields
of life. e.g. in music, drawing, painting art and culture.
3. Problem-Solving. These projects are given to solve the problems
related to any life-situation or related to any subject e.g. how to
operate bank accounts? Or how to send an email or letter. These
general problems if solved, will make a child efficient for social-life.
4. Group-Work. A team of students is assigned a work to be
performed. e.g. to develop a garden in the school.
There are four basic elements of this teaching strategy which make it
purposeful 1. Spontaneity, Purpose, Significance, and Interest or Motivation.
Advantages
1. It helps in developing social norms and social values among the
learners.
2. It provides invaluable opportunities for correlation of various
elements of the subject matter and for transfer of training or
learning.
3. It helps in growing knowledge very effectively as a results of their
close cooperation on social participation in the spirit of democracy.
Disadvantages
1. The project cannot be planned for all subjects and whole subject
matter cannot be taught by this strategy.
2. It is not economical from the point of view of time and cost.
3. It is very difficult for a teacher to plan or to execute the projects to
the learners and supervise them.
Teaching Strategies
Task Analysis
Due to the intellectual impairment, the children with mental retardation have
limited capacity to learn, retain and recall the learned skills. The tasks like
eating, dressing or bathing, which non-disabled children learn to do by
themselves after certain age are to be taught to children with mental
retardation. Further, it is observed that children with mental retardation are
unable to learn the task as a whole, but when presented the task in simple
steps, they are able to make better progress. The process of identifying these
small steps is known as task analysis.
What is task analysis?

To tell you in simple words, it is the analysis of a task into simpler steps and
arranging them in a sequential order. Macarthy (1987) states that task analysis
is a teaching strategy in which the task is broken down into teachable
components and arranged in sequential order. It is a blueprint for instruction/
teaching, through which a student should proceed to achieve the terminal
goal. It describes an end point of what must be learned but not the methods
that will be employed for learning. Therefore, it is not a teaching methodology.
Need for task analysis

Task analytic approach helps us in pinpointing students functioning level on a
specific task and also provides basis for sequential instruction. In addition, we
can tailor-make the sub-tasks as per each students pace of learning. It is very
important when we are teaching children with severe and profound mental
retardation. For them, the steps must be sequenced with more precision and
care, not ignoring any minute detail.
Procedure for analyzing the task
Yes, you need to, follow the steps given below.
 Identify and describe the task, which you want the student to learn.
 Then, analyze the task into its essential components and arrange them in
a sequential order.
 Find out the current level functioning of the child in the task.
 Consider the need for task slicing of sub-task.
(See Table-1)
If a task has numerous sub-tasks, take a set of only 10-12 sub-tasks

sequentially at a time, to teach. When the student learns then take another
10-12 sub-tasks and finally link all of them from the total task.
Methods for analyzing the tasks
For analyzing task, a few methods have been suggested, hence, any of which
you may use. After identifying and specifying the task to be taught, you have to
do a systematic analysis of the task and organize the sub-tasks in a hierarchical
order. The following are some of the methods.
1. Watch a master: In this method, you observe another person
performing the task and write down the steps. Ask your friend to do the
task, which you have selected for the student for teaching. Observe
him/her keenly and write the steps
2. Self-monitoring: perform the selected task by yourself and list the steps.
Sometimes, doing the task and writing the steps may be difficult as the
writing will interrupt the performance of task.
3. Backward chaining: In this method, focus at the terminal objective and
write down the components in the preceding level of difficulty – i.e.,
recording from last step to first step.
4. Brainstorm: First, write down all the component steps irrespective of
the sequence. Later, arrange the steps in a logical order.
To check whether your statements of sub-tasks are clear, or whether you have
noted down all the components of the task, do the exercise as suggested
below. We need two persons, one to read the statements and another to
follow the instructions and perform. A few audience to observe the person
performing the task will be helpful. Ask the person who has to read the
statements to face the wall and the other to face audience. Instruct the person
who has to perform the task to follow strictly the way the steps are read. The
person will complete the task if the statements are clear, if not she will end up
not completing the task. It is a very useful exercise to check the clarity of the
statements and you will enjoy doing this activity, as well as correct errors in
the listing.
Reinforcement
If we were to examine the course of events in our daily lives, we would readily
see that our continued performance of certain behaviours is due to the results
or performing consequences of those behaviours. Every action we engage in
results in some consequence. When our behaviour results in a naturally
occurring, desirable consequence, this experience serves as a motivating force
for our continued performance. However, some times this natural process may
be insufficient to maintain all desirable behaviours and we need to look for
more powerful ones that motivate learning.
What is reinforcement?
Reinforcement describes a relationship between two environmental events, a
behaviour (response) and an event or stimulus (consequence) that follows the
response. The relationship is termed reinforcement only if the response
increases or maintains its rate as a result of the consequence.
Definition:
Reinforcement is frequently the critical component of programmatic attempts
 to teach new behaviours
 to increase existing behaviours that are occurring infrequently
 to maintain behaviours at acceptable levels.
Positive reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is the contingent presentation of a stimulus,
immediately following a response, that increases the future rate and/or
probability of the response. There are three operative words in this definition.
 The word increases makes it clear that the stimulus presented as a

consequence following a response will have the effect of increasing the
probability that the response will occur again.
 The second operative word is presentation. The stimulus is intentionally
presented to the student following the production of a response.
 The third operative word is contingent. The teacher will not present the
consequence to the student unless and until the required response is
produced. If a teacher states the contingency, “Krishna, when you finish
all your math problems, you may play with the airplane models,” the
teacher is using positive reinforcement (if airplane models are
reinforcing to Krishna). The reinforcing stimulus (playing with airplane
models) will be presented to the student contingent upon production of
the requested behaviour (completion of math problems).
Negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is the contingent removal of an aversive stimulus
immediately following a response that increases the future rate and/or
probability of the response.
 The first operative word is, increases, which implies that some form of
reinforcement is taking place.
 The second operative word is removal.
In positive reinforcement a stimulus is presented to the student, in
negative reinforcement something is removed from the student’s
environment.
 The third operative word is contingent.
The teacher will not remove the aversive condition unless and until the
requested response is produced. If teacher states the contingency “Krishna,
you must stay in the room by yourself and finish all your maths problems
before you may join the rest of the class in the playground”, that teacher is
using negative reinforcement. The aversive condition of being left behind in
the classroom while the rest of the class goes to the playground will be
removed contingent upon completion of the maths assignment that Krishna
should have completed earlier.
Negative reinforcement works because the student performs the behaviour to
escape the aversive stimulus. It is not necessary, however, for an aversive
stimulus to be present in order for negative reinforcement to work. Negative
reinforcement also works when a student performs some behaviour in order to
avoid an aversive stimulus.
Schedules Of Reinforcement
Continuous schedule of reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement refer to patterns of timing for delivery of
reinforcers. Delivery of reinforcement on a continuous basis is referred to as a
continuous schedule of reinforcement (CRF). That is, each time the student
produces the target response she or he immediately receives a reinforcer. This
schedule may be seen as having an one-to-one ratio – Response:
Reinforcement.
Because of this dense ratio of response to reinforcement, CRF schedules are

most useful in teaching new behaviours (acquisition), especially to young and
disabled tudents. It is necessary to ensure that a student who is learning a new
behaviour will receive a reinforcer for each response that is closer to a correct
response.
Problems with CRF schedules
 A student whose behaviour is on a CRF schedule may become satiated

on the reinforcer, especially if a primary reinforcer is being used. Once
correct responding is frequent, the continuous receipt of an edible item
will reduce the deprivation state and thereby reduce motivation for
correct responding.
 Continuous delivery of reinforcers may lead to accusations that teachers
are training students to expect some type of reinforcement every time
they do as they are told.
 CRF schedules are not the most efficient way to maintain behaviour
following its initial acquisition or control. Once behaviour has been
acquired, or its frequency increased, by reinforcement on a CRF
schedule, teachers may terminate the intervention program. The
transfer from continuous reinforcement to no reinforcement results in
rapid loss of the behaviour. This problem may be solved through use of a
variety of less-than-continuous schedules.
Intermittent Schedules of reinforcement

In intermittent schedules, reinforcement follows some, but not all, correct or
appropriate responses. Because each occurrence of the behaviour is no longer
reinforced, intermittent schedules put off satiation effects. Behaviours
maintained on intermittent schedules are also more resistant to extinction. In
addition, intermittent schedules require greater numbers of correct responses
for reinforcement. As a result, the student learns to delay gratification and to
maintain appropriate behaviour over longer periods of time.
The two categories of simple intermittent schedules most often used to
increase frequency of response are, ratio schedules and interval schedules.
Ratio schedules
Under ratio schedules, the number of times a target behaviour occurs
determines the timing of reinforcer delivery. Under a fixed ratio schedule (FR),
the student is reinforced on completion of a specified number of correct
responses. Under a Variable Ratio schedule (VR), the target response is
reinforced on the average of a specified number of correct responses.
Interval schedules
Under interval schedules, the occurrence of at least one correct or appropriate
response plus the passage of a specific amount of time are the determinants
for delivery of the reinforcer. Under a fixed interval schedule (FI), the student
is reinforced the first time he or she performs the target response following
the elapse of a specified number of minutes. Under a Variable Interval (VI)
schedule, the intervals are of different lengths, while their average length is
consistent.
Response duration schedules
Under response-duration schedules, the continuous amount of time of a target
behaviour is the determinant for delivery of the reinforcer. Under a fixed-
response-duration schedule (FRD), the student is reinforced following
completion of a specified number of minutes (or seconds) of appropriate
behaviour. Under a Variable Response Duration (VRD) schedule, continuous
appropriate behaviour is reinforced on the average of a specified time period.
Modelling
Either knowingly or unknowingly most of us acquire behaviours through

modeling and imitation. Children learn behaviours by observing others
deliberately or by chance. They imitate not only the behaviour of others whom
they consider as important but also their own behaviour. Simple repetitions of
actions are one of the earliest forms of imitation. The ability to imitate
constitutes a `Learning to learn skill’ which becomes a major tool in the child’s
future development.
Modelling is a method of teaching by demonstration. It can be used to teach

new behaviours or to correct the performance of an already learnt behaviour
in the child. Modelling prompts are slightly more intrusive than verbal prompts
because the teacher must demonstrate the correct response. The model
responses are not limited to human performances. The model can be printed
through visual illustration.
Modelling can be an effective way to prompt behaviours if certain conditions

are met.
 The effectiveness of modeling may be increased when the sex, age, and
characteristics of the model closely resemble those of the imitator.
 The presence of the model increases the likelihood of success.
 Visual attending skills are important because the student must see the
model to imitate the performance.
 Modelling as a prompt should be used only with students who have
already developed imitation skills.
Shaping
Shaping refers to sequential, systematic reinforcement of successive

approximations of target behaviour until the behaviour is achieved. Suppose a
teacher wants Harish to remain in his seat for an entire 20 minutes work
period. She has observed that Harish has never remained in his seat for longer
than 5 minutes with an average of 2 minutes. A programme in which Harish
earns a reinforcer for remaining in his seat for 20 minutes will never happen
and Harish will never earn a reinforcer. Instead of this approach, the teacher
defines her target behaviour as Harish remaining in his seat for the full 20
minutes but sets up a graduated sequence of criteria.
- Harish remains in his seat for 3 minutes.

Each step in the sequence will be reinforced until established. Then the
criterion for reinforcement will be shifted to the next step. Shaping procedures
may be used to establish new behaviours of many kinds, ranging from verbal
behaviour in severely disabled students to study behaviours in college
students.
Shaping appears deceptively simple. Its efficient use requires great skill on the
part of the teacher. First, the teacher should have the skill to precisely describe
the target behaviour. Second is the skill required planning a shaping
programme. The steps planned should be neither too small nor too large.
Finally the teacher must consider how long to remain at each plateau – just
long enough to establish the behaviour solidly, but not so long that the student
becomes struck at that level.
There are six steps that should be followed in shaping behaviour.
1. Select the target behaviour in precise and behavioural terms.

2. Obtain baseline data on how often the target behaviour is occurring in
the natural environment.
3. Select appropriate reinforcers.
4. Reinforce successive approximations.
5. Reinforce the target behaviour each time it occurs.
6. At the appropriate time, reinforce the target behaviour on an
intermittent schedule.
Chaining
Chaining refers to the actual process by which each of the responses is linked
to one another to form the behavioural chain. The identification of response
sequence is done through a task analysis.
Backward Chaining
When backward chaining is used, the components of the chain are acquired in
reverse order. The last component is taught first, and other components are
added one at a time. For example, to teach the task “taking off shirt”. The child
is given the instruction, “Raghu, take your shirt off”, and his shirt is pulled over
his head until the arms are free and the neckband is caught just above this
eyes. If the child does not automatically pull the short off, he is physically
guided to do so. Primary and social reinforcers are then given. During the next
training session, the neckband is left at his neck, in subsequent sessions, one
arm, then both arms are left in the sleeves. The verbal instruction, “Raghu,
take off your shirt”, is always presented and reinforcers given only when the
task is completed.
Forward Chaining
When forward chaining is used, the teacher starts with the first link in the
chain, trains it to criterion, and then goes on to the next. The student may be
required to perform all the steps previously mastered each time, or each step
may be separately trained to criterion and then the links made. To use forward
chaining to teach undressing skills, the teacher would start with the student
fully dressed, deliver the instruction, “Raghu, take your shirt off”, and then
provide whatever prompting was required to get Raghu to cross his arms and
grab the bottom of his tee-shirt. When Raghu reliably performed this
behaviour, she would add the next step until Raghu shirt is.
Total task presentation

We can also use total task presentation. Here, the student performs all of the
steps in sequence until the entire chain is mastered. Total task presentation
may be particularly appropriate when the student has already mastered some
or all of the components of a task but has not performed them in sequence.
However, it is also possible to teach completely novel chains in this manner.
Many academic chains are forged using a total task presentation. The
arithmetic teacher working on addition with carry over usually requires her
students to solve an entire problem, with whatever coaching is required, until
they have mastered the process.
One cannot say definitely that which chaining technique is most effective,
although there is some indication that total task presentation may be most
effective in teaching complex assembly tasks to retarded students. Classroom
teachers are again advised to try what seems in their professional judgment to
be the best procedure.
Prompting And Fading
A prompt is a form of temporary assistance used to help a student perform in

a desired manner. When a student is unable to perform a task, a prompt
(temporary assistance) is used to help the student perform the task. As the
student learns to perform the task, the temporary prompt is faded (slowly
removed) from use. Different types of prompts and methods of fading are
discussed below.
e.g.- When a skill is taught by using ‘hand over hand’ prompt, it should be
withdrawn as soon as possible so that child can perfrorm the task without
prompt.
Using prompting and fading
If a student does not perform a task/activity when we make a verbal request,

prompts are introduced in the following manner until the student has made
the desired response.
Level-1 Verbal Request (VR)

Level-2 VR + Verbal Prompt (VP)
Level-3 VR + VP + Gestural Prompt (GP)
Level-4 VR + VP + Modelling Prompt (MP)
Level-5 VR + VP + Physical Prompt (PP)
For example, a child is requested to wear a shirt. If the child does not wear the
shirt, give verbal prompt and wait for few seconds. When no response occurs,
the next level prompt (GP) is given. Similarly depending on the response the
prompt levels will be increased. The prompts are introduced in the “least-to-
most prompts sequence” as indicated above. This helps in finding out precisely
at what prompt level the student is able to perform a task and also in gradual
fading of prompts.
 Verbal request – The teacher requests the student to perform the task.
 Verbal prompts.
Giving additional instructions, emphasizing important words by saying them

louder or longer, giving single word reminders, bringing attention to each
important part of the instruction by pausing, are some of the verbal prompts
used in teaching tasks.
Gestural prompts
Gestural prompts are pointing the place where the response is to be made,
making noise by tapping finger where the response is to be made, and using
finger to relate the part of the task along with a verbal prompt.
Modelling
Modelling is a method of teaching by demonstration. In this, the teacher
models the performance of a task and the student imitates the model. The
modelling prompt is used when student fails to perform the activity following a
verbal prompt and gestural prompt.
Physical prompt
Here, a teacher uses her hands to support a student to go through the steps of
a task. The teacher may give complete physical support/partial physical
support depending on the type of support required by the student.
Among the above prompts the one with least assistance is the verbal prompt
and that of most assistant is the physical prompt. While providing prompts, the
teacher needs to check the level of assistance required by the student in the
beginning so that appropriate assistance is provided and the student moves
forward. As the student learn each step, the temporary assistance is faded
away and the student is made to perform the task by himself.
FADING: The process of gradual decrease in assistance or help by so that the

child could begins to perform the activity or behavior independently, called
Fading.
For example, fading the physical prompt of guiding a child’s hands may follow
this sequence: (a) supporting wrists, (b) touching hands lightly, (c) touching
forearm or elbow, and (d) withdrawing physical contact altogether. Fading
ensures that the child does not become overly dependent on a particular
prompt when learning a new skill. One of the first decisions that should be
made when teaching a new behavior is how to fade the prompt or prompts. A
plan should be in place to fade the prompts in an orderly fashion.
The approach of fading is built on studies in operant conditioning in which a

new stimulus was presented alongside an existing one to which a response had
been learnt. The old stimulus was gradually faded out, by a process of stimulus
attenuation, its frequency or intensity reduced, and it was shown that this
allowed the new stimulus to gain control of the response.
 Stimulus attenuation: Gradual decreasing of an external stimulus.
 Applied Behavior Analysis: Behavior Analysis is the scientific study of
behavior. Applied behavior analysis is the process of systematically
applying interventions based upon the principles of learning theory to
improve socially significant behaviors to a meaningful degree, and to
demonstrate that the interventions employed are responsible for the
improvement in behavior.
 Operant conditioning:
A learning process in which the likelihood of a specific behavior increase
s or decreases in response to reinforcementor punishment that occurs w
hen the behavior is exhibited, so that the subject comes to associate the
behavior withthe pleasure from the reinforcement or the displeasure fro
m
the punishment.
1.4 Selection and use of TLM, and Information and
communication technology (ICT) for teaching.
Importance of Teaching Aids

There is a popular saying about teaching and learning, which a special teacher
should note:
 What I hear, I forget
 What I see, I remember
 What I do , I understand (know )
Teaching aid is a smaller and narrower term than teaching material or

instructional material.
“Teaching aid is an additional help, that we use while teaching a particular
task.”
Teaching material can be widely used as textbook, handbook, lesson notes,
programmes, references or sources material etc
They help students in self-study and even in their distance education
programme.
 The teaching material are prepared by high level of experts or
professional in their field of specialization.
 The teaching material covers the topics as per course or syllabus to be

covered by the students and teachers.
 They help only in teaching strategies with individual and groups.
 They help to teacher to make Teaching-Learning process interactive.
 When a teaching aid(any) is used for learning a concept it is technically

referred to as teaching aids.
 Once a concept is learnt the utility of the specific learning aid is reduced.
 Planning, implementation and evaluation of the students are done with

the help of these materials.
Teaching aids are useful to:

 reinforce what you are saying,
 ensure that your point is understood,
 signal what is important/essential,
 enable students to visualise or experience something that is impractical

to see or do in real life,
 engage students’ other senses in the learning process,
 facilitate different learning styles.
Types of TLM
 Visual Aids: “Visual aid is a material which appeal the sense of sight only.”
1. Black Boards
2. Models
3. Charts, pictures
4. Slides
5. Bulletin Board
 Audio- Visual Aids: “ Audio-visual aid are the material which appeal to the
both sight and sound are called as Audio-visual aids.” It helps to make the
learning more concrate, more realistic, and most dyanamic.
1. Over Head Projector
2. Film Projector
3. Television
4. Video cassette player
 Audio Aids: “Audio aid is an electric device which gives out sound.”
1. Tape Recorder
2. Gramophone
3. Radio
 Activity Aids:
1. Museum
2. Garden
3. Work shop
4. Fair
5. Kitchen
6. Aquarium
7. Exhibitions
Selection of Teaching Material and Aids
 Age Appropriate
 Suited to the level of learner
 Motivate Children with mental retardation in learning
 Readily available
 Prepared from local resources
 Inexpensive
 Accurate in representation of facts
 Attractive, symmetrical and colorful for children
 Prepared in easy and simple language
 Easy in manipulation in class
 Appropriate in size
 Related to curriculum
 Easy enough to make complex and difficult concepts
According to UNESCO, "ICT is a scientific, technological and engineering

discipline and management technique used in handling information and
association with social, economic and cultural matters."
ICT refers to technologies that provide access to information through

telecommunications. It is similar to Information Technology (IT), but focuses
primarily on communication technologies. This includes the Internet, wireless
networks, cell phones, and other communication mediums. Jan 4, 2010
With knowledge come learning, skills, adaptability, understanding and
activism-all factors that contribute to the growth of an equitable society. ICT
offers the means to acquire this power. Since knowledge is vital, it follows that
the acquisition of knowledge must be lifelong.
The National curriculum framework (NCF) 2005," ICT is an important tool for
bridging social divides. ICT should be used in such a way that it becomes an
opportunity equalizer by providing information, communication and
computing resources in remote areas."
In many countries, digital literacy is being built through the incorporation of
information and communication technology (ICT) into schools. Some common
educational applications of ICT include:
 One laptop per child: Less expensive laptops have been designed for use
in school on a 1:1 basis with features like lower power consumption, a
low cost operating system, and special re-programming and mesh
network functions. Despite efforts to reduce costs, however, providing
one laptop per child may be too costly for some developing countries.
 Tablets: Tablets are small personal computers with a touch screen,
allowing input without a keyboard or mouse. Inexpensive learning
software (“apps”) can be downloaded onto tablets, making them a
versatile tool for learning. The most effective apps develop higher order
thinking skills and provide creative and individualized options for
students to express their understandings.
 Interactive White Boards or Smart Boards: Interactive white boards
allow projected computer images to be displayed, manipulated,
dragged, clicked, or copied. Simultaneously, handwritten notes can be
taken on the board and saved for later use. Interactive white boards are
associated with whole-class instruction rather than student-centred
activities. Student engagement is generally higher when ICT is available
for student use throughout the classroom.
 E-readers: E-readers are electronic devices that can hold hundreds of
books in digital form, and they are increasingly utilized in the delivery of
reading material. Students—both skilled readers and reluctant readers—
have had positive responses to the use of e-readers for independent
reading. Features of e-readers that can contribute to positive use include
their portability and long battery life, response to text, and the ability to
define unknown words.
 Flipped Classrooms: The flipped classroom model, involving lecture and
practice at home via computer-guided instruction and interactive
learning activities in class, can allow for an expanded curriculum. There
is little investigation on the student learning outcomes of flipped
classrooms. Student perceptions about flipped classrooms are mixed,
but generally positive, as they prefer the cooperative learning activities
in class over lecture.
1.5 Evaluation – continuous and comprehensive

evaluation, progress monitoring and documentation.
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) was a procedure of

assessment, directed by the Right to Education Act, of India in 2009. This
assessment proposal was introduced by state governments in India, as well as
by the Central Board of Secondary Education in India, for students of sixth to
tenth class and twelfth in some schools.
Continuous and comprehensive evaluation (CCE) means evaluating a student’s
performance to gauge the essential domains of development. It is a continuous
process planned periodically in the form of tests and assessments. Broadly, this
process focuses on the development of the essential domains namely
cognitive, affective, and psycho-motor.
We all know that a good assessment system includes the scholastic and co-
scholastic aspects of a student’s developmental process. The scholastic aspects
are the written and oral skills of a student. And the non-scholastic aspects
include performance in the co-curricular activities and life-skills etc.
CCE pattern includes formative and summative assessments to keep a check
on the student’s overall development. Be it digital schooling or physical school
structure, without this periodic and wholesome assessment process, a teacher
cannot deliver constructive feedback to the students. So, the continuous and
comprehensive evaluation process highlights the strengths and addresses the
pain areas of a student for constructive remedial action.
Purposes of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation:
CCE attempts to minimize fear and anxiety among our learners about
examination and evaluation. CCE helps learners, parents, and teachers in the
following ways:
 It reduces the dropout rate as there will be less fear and anxiety among
learners related to their performance.
 In CCE, greater focus is given on learning rather than on conducting tests
and examinations.
 It contributes to the holistic development of learners.
 CCE is used as an instrument of preparing learners for future life by
making them physically fit, mentally alert, emotionally balanced, and
socially adjusted.
 Learners get more time to develop their interests, hobbies, and
personalities through CCE.
 It promotes a learner-friendly environment, thereby optimizes student
learning.
 It equips students with life skills, especially creative and critical thinking
skills, social skills, and coping skills which will help them to face a highly
competitive environment later on.
Most people enjoy documenting their lives through photographs and videos.
In much the same way, schools have been documenting learning—both
formally and informally—for decades. Teachers can ask learners to
document their own learning for three purposes (Tolisano & Hale):
1. Documentation OF learning focuses on displaying artifacts: What did
the learner do? What is the result of the learning?
2. Documentation FOR learning focuses on interpretation of artifacts:
Why do I accept this artifact as evidence of my learning progress? How
could someone else learn from my failures and successes?
3. Documentation AS learning focuses on the learning process involved
in capturing and reflecting on artifacts: What is worthy of capture
during a learning opportunity? How can I convey my thinking visibly
and audibly using media platforms and tools?
Documentation of, for, and as learning are not direct synonyms
for assessment of, for, or as learning. While assessment is an integral part of
documentation, the learning framework of documentation goes beyond
assessment and allows student and adult learners to participate in their
learning processes.
Unit 2: Individualised Educational Programme and teaching
strategies
2.6. Concept, components of Individualised
Educational Programme (IEP) and
Individualised family support programme
(IFSP)
2.7. Developing IEP for homebased teaching
programme, special school setting and inclusive
school setting. Teaching strategies for group
teaching in special schools, individual, small
group and large group instruction
2.8. Class room management - team teaching,
shadow teaching, peer tutoring and cooperative
learning, use of positive behavioural
intervention strategies (PBIS)
2.9. Teaching strategies for individual with high support
needs.
2.10. Teaching strategies for teaching in inclusive
schools - Universal design for learning and
2.1 Concept, components of Individualised
Educational Programme (IEP) and
Individualised family support programme (IFSP)
Individualized Education Programme (IEP)

An I.E.P., or “Individualized Education Program,” is a written plan that describes
the unique needs of a child who is eligible for special education and explains the
specific services that the school will give the child.
An I.E.P. is an legal document that describes exactly what special education
services your child will receive and why. It will include your child’s eligibility,
present level of performance, services, goal and objectives. The I.E.P. is decided
at an I.E.P. meeting. The program must be designed to meet your Child’s unique
needs.
The IEP is a written plan prepared for a named student. It is a record of what is
being agreed as ‘additional to’ and ‘different from’ the usual differentiated
curriculum provision that is provided by every class/subject teacher.
The collaborative nature of the process, through the involvement of teachers,
parents, other professionals and the students him/herself facilitates the
creation and development of a working document, enabling true inclusion of
students.
Definition:
 I.E.P. is a management tool designed to ensure that in school Children
with Special Needs receive the special education and related services
appropriate to their needs. I.E.P. remain the corner stone of every
educational programme planned for each student with disability.
 I.E.P. is a written statement for a student with exceptionality that is
developed, reviewed and revised on a regular basis.
Historical Perspective
President Ford along with Congress passed legislation that was intended to
improve opportunities in education for handicapped children and adults
through the provision of a free appropriate public education. The law was called
Public Law 94-142.
This law provided that handicapped children and adults ages 3-21 be educated
in the "least restrictive environment" to the maximum extent appropriate,
meaning that they are educated with children who are not handicapped and
that special classes, separate schools or other removal of children from their
regular educational environment occurs only when the severity of the handicap
is such that education in regular classes cannot be achieved.
Before a child can be placed in a special education program, an extensive

evaluation procedure is required by PL 94-142. These criteria must be
determined before a child can be placed:
• whether a child has a physical or mental disability that substantially limits

learning.
• the possible causes of a child's disability
• strengths and weaknesses of a child in physical, emotional, social,
vocational and intellectual areas
• the educational diagnosis category that best describes a child's disability
• the special services, instructional techniques and other interventions that
the child needs
• the appropriate instructional placement for the child
• reasonable predictions of the child's academic, social and vocational
potential
The school is required to receive written permission from the parent before
conducting an evaluation of the child.
Once the child's evaluation is complete and it is determined that the child is
indeed eligible for placement in special education, an Individual Education Plan
(i.e.p.) must be written to meet the needs of that child.
An interdisciplinary team is formed to write the child's I.E.P. Under PL 94-142,

the team should, at a minimum, consist of a representative of the local school
district, the child's teachers and the child's parents. PL 94-142 does stipulate
certain criteria that are to be included in the I.E.P.
I.E.P. should include a statement of:
 the child's present level of educational performance;

 the annual goals, including short term instructional objectives;
 the specific special education and related services to be provided for the
child and the extent to which the child will be able to participate in regular
education program;
 the projected dates for initiation of services and anticipated duration of
services;
 The appropriate objective criteria and assessment procedures and schedule
for determining on at least an annual basis whether the short term
instructional objectives are being met.
Purpose And Needs Of IEP

 Get to know the child and discover their learning style, then the IEP will
better reflect the child's needs. I would also suggest obtaining the form
that may be filled out and used for Occasional Teachers.
 The IEP allows for a broader explanation of the student's strengths,
capabilities, weak areas, social balance, behavior needs and adjustments
needed for the education and personal growth of the child.
 The information on the IEP can direct the teachers, parents and other
professionals to compile the information that will give the student a
distinct advantage to reaching his/her educational requirements.
 It also allows for a clearer understanding of the individuals personal
needs.
 The main purpose of IEP is to provide appropriate education and training
to every child with mental retardation. As no two mentally retarded
children have similar abilities and needs, the development of IEP depends
on the needs of the child
 the IEP allows for a broader explanation of the student's strengths,
capabilities, weak areas, social balance, behavior needs and adjustments
needed for the education and personal growth of the child.
 The information on the IEP can direct the teachers, parents and other
professionals to compile the information that will give the student a
distinct advantage to reaching his/her educational requirements.
Components Of IEP
 General background information about the child.
 Assessment of current level of functioning in specific skills.
 Goals and short term objective.
 Methods and material to achieve the objective.
 Evaluation.
1. General Background Information About The Child

This data is collected when the child is brought to the school.
The information should be collected in the following areas:
 Family background
 Details about siblings
 Socio-economic status
 Pre-natal, natal post natal history
 Developmental history
 Other relevant factors.
2. Assessment of current level of functioning in specific skills
Assessment is the process of gathering and analyzing information in order to
make instructional/administrative and/or guidance decision about or for an
individual. - Wallac, Larson and Elkinson
Assessment is the most important component of I.E.P. because the whole
programme depends on the assessment.
Norm Reference Test: N.R.T. is a standardized measure. Standardized test is a
test in which the administration, scoring and interpretation procedures are set.
Eg: Intelligence Test, Achievement Test.
Criterion Reference Test: C.R.T. compares student’s performance to a fixed
criteria. In other words, C.R.T. is concerned with whether a child perform a skill
as per the criteria set or not. Eg: Teacher made test.
The assessment of the current level of functioning of the child must include:
 Motor skills: Gross Motor, Fine Motor
 Self Help Skills: Feeding (eating), Meal Time Activities, Toileting,
Dressing, Grooming
 Language Skills: Receptive language, Expressive language
 Social Skills
 Academics Skills: Reading, Writing, Number, Time, Money
 Measurement
 Domestic Skills (Skills performed in and around home)
 Community Orientation Skills
 Recreational Skills
 Vocational Skills
3. Setting of goals
 An Annual goal represent the achievement anticipated for a child in an
academic year. It is a prediction.
 Goals represents the developmental areas or domains.
o Eg: Rani will read English alphabet. (Annual Goal)
Consideration to select Annual Goal
 Child Past Achievement
 Present Level of Performance
 The practicality of the goals chosen
 Ability of the child
 Needs of the child
 Functionally Relevant Goals
 Priority Needs of the child
 Amount of time required
 Parental involvement
 Teachers ability
Short Term Objectives
S.T.O. are the breaking down of annual goals in to similar units.S.T.O. are the
specific curricular area derived from the goal which a teacher expects her
student to learn over a period of short duration.
 Writing behavioral objectives
 Under what conditions will this behavior? (Condition)
 Who is the person affected ? (Person)
 What is the behavioral in question? (Behavior)
 What level of performance is expected? (Criterion Level)
 Deadline
4. Teaching Methods, Techniques And Material To Achieve The Objective
 Play Way Method
 Montessory Method
 Project Method.
5. Evaluation
In order to measure the student’s performance in terms of predetermined set
of objectives evaluation is necessary. While evaluating the child for progress
following must be kept in mind.
1. There should not be bias on the part of the teacher .
2. The evaluation must be quantitative and qualitative.
3. There should be provision for written and verbal reports of the
results.
4. The evaluation must be continuous and should lead on to further
planning of programs for the child.
The Individualized Family Support Plan

The Individualized Family Support Plan is a written treatment plan or
document that identifies the child's and family's strengths and needs, sets
goals (for both the child and family members) or maps out early intervention
services for the child and determines the steps that will be taken to achieve
these goals.
It is a family based approach to services due to the central concept and
understanding that supporting a child’s family lends itself to supporting the
child or that the family is the child’s greatest resource and should be included
in all stages of the plan.
A multidisciplinary team, which includes the parents, develops an
Individualized Family Support Plan following the determination of eligibility, for
each child and family.
The IFSP differs from the IEP in several ways
• It revolves around the family, as it is the family that is the constant in a
child's life.
• It includes outcomes targeted for the family, as opposed to focusing only on
the eligible child.
• It names a service coordinator to help the family during the development,
implementation, and evaluation of the IFSP.
• It includes activities undertaken with multiple agencies beyond the scope of
Part C. These are included to integrate all services into one plan.
• It includes the notion of natural environments, which encompass home or
community settings such as parks, child care, and gym classes.
• This focus creates opportunities for learning interventions in everyday
routines and activities, rather than only in formal, contrived environments.
COMPONENTS
1. Child's current level of functioning and need :
• It includes strengths, interests and areas of concern.
• Areas include physical, cognitive, communication, social development
and adaptive environment.
2. Family information
• This includes details about family’s priorities, concerns and resources
as they relate to enhancing the development of the child.
3. Statement of the major outcomes:
• This includes writing the statement of the major outcomes (or goals)
expected to be achieved for the child and family.
• These should be short term goals and not the achievement goals for
the child’s entire life.
• The outcomes or goals must be relevant, specific and measurable.
• It should include the criteria, procedures and timelines used to
determine the degree to which progress toward achieving the
outcomes is being made.
4. Support and Services:
• The support and services that the child will receive should be listed in
detail to achieve the stated outcomes provided within the child and
family's daily routines and activities.
• Supports and services can be in the form of educational, medical,
paraprofessional and social services.
5. Place and Time:
 Where in the natural environment (school, home or community) the
services will be provided should be mentioned.
 When the services will begin, how often they will occur and how long
they will last should also be mentioned
 Who will pay for these services should also be mentioned (A variety
of funding resources may be used to pay for these services including
state and federal government resources, private insurance, family
resources and/or local agencies.
6. Service Coordinator:
a. The name of the Service Coordinator must be there. This person is

the family's primary contact for assistance throughout the IFSP
process, and is responsible for the implementation of the plan and
coordination with other agencies and people.
b. He should also connect the family with other families and ensure
that they understand their rights and procedural safeguards.
2.2 Developing IEP for homebased teaching

programme, special school setting and inclusive
school setting. Teaching strategies for group
teaching in special schools, individual, small
group and large group instruction
Developing IEP
The IEP Team Members
By law, certain individuals must be involved in writing a child's Individualized
Education Program. These are:
 The child’s parents
 At least one of the child’s special education teachers or providers
 At least one of the child’s regular education teachers (if the student is, or
may be, participating in the regular education environment);
 A representative of the school system;
 An individual who can interpret the evaluation results;
 Representatives of any other agencies that may be responsible for
paying for or providing transition services (if the student is 16 years or, if
appropriate, younger);
 The student, as appropriate, and
 Other individuals who have knowledge or special expertise about the
child.
Note that an IEP team member may fill more than one of the team positions if
properly qualified and designated. For example, the school system
representative may also be the person who can interpret the child's evaluation
results.
These people must work together as a team to write the child's IEP. A meeting
to write the IEP must be held within 30 calendar days of deciding that the child
is eligible for special education and related services.
Each team member brings important information to the IEP meeting. Members
share their information and work together to write the child's Individualized
Education Program. Each person's information adds to the team's
understanding of the child and what services the child needs.
Parents are key members of the IEP team. They know their child very well and
can talk about their child's strengths and needs as well as their ideas for
enhancing their child's education. They can offer insight into how their child
learns, what his or her interests are, and other aspects of the child that only a
parent can know. They can listen to what the other team members think their
child needs to work on at school and share their suggestions. They can also
report on whether the skills the child is learning at school are being used at
home. (See the information at the end of this section about parents’ possible
need for an interpreter.)
Teachers are vital participants in the IEP meeting as well. At least one of the
child's regular education teachers must be on the IEP team if the child is (or
may be) participating in the regular education environment. The regular
education teacher has a great deal to share with the team. For example, he or
she might talk about:
 The general curriculum in the regular classroom;
 The aids, services, or changes to the educational program that would help
the child learn and achieve; and
 Strategies to help the child with behavior, if behavior is an issue.
The regular education teacher may also discuss with the IEP team the supports
for school staff that are needed so that the child can:
 Advance toward his or her annual goals;
 Be involved and progress in the general curriculum;
 Participate in extracurricular and other activities; and
 Be educated with other children, both with and without disabilities.
Supports for school staff may include professional development or more
training. Professional development and training are important for teachers,
administrators, bus drivers, cafeteria workers, and others who provide services
for children with disabilities.
The child's special education teacher contributes important information and

experience about how to educate children with disabilities. Because of his or
her training in special education, this teacher can talk about such issues as:
 how to modify the general curriculum to help the child learn;
 the supplementary aids and services that the child may need to be
successful in the regular classroom and elsewhere;
 how to modify testing so that the student can show what he or she has
learned; and
 Other aspects of individualizing instruction to meet the student's unique
needs.
Beyond helping to write the IEP, the special educator has responsibility for
working with the student to carry out the IEP. He or she may:
 work with the student in a resource room or special class devoted to
students receiving special education services;
 team teach with the regular education teacher; and
 Work with other school staff, particularly the regular education teacher, to
provide expertise about addressing the child's unique needs.
Another important member of the IEP team is the individual who can
interpret what the child's evaluation results mean in terms of designing
appropriate instruction. The evaluation results are very useful in determining
how the child is currently doing in school and what areas of need the child has.
This IEP team member must be able to talk about the instructional implications
of the child's evaluation results, which will help the team plan appropriate
instruction to address the child's needs.
The individual representing the school system is also a valuable team
member. This person knows a great deal about special education services and
educating children with disabilities. He or she can talk about the necessary
school resources. It is important that this individual have the authority to
commit resources and be able to ensure that whatever services are set out in
the IEP will actually be provided.
The IEP team may also include additional individuals with knowledge or
special expertise about the child. The parent or the school system can invite
these individuals to participate on the team. Parents, for example, may invite
an advocate who knows the child, a professional with special expertise about
the child and his or her disability, or others (such as a vocational educator who
has been working with the child) who can talk about the child's strengths
and/or needs. The school system may invite one or more individuals who can
offer special expertise or knowledge about the child, such as a
paraprofessional or related services professional. Because an important part of
developing an IEP is considering a child's need for related services (see the list
of related services at the end of this section), related service professionals are
often involved as IEP team members or participants. They share their special
expertise about the child's needs and how their own professional services can
address those needs. Depending on the child's individual needs, some related
service professionals attending the IEP meeting or otherwise helping to
develop the IEP might include occupational or physical therapists, adaptive
physical education providers, psychologists, or speech-language pathologists.
When an IEP is being developed for a student of transition age,
representatives from transition service agencies can be important
participants. (For more information about transition, see the information
provided at the end of this section.) Whenever a purpose of meeting is to
consider needed transition services, the school must invite a representative of
any other agency that is likely to be responsible for providing or paying for
transition services. This individual can help the team plan any transition
services the student needs. He or she can also commit the resources of the
agency to pay for or provide needed transition services. If he or she does not
attend the meeting, then the school must take alternative steps to obtain the
agency's participation in the planning of the student's transition services.
And, last but not least, the student may also be a member of the IEP team. If
transition service needs or transition services are going to be discussed at the
meeting, the student must be invited to attend. More and more students are
participating in and even leading their own IEP meetings. This allows them to
have a strong voice in their own education and can teach them a great deal
about self-advocacy and self-determination.
Deciding Placement
In addition, the child's placement (where the IEP will be carried out) must be
decided. The placement decision is made by a group of people, including the
parents and others who know about the child, what the evaluation results
mean, and what types of placements are appropriate. In some states, the IEP
team serves as the group making the placement decision. In other states, this
decision may be made by another group of people. In all cases, the parents
have the right to be members of the group that decides the educational
placement of the child.
Placement decisions must be made according to IDEA's least restrictive
environment requirements-commonly known as LRE. These requirements state
that, to the maximum extent appropriate, children with disabilities must be
educated with children who do not have disabilities.
The law also clearly states that special classes, separate schools, or other
removal of children with disabilities from the regular educational environment
may occur only if the nature or severity of the child's disability is such that
education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services
cannot be achieved satisfactorily.
What type of placements are there? Depending on the needs of the child, his
or her IEP may be carried out in the regular class (with supplementary aids and
services, as needed), in a special class (where every student in the class is
receiving special education services for some or all of the day), in a special
school, at home, in a hospital and institution, or in another setting. A school
system may meet its obligation to ensure that the child has an appropriate
placement available by:
 providing an appropriate program for the child on its own;

 contracting with another agency to provide an appropriate program; or
 utilizing some other mechanism or arrangement that is consistent with
IDEA for providing or paying for an appropriate program for the child.
The placement group will base its decision on the IEP and which placement
option is appropriate for the child. Can the child be educated in the regular
classroom, with proper aids and supports? If the child cannot be educated in
the regular classroom, even with appropriate aids and supports, then the
placement group will talk about other placements for the child.
Implementing the IEP
Once the IEP is written, it is time to carry it out--in other words, to provide the
student with the special education and related services as listed in the IEP. This
includes all supplementary aids and services and program modifications that
the IEP team has identified as necessary for the student to advance
appropriately toward his or her IEP goals, to be involved in and progress in the
general curriculum, and participate in other school activities. While it is beyond
the scope of this guide to discuss in detail the many issues involved in
implementing a student's IEP, certain suggestions can be offered.
 Every individual involved in providing services to the student should know
and understand his or her responsibilities for carrying out the IEP. This will
help ensure that the student receives the services that have been planned,
including the specific modifications and accommodations the IEP team has
identified as necessary.
 Teamwork plays an important part in carrying out the IEP. Many
professionals are likely to be involved in providing services and supports to
the student. Sharing expertise and insights can help make everyone's job a
lot easier and can certainly improve results for students with disabilities.
Schools can encourage teamwork by giving teachers, support staff, and/or
paraprofessional’s time to plan or work together on such matters as
adapting the general curriculum to address the student's unique needs.
Teachers, support staff, and others providing services for children with
disabilities may request training and staff development.
 Communication between home and school is also important. Parents can
share information about what is happening at home and build upon what
the child is learning at school. If the child is having difficulty at school,
parents may be able to offer insight or help the school explore possible
reasons as well as possible solutions.
 It is helpful to have someone in charge of coordinating and monitoring the
services the student receives. In addition to special education, the student
may be receiving any number of related services. Many people may be
involved in delivering those services. Having a person in charge of
overseeing that services are being delivered as planned can help ensure
that the IEP is being carried out appropriately.
 The regular progress reports that the law requires will help parents and
schools monitor the child's progress toward his or her annual goals. It is
important to know if the child is not making the progress expected-or if he
or she has progressed much faster than expected. Together, parents and
school personnel can then address the child's needs as those needs become
evident.
Reviewing and Revising the IEP

The IEP team must review the child's IEP at least once a year. One purpose of
this review is to see whether the child is achieving his or her annual goals. The
team must revise the child's individualized education program, if necessary, to
address:
 The child's progress or lack of expected progress toward the annual goals
and in the general curriculum;
 Information gathered through any reevaluation of the child;
 Information about the child that the parents share;
 Information about the child that the school shares (for example, insights
from the teacher based on his or her observation of the child or the child's
class work);
 The child's anticipated needs; or
 Other matters.
Although the IDEA requires this IEP review at least once a year, in fact the team
may review and revise the IEP more often. Either the parents or the school can
ask to hold an IEP meeting to revise the child's IEP. For example, the child may
not be making progress toward his or her IEP goals, and his or her teacher or
parents may become concerned. On the other hand, the child may have met
most or all of the goals in the IEP, and new ones need to be written. In either
case, the IEP team would meet to revise the IEP.
Teaching strategies for group teaching in special schools, individual,

small group and large group instruction
Different methods facilitate different kinds of student engagement and
opportunities to learn.
‘Mixing it up’ is important. You can’t please all the people all the time but
designing your small group teaching session with variety in mind allows your
learners to work in their comfort zones for some of the time and provides
them with new challenges at others.
The name of the small group teaching session will provide some clarity on the
overall teaching approach expected. These fundamentally vary in how
directive the teacher is expected to be :
 Tutorials (academic): small groups of students discuss an issue, their

essays or a topical problem.
 Personal tutorials: as above but also has a pastoral role in supporting
students more widely if they have academic and personal difficulties.
 Problem classes: focused specifically on working through a set of given
problems – these are frequently mathematical, statistical or
computational.
 Seminars: groups discuss journal papers and/or other learning materials.
 Workshops: a mixture of small inputs by the tutor interspersed by work
on group or individual tasks, followed by feedback to the whole group
and discussion.
 Problem-based learning: A group of students work through a given
scenario or problem to diagnose a solution. The group is likely to meet 2
or 3 times on each problem, gaining further information each time from
a non-specialist facilitator.
 Student-led groups: students decide on the topic and how it will be
discussed; tutor merely observes or may intervene if necessary.
 Self-help groups: run by students using the tutor as a resource.
 Action Learning Sets : tutor acts as a facilitator to the set, each students
present issues in turn with others asking questions and suggesting ways
forward – the presenting student then decides which points to act on.
In some classes it is expected that the teacher will be very knowledgeable and
be prepared to lead on a specific subject or topic. The teacher is in the class to
share their expertise and to ‘present’ information and their views to the group.
However, in many small group teaching sessions this is definitely not the role
of the teacher. A more common situation is that the teacher is there to help
manage the process of learning, by facilitating discussion and supporting the
students to work through learning activities and tasks. Tasks that have been
designed to encourage the students to think for themselves, share their ideas
with each other and help them to develop a set of, much valued, academic and
communication skills.
2.3 Class room management - team teaching,
shadow teaching, peer tutoring and cooperative
learning, use of positive behavioural intervention
strategies (PBIS)
Team Teaching
An instructional situation where two or more teachers

possessing complementary teaching skills cooperatively plan and implement
the instruction for a single group of students using flexible scheduling and
grouping techniques to meet the particular instruction. The concept of co-
operative planning is experienced to a large extent in team teaching.
The minds of more than one teacher is considered better in team teaching.
A democratic attitude is fully seen in team teaching.
CHARACTERISTICS
 Team teaching is basically a formal type of co-operative

staff organisation.
 In team teaching, a group of teachers share the responsibility for
planning, carrying out and evaluating a teaching programme.
 Team teaching results in improved instruction.
 Team teaching focuses on the best utilisation of available teacher
expertise.
OBJECTIVES
 To give the benefit of teaching to talented, gifted and superior teachers

to a specific large group of students.
 To improve the quality of instruction in making the best use of available
resources and expertise of teachers.
 To develop the feelings of co-operation or shared responsibility in the
teaching-learning process.
 To satisfy the needs of learners and institutions and removing the
difficulties relating to the specific content area.
ADVANTAGES
 Quality of Instruction is enhanced.

 Economical.
 Exposure of group to more specialists.
 Development of the professional status of the teacher.
 Development of human relations.
 Opportunity for free discussion.
 Flexibility.
LIMITATIONS
 Lack of accommodation.
 Lack of co-operation.
 Delegation of power and responsibilities
 Costly method.
 Disregard to the dynamics of small group.
 Lack of Research work.
 Variations in the roles of teachers.
 Diversification in the views of teachers.
 Conflict between change and traditionalism.
 Lack of flexibility in team teaching.
Shadow Teaching
The role of a shadow teacher is to support the student that needs Optimal
Learning, OL, support, in his/her school academics by helping fill in the gaps in
the learning process, to help the student build self-confidence as well as to
promote positive interaction in the classroom by helping the student focus on
important concepts, and over all help the student to develop academic and
social skills.
The role of the shadow teacher is to provide additional support, throughout the
school day, academically and psychologically, to those students enrolled in the
Optimal Learning (OL) program that need this additional support. The shadow
teacher supports the student in many ways, including filling in the gaps that exist
in the learning process, helping the student build self confidence, promoting
interaction in the classroom, and ensuring the student stays focused in the
classroom. The shadow teacher also helps the student be prepared and
organized for class, helps the student with the approaches to learning and
reminds him/her to be a responsible and committed student.
The student benefits from the shadow teacher because ….
 the student follows regular classroom instruction and interaction with

his/her peers.
 the student learns to build on his/her strengths and not his/her
weaknesses.
 the student receives educational enrichment.
The school benefits by the shadow teacher because there is a collaborative

effort to meet the special needs of the particular student.
The parents benefit because they have daily communication with an adult who
knows what is going on in school and what events are taking place.
Additionally, the parents have a sense of safety and security for their child.
The role of the shadow teacher in the classroom is to help his/her student:
 stay focused;
 participate appropriately in class;
 notify the teacher if he does not understand the material;
 function in an environment where there are many distractions;
 be positive in his/her approach to new tasks; and helping him/her to
gain self control.
 improve communication by maintaining eye contact;
 encouraging him/her to ask for help from his/her teachers;
 having him/her share special interests with the children;
 helping him/her to respond appropriately to his/her classmates in social
situations;
 seeing that he/she compliments his peers when appropriate;
 prompting him/her to initiate discussions with his/her peers;
 encouraging him/her to learn the interests of his/her classmates.
Every child is unique; therefore, the approach and teaching methods and
techniques used by each shadow teacher with each specific student will differ.
Peer Tutoring
Peer tutoring in special education is a strategy where higher-performing
students are paired with lower-performing students or students with
disabilities to review or teach academic material. This strategy has been
proven to help students on both sides master content and gain self-confidence
in specific skills. Peer tutoring has been implemented with students of all ages
and levels in all subject areas. Introducing a peer tutoring program to help
students with disabilities and their typical peers may be an effective and
efficient way to boost academic achievement. Teachers and administrators
should consider the different ways to implement a program as well as the
advantages and weaknesses as they determine whether a peer tutoring
program would be a good fit in their schools and classrooms.
Advantages
Peer tutoring in special education can be an effective teaching method for all
students involved. Let's look at some of the specific advantages:
 Peer tutors become teachers, which increases their own understanding

of the material.
 Peer tutoring helps the students build relationships, which builds
communication and social skills.
 Some students with disabilities respond better to peers than adults.
 Students with disabilities get more individual attention than one teacher
can provide on their own.
 Because of increased individual attention, students with disabilities also
get immediate feedback and positive reinforcement more frequently,
which results in higher academic performance.
Disadvantages
Although peer tutoring has many strengths, there are also challenges that
should be considered. These include:
 Planning and preparing for peer tutoring requires additional time and
organization for the classroom teacher.
 Peer tutors must be trained, monitored, and graded, which takes time
and energy away from other important classroom tasks.
 Some parents are opposed to peer tutoring because they don't see the
benefits for their child. This means that teachers must educate and
convince parents of the benefits.
Cooperative Learning
There are several benefits of cooperative learning structures for
students with disabilities. Students with disabilities are more engaged in
classroom activities where cooperative learning structures are in place
compared to more traditional classroom interventions. Specifically, in
inclusive classes that use cooperative learning, students articulate their
thoughts more freely, receive confirming and constructive feedback,
engage in questioning techniques, receive additional practice on skills,
and have increased opportunities to respond. Further, when students
are thinking aloud while discussing, teachers are better able to assess
student and group needs and intervene if needed. That is, by actively
monitoring students’ learning, teachers are able to redirect groups
toward learning tasks and provide reteaching during mini-conferences as
appropriate. When structures are in place for this level of dialogue to
occur, it accelerates the comprehension process
Cooperative learning is an educational approach which aims to organize
classroom activities into academic and social learning
experiences. There is much more to Cooperative Learning than merely
arranging students into groups, and it has been described as "structuring
positive interdependence."Students must work in groups to complete
tasks collectively toward academic goals. Unlike individual learning,
which can be competitive in nature, students learning cooperatively can
capitalize on one another’s resources and skills (asking one another for
information, evaluating one another’s ideas, monitoring one another’s
work, etc.)
TYPES
Formal cooperative learning is structured, facilitated, and monitored by the

educator over time and is used to achieve group goals in task work (e.g.
completing a unit). Any course material or assignment can be adapted to this
type of learning, and groups can vary from 2-6 people with discussions lasting
from a few minutes up to an entire period. Types of formal cooperative
learning strategies include:
1. The jigsaw technique
2. Assignments that involve group problem solving and decision making
3. Laboratory or experiment assignments
4. Peer review work (e.g. editing writing assignments)
LIMITATIONS
Cooperative Learning has many limitations that could cause the process to be
more complicated than first perceived. Sharan (2010) describes the constant
evolution of cooperative learning as a threat. Because cooperative learning is
constantly changing, there is a possibility that teachers may become confused
and lack complete understanding of the method. The fact that cooperative
learning is such a dynamic practice means that it can not be used effectively in
many situations. Also teachers can get into the habit of relying on cooperative
learning as a way to keep students busy. While cooperative learning will
consume time, the most effective application of cooperative learning hinges on
an active instructor. Teachers implementing cooperative learning may also be
challenged with resistance and hostility from students who believe that they
are being held back by their slower teammates or by students who are less
confident and feel that they are being ignored or demeaned by their team.
Students often provide feedback in the form of evaluations or reviews on

success of the teamwork experienced during cooperative learning experiences.
Peer review and evaluations may not reflect true experiences due to perceived
competition among peers. Students might feel pressured into submitting
inaccurate evaluations due to bullying. To eliminate such concerns,
confidential evaluation processes may help to increase evaluation strength.
Positive Behavioural Intervention strategies
PBIS is a proactive approach schools use to improve school safety and promote
positive behavior. The focus of PBIS is prevention, not punishment.
At its heart, PBIS calls on schools to teach students positive behavior
strategies , just as they would teach about any other subject — like reading or
math. In schools that use PBIS, all students learn about positive behavior. This
includes kids with IEPs and 504 plans.
PBIS recognizes that students can only meet behavior expectations if they
know what the expectations are. Everyone learns what’s considered
appropriate behavior. And they use a common language to talk about it.
Throughout the school day — in class, at lunch, and on the bus — students
understand what’s expected of them.
According to research, PBIS leads to better student behavior. In many schools
that use PBIS, students get fewer detentions and suspensions. They also earn
better grades. There’s also some evidence that PBIS may lead to less bullying.
PBIS has several important guiding principles:
 Students can learn behavior expectations for different situations.
 Schools teach expected behaviors through explicit instruction, with
opportunities for students to practice behavior and get feedback.
 Stepping in early can prevent more serious behavior problems.
 Each student is different, so schools need to give many kinds of behavior
support.
 How schools teach behavior should be based on research and science.
 Tracking a student’s behavior progress is important.
 Schools gather and use data to make decisions about behavior
interventions.
 School staff members are consistent in how they encourage expected
behavior and discourage misbehavior.
Most PBIS programs set up three tiers of support for students and school staff.
 Tier 1: Universal, schoolwide system for everyone. All students at the
school learn basic behavior expectations, like respect and kindness.
School staff recognize and praise students for good behavior.
Sometimes, they use small rewards, like tokens or prizes, to recognize
kids.
 Tier 2: Extra, targeted support for struggling students. Some kids have a
harder time with behavior expectations. The school gives these kids
evidence-based interventions and instruction. For example, some
students may struggle with social interactions. A Tier 2 strategy might be
providing Social Thinking support to help them learn how to read and
react to situations.
 Tier 3: Intensive support for individual students. The third tier of PBIS is
the most intensive. It’s for students who need individualized supports
and services because of ongoing behavioral concerns.
Students with IEPs or 504 plans can be in any of the tiers. Schools that use PBIS
must make sure that IEP teams are clear on how the tiers of PBIS overlap with
IEPs and 504 plans. PBIS uses increasing levels of support for students. This is
similar to other tiered approaches like response to intervention (RTI).
2.4 Teaching strategies for individual with high

support needs.
Throughout its history, IDEA has emphasized that to achieve FAPE,

special education and related services should be provided that create
equal opportunities for students with disabilities to benefit from their
education and be sufficiently prepared for future education,
employment, and independent living. As such, the law has consistently
stated that special education is specially designed instruction to
promote an equal opportunity for educational benefit for students with
disabilities. The 1997 and 2004 Amendments to IDEA made clear that
each student’s educational program, and resultant specially designed
instruction, should be based upon two sources: (a) the general
education curriculum, defined as the same curriculum as that provided
to all other students; and (b) the student’s unique learning needs. The
“access to the general education curriculum” mandates required that all
students receiving special education services have the supports
necessary for them to be involved with and progress in the general
education curriculum as well as goals and modifications to address their
unique learning needs. This represented a major shift in curricular focus,
particularly for students with extensive and pervasive support needs, as
historically the educational emphasis for these students was on unique
learning needs and the application of a “functional curriculum”.
At School
Teachers surveyed by authors Hughes & Carter recommended the following

instructional strategies for supporting students in inclusive classrooms:
 Encourage active learning. Hands-on activities are often the best way to
get all students engaged in learning. Whenever you can, assign your
students small-group and project-based assignments that promote
active and collaborative learning. (If you have students work in small
groups, they may need some initial guidance on how to work well
together.)
 Give students choices whenever you can. Some students like to tackle
challenging tasks first, while others might prefer to start simple and then
ease into tougher tasks. Let students choose which activities to complete
first. Giving them some control over their schedule shows that you
respect each student’s individuality, strengths, and needs.
 Provide models. Modeling is a powerful teaching tool—when students

see a new skill in action, it can help them learn that skill faster and more
accurately. Look for opportunities to weave modeling into your lessons.
You can model skills yourself, but don’t forget the power of peer
modeling, too. Give students with disabilities plenty of chances to work
directly with their classmates and watch them model important
academic and social skills.
 Apply proven strategies. Investigate what works by reading about the

latest research-based strategies for inclusive classrooms. If you haven’t
already, try strategies like constant and progressive time delay, most-to-
least or least-to-most prompting, and other direct instruction strategies
backed by strong evidence of effectiveness. Always match the strategies
you choose with the individual needs and strengths of your students.
 Boost participation. Give all students lots of opportunities to respond in

class, and many different ways to participate. Not only does this get
every student more actively engaged with your lesson, it also increases
the amount of positive reinforcement they’ll receive. Allow students
with different strengths and needs to respond in different ways, such as
speaking instead of writing and vice versa.
 Rethink grading. For students who have extensive support needs,

traditional grading systems probably won’t be the best way to show
what they can do. Consider alternative grading approaches that more
meaningfully capture the progress students with disabilities are making
toward their academic goals.
 Teach students self-management. Equipping students with the skills

they need to manage their own performance is a useful way to keep
them on track and learning. You might need to use several different
forms of communication when teaching students to manage their own
behavior and learning. For example, a student who doesn’t speak or
read might use picture prompts to learn self-management skills. For
other students, a written list carried in their wallets or backpacks may
work better. You might also consider using a reward system that gives
students points for steps toward increased independence. Be flexible
and creative, and adapt self-management strategies to your students’
needs and preferred forms of communication.
 Reinforce skills valued by families. Which skills does your student’s

family want to reinforce? Talk with parents and other family members to
find out which skills they value and would like you to encourage through
practice in the classroom.
At Home
Outside the classroom, kids should have plenty of chances to practice new
skills across a variety of settings, tasks, and people. Parents, extended family
members, and other adults can keep these teacher-recommended strategies in
mind when supporting students at home and in the community.
 Build in practice time. Be sure to give your child lots of opportunities to
practice new skills throughout the day and in different settings. This will
help him or her master those skills more quickly and use them whenever
they’re needed.
 Say yes to activities. Look for ways to increase your child’s involvement
in extracurricular and community activities. The more your child
participates in opportunities like these—whether they’re sports, plays,
dance classes, day camps, science clubs, or another preferred activity—
the more chances they’ll have to practice and refine important skills.
 Use your child’s interests as teaching tools. Does your child have a
special fascination? Weaving these preferences and interests into skill
instruction can help promote learning and engagement.
 Make modifications. Why make learning a new task harder than it needs
to be? As you teach new skills, consider ways to modify some of the
steps so your child can learn and maintain a new skill more easily. For
example, if you’re teaching a child to cook, color-coding the kitchen
tools can help him select the appropriate ones for each step.
 Reinforce new skills. For children to maintain a new skill successfully,

they need reinforcers—a positive, motivating thing they get as a
consequence of performing the skill. For example, if you’re teaching
your child to use a vending machine, make sure you let her complete the
whole activity and get the reinforcement at the end (the snack or drink).
 Teach skills your child will really use. Generic skills like sorting objects
into groups aren’t likely to be used much in a child’s daily life. Focus
instead on skills that are functional, useful, and reinforced regularly
within your child’s everyday schedule. For example, if you teach your
child to order from a table at a sit-down restaurant but your family
orders mostly takeout from drive-through windows, then your child
won’t have many opportunities to reinforce the skill of ordering from a
table. Teach her the process of ordering from a drive-through, and she’ll
have many more chances to practice and master the skill.
2.5 Teaching strategies for teaching in inclusive
schools - Universal design for learning and
Universal design for learning

The roots of UDL are found in early civil rights and special education legislation
that emphasized the right of all students to a free, appropriate public
education in the least restrictive environment (Hitchcock, Meyer, Rose, &
Jackson, 2005). The UDL framework was conceived by researchers at the
Center for Applied Special Technologies (CAST) in the late 1980s as the result
of the alignment of three conceptual shifts: advancements in architectural
design, developments in education technology, and discoveries from brain
research.
Universal design. After the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA) in the 1990s, schools and other public buildings were retrofitted with
ramps and other architectural features to provide physical access. These
changes were an expensive afterthought rather than proactive design. Leaders
in the field of architecture suggested a more cost-effective strategy —
designing the buildings from the beginning with flexible Universal Design
principles in mind so that all users could have access.
Digitized text. At the same time, technological advances allowed alternatives

to "one-size-fits-all" academic materials that used only one fixed medium —
print. Access to computers was becoming more common in schools, and
assistive technologies that allowed educators and students to manipulate text
resulted in the availability of flexible instructional options. Now, text could be
easily enlarged, simplified, summarized, highlighted, translated, converted to
speech, graphically represented, and supported through accessible, digital
materials.
Brain research on learning networks. Concurrently, brain imaging conducted

while individuals were engaged in learning tasks (e.g., reading, writing)
revealed three networks at work in the brain during learning: recognition
network (the "what" of learning), strategic network (the "how" of learning),
and affective network (the "why" of learning) (Rose & Meyer, 2002).
Influenced by architectural Universal Design principles, the accessibility and
flexibility offered by digitized text, and the conceptualization of three learning
networks, innovators at CAST developed what they called "Universal Design for
Learning."
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) addresses this need. UDL is a framework
that helps teachers design learning experiences that accommodate the varying
level of skills and abilities among students and reduce the need for special
adaptations for students with disabilities.
The UDL framework to maximize learning for all students is based on three
defining principles. Each principle has an accompanying set of comprehensive
guidelines explaining how to use resources and tools to improve learning.
Educators can use each of these principles to make their presentation of
information more accessible and appealing, increase student engagement in the
classroom and develop inclusive evaluations and assessments.
 Multiple means of representation: This principle encourages educators

to present information in a variety of formats. The same concept could
be presented in text, through images, through a video, via audio, or
through hands-on activities. Learners may require assistive technologies
and devices that aid learning—such as screen readers, automatic page
turners, voice recognition programs, or closed captioning devices—to
access this content.
Making information available in multiple formats is important because
learners differ in how they perceive and understand the concepts
presented to them. Learners with learning disabilities, sensory
disabilities, or cultural and language differences may not benefit from a
one-size-fits-all approach to content and may require different formats
to suit their needs. There may be others who simply comprehend certain
information more efficiently through auditory or visual means than
through printed text. Multiple representations of a concept—known as
dual coding—facilitates learning by allowing students to see connections
within individual concepts and between different concepts.
 Multiple means of action and expression: This principle helps educators
provide students with a variety of ways to demonstrate what they’ve
learned. Learners differ in how they navigate through learning
environments and demonstrate what they know. For example, learners
with significant locomotor disabilities, such as cerebral palsy or muscular
dystrophy, and those who experience language barriers might have
different approaches to learning tasks. They may prefer to express what
they know through written text, visual or oral presentation, or a group
project.
 Multiple means of engagement: This principle encourages educators to
use different ways to motivate learners. Learners vary with regard to
how they can be encouraged to learn. Some of the factors that influence
individual variation in motivation include culture, neurology, personal
relevance, and prior knowledge. For example, learners with dyslexia are
generally able to understand concepts more quickly through experiential
learning than through the use of printed texts. These students might be
motivated to learn if the concepts are taught through activities that use
kinesthetic skills, such as drama or role playing.
A single means of engagement does not suit all learners in every context.
Some learners have a high preference for novelty and spontaneity, while
other learners have a high preference for strict routine. Some learners
prefer to work alone, while others prefer to work in groups.
The principles of UDL can be applied to a course's overall design as well as to the
specific instructional strategies and materials used while teaching a course. The
principles can be incorporated into lectures, group work, learning activities, field
work, discussion, and demonstrations to make learning more accessible and
more effective for all learners.
The four interrelated components of the UDL curriculum require further

explanation.
 Goals are typically described as learning expectations. They represent
the knowledge, concepts, and skills students need to master and are
usually aligned to state standards. Recent national discussions about
Common Core Standards have heightened the critical importance of
linking goals in Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) with state
standards and classroom expectations.
 Methods are generally defined as the instructional strategies used by
educators to support student learning. Methods should be evidence-
based and supported by an analysis of learner variability. UDL methods
are flexible and adjusted through consistent monitoring of student
progress.
 Materials are the media used to present content and demonstrate
learning. UDL materials offer multiple media options and include
embedded supports.
 Assessment within the UDL framework refers to the process of gathering
information about a learner's progress using a variety of methods and
materials. UDL assessments are particularly concerned with accurately
measuring learner knowledge, skills, and engagement by maintaining
construct relevance and reducing or eliminating irrelevant or distracting
elements that interfere with the assessment's validity.
The purpose of UDL implementation is to create expert learners — learners
who can assess their own learning needs, monitor their own progress, and
regulate and sustain their interest, effort, and persistence during a learning
task. Many students learn within traditional classrooms with a traditional
curriculum. However, most need supports and/or scaffolds to become expert
learners.
Differentiated Instruction
Carol Ann Tomlinson is a leader in the area of differentiated learning and
professor of educational leadership, foundations, and policy at the University
of Virginia. Tomlinson describes differentiated instruction as factoring
students’ individual learning styles and levels of readiness
first before designing a lesson plan. Research on the effectiveness of
differentiation shows this method benefits a wide range of students, from
those with learning disabilities to those who are considered high ability.
Differentiating instruction may mean teaching the same material to all

students using a variety of instructional strategies, or it may require the
teacher to deliver lessons at varying levels of difficulty based on the ability of
each student.
Teachers who practice differentiation in the classroom may:
 Design lessons based on students’ learning styles.

 Group students by shared interest, topic, or ability for assignments.
 Assess students’ learning using formative assessment.
 Manage the classroom to create a safe and supportive environment.
 Continually assess and adjust lesson content to meet students’ needs.
Teachers can differentiate at least four classroom elements based on student

readiness, interest, or learning profile:
 Content – what the student needs to learn or how the student will get
access to the information;
 Process – activities in which the student engages in order to make sense
of or master the content;
 Products – culminating projects that ask the student to rehearse, apply,
and extend what he or she has learned in a unit; and
 Learning environment – the way the classroom works and feels.
Content
Examples of differentiating content at the elementary level include the

following:
1. Using reading materials at varying readability levels;
2. Putting text materials on tape;
3. Using spelling or vocabulary lists at readiness levels of students;
4. Presenting ideas through both auditory and visual means;
5. Using reading buddies; and
6. Meeting with small groups to re-teach an idea or skill for struggling
learners, or to extend the thinking or skills of advanced learners.
Process
Examples of differentiating process or activities at the elementary level include

the following:
1. Using tiered activities through which all learners work with the same
important understandings and skills, but proceed with different levels of
support, challenge, or complexity;
2. Providing interest centers that encourage students to explore subsets of
the class topic of particular interest to them;
3. Developing personal agendas (task lists written by the teacher and
containing both in-common work for the whole class and work that
addresses individual needs of learners) to be completed either during
specified agenda time or as students complete other work early;
4. Offering manipulatives or other hands-on supports for students who
need them; and
5. Varying the length of time a student may take to complete a task in
order to provide additional support for a struggling learner or to
encourage an advanced learner to pursue a topic in greater depth.
Products
Examples of differentiating products at the elementary level include the
following:
1. Giving students options of how to express required learning (e.g., create
a puppet show, write a letter, or develop a mural with labels);
2. Using rubrics that match and extend students' varied skills levels;
3. Allowing students to work alone or in small groups on their products;
and
4. Encouraging students to create their own product assignments as long
as the assignments contain required elements.
Learning environment
Examples of differentiating learning environment at the elementary level

include:
1. Making sure there are places in the room to work quietly and without
distraction, as well as places that invite student collaboration;
2. Providing materials that reflect a variety of cultures and home settings;
3. Setting out clear guidelines for independent work that matches
individual needs;
4. Developing routines that allow students to get help when teachers are
busy with other students and cannot help them immediately; and
5. Helping students understand that some learners need to move around
to learn, while others do better sitting quietly (Tomlinson, 1995, 1999;
Winebrenner, 1992, 1996).
UDL is an overarching approach focused on the inclusive design of the whole

learning environment at the outset. UDL aims to ensure all students have full
access to everything in the classroom, regardless of their needs and
abilities. Student's supported to self-direct learning and monitor progress.
Differentiation is a strategy aimed at addressing each student’s individual

levels of readiness, interest, and learning profiles. The teacher modifies
content and processes to address the needs of each student. The teacher
directs students to specific activties to further their learning.
Unit 3: Teaching strategies for individuals with ASD
3.3. Structure and Visual Support (TEACCH, Structured

Teaching)
3.4. Behavioural Strategies and Approaches (e.g.,
Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA), Verbal
Behaviour Analysis (VBA), Cognitive Behaviour
Therapy (CBT), Reinforcement
3.5. Social Strategies and Approaches (e.g.,social

stories, Comic strips, Peer-Mediated Programs)
3.6. Strategies and Approaches (e.g., Learning
Experiences and Alternate Program for Pre-
schoolers and their Parents (LEAP), Early Start
Denver Model (ESDM), The Joint Attention,
Symbolic Play, Engagement & Regulation
(JASPER), Floortime)
3.7. Consideration for Learning and Teaching
Methods in ASD
3.1 Structure and Visual Support (TEACCH, Structured
Teaching)
Structured Teaching is a set of teaching techniques developed by Division

TEACCH (Training and Education of Autistic and related Communication-
handicapped Children), a state-wide program serving individuals with autism
spectrum disorders (ASD) in North Carolina.
Division TEACCH is a comprehensive treatment model that serves individuals

with autism across the lifespan. Along with the structured teaching strategies,
the model emphasizes an extensive understanding of autism, partnering with
families, individualized assessment when developing and implementing
strategies, and the development of skills across curriculum areas (with
attention to the development of communication and social skills).
Structured teaching strategies can be implemented across settings and across

curriculum area, as they serve as a vehicle to teach skills, and/or as a
framework for a classroom setting.
These teaching strategies are based on an understanding of how autism

impacts the thinking, learning, and behavior of an individual with ASD.
Differences in auditory processing, imitation, motivation, and organization can
hinder the educational success of students with ASD, as most traditional
teaching strategies rely heavily on verbal instructions, demonstration, social
reinforcement, and sequencing chunks of information or directives.
Structured Teaching strategies, however, capitalize on the strengths of

students with ASD. These include providing predictable and meaningful
routines through the use of structure, adding visual/structural supports to
classroom instruction and activities to increase engagement and
independence, and clearly organizing classroom spaces and teaching materials
to reduce anxiety and increase appropriate behavior.
There are five elements of Structured Teaching that build on one another, and
all emphasize the importance of predictability and flexible routines in the
classroom setting. Division TEACCH developed a visual to illustrate the
Structured Teaching components — the Structured Teaching pyramid:
Physical structure in the school setting
Physical structure is the foundation of structured teaching and is helpful in
ensuring that learning is occurring in the classroom.
Visual schedules in the school setting

A visual schedule communicates the sequence of upcoming activities or events
through the use of objects, photographs, icons, words, or a combination of
tangible supports.
Work systems in the school setting

A work system is an organizational system that gives a student with ASD
information about what is expected when he/she arrives at a classroom
location.
Visual structure in the school setting

Visual structure adds a physical or visual component to tasks to assist students
in understanding HOW an activity should be completed.
3.2 Behavioural Strategies and Approaches (e.g., Applied

Behaviour Analysis (ABA), Verbal Behaviour
Analysis (VBA), Cognitive Behaviour Therapy
(CBT), Reinforcement
Problem Behaviours — like all behavior — serves a function, usually one of
these:
 To get attention
 To access a desired item or activity
 To escape an undesired task
 To serve a sensory need
Your child’s difficult behaviour might also have specific triggers, like the
following.
 Routines and rituals

Children with ASD often like predictable environments, and they can get
very upset if their familiar routines are broken. For example, your child
might be upset if you change the route you usually take home from school.
 Transitions
Your child might not understand it’s time to move on from one activity to
another. Or like typically developing children, your child just might not want
to.
 Sensory sensitivities
Children with ASD often have sensory sensitivities and might like feeling or
touching particular surfaces or objects. Your child might get upset if they
aren’t allowed to touch.
 Sensory overload
Your child might get upset if too much is happening around them, if they
find a particular noise overwhelming, or if the light is too bright.
 Unrealistic expectations
Like all children, your child with ASD can get frustrated if they’re expected
to do something they don’t have the skills for, like getting dressed
independently.
 Tiredness
Children with ASD can have sleep problems. If your child isn’t getting
enough good-quality sleep, this can cause difficult daytime behaviour.
 Discomfort
This could include things like the feeling of clothes against skin, a prickly
label, wet pants, a bump or pain. Check with your GP if you suspect there
could be a medical condition causing your child’s behaviour.
 Other conditions
Your child might have other conditions as well as ASD, like epilepsy, mood
disorder or ADHD. These can all cause difficult behaviour. A medical
assessment will help you to identify and manage these conditions.
Behavioral interventions are now considered an “established” treatment for
ASD children, although they should not be expected to lead to normal
functioning. They may improve the core symptoms of ASD, mainly in the first
12 months of treatment. Behavioral interventions are those in which
instrumental learning techniques constitute the predominant feature of the
intervention approach, based on the principles of behavior modification.
Ivar Lovaas and colleagues pioneered one of these intensive behavioral
interventions, Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) in the 1960s. It seeks to
reinforce desirable behaviors and decrease undesirable behaviors, teaching
new skills and generalizing them through repeated reward-based trials. It
requires a low student-to-therapist ratio and very intensive intervention (at
least 25 hours a week). At this time, this is the only evidence-based approach
to intensive early intervention for children with autism.
Discrete trial training (DTT), originally developed by Ivar Lovaas, is the most
structured form of intensive therapy. It consists of breaking down skills into
more discrete components to be taught in a stepwise fashion: the therapist
presents an instruction (stimulus), prompts a response, waits for the child’s
response, and provides an appropriate consequence depending on the
response. The original behavioral interventions, based almost exclusively on
DTT techniques, were developed at the University of California, Los Angeles
under the Young Autism Project, and although they have demonstrated
benefits in attention, imitation, obedience and discrimination, they have been
criticized because of the lack of generalization and because the structured
setting does not represent more naturalistic interactions between adults and
children.
For this reason, contemporary ABA programs have been developed, which are
taught in more naturalistic settings, with methods like Pivotal Response
Training (PRT), the Natural Language Teaching Paradigm or Incidental
Teaching, where the child initiates the interaction, improving the
generalization of the skills. In the current literature, the term Early Intensive
Behavioral Interventions (EIBI) has arisen to summarize all these approaches,
and it is accepted that they promote changes in the intelligence quotient and
positive changes in adaptive skills and expressive and receptive language skills.
New trends in the Contemporary ABA techniques include Positive Behavioral
Support, Functional Assessment and Functional Communication Training, with
its “errorless” teaching.
APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS (ABA)
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a type of therapeutic intervention that can
improve social, communication, and learning skills through reinforcement
techniques. In addition to improving general adaptive behaviours, such as
social skills, learning skills, it can focus on specific skill learning such as fine
motor dexterity, hygiene, grooming, etc. Some also call it Autism Behavioural
Therapy but it’s just one of ABA’s applications. ABA is effective for both
children and adults with psychological conditions in a variety of settings,
including schools, homes, and clinics. It has also been shown that consistent
ABA therapy can significantly improve positive skills and behaviours and
decrease the need for special services in the future
ABA therapy programs can help:
● Improve language and communication skills
● Increase a en on, focus, social skills, memory, and academics
● Reduce the occurrence of behavioural problems
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a type of therapy based on the psychology
of learning and behavioural trades. ABA therapy applies the understanding of
how behaviour works in real-life situations, to increase behaviours that are
helpful and decrease behaviours that are harmful or affect learning. Applied
Behavior Analysis involves several techniques for understanding and changing
behaviour. ABA is a form of flexible treatment that can be adapted to meet the
needs of each unique person. It can also be provided in many different
locations – at home, at school, and in the community. ABA therapy can involve
one-to-one teaching or group instruction ABA therapy programs can help:
A qualified behavioural psychologist designs and directly oversees the
program. They customize the ABA program to the child’s skills, needs,
interests, preferences, and family circumstances. The ABA program is started
with a detailed assessment of the child’s existing skills and preferences in order
to formulate specific treatment goals. Treatment goals are decided after taking
into consideration the age and ability level of the child with autism. Goals can
include different skill areas, such as:
● Communica on and language
● Social skills
● Self-care behaviours
● Play and leisure
● Motor skills
● Learning and academic skills
The instruction plan breaks down each of these skills into small, concrete
steps. The therapist teaches each step one by one, from simple (e.g. imitating
single sounds) to more complex (e.g. carrying on a conversation). Progress is
measured by collecting data in each therapy session. Data helps to monitor the
child’s progress toward goals on an ongoing basis.
The therapist egularly meets with family members to review information about
progress in order to plan ahead and adjust teaching plans and goals
accordingly.
5 Techniques Used in Applied Behaviour Analysis
Applied Behavior Analysis involves several techniques to produce desired
results in children who can benefit from behaviour modification. Here are five
of those valuable techniques:
Positive Reinforcement
A child with special needs who face difficulties in learning or social interaction
may not know how to respond in certain situations. One way to encourage
positive social behaviours involves using positive reinforcement immediately to
encourage the behavior in the future.
Negative Reinforcement
When maladaptive behaviours occur, the behavior needs to be corrected
immediately. A good way to correct bad behavior is to remove a desired object
or activity from the child. This is a form of non-aversive punishment. More
importantly, negative reinforcement should be consistent for the child to
understand the relevance of the action and consequence.
Using prompts and cues
Prompts are visual or verbal cues used to encourage a particular behaviour.
Verbal cues are gentle reminders while visual cues are even less direct and
might be a gesture or a look of your eyes. The child will see this cue and be
reminded to behave in a simple way. Examples could be taking their shoes off
when walking into the house or washing their hands before a meal. The idea is
to eventually fade out the prompts when the child no longer needs them. The
prompts can be helpful because they are typically not intimidating or
accusatory.
Task Analysis
This is an analysis model of current behavioural trends and actions to help
learn about the child rather than correct or reinforce the behaviour. The child
psychologist gives the child a task and observes how they perform it. This
analysis is broken down into a number of categories :
● Physical ac ons
● Cogni ve ac ons
● Repe on
● Alloca on
● Environment
Once the therapist has analysed how the child performs tasks, this information
is used to make other tasks easier for the particular child by breaking them
down into steps that will be easily understood by the child.
Generalization
Through this model, the therapist takes what the child has learned in one
instance and applies it to other instances. For example, If a child knows how to
say the alphabet when singing it, the child psychologist can take their
knowledge of the alphabet and try to apply it to teaching the child to spell out
their name.
Children with special needs benefit the most from personalized and special
assistance. Therapists who use applied behaviour analysis use these particular
techniques and others that help make children who need a little more help
independent, well adjusted and happy adults.
Applied Behavior Analysis involves many techniques for understanding and

changing behavior. ABA is a flexible treatment:
 Can be adapted to meet the needs of each unique person

 Provided in many different locations – at home, at school, and in the
community
 Teaches skills that are useful in everyday life
 Can involve one-to-one teaching or group instruction
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is one of the main strategies used in ABA.
When a behavior is followed by something that is valued (a reward), a person

is more likely to repeat that behavior. Over time, this encourages positive
behavior change.
First, the therapist identifies a goal behavior. Each time the person uses the
behavior or skill successfully, they get a reward. The reward is meaningful to
the individual – examples include praise, a toy or book, watching a video,
access to playground or other location, and more.
Positive rewards encourage the person to continue using the skill. Over time
this leads to meaningful behavior change.
Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence

Understanding antecedents (what happens before a behavior occurs)
and consequences (what happens after the behavior) is another important
part of any ABA program.
The following three steps – the “A-B-Cs” – help us teach and understand
behavior:
1. An antecedent: this is what occurs right before the target behavior. It

can be verbal, such as a command or request. It can also be physical,
such a toy or object, or a light, sound, or something else in the
environment. An antecedent may come from the environment, from
another person, or be internal (such as a thought or feeling).
2. A resulting behavior: this is the person’s response or lack of response to
the antecedent. It can be an action, a verbal response, or something
else.
3. A consequence: this is what comes directly after the behavior. It can
include positive reinforcement of the desired behavior, or no reaction
for incorrect/inappropriate responses.
Looking at A-B-Cs helps us understand:
1. Why a behavior may be happening

2. How different consequences could affect whether the behavior is likely
to happen again
EXAMPLE:
 Antecedent: The teacher says “It’s time to clean up your toys” at the end
of the day.
 Behavior: The student yells “no!”
 Consequence: The teacher removes the toys and says “Okay, toys are all
done.”
How could ABA help the student learn a more appropriate behavior in this
situation?
 Antecedent: The teacher says “time to clean up” at the end of the day.
 Behavior: The student is reminded to ask, “Can I have 5 more minutes?”
 Consequence: The teacher says, “Of course you can have 5 more
minutes!”
With continued practice, the student will be able to replace the inappropriate
behavior with one that is more helpful. This is an easier way for the student to
satisfy the child’s needs!
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a type of therapy that focuses on improving

specific behaviors, such as social skills, communication, reading, and academics
as well as adaptive learning skills, such as fine motor dexterity, hygiene,
grooming, domestic capabilities, punctuality, and job competence. ABA is
effective for children and adults with psychological disorders in a variety of
settings, including schools, workplaces, homes, and clinics. It has also been
shown that consistent ABA can significantly improve behaviors and skills and
decrease the need for special services.
VERBAL BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS (VBA)
Based on the principles of B. F. Skinner's book called Verbal Behavior, this
therapy is designed to teach communication skills. What makes it different
from conventional speech therapy is that it is designed to connect the child's
motivation to speak with the function or purpose of the word. The child learns
the purpose of language is to ask for things, label items, understand verbal
directions, answer questions and use phrases to communicate.
This approach encourages people with autism to learn language by connecting
words with their purposes. The student learns that words can help them get
desired objects or results.
Verbal Behavior therapy does not focus on words as labels only (cat, car, etc.).
Rather, it teaches why we use words and how they are useful in making
requests and communicating ideas.
Language is classified into types, called “operants.” Each operant has a

different function. Verbal Behavior therapy focuses on four word types:
 Mand: A request, such as saying “Cookie,” to ask for a cookie
 Tact: A comment used to share an experience or draw attention, such as
“airplane” to point out an airplane
 Intraverbal: A word used to respond or answer a question, such as
“Where do you go to school?” “Castle Park Elementary”
 Echoic: A repeated, or echoed, word, such as “Cookie?” “Cookie!” This is
important as imitating will help the student learn.
VB and classic ABA use similar techniques to work with children. VB methods
may be combined with an ABA program to work towards communication goals.
How is this therapy different from ABA or Speech Therapy?

Most Discrete Trial Testing and ABA programs originate from a more
traditional language system which focuses on receptive(interpret information)
and expressive (spoken language) skills.Verbal Behavior Therapy begins with
teaching "mands" or requests for desired items like a cookie or candy. The
child
quickly learns that asking for someone is meaningful because they get what
they want. Pointing is especially encouraged in the beginning. A child doesn't
need to speak to be referred to as verbal. He/she simply needs to be able to
communicate. This can involve gestures like pointing, sign language, picture
exchange and AT. VBA isn't as structured as ABA and emphasizes mixing and
varying what is being taught. It requires less documentation during the actual
teaching session.
How does it work?
Verbal Behavior therapy begins by teaching mands (requests) as the most basic
type of language. For example, the individual with autism learns that saying
“cookie” can produce a cookie.
As soon as the student makes a request, the therapist repeats the word and
presents the requested item. The therapist then uses the word again in the
same context to reinforce the meaning.
The person does not have to say the actual word to receive the desired item.
At first, he or she simply needs to make a request by any means (such as
pointing). The person learns that communicating produces positive results.
The therapist then helps the student shape communication over time toward
saying or signing the actual word.
In a typical session, the teacher asks a series of questions that combine easy
and hard requests. This allows the student to be successful more often and
reduces frustration. The teacher should vary the situations and instructions in
ways that keep the student interested.
Errorless Learning
Verbal Behavior therapy uses a technique called “errorless learning.”
Errorless teaching means using immediate and frequent prompts to ensure the
student provides the correct response each time. Over time, these prompts are
reduced. Eventually the student no longer needs prompting to provide the
correct response.
EXAMPLE
Step 1: The therapist holds a cookie in front of the student and says “cookie” to
prompt a response from the child.
Step 2: The therapist holds the cookie and make a “c” sound to prompt the
response.
Step 3: The therapist holds the cookie in the child’s line of sight and waits for
the request with no cue.
The ultimate goal is for the child to say “cookie” when he or she wants a cookie
– without any prompting.
What is the intensity of most VB programs?

Most programs involve at least one to three hours of therapy per week. More
intensive programs can involve many more hours.
Instructors train parents and other caregivers to use verbal-behavior strategies

in their daily life.
Who can benefit from Verbal Behavior therapy?

Verbal Behavior Therapy can help:
 Young children beginning to learn language

 Older students with delayed or disordered language
 Children and adults who sign or use visual supports or other forms
of assisted communication
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR TECHNIQUES

 Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a talking therapy that can help
you manage your problems by changing the way you think and behave.
 Therapists or computer-based programs use CBT techniques to help

individuals challenge their patterns and beliefs and replace "errors in
thinking such as over generalizing, magnifying negatives, minimizing
positives "with "more realistic and effective thoughts, thus decreasing
emotional distress and self-defeating behavior.
 The origins of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) dates back to the

Behavioral Therapies and their development in the early 20th century,
and correlate with the development of Cognitive therapy in 1960, and
consequently resulted in their fusion. Their effectiveness has been
demonstrated by numerous clinical studies in the treatment of various
psychiatric disorders. Aaron Beck is considered to be the father of
Cognitive Therapy, and his focus was initially on targeted treatment of
depression. He thought that in depression there is a distortion of
thoughts that is mainly focused on the negative perception of
themselves, negative interpretation of the environment and the
negative expectations in the future [1]. High efficacy of Cognitive
Bihevioral Therapy is demostrated in the treatment of depression,
generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, posttraumatic stress
disorder, and depressive and anxiety disorders in children.
 Basic principles of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy include cognitive

restructuring, in which therapist and patient work together to change
disruptive thinking patterns. It includes behavioral activation, in which
patients learn to overcome obstacles to participating in enjoyable
activities. Also, it focuses on specific, present problems and it is time-
limited, economic and goal oriented. In individual or group sessions,
problems (in terms of behaviors, emotions and thinking) are identified.
Approach is educational. The therapist uses structured learning
experiences that teach patients to monitor and write down their
negative thoughts and mental images. The goal is to recognize how
those ideas affect their mood, behavior, and physical condition.
Therapists also teach important coping skills, such as problem solving
and scheduling pleasurable experiences. Patients are expected to take
an active role in their learning, and that is why they are given homework
assignments at each session which is one of the main basics in cognitive-
bihevioral therapy. If you had learned in school multiplication table for
only an hour a week, you would probably still wondering how much is
6x7. Same is with psychotherapy; achieving the goal would take a very
long time if all what person is doing is thinking about techniques and
topics taught only one hour a week. Therefore, Cognitive Behavioral
therapists assign patients homework and encourage them to practice
techniques that they are taught.
STEPS IN CBT
Step 1: Identify critical behaviors
Step 2: Determine whether critical behaviors are excesses or deficits
Step 3: Evaluate critical behaviors for frequency, duration, or intensity (obtain
a baseline)
Step 4: If excess, attempt to decrease frequency, duration, or intensity of
behaviors; if deficits, attempt to increase behaviors.
HOW CBT WORKS?
 CBT is based on the concept that your thoughts, feelings, physical
sensations and actions are interconnected, and that negative thoughts
and feelings can trap you in a vicious cycle
In CBT, problems are broken down into five main areas:

Situations, thoughts, emotions, physical feelings, actions.
 CBT is based on the concept of these five areas being interconnected
and affecting each other. For example, your thoughts about a certain
situation can often affect how you feel both physically and emotionally,
as well as how you act in response
WHAT HAPPENS DURING CBT SESSIONS

 If CBT is recommended, you'll usually have a session with a therapist
once a week or once every two weeks. The course of treatment usually
lasts for between five and 20 sessions, with each session lasting 30-60
minutes.
 During the sessions, you'll work with your therapist to break down your
problems into their separate parts – such as your thoughts, physical
feelings and actions
 You and your therapist will analyse these areas to work out if they're
unrealistic or unhelpful and to determine the effect they have on each
other and on you. Your therapist will then be able to help you work out
how to change unhelpful thoughts and behaviors.
 After working out what you can change, your therapist will ask you to
practice these changes.
 This should help you manage your problems and stop them having a
negative impact on your life.
HOW CBT IS DIFFERENT?

 Pragmatic – it helps identify specific problems and tries to solve them
 Highly structured – rather than talking freely about your life, you and
your therapist discuss specific problems and set goals for you to achieve
 Focused on current problems – it's mainly concerned with how you think
and act now rather than attempting to resolve past issues
 Collaborative – your therapist won't tell you what to do; they'll work
with you to find solutions to your current difficulties
USES OF CBT
CBT has been shown to be an effective way of treating a number of different
mental health conditions. In addition to depression or anxiety disorders, CBT
can also help people with:
 obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
 panic disorder
 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
 phobias
 eating disorders – such as anorexia and bulimia
 sleep problems – such as insomnia problems related to alcohol misuse
PRONS AND CONS OF CBT

 It may be helpful in cases where medication alone hasn't worked
 it can be completed in a relatively short period of time compared to

other talking therapies
 The highly structured nature of CBT means it can be provided in

different formats, including in groups, self-help books and computer
programs
 It teaches you useful and practical strategies that can be used in

everyday life – even after the treatment has finished
DISADVANTAGES
 You need to commit yourself to the process to get the most from it
 Attending regular CBT sessions and carrying out any extra work between
sessions can take up a lot of your time
 It may not be suitable for people with more complex mental health
needs or learning difficulties – as it requires structured sessions
 It involves confronting your emotions and anxieties – you may

experience initial periods where you're anxious or emotionally
uncomfortable
 It focuses on the individual’s capacity to change themselves (their

thoughts, feelings and behaviors) – which doesn't address any wider
problems in systems or families that often have a significant impact on
an individual’s health and wellbeing
 Some critics also argue that because CBT only addresses current
problems and focuses on specific issues, it doesn't address the possible
underlying causes of mental health conditions, such as an unhappy
childhood
3.3 Social Strategies and Approaches (e.g.,social stories,

Comic strips, Peer-Mediated Programs)
Provisions to meet the educational needs of individuals with autism are geared
to enabling them to lead as independent a life as possible in adulthood. This
implies that education would provide the individuals with work skills that
would make them eligible for seeking employment, obtain employment, retain
their jobs, be able to live independently, and have adequate leisure skills. Yet
the few educational opportunities that currently exist are more focused on the
development of cognitive skills and on ‘academics’ and pay little attention to
the needs of individuals for when they become adults with autism. This near-
absence of appropriate educational opportunities severely limits the possibility
for employment—and therefore, the opportunities for independent living—
for the vast majority of individuals with autism. In order to maximize the
options for adults with autism to be independent as adults, current services
and planning must also take into consideration the need for training in
vocational skills, job opportunities, living options, and recreational
opportunities.
Communication Skills
Using language and communicating with other people can be a challenge for
many children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). But with help and
understanding, these children can develop communication skills.
In order to provide the best, most targeted communication treatment program
for a child with autism, a comprehensive communication evaluation needs to
be conducted by a speech-language pathologist (SLP). This assessment needs
to evaluate pragmatic language skills (functional and social communication) as
well as semantic language skills (the meaning of language—including content
and context). Because of the unique nature of autism, the assessment requires
a team effort, involving family, teachers, and others who know the child well,
and it should include more than standardized testing. A complete picture of
the child is needed to make treatment decisions and to provide a baseline by
which progress can be measured.
That’s where functional communication training (FCT) comes in. FCT involves
teaching an individual a reliable way of conveying information with language,
signs, and/or images to achieve a desired end. It’s called “functional” because
it doesn’t just teach kids to label an item (ie associating the word RED to a
picture of an apple) but focuses on using words or signs to get something
needed or desired — a food, a toy, an activity, a trip to the bathroom, a break
from something.
FCT involves the use of positive reinforcement to teach children about

language and communication, to increase their ability to interact effectively
with others to get their needs met.
Social Stories
Social stories were created by Carol Gray, a teacher, and consultant. In 1990,
she began experimenting with the idea of creating "social stories" to help her
autistic students prepare for a range of school-based situations. Over the
course of several decades, she perfected a system and approach which she has
patented. While many people create their own social stories, Gray holds the
trademark for the term.
Since 1990, quite a few researchers have explored the efficacy of social stories.
Most have found the approach to be useful, though there are some mixed
results. Clearly, social stories can only be useful when the audience is engaged,
interested, and able to understand and act on the content.
Social stories explain social situations to autistic children and help them learn
socially appropriate behaviour and responses. These stories are sometimes
called social scripts, social narratives or story-based interventions.
According to Carol Gray, the criteria for a good social story, in summary, are as
follows:
1. Share accurate information in a supportive, meaningful, descriptive

manner.
2. Understand your audience (the individual with autism) and his/her
attitude toward the skill, concept or situation being described.
3. Include a title, introduction, body, and summarizing conclusion in each
social story.
4. When writing, use a first or third-person voice, have a positive tone, be
absolutely literal and accurate.
5. Answer the key questions who, what, where, why, when, and how.
6. Include descriptive sentences as well as coaching sentences.
7. Describe more than you direct.
8. Review and refine your social stories before presenting them.
9. Plan before you write, monitor outcomes, mix and match as needed,
provide both instruction and applause.
10.Include at least 50% "applause" (affirmation) for the audience.
Common Uses of Social Stories
 Teach children (or adults) to complete a simple task such as removing a

jacket and putting away a lunchbox.
 Help individuals to prepare a complex or challenging situation such as a
social event or an outing that is likely to include social expectations
and/or sensory assaults.
 Help individuals to understand and respond to body language, facial
expressions, or vocal tones.
 Provide options in a social skills group or similar setting.
 Prepare individuals for unique events such as a wedding, job interview,
or date.
Misuse of Social Stories
Because Social Stories are simple, it's easy to misuse them or create them
incorrectly. Social Stories are not narratives about children behaving properly,
and they are not a set of directives for completing tasks or behaving
appropriately. When creating social stories, writers should avoid:
 Stories that are made up almost entirely of directives rather than

including description
 A story that uses the second person ("you feel x," for example)
 Metaphors, complex language, and other writing that may not be
understood
 Stories that are not completely accurate ("Grandma is always kind," for
example, if not completely true)
 Stories that suggest judgment or threats ("If you behave badly, you will
have to go to your room," for example)
Another common error in the creation of Social Studies is the misuse of visuals.
Images are intended to be as realistic, accurate, and meaningful as possible.
Nevertheless, many creators of Social Stories litter their work with clip art,
emojis, and other items which "decorate" the story but convey no meaning to
the person reading it.
Comic strips
Comic strip conversations, created by Carol Gray, are simple visual
representations of conversation. They can show:
 the things that are actually said in a conversation
 how people might be feeling
 what people's intentions might be.
Comic strip conversations use stick figures and symbols to represent social
interactions and abstract aspects of conversation, and colour to represent the
emotional content of a statement or message.
From Carol Gray's Comic strip conversations, 1994
By seeing the different elements of a conversation presented visually, some of
the more abstract aspects of social communication (such as recognising the
feelings of others) are made more 'concrete' and are therefore easier to
understand.
Comic strip conversations can also offer an insight into how an autistic person
perceives a situation.
Comic strip conversations can help autistic people understand concepts that
they find particularly difficult. People draw as they talk and use these drawings
to learn about different social situations.
In a comic strip conversation, the autistic person takes the lead role, with
parents, carers or teachers offering support and guidance.
 Start with small talk (for example, talking about the weather) to get the
person you are supporting familiar with drawing while talking and to
mimic ordinary social interactions.
 Ask a range of questions about a specific situation or type of social
interaction. The autistic person answers by speaking and drawing their
response.
 Summarise the event or situation you've discussed using the drawings as
a guide.
 Think about how you can address any problems or concerns that have
been identified.
 Develop an action plan for similar situations in the future. This will be a
helpful guide for the autistic person.
 For complex situations, or for people who have difficulty reporting events
in sequence, comic strip boxes may be used, or drawings can be
numbered in the sequence in which they occur.
Comic strip conversations can be used to plan for a situation in the future that
may be causing anxiety or concern, for example an exam or a social event.
However, remember that plans can sometimes change. It's important to
present the information in a way which allows for unexpected changes to a
situation.
Peer-Mediated Programs
Peer-mediated instruction and interventions (PMII)—or any instruction or
intervention implemented with another child without disabilities—can be
applied in a variety of different ways. Rather than involving just a teacher or
therapist and the child, PMII involves one or more peers who take on a role in
the teaching. PMII works in dyads or ‘the buddy system,’ in small groups, and
classroom-wide intervention programs.
Some of the goals of implementing a peer-mediated program are to:
1. Teach peers strategies for talking and playing with students with ASD
2. Increase interactions between students with ASD and their typically
developing peers
3. Minimize adult support
PMII describes not just one intervention but a group of different methods.
PMII has shown to be effective in classwide formats, using peers as natural
models, using peers as instructors, and in social skills training. Below are some
examples of how PMII can be customized to meet the goals of different
learners with ASD.
Classwide PMII Interventions
Peer-Mediated Instruction and Interventions may be implemented not just
with the individual learner and one peer, but instead with all the children in a
classroom. Sometimes known as group-oriented contingencies, these
interventions involve systems of reward or motivation for all peers that help
foster interactions and appropriate behaviors for the individual learner. It can
also include changing the physical characteristics of a classroom or clinic
environment to promote interactions between children.
Peer Modeling Interventions
Some PMII methods capitalize on the peer as a natural model of appropriate
behavior. Sometimes known as observational learning, the technique focuses
on having a child with autism observe the peer and subsequently imitate the
model. Research shows that having a peer model a behavior is just as effective
for children with ASD as adult models. Peer-modeling can also be used to help
a child with ASD learn to initiate and respond to natural social cues from a
peer.
Peer Tutoring Interventions
Peer tutoring interventions describe a myriad of PMII methods where the peer
without disabilities assumes the role of the instructor. During peer tutoring
interactions, the peer may provide the instruction, provide the reward or
positive reinforcement for good behavior, or may provide corrective
feedback. In most peer-tutoring interventions, the peer undergoes training
beforehand but then can independently implement the intervention. Some
peer-tutoring interventions involve the reverse, where the child with autism
acts as the tutor, delivering appropriate instructions and corrective feedback to
a peer.
Social Skills Training
For learners with goals related to developing social skills, PMII interventions
may involve social skills training. Sometimes known as peer networks, these
social skills training groups practice a specific social skill in small groups. The
group might focus on one response, like taking turns or having conversations,
or it might have a broader focus on modeling appropriate social behaviors or
developing friendships.
Frequent monitoring of child progress will be an important component to

determine the effects of the intervention strategies on social interactions.
Direct observation will allow educators to assess both the quality and quantity
of the children’s social engagement. For example, educators should evaluate:
 whether the peer initiates interactions with the target child

 whether the target child responds to the peer’s initiations
 whether the target child initiates with the peer
 whether the peer responds to the target child, and
 whether the target child is engaging in any inappropriate
behaviors (English, Goldstein, Shafer, & Kaczmarek, 1997)
3.4 Strategies and Approaches (e.g., Learning

Experiences and Alternate Program for Pre-
schoolers and their Parents (LEAP), Early Start
Denver Model (ESDM), The Joint Attention,
Symbolic Play, Engagement & Regulation (JASPER),
Floortime)
JASPER
The Joint Attention, Symbolic Play, Engagement & Regulation (JASPER)
approach was developed at the center for Autism Research and Treatment by
Dr. Connie Kasari. It is a treatment approach based on the integration of
developmental and behavioral principles. The model uses naturalistic
strategies to target the foundations of social-communication in terms of joint
attention, imitation and play. Primary implementers of the intervention
include parents and teachers whose ultimate goal is to promote generalization
across environments and activities and maintain progress over time.
The Joint Attention, Symbolic Play, Engagement & Regulation
(JASPER) approach identifies and treats core deficit areas for children with
autism. These core deficit areas consist of joint attention, symbolic play,
engagement and regulation and are considered the four main targets of the
JASPER treatment. Basic JASPER strategies are integrated into naturalistic
symbolic play sessions with a balance of structure and flexibility to improve
these target areas. Strategies include; modeling, promoting hierarchies,
imitating and expanding joint attention, language and play acts as well as
pacing language to match the child’s language and adjusting play based on the
interests of the child.
Joint Attention, Symbolic Play, Engagement & Regulation (JASPER)strategies
have been tested with children ages 12 months to 8 years old and have been
shown to work well with other behavioral based interventions. Once initial
assessments are completed an intervention plan is put into place and adults
are trained twice per week for a series of sessions to learn the treatment
strategies. The JASPER approach can be incorporated naturally into settings
such as special education classrooms, inclusion and the child’s home.
Core values include:
 Modeling and teaching joint attention skills directly
 Increase the ability to coordinate attention
 Increasing diversity and flexibility in play skills
 Increase functional play and reach higher levels of symbolic play
 Improve children’s state of engagement
 Increasing engagement to increase opportunities for learning and
social communication
 Increase emotional and behavioral regulation
 Decrease self-stimulatory behaviors
JASPER has been empirically tested with many children, ranging in age from 12
months to 8 years, with a wide range of developmental abilities. It has
application for parents, teachers, paraprofessionals and clinicians. JASPER
works well in conjunction with other behavioral-based therapies and can be
naturally incorporated into inclusion and special education classrooms and
every day activities in the home. The only required materials are
developmentally-appropriate toys or activities.
Learning Experiences and Alternate Program for Pre- schoolers and their
Parents (LEAP)
LEAP is an acronym for: Learning Experiences: an Alternative Program for
Preschoolers and Parents. Our special education LEAP Preschool provides high
quality early intervention services to preschool children diagnosed with an
Autism Spectrum Disorder and their typically-developing peers.
LEAP reflects a naturalistic, inclusive developmental approach for teaching
children with autism spectrum disorders in an early childhood environment.
This approach focuses on enhancing the skills of children with autism through
interaction and play with typically-developing peers. The LEAP model is one of
the most extensively validated intervention programs in early childhood special
education history.
Family Support
Family involvement is essential for the success of the children who participate
in the LEAP Preschool program. To help families better understand and
reinforce the skills their child is learning, LEAP Preschool offers basic behavior
management training for parents. This training provides parents with the
necessary knowledge to teach their children new skills at home.
LEAP is a multi-faceted program for young children on the austistic spectrum. It
combined a variety of strategies such as Applied Behavior Analysis, peer-
mediated instruction, incidental teaching, self-management training,
prompting strategies, and systematic parent training. It was developed by
Phillip Strain in Pennsylvania for both children with autism and typically
developing children. LEAP has the components of an integrated preschool
program and a behavior skills training program for parents. Services include
parent involvement and training. The program does not provide one-to-one
intervention; instead, services consist of 15 hours per week of classroom
instruction provided by a teacher and an assistant who implement the program
with 10 typically developing children and 3 to 4 children with autism. A full
time speech therapist and contracted occupational and physical therapists also
work with the children in specially arranged classrooms designed to support
child-directed play. The primary goals of the curriculum are to expose children
with autism to typical preschool activities and to adapt the typical curriculum
for the children with autism only when necessary. Independent play skills are
facilitated by using peer models and by prompting, fading, and reinforcing
target behaviors (Strain & Hoyson, 2000).
Early Start Denver Model (ESDM)

The Early Start Denver Model (ESDM) is a behavioral therapy for children with
autism between the ages of 12-48 months. It is based on the methods of
applied behavior analysis (ABA).
Parents and therapists use play to build positive and fun relationships. Through
play and joint activities, the child is encouraged to boost language, social and
cognitive skills.
 Based on understanding of normal toddler learning and development

 Focused on building positive relationships
 Teaching occurs during natural play and everyday activities
 Uses play to encourage interaction and communication
ESDM therapy can be used in many settings, including at home, at a clinic, or in

school. Therapy is provided in both group settings and one-on-one.
It has been found to be effective for children with a wide range of learning
styles and abilities. ESDM can help children make progress in their social skills,
language skills, and cognitive skills. Children who have significant learning
challenges can benefit just as much as those without learning challenges.
Parent involvement is a key part of the ESDM program. Therapists should

explain and model the strategies they use so that families can practice them at
home.
The ESDM is based on the Denver Model, which is normally applied to older
children with ASD. The early version of the ESDM was developed by Geraldine
Dawson, Ph.D. and Sally Rogers, Ph.D. as an early behavioral therapy approach
for children with some form of ASD. As mentioned, it focuses on the age group
between 12-48 months and it is based on the methods of applied behavioral
analysis (ABA).
The ESDM has been created in such a way that the lessons/therapy can take
place in a variety of settings. Parents and therapists can both use play-based
therapy, wherever they are, to work towards the development of positive
relationships and associated relational skills. This play ‘learning’ therapy is
based on knowledge of where a ‘normal’ child should be developmentally.
Using the knowledge of ‘normal’ development, ESDM curriculum specifically
targets the areas in which children with ASD may have extra difficulty. These
specific areas commonly include social interaction skills, the ability to integrate
skill sets, and the ability to both form and maintain relationships.
The ESDM relies on intensively tested and empirically verified teaching
techniques that draw on ABA methods and field-vetted teaching practices.
Above all, it strives to be a relationship-focused curriculum (with both
therapists and parents/caregivers).
Some of the key features of the Early Start Denver Model are:
– Deep parental interaction
– Play-based therapy
– Language and communication lessons delivered within an affect-based and
positive relationship
– Emphasis on positive affect and interpersonal dynamics
– Naturalistic strategies drawn from ABA
– Joint activities that reinforce shared involvement
– A sensitivity to ‘normal’ childhood development goals
The ESDM prepares children with ASDs and their parents for the educational
and developmental programs that will likely be suggested or encouraged later
in life (like the Denver Model). Proponents of the ESDM believe that it does the
essential and important work of establishing relationship-focused behaviors in
children at an early age, which will prove integral to their integration into
larger social groups (like school environments) later in life. Today, the ESDM
has become an indispensable tool to aid ASD children who struggle to connect
with other members of their social context and who experience difficulty
learning other related tasks.
The Joint Attention

The strategies in JASPER promote joint attention skills – coordinating attention
between objects and people for purposes of sharing. Examples include looking
between people and objects, showing, and pointing to show. While joint
attention develops naturally in typical children, those with autism must
actively learn these skills. Our studies show that when joint attention skills are
modeled and taught directly, children with autism use more joint attention.
This leads to increased engagement and learning.
Joint attention is a behaviour in which two people focus on an object or event,
for the purpose of interacting with each other. It is a form of early social and
communicative behaviour.
Joint attention involves sharing a common focus on something (such as other
people, objects, a concept, or an event) with someone else. It requires the
ability to gain, maintain, and shift attention. For example, a parent and child
may both look at a toy they’re playing with or observe a train passing by. Joint
attention (also known as ‘shared attention’) may be gained by using eye
contact, gestures (eg pointing using the index finger) and/or vocalisations,
including spoken words (eg “look over there”).
When one person purposefully coordinates his or her focus of attention with
that of another person, we refer to the behavior as “joint attention.”
Joint attention involves two people
paying attention to the same thing, intentionally and for social
reasons. Imagine, for example, that a teacher points to her desk and says to a
child, “Look at that big apple.” The child looks at the place the teacher has
pointed and sees the apple. In this situation, the teacher and the child have
engaged in joint attention—that is, they shared attention to the apple on
purpose.
Early joint attention skills may include a child reaching out to be picked up by
an adult or looking at the same page of a book with another person. Further
developed skills may include focusing on a game or requesting items, such as a
favourite toy or food.
There are two ways joint attention can occur:

1. Initiating joint attention
In this case, the child initiates the social interaction. For example, the child may
point to a toy, and gaze at their parent to get them to look at it, too. Older
children may use vocalisations to gain attention (eg “look here mum”).
Initiating joint attention could indicate that a child is socially motivated.
2. Responding to joint attention

In this scenario, the child responds to someone else’s efforts to gain joint
attention. For example, a parent points to a ball and says, “look at the ball!”.
The child responds by following the parent’s gaze and gesture (eg pointing
using the index finger) to look at the ball. Responding to, is easier than
initiating, joint attention.
Being able to establish joint attention is vital for developing social-

communication and cognitive skills. In typically developing children, joint
attention skills start to develop soon after birth and by the age of three,
children are usually competent at gaining and maintaining joint attention from
adults and peers.
Without joint attention skills, it could be difficult for children to interact and
develop relationships with their caregivers and peers. Joint attention helps
develop important social skills such as bonding and seeing another’s point of
view.
Children with autism may have difficulties with joint attention, as they may
find it difficult to interact while paying attention to an object and a person.
This could result in missed opportunities to interact and communicate with
others. Also, it may make it difficult for a person with autism to get their wants
and needs met.
The skills needed for joint attention include:
 Orienting and attending to a social partner (that is, the person you
are interacting with)
 Shifting of gaze between people and objects
 Sharing emotional states with another person
 Following the gaze and point of another person
 Being able to draw another person’s attention to objects or events
for the purpose of sharing experiences.
Symbolic Play
A primary target of JASPER is to increase the diversity of children's play skills.
Appropriate play acts are modeled, joint attention is facilitated within play
routines, and greater diversity in types of play are encouraged. The overall goal
is to help the child increase their diversity and flexibility in play and reach
higher levels of play. Although reaching levels of symbolic play is an ultimate
goal, functional play is also targeted depending on the child's developmental
level.
Play provides some of a child’s first opportunities to rehearse social
interactions, generate novel ideas, toy with symbolism and develop narratives
— skills that serve us later in life, particularly in our highly social world. Indeed,
children who engage in more complex play early in development show greater
social competence at later ages1. Add the opportunity to invite another person
to play, or to follow another’s lead, and the foundation for working with others
is set.
For children with autism, however, these opportunities do not present
themselves so easily. Yet play is still an important developmental tool for these
children. For clinicians, it represents a key arena for delivering therapies that
could improve a child’s social skills, language and certain cognitive capacities.
In assessing children with autism, clinicians look at several different types of

play. Symbolic play includes the use of objects or actions to represent other
objects or actions. In autism, symbolic play is often delayed, and spontaneous
play is less frequent, less complex and lacks the novelty that typically
developing children demonstrate.
Symbolic play is just another term for pretend play. By the age of 3, most
children have developed fairly sophisticated tools for pretend play, both alone
and with others.
They may use toys exactly as they're designed—playing "house" with a pretend
kitchen and eating plastic food. Or they may make up their own pretend play,
such as turning a box into a fortress.
Children with autism rarely develop pretend play skills without help. They may
enjoy placing toy trains on a track. But they're unlikely to enact scenes or make
sound effects unless they are actively taught and encouraged to do so.
Arranging play activities with missing items increased opportunities for

children to engage in symbolic play. The training procedure can be used in
clinical and educational settings as an initial step to establish and improve
complex play behavior in children with autism spectrum disorder who lack
such skills.
Engagement & Regulation
Engagement – JASPER utilizes a number of strategies to improve the child's

state of engagement with others during intervention. The goal is to scaffold
the child from being unengaged or solely focused on objects to higher states of
joint engagement with others, and increase their diversity and flexibility
enabling them to reach higher levels of play. Increases in engagement lead to
increased opportunities for social communication and learning.
Regulation – This approach stresses the importance of emotion and behavior

regulation. A series of strategies are employed to handle self-stimulatory
behaviors that interfere with learning, lack of engagement, and disregulation.
Floortime
Floortime is a relationship-based therapy for children with autism. The
intervention is called Floortime because the parent gets down on the floor
with the child to play and interact with the child at their level.
Floortime is an alternative to ABA and is sometimes used in combination with

ABA therapies.
The goal is for adults to help children expand their “circles of communication.”
They meet the child at their developmental level and build on their strengths.
Therapists and parents engage children through the activities each child
enjoys. They enter the child's games. They follow the child's lead.
Floortime aims to help the child reach six key milestones that contribute to
emotional and intellectual growth:
 Self-regulation and interest in the world

 Intimacy, or engagement in relationships
 Two-way communication
 Complex communication
 Emotional ideas
 Emotional thinking
Therapists teach parents how to direct their children into more and more
complex interactions. This process, called “opening and closing circles of
communication,” is central to the Floortime approach.
Floortime does not work on speech, motor or cognitive skills in isolation. It

addresses these areas through its focus on emotional development.
Overall, this method encourages children with autism to push themselves to

their full potential. It develops “who they are,” rather than “what their
diagnosis says.”
Children with autism require intensive intervention and will rarely initiate
interaction on their own unless they need something. To encourage interaction
and a shared world, floortime can occur anywhere, such as:
 Inside the home.
 In the backyard.
 In a therapy office.
 In elementary school.
 At preschool or daycare.
 At a playground.
 In a supermarket.
 In the car.
 In the bathtub.
Floortime can be done at any time of day and with anyone, such as parents,
peers, and siblings. The key to floortime is that the people who participate in it
enjoy it.
Floortime may be a good treatment option for a child with autism. It’s usually
used as part of a comprehensive treatment plan that also includes ABA
therapy, speech therapy, and occupational therapy, as appropriate for the
specific child. The progress made in floortime therapy will transfer into other
therapy areas as well. Ultimately, incorporating floortime techniques into daily
life can be a great opportunity for you and your child to play and bond.
Throughout the process, you can help to develop your child’s communication
skills to their fullest potential.
3.5 Consideration for Learning and Teaching Methods in

ASD
Teaching Children with ASD

When selecting teaching strategies, we are all aware that ‘one size fits all’ does
not apply. It is important to acknowledge the individuality of each child. But
there is another aspect beyond this that must be kept in mind when teaching
children with autism.
Autism is a population that takes a uniquely different developmental path.
While each child has his own specific style, a large number of children with
autism have certain unique commonalities. These, in addition to their uneven
patterns of strengths and weaknesses, are some unique learning
characteristics that must be considered for their educational implications.
Generalisation: The ability to apply a skill in different situations is known as
generalisation. Opportunities to generalise a skill learnt across situations, time
and people must be given.
Concrete to abstract: Due to difficulties with imagination children with autism
may find understanding of abstract concepts difficult. Because they focus
concretely they often have difficulty with remembering the precise order of
tasks. Here again visuals help. In addition, while teaching always starts with
concrete objects and then moves to abstract concepts. Learning needs to be
experiential and related to real life situations.
Rote learners: Children with autism have excellent rote memory and they may
use this to compensate for their difficulties in comprehension. It is therefore
imperative to work on language skills.
Literal understanding: As children with autism are literal interpreters it is
essential to be clear and concrete in communication. It is best to avoid irony,
sarcasm and metaphors. Children with autism may have difficulty with shared
attention tasks which involves understanding what another person may be
thinking. This is a skill which is vital in any teaching situation and highlights one
of the main areas of learning difficulty in people with autism.
Curriculum
Reading: Many students with ASD have strong visual skills and are often more
successful in learning to read through a whole word sight recognition approach
than through a more traditional phonics program. Whole words that are
meaningful are usually easier for students to learn to read than words for
which students have no basis of experience or knowledge. In the beginning
stages of learning to read, it is critical to enable students to develop a sense of
confidence.
While knowing the alphabet and knowing the sound symbol associations are
usually regarded as prerequisite skills for learning to read, many students with
ASD often have difficulty acquiring these prerequisite skills. Some students are
able to recite alphabet letters and letter sounds by rote, but may be unable to
apply this to decoding words in a fluent manner. The rate of reading fluency
will affect a student’s ability to comprehend the message of the words. If a
student needs to give more cognitive attention to a difficult decoding process,
then it is likely that the student’s understanding of what the words are saying
will decrease.
Some students may be better able to understand and learn the phonetic
components of words after they have learned to read them through a whole
word sight recognition approach, working backwards within a top-down
framework from the whole to the parts. It is important to consider that,
although some students may be unable to manipulate the symbolic
representations of sounds, they may still be able to recognize and comprehend
words and acquire skills in phonics.
As the student acquires more words, it is essential to provide activities in
which these words are used in meaningful contexts. Ongoing practice in
sentence construction enables the student to understand how words are
organized to express thoughts and needs, as well as how pronouns, articles,
and prepositions are used in context. Daily practice in sentence construction
provides students with the opportunity to develop an understanding of
grammar and to learn a framework for using language. This practice also
reinforces that repetition and rehearsal of language construction are ongoing
expectations of daily task performance.
Writing: While some students with ASD are proficient in printing and
handwriting, many others have difficulty with written tasks because of
difficulties with fine motor skills. The visual-motor coordination and fine motor
movements that are required in written activities may be extremely frustrating
and divert the student’s attention from the content of what he is writing to the
physical process of print production. Difficulties with handwriting have been
identified as one of the most significant barriers to academic participation for
students with ASD in schools today.
There are many ways in which technology can be used to enhance and
compensate for the limitations that students have in their writing skills. If fine
motor skills are a barrier to participation and academic function, then seek the
alternative of assistive technology.
The use of keyboards, word processors, and writing software has facilitated the
writing process for many students with ASD. Learning to use a keyboard is a
valuable skill for students to acquire. For many students with ASD, using a
computer is a highly preferred activity. Teach and encourage the student to
learn to use the keyboard as a writing instrument. This is a reasonable
accommodation to the motor planning difficulties often associated with ASD.
While learning to print can be a useful exercise for many, when students’
difficulties with penmanship inhibit their ability to demonstrate their
knowledge and spark behavioural upsets, the use of the keyboard is a viable
alternative.
In many cases, OTs are involved with students with ASD and provide
assessments and information on a student’s fine motor and writing skills. OTs
can provide recommendations about the strategies, resources, and
accommodations that will be appropriate to assist students with fine motor
and writing difficulties. As with other skills, it is essential to focus on the
students’ strengths and determine the skills and methods that will be most
functional for the students in the future.
Mathematics For many students with ASD, participation in mathematics can
be a challenging aspect of the academic curriculum. There are several reasons
for this:
• Although many mathematical concepts can be demonstrated through visual
examples, they are often accompanied by sophisticated verbal instruction.
• The language of mathematics instruction has its own vocabulary, and the
precision of instruction and usage of terms can vary from one instructor to
another.
• Mathematical terminology can be very complex and is challenging for
students who struggle with processing the language of everyday interactions.
• Along with the verbal, orthographic, and representational expressions of
number, there is also the symbolic representation in the form of numerals.
• Mathematical operations are usually performed with a pencil. Many students
with ASD have fine motor difficulties and learning to form numerals and
manipulate them on paper may be challenging.
Unit 4: Teaching strategies for students with ID
4.6. Teaching strategies for developing personal and social

skills in students with ID including mild to severe levels
of ID, and individuals with high support needs
4.7. Strategies for teaching functional academics. Methods
of curricular content and process adaptations for
students with intellectual disabilities
4.8. Management of challenging behaviours – functional
assessment (antecedent, behaviour, consequence),
intervention strategies – Token economy, Contingency
contracting, Response cost, over correction, restitution
and Differential Reinforcement and other behavioural
strategies
4.9. Group Teaching at various levels – pre-primary,

primary levels, development and use of TLM and ICT
for ID
4.10. Various types of Evaluation: Entry level, Formative
and Summative, Continuous and Comprehensive
Evaluation (CCE) in the Indian educational system
4.1 Teaching strategies for developing personal and social
skills in students with ID including mild to severe levels
of ID, and individuals with high support needs
Personal skills
Everyone needs certain self-care skills to simply get through the day. Skills related to
eating, dressing, and personal hygiene are requirements for anyone wishing to live even
a semi-independent life. In addition to these basic skills are the many skills we use each
day to navigate life at home and in the community.
With systematic planning and teaching, the high ability group of children with
Intellectual disability learn to eat and drink, dress, brush and bathe on their own by the
time they reach secondary level. However, some of them may require minimum
assistance in bathing and dressing. At this level the following curriculum content needs
to be covered as an extension of primary curriculum.
The curriculum content should cover activities such as eating of different types of
breakfast items and sweets appropriately (eg. Eating gulab jamon/rasagulla/payasam
with spoon, taking a small piece of chapatti with right hand and taking a small quantity
of curry/dal and eating), showing appropriate eating/table manners when children
participate in social functions and cafeteria, carrying water, filing water in bottles,
folding manageable clothes, bed covers/sheets, cutting pictures, pasting, folding papers
and inserting them into covers and the other routine activities. Never underestimate
student’s ability. Expose him to various activities and assist in learning.
 Provide opportunity to children to eat different types of breakfast and snacks

items which are commonly prepared at home and available outside as eating of
different items need different skills.
 Take them to eating places as a part of school activity to expose them to various
types of eating environments.
 Allow children to decide what they want to eat and order the items.
 Give them an experience of folding letters and inserting them into envelops and
pasting. Every organization has a lot of correspondence to do. The students can
be given them activity after initial training.
 Folding of napkins, towels, aprons or table cloth can be taught at school as these
materials are used during organizing various programmes at school.
 Schools celebrate national festivals, birthday parties, sports day, annual day and
such functions through out the year. Students at this level can be involved in
decoration, seating arrangement, food/snacks arrangements.
 Inform parents/family members to involve their children in all these activities at
home also so that transfer of training and generalization is achieved.
 Break down / task-analyze skills into steps.
 Model targeted skills, then provide practice opportunities.
 Use visual schedules with pictures / icons to demonstrate each step.
 Systematically fade prompts to promote independence.
 Teach occupational awareness and exploration, as appropriate.
 Teach material in relevant contexts.
 Reinforce students for generalizing information across material or settings.
 Provide many opportunities for students to apply information they have learned.
 Explicitly teach life skills related to daily living and self-care.
 Plan experiences that are relevant to the student's world.
 Find ways to apply skills to other settings (field trips).
 Minimize distractions and the possibility for over-stimulation.
 Teach and model personal hygiene habits such as washing hands, covering mouth
and nose when sneezing or coughing, and dental care.
 Arrange the environment so students have many opportunities to practice
personal care and self-help skills.
 Teach and model rules and practices for bus safety, safety outside, staying with
the group, and safety in the classroom.
 Teach students to provide personal identification information when asked.
 Teach and model procedures for dealing with potentially dangerous situations,
including fire, severe weather, and strangers.
Focusing on one skill at a time
Children with disability can find everyday activities very challenging, so it’s important to
focus on teaching only one thing at a time. For example, a child with cerebal palsy might
use a lot of physical and mental energy just to sit upright in a chair, so it can be hard for
them to do anything else while sitting.
For children with disability, it also helps to reduce distractions and make sure that your
child’s environment is set up for them to learn.
Instructions: teaching by telling
This is teaching children how to do something by explaining what to do or how to do it.

This strategy works best if you do some planning before you start.
Modelling: teaching by showing: Visual representation
Children learn what to do and how to do it by watching you. This is called modelling.
It means you can teach your child many things by showing them what to do. For
example, you’re more likely to ‘show’ rather than ‘tell’ your child how to pack toys
away, wash up a cup or feed a pet.
You can also use modelling to teach your child how to interact with others – for
example, asking a teacher for help, or introducing yourself to another person. And
modelling is a great way to teach skills that are hard to explain in words, like body
language and tone of voice.
Modelling might also be a good option if your child finds it hard to make eye contact
with you. Modelling means your child can watch your actions and behaviour as you
show them what to do, rather than your face as you tell them.
Teaching step by step: Task analysis
Some tasks or activities are complicated or need to happen in a sequence. For these,
you can break the task down into smaller steps, and teach your child one step at a time.
For example, here’s how you might break down getting dressed:
 Get clothes out.

 Put on underpants.
 Put on socks.
 Put on shirt.
 Put on pants.
 Put on a jumper.
Each of these steps can be broken down into parts as well.
The idea of step-by-step teaching is to teach one step at a time. When your child has
learned the first step, you teach the next step, then the next, and so on. You keep going
until your child can do the whole task by themselves. You can use instructions and
modelling to help your child learn each step.
A poster showing each of the steps can help too.
Teaching with backwards steps: Backward chaining

It’s often a good idea to teach a complicated task like getting dressed by starting with
the last step, rather than the first. This is called backwards teaching.
For example, if you want to use backwards teaching for putting on a jumper, you might
help your child put the jumper over their head and put their arms in. Then get your
child to do the last step – that is, pulling the jumper down.
Once your child can pull the jumper down, get your child to put their arms through and
then pull the jumper down. Go on like this until your child has mastered each step of
the task and can do the whole thing.
Helping your child complete the steps; Prompting and Fading

You might help your child by gesturing, reminding them of the next step, or helping
physically – for example, putting your hands over your child’s hands and guiding them
through the movements. You can gradually phase out your help as your child learns the
new skill.
Social skills
Social skills are defined as the set of skills used to interact and communicate with
one another. These skills include daily interaction skills such as sharing, taking
turns, and allowing others to talk without interrupting. According to Kratchowill
and French (1984) social skills are learned verbal and nonverbal behaviors that
are performed within a specific social context. Social skills are necessary to form
and sustain relationships with others. These skills may be acquired through
gradual learning and are largely influenced by a variety of social agents present in
the culture. This process of learning and acquiring in the society is called
socialization and when these skills are performed adequately they are referred to
as social competency. Social competence includes both social skills and adaptive
behavior. Children differ greatly in their social traits because of the influence of
family, neighborhood and school environment which are important units of a
society. Schools and classrooms are social environments where children function
effectively from instructional activities that occur in an interactional context.
To be accepted as a member of the group and part of the community, one needs to
have smooth interpersonal relationships for which adequate language and
communications skills are required. Often children with Intellectual disability fail to
interact with groups meaningfully in an acceptable manner. It is observed that most of
the children with Intellectual disability have limited vocabulary and have difficulty in
speaking in sentences, understanding and following instructions and narrating incidents
in a sequence. Various activities should be planned to develop these skills at secondary
level.
Acceptable behaviour towards persons of opposite sex needs to be taught subtly and
constantly during social situation at this state. Do’s and dont’s should be clearly
specified to avoid embarrassment. This training should be continued into
prevocational stage also.
 Provide frequent opportunities for students to learn and socialize with typically
developing peers.
 Involve the student in group activities and clubs.
 Provide daily social skills instruction.
 Directly teach social skills, such as turn-taking, social distance, reciprocal
conversations, etc.
 Break down social skills into non-verbal and verbal components.
 Explains rules / rationales behind social exchanges.
 Provide frequent opportunities to practice skills in role-playing situations.
 Provide opportunities to practice skills in many different environments.
 Serve as a model for interactions with students.
 Value and acknowledge each student’s efforts.
 Provide many opportunities for students to interact directly with each other.
 Work to expand the young child’s repertoire of socially mediated reinforcers (e.g.
tickling, peek-a-boo, chase, etc.).
 Ask students to imagine how their behavior might affect others.
 Specifically comment on and describe what the student is doing.
 Model tolerance and acceptance.
 Provide opportunities for students to assume responsibilities, such as distributing
papers.
 Teach other students to ignore inappropriate attention-seeking behaviors.
 Have other students (who demonstrate appropriate behavior) serve as peer
tutors.
 Be aware that some students may work better alone.
 Carefully consider and monitor seating arrangements in the classroom.
 If student is motivated by adult or peer attention, find ways to recognize positive
contributions.
*Social Stories can be used to teach social skills to children with such disabilities as
autism or intellectual disability. A situation, which may be difficult or confusing for the
student, is described concretely. The story highlights social cues, events, and reactions
that could occur in the situation, the actions and reactions that might be expected, and
why. Social stories can be used to increase the student’s understanding of a situation,
make student feel more comfortable, and provide appropriate responses for the
situation. We recommend that you incorporate visuals into the stories as well. These
visuals can be drawings created by the student, imported images from Google, picture
symbols / icons, or photographs.
4.2 Strategies for teaching functional academics. Methods of

curricular content and process adaptations for students
with intellectual disabilities
It is important to know that despite difficulties in a learning environment students with
intellectual disability can and do have the capacity to acquire and use new information.
There is a range of inclusive teaching strategies that can assist all students to learn but
there are some specific strategies that are useful in teaching a group which includes
students with intellectual disability:
 Provide an outline of what will be taught - highlight key concepts and provide
opportunities to practise new skills and concepts.
 Provide reading lists well before the start of a course so that reading can begin
early.
 Consider tailoring reading lists and provide guidance to key texts. Allow work to
be completed on an in-depth study of a few texts rather than a broad study of
many.
 Whenever you are introducing procedures or processes or giving directions, for
example in a laboratory or computing exercise, ensure that stages or sequences
are made clear and are explained in verbal as well as written form.
 Students may benefit from using assistive technology.
 Use as many verbal descriptions as possible to supplement material presented on
blackboard or overhead
 Use clear, succinct, straightforward language.
 Reinforce learning by using real-life examples and environments.
 Present information in a range of formats – handouts, worksheets, overheads,
videos – to meet a diversity of learning styles.
 Use a variety of teaching methods so that students are not constrained by
needing to acquire information by reading only. Where possible, present material
diagrammatically - in lists, flow charts, concept maps etc.
 Keep diagrams uncluttered and use colour wherever appropriate to distinguish
and highlight.
 Ensure that lists of technical/professional jargon which students will need to learn
are available early in the course.
 Recording lectures will assist those students who have handwriting or
coordination problems and those who write slowly as well as those who have a
tendency to mishear or misquote.
 Students will be more likely to follow correctly the sequence of material in a
lecture if they are able to listen to the material more than once.
 Wherever possible, ensure that key statements and instructions are repeated or
highlighted in some way.
 One-to-one tutoring in subjects may be important; this can include peer tutoring.
 Students may benefit from having oral rather than written feedback on their
written assignments.
 It may be helpful for students with intellectual disability to have an individual
orientation to laboratory equipment or computers to minimise anxiety.
Individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID, formerly Intellectual disability) benefit from
the same teaching strategies used to teach people with other learning challenges. This
includes Intellectual disabilities, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and autism.
One such strategy is to break down learning tasks into small steps. Each learning task is
introduced, one step at a time. This avoids overwhelming the student. Once the student
has mastered one step, the next step is introduced. This is a progressive, step-wise,
learning approach. It is characteristic of many learning models. The only difference is
the number and size of the sequential steps.
A second strategy is to modify the teaching approach. Lengthy verbal directions and
abstract lectures are ineffective teaching methods for most audiences. Most people are
kinesthetic learners. This means they learn best by performing a task "hands-on." This is
in contrast to thinking about performing it in the abstract. A hands-on approach is
particularly helpful for students with ID. They learn best when information is concrete
and observed. For example, there are several ways to teach the concept of gravity.
Teachers can talks about gravity in the abstract. They can describe the force of
gravitational pull. Second, teachers could demonstrate how gravity works by dropping
something. Third, teachers can ask students directly experience gravity by performing
an exercise. The students might be asked to jump up (and subsequently down), or to
drop a pen. Most students retain more information from experiencing gravity firsthand.
This concrete experience of gravity is easier to understand than abstract explanations.
Third, people with ID do best in learning environments where visual aids are used. This
might include charts, pictures, and graphs. These visual tools are also useful for helping
students to understand what behaviors are expected of them. For instance, using charts
to map students' progress is very effective. Charts can also be used as a means of
providing positive reinforcement for appropriate, on-task behavior.
A fourth teaching strategy is to provide direct and immediate feedback. Individuals with
ID require immediate feedback. This enables them to make a connection between their
behavior and the teacher's response. A delay in providing feedback makes it difficult to
form connection between cause and effect. As a result, the learning point may be
missed.
4.3 Management of challenging behaviours – functional

assessment (antecedent, behaviour, consequence),
intervention strategies – Token economy, Contingency
contracting, Response cost, over correction, restitution
and Differential Reinforcement and other behavioural
strategies
A functional behavioral assessment (or FBA) is a process that identifies a specific

or target behavior that interferes with a student’s education. The assessment
attempts to designate the particular behavior, identify the factors that support
the behavior, and determine the purpose of the behavior. The process leads to an
intervention plan and steps that one can test to improve the student’s
situation. The functional behavioral assessment informs a teaching plan that can
develop a more acceptable alternative behavior for the student that will not
interfere with the student’s education.
ABC falls under the umbrella of applied behavior analysis, which is based on the work
of B.F. Skinner, the man often referred to as the father of behaviorism. In his theory
of operant conditioning, Skinner developed a three-term contingency to
shape behavior: stimulus, response, and reinforcement.
ABC, which has become accepted as a best practice for evaluating challenging or
difficult behavior, is almost identical to operant conditioning except that it frames the
strategy in terms of education. Instead of the stimulus, there is an antecedent; instead
of the response, there is a behavior; and instead of the reinforcement, there is a
consequence.
Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC) is a significant component of understanding

the function of behavior. If a child is in ABA therapy or a therapeutic preschool program
for additional behavioral support, their teachers and therapists will often examine these
components of behavior.
What exactly does ABC mean?

Antecedent: This refers to the stimuli or activity that occurs just before a child exhibits
the behavior. In some cases, the antecedent is also the root cause of the behavior for
the child. Also known as the "setting event," the antecedent refers to the action, event,
or circumstance that led up to the behavior and encompasses anything that might
contribute to the behavior. For example, the antecedent may be a request from a
teacher, the presence of another person or student, or even a change in the
environment.
Behavior: This refers to the behavior that follows the antecedent. The behavior refers
to what the student does in response to the antecedent and is sometimes referred to as
"the behavior of interest" or "target behavior." The behavior is either pivotal—meaning
it leads to other undesirable behaviors—a problem behavior that creates danger for the
student or others, or a distracting behavior that removes the child from the
instructional setting or prevents other students from receiving instruction. Note: A
given behavior must be described with an "operational definition" that clearly
delineates the topography or shape of the behavior in a way that makes it possible for
two different observers to identify the same behavior.
Consequence: This refers to the event or consequence that follows the behavior. The
consequence is an action or response that follows the behavior. A consequence, which
is very similar to "reinforcement" in Skinner's theory of operant conditioning, is an
outcome that reinforces the child's behavior or seeks to modify the behavior. While the
consequence is not necessarily a punishment or disciplinary action, it can be. For
example, if a child screams or throws a tantrum, the consequence may involve the adult
(the parent or teacher) withdrawing from the area or having the student withdraw from
the area, such as being given a timeout.
By looking at a behavior in a logical chain of progression, it is easier to determine the

function of a behavior and better understand why a child is acting in a certain way.
Here’s an example of using ABC to understand a child’s behavior:

Antecedent: The therapeutic preschool teacher prompts the student to come to the
carpet for circle time.
Behavior: The child will not move and begins to cry that they do not want to join circle
time.
Consequence: The therapeutic preschool aid stays with the child to try and help the
child regulate their behavior.
ABC chart
ABA therapists will often use ABC charts to map out specific behaviors and examine the
function of behavior in children. By looking at the entire cycle of a behavior, from the
stimuli that incites the behavior to the consequence, the therapist or teacher has a
greater understanding of a child’s behavioral patterns. The insight that an ABC chart
provides also helps to create a comprehensive treatment plan.
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a type of therapy that focuses on improving specific
behaviors, such as social skills, communication, reading, and academics as well as
adaptive learning skills, such as fine motor dexterity, hygiene, grooming, domestic
capabilities, punctuality, and job competence. ABA is effective for children and adults
with psychological disorders in a variety of settings, including schools, workplaces,
homes, and clinics. It has also been shown that consistent ABA can significantly improve
behaviors and skills and decrease the need for special services.
Token economy,
Misbehaving learners and disciplinary problems are a disproportionate and
intractable part of every teacher’s experience of teaching (Marais & Meier, 2010).
Providing teachers with skills and strategies to manage disruptive behaviour
effectively in the classroom is essential as the classroom can be a contributory
factor to the occurrence of disruptive behaviour particularly to the frequency and
severity of such behaviours. O’Leary & Drabman (1971) posited that a less
confronting, easier, and more positive means of managing disruptive behaviour in
the classroom is the token economy.
The token system is a strategy where the student receives a token after
completing a specified academic task, or using an appropriate behavior. Anything
that is visible and countable can be used as a token. The token itself has no value,
but is traded in for a backup reinforcer after a specific number of tokens are
earned. Backup reinforcers are meaningful items, activities, or privileges such as
food items, extra recess, toys, etc. The success of a token economy relies on the
appeal of the backup reinforcer.
 Token systems can address challenging behaviors that are maintained by

escape from demands. A token is provided upon completing a specified
task. The task could be an entire worksheet or a few questions,
depending on the student. Using a token system provides reinforcement
for something the student may find difficult.
 Token systems may also address challenging behaviors that are

maintained by attention. The student gets attention when the token is
provided and when the tokens are exchanged for the backup
activity.Token systems can also be used as a part of a reinforcement
system. Specific student behaviors, such as a replacement behavior, can
be supported and reinforced by providing a token when those behaviors
are observed.
 A token system can also help teach students how to work toward short
and long term goals (i.e., end of the week computer time).
 A token system can teach students to monitor their own progress in class.
They see that they are earning tokens for expected participation and
behavior.
Contingency contracting,
'Unless' and 'except' are important words depending on when they are used. For
example, if I say, ''I am going to the theater tonight with Dave and Jody,'' you would
likely assume that, come hell or high water, I'll be taking in a play or movie tonight. Of
course, if I were to say, ''I will be going to the theater tonight unless it is snowing,'' you
know for certain there's something that might stop me from going, and you also know
exactly what that thing is: snow. Yuck.
We put conditions like the one in the above example on things all the time. Conditions
are so present that they're included in various business dealings or even in the
classroom. When these conditions become official in a signed contract, they are
called contingencies, and this is called a contingency contract. In this lesson, we will
explore contingency contracts and how they are used in the classroom.
Contingency contracting is an intervention that involves identifying a behavior,
the conditions under which the behavior is supposed to occur, and the
consequences for both achieving the goal and failing to perform to a criterion.
The target client collaborates with the practitioner to develop the contract and
then signs the contract to indicate agreement with the contingencies outlined.
Because the target client and the practitioner work together to specify relevant
aspects of the contract, the target client is clearly involved in the planning and
consent process. In addition, they can indicate their preferences related to the
behavior, when it should occur, and the consequences for the behavior, so those
preferences can be incorporated into the contract.
While the target behavior is the bulk of the contract, there are several other
components which are vital:
Contract Conditions: With the student, decide under what conditions the
contract will be in effect (the times, classes, and activities), for example, in math
class or on the playground.
Contract Completion Criteria: The criteria describe the level of performance for
completion. Does the behavior need only be achieved once or will it need to be
maintained for a period of time (i.e., “Student will complete 60% of math
homework for eight days in a 10 consecutive day period”)?
Reinforcers: The contract should include a reinforcer or reward that the student
will earn upon contract completion. This should be something the student
chooses, within reason. Edibles, small toys, free time, and “no homework” passes
are examples of reinforcers which could be effective. Positive consequences (i.e.,
rewards) should be delivered immediately upon contract completion.
Review and Renegotiation: Include dates on which progress will be reviewed

with the student. You may choose to review the contract weekly with the student
to help keep him or her on track and to evaluate progress. If you see no progress
after a couple of reviews, it may be necessary to renegotiate the contract. Goals
may be unreasonable and reinforcers may be inappropriate. It is also appropriate
to state a goal date for contract completion.
Language and Signatures: The contract should be written in simple, clear
language that the student can understand. For example, “reward” should be used
instead of “reinforcer.” This will make the contract more relevant to the student.
Both you and the student should sign and date the contract and, if working in
collaboration with parents, they should also sign it. When it will not infringe upon
the privacy of the student, it can also be appropriate to have an outside party or
witness sign the contract, such as a friend of the student or another adult that the
student trusts.
Response cost
Response cost is the term used for removing reinforcement for an undesirable or
disruptive behavior. In terms of Applied Behavior Analysis, it is a form of
negative punishment. By removing something (a preferred item, access to
reinforcement) you decrease the likelihood that the target behavior will appear
again. It is often used with a token economy and is best used when a student
understands the implications.
The basic unit of instruction in an ABA Program is the "Trial." Usually, a trial is very brief,
involving an instruction, a response, and feedback. In other words, the teacher says,
"Touch the red one, John." When John touches the red one (response), the teacher
gives feedback: "Good job, John." The teacher may reinforce each correct response, or
every third to fifth correct response, depending on the reinforcement schedule.
When response cost is introduced, the student may lose a token for an inappropriate
behavior: the student needs to know that he or she can lose a token for the target
behavior. "Are you sitting nicely John? Good Job" or "No, John. We don't crawl under
the table. I have to take a token for not sitting."
You need to constantly be evaluating the effectiveness of response cost. Does it really
reduce the number of inappropriate behaviors? Or does it just drive the inappropriate
behavior underground, or change the misbehavior? If the function of the behavior is
control or escape, you will see other behaviors popping up, perhaps surreptitiously, that
serve the function of control or escape. If it does, you need to discontinue response cost
and attempt differentiated reinforcement.
Pros of a Response Cost Program
 When you have real clarity about the behaviors for which a student can lose
points, tokens or access to reinforcers, it is likely that you will see very little of
those behaviors. At the same time, you are reinforcing the desired behavior.
 Response cost is easy to administer,
 When the student has a behavior that prevents his or her peers from learning,
creates a danger to himself or others (eloping, climbing on furniture) response
cost can provide a swift punishment without actually applying any aversive.
Cons of a Response Cost Program
 If the ratio of positive reinforcement is not at least 3 to 1, your students may

never get out of the hole. It will merely be punitive, and never really take hold.
 If response cost is not consistently applied in a non-emotional way, it will become
the source or recrimination and bad blood between students and staff or
students and teacher.
 If it builds dependence on punishment, it will be counter-productive.
Reinforcing replacement behavior is still the most effective way to change
undesirable behavior.
Over correction
Overcorrection is a behavioral intervention developed by applied behavior

analysts and is based on the belief that the problem behaviors of persons with
autism spectrum disorders are maintained by social factors (e.g., attention from
other people, escape, or avoidance of low-preference academic activities such
as math) or nonsocial factors (e.g., sensory reinforcement). Overcorrection is a
name given to an intervention procedure that consists of two components
(restitution and/or positive practice).
Overcorrection is a hugely powerful intervention because it adds on a little extra

aversiveness. As a consequence for problem behavior – the student will need to
complete an effortful behavior to fix the damage caused by the inappropriate behavior.
Overcorrection can also involve extra work. This can be very punishing. Punishment will
reduce the future chance of problem behaviors.
There are a few different ways this can work.

Restitutional Overcorrrection
After a problem behavior, the student must return the environment to it’s previous
state and then some. You rip up a worksheet, you need to remake all of the copies and
clean all of the tables. If you knock over a bookshelf in a tantrum, you need to clean the
books and clean the break area. So the student must add to the environment to make it
better.
Positive Practice
After the problem behavior, the student must repeatedly practice the correct response.
You threw your work, now you have to redo the same task 4 times. You ran in the
hallway, now you need to walk the route 5 times.
This intervention is not meant to be mean. It’s meant to provide an aversive
consequence for a highly disruptive problem behavior that needs decreasing. It’s
evidence based. It’s not picking on a kid. This is to be used with behaviors that
majorly need reducing. Overcorrection is effective when other interventions have
not worked, the behavior results in a major destruction, and the behavior is not
at a high frequency. You can’t be utilizing this intervention 10 times per day.
When implementing this intervention, do not provide praise for engaging in the
overcorrection behaviors.
Restitution
Restitution is a philosophy of discipline that is based on intrinsic motivation. It is created by Diane

Gossen and based on William Glasser’s Control theory principles. Restitution Helps students to
develop self- discipline and helps teachers to become better managers and mentors. We learn to
become the student or the teacher we want to be even in difficult situations.
Restitution focuses on how people can creatively correct their mistakes emphasizing positive
solutions. Mistakes are viewed by all as opportunities to learn and grow. We learn to make things
right with people.
Restitution gives kids an opportunity to “payback” for their misbehavior. They’re given
a logical consequence that is directly linked to their behavior.
Instead of receiving a quick timeout for destroying someone's property, restitution gives
a child a chance to make amends with the victim. In addition to timeout, the child may
also have to loan his favorite toy to the victim for a specified period of time.
Examples
 A 4-year-old boy colors on the walls. His restitution is that he needs to clean the
walls.
 A 6-year-old girl calls her mother a mean name. Her restitution includes saying
two nice things about her mother and helping her mother do the dishes.
 An 8-year-old boy hits his brother. Their mother problem-solves with both
children to find a way for the aggressor to make amends. They agree that he will
do his brother’s chores for the day.
Differential Reinforcement
People tend to repeat those behaviors for which they are reinforced or rewarded. A
student who receives a smile from the teacher or looks of admiration from classmates
for a particularly perceptive answer in class will probably strive to continue giving good
answers. Conversely, people often avoid engaging in behaviors for which they are not
reinforced. For example, a student whose classmates reject him because he calls people
names or who loses recess as a result of clowning around in class will probably refrain
from repeating that behavior in the future.
In some instances however, a student is reinforced for inappropriate behavior. When

classmates laugh at a student’s antics, or a lesson is delayed because of misbehavior,
the student is inadvertently rewarded for misbehavior and, consequently, disruptions
can increase.
A teacher who is knowledgeable about reinforcement and who delivers it appropriately
has effective options available with which to encourage positive behavior. Similar
options can be used to decrease or eliminate negative behaviors. The rest of this
module discusses a behavioral intervention called differential reinforcement and how it
can be used effectively in the classroom.
In general, differential reinforcement involves either giving or withholding

reinforcement, depending on whether the behavior is desirable or undesirable.
Differential reinforcement techniques are designed to decrease instances of problem
behaviors by:
a. Giving a student reinforcement when a behavior (e.g., laughter or joking)

occurs in the presence of one stimulus (with peers during free time)
b. Not reinforcing the behavior in the presence of another stimulus (e.g., when
the teacher is providing instruction)
When differential reinforcement is used consistently, student behaviors that are

reinforced will increase, and student behaviors that are not reinforced will decrease or
be eliminated entirely. A teacher who guides a student to engage in a behavior (e.g.,
joking) only in the presence of a particular stimulus (e.g., with peers during free time) is
one who has established stimulus control.
4.4 Group Teaching at various levels – pre-primary,
primary levels, development and use of TLM and
ICT for ID
While it is important that children experience a variety of classroom

organisational frameworks, working collaboratively provides learning
opportunities that have particular advantages. Children are stimulated
by hearing the ideas and opinions of others, and by having the
opportunity to react to them. Collaborative work exposes children to the
individual perceptions that others may have of a problem or a situation.
These will reflect the different personalities and particular abilities of
other members of the group and make for an interactive exchange that
will help to broaden and deepen individual children’s understanding.
Moreover, the experience of collaborative learning facilitates the child’s
social and personal development, and the practice of working with
others brings children to an early appreciation of the benefits to be
gained from co-operative effort.
Education typically designed for children from 3 years of age to the start
of primary school. The educational properties of pre-primary education
are characterized by interaction with peers and educators, through
which children improve their use of language and social skills, and start
to develop logical and reasoning skills. Children are also introduced to
alphabetical and mathematical concepts, and encouraged to explore
their surrounding world and environment. Supervised gross motor
activities (i.e. physical exercise through games and other activities) and
play-based activities can be used as learning opportunities to promote
social interactions with peers and to develop skills, autonomy and school
readiness.
The Pre-Primary environment includes children ages 3 through 6 years

(preschool and kindergarten).
The three-year cycle is an essential part of education. Children stay in the same
room with the same teacher and group of children for 3 years. During the
three-year cycle, children experience different roles, responsibilities, and
perspectives.
Young children learn by observing and interacting with the older children.
Older children gain a true understanding of concepts by teaching it to their
younger peers. Each year, children become more independent, leading up to
their 3rd year (Kindergarten) where they have the unique opportunity to be
community leaders and role models.
Benefits of mixed age grouping:
 Allows for strong relationships to be built amongst teachers, parents,

and children.
 Supports children’s moral development as they learn and practice
respecting others, develop sensitivity towards others’ needs, and build a
community who love to learn.
In an ECCE (Early childhood are and education) centre there may be
teachers who struggle with ways to meet the needs of all the learners in
their classrooms. Alternately there may be some children who struggle
with learning, others who perform well on their developmental tasks,
and the rest fit somewhere in between. Each child has its own pace of
learning. Within each of these categories of children, individuals also
learn in a variety of ways and have different interests. However the
curriculum used is most often driven by ‘one size fits all’ approach and
with the expectations that all children will achieve the standards by the
end of the academic year.
In response to this situation most often ECCE teachers and caregivers

would use the concept of ‘differentiation’ to meet the varying needs of
their learners. At its most basic level, differentiation consists of the
efforts of ECCE teacher/ Caregiver to respond to variance among
learners in the classroom. An ECCE Teacher / Caregiver may approach
differentiation by (1) content—what the child needs to learn or how the
child will get access to the information; (2) process—activities in which
the child engages in order to make sense of or master the content; (3)
products—culminating projects that enable the child to rehearse, apply,
and extend what he or she has learned in a topic; and (4) learning
environment—the way the classroom/ ECCE centre works and feels.
There is ample evidence that children are more successful in school and
find it more satisfying if they are taught in ways that are responsive to
their readiness levels, interests and learning profiles (Tomlinson, 2000).
So it may be helpful for children work sometimes with like-readiness
peers, sometimes with mixed-readiness groups, sometimes with children
who have similar interests, sometimes with children who have different
interests, sometimes with peers who learn as they do, sometimes
randomly, and often with the class as a whole.
In the above context, Multi-age grouping refers to "a class grouping in

which students of different ages and identified age levels are grouped
together in a single classroom for the purpose of providing effective
instruction" (Miller, 1995, p. 29). The multi-age environment is
deliberately created for the benefit of children, not because of economic
needs or declining enrolment. The intention is to allow children of
various ages and abilities to progress at their own individual pace rather
than according to specified objectives for a particular grade level.
Research shows that multi-age groupings benefit both younger and

older students in the classroom. In primary classrooms, it is standard
practice for children to sit around grouped tables – usually with four to
six children in each group. According to Dr. Lilian Katz, "Mixed-age
grouping resembles family and neighbourhood groupings, which
throughout history have informally provided much of children's
socialization and education. The intention of mixed-age grouping in early
childhood settings is to increase the heterogeneity of the group so as to
capitalize on the differences in the experience, knowledge, and abilities
of the children”. Moreover, children learn from each other and from
older children- thereby facilitating cooperative learning skills. In rural
areas multi-age grouping is more often a pragmatic response to the
needs of communities, where it is practical to set up a single Anganwadi/
ECCE centre for a village or settlement. Various reasons such as
insufficient students of a similar age, places with limited physical or
human resources may seem viable to have a multi-age grouping in the
ECCE centres.
The benefits of co-operative learning may be summarised as follows:
1. It helps to raise the achievement of all students
2. It helps to build positive relationships among the students, thus

creating a learning community in which diversity is valued
3. It gives students the experiences they need for healthy social,
psychological and cognitive development (Johnson, Johnson and
Holubec, 1994).
Students at the primary school level are quite impressionable and there
is no better time for them to develop the very valuable competences
that working in a group has to offer. At the primary school level they are
mature enough to have an understanding of what group work requires.
Many of the studies conducted were centralized around childhood
developments. Students who can successfully work in groups from the
primary school level are usually better equipped for when entering
higher level learning institutions. They would have learnt to comfortably
relate with peers and adults, such as teachers or other authority figures,
they would have learnt the value of self-expression and self-explanation,
actively listen and respect the views of others. These students realize
that as individuals we have different backgrounds, experiences and
traditions and as such may have diverging approaches to the same
problem. These students will also be better able to differentiate
between the need to work collaborative and the need to work
competitively and in so doing will know when best to apply the
respective approaches.
Both the teachers and the students play a pivotal role in the success of
collaborative learning. Teachers are not expected to only assign tasks and sit
back while the students work on their own. Teachers must play an active role
throughout the process. They must plan for the assignment with clearly
structured tasks that will promote collaborative interactions, promote
interdependency and stimulate cognitive thinking among students. Teacher
must monitor the process providing ongoing feedback and be readily able to
resolve conflicts should they arise. Teachers should be able to actively scaffold
their students, knowing when their support is needed and that it should
gradually be withdraw.
Students in order to successfully achieve their objectives in groups must

appreciate the benefits of group work. They must have a clear understanding
of the desired objective and the sub-task requirement to successfully achieve
the objective. They must be able to actively and reflectively listen to each
other and utilize creativity and objectivity to work positively together. In so
doing they will learn to foster positive work attitudes with others, thereby
improving on their interpersonal skills as they prepare for the work world.
TEACHING LEARNING MATERIALS FOR CHILDREN WITH INTELLECTUAL

DISABILITY
 Individuals with intellectual impairment benefit from the same

teaching Strategies used to teach individuals with Intellectual disabilities,
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and autism.
 It is helpful to break tasks down into small steps and introduce the task
one step at a time to avoid overwhelming the individual. Once the
student has mastered one step, the next is introduced.
 They do better in environments where visual aides such as charts,
pictures, and graphs are used as much as possible. Such visual
components are useful for helping students to understand what is
expected of them. Using charts to map Students' progress is very
effective, for instance.
 Charts can also be used as a means of providing positive reinforcement
for appropriate, on-task behavior.
 Most people are kinesthetic learners who learn by doing, by completing
a hands-on tasks and appreciating the results. This is especially true for
mentally retarded
 Students who cannot comprehend abstract lectures very easily at all.
 For example, a teacher who wants to teach the concept of gravity has
several options: She can tell students that things are pulled towards the
earth by a force known as gravity. She can show students how gravity
works by dropping something; or she can instruct the students to drop
something while teaching the concept. Chances are that the students
will retain more information from dropping an object during the
demonstration or by experiencing the act of dropping something, than
by simply being told how dropping (gravity) works.
 Use of prompts to ensure right answer to a question.
 Use of rewards for Behaviour Modification techniques will be useful in
making the child learn some functional skills.
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY FOR CHILDREN WITH

INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY
The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) advocates the
full and effective inclusion of persons with disabilities in all realms of life.
Article 9 stresses that individuals have a right to participate fully in all aspects
of life on an equal basis with others, with equal access to information and
communication technologies (ICTs) and systems, including the Internet.
Assistive Technology (AT) is a derivative of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) with the history linked to computer.
As very important as AT to the learners at all levels of education has been, the
use of computer and other technologies, as extended to children with
Intellectual disabilities, have benefited and enhanced lives and given many
children with Intellectual disabilities options of intervening in their various
educational and cognitive problems, with available resources to assist both
teachers and learners overcome classroom teaching – learning challenges.
To achieve this laudable feat in improving the learning of children with
Intellectual disabilities, Allan (2015) identified the principles behind the
introduction of this technology into the teaching – learning process. He
identified that:
 Assistive technology can only enhance basic skills, and not replacing
them. It should be used as part of the educational process, and can be
used to teach basic skills.
 Assistive technology for children with disabilities is more than an
educational tool; it is a fundamental work tool that is comparable to
pencil and paper for non-disabled children.
 Children with disabilities use assistive technology to access and use
standard tools, complete educational tasks, and participate on an
equal basis with their developing peers in the regular educational
environment.
 The use of assistive technology does not automatically make
educational and commercial software/tools accessible or usable.
 An assistive technology evaluation conducted by a professional,
knowledgeable in regular and assistive technology, is needed to
determine whether a child requires assistive technology devices and
services and should be specified in the children’s instructional plans.
 Assistive technology evaluation must address the alternative and
augmentative communication needs, that is, ability to communicate
needs and change the environment for children with disabilities. •
 To be effective, an assistive technology evaluation should be ongoing
process.
It was maintained that sticking to these principles, assistive technology assists
to enhance the independence of children with Intellectual disabilities, because
oftentimes, these children bank on parents, siblings, friends and teachers for
assistance (Raskind, 2000). Relying on others may slow the transition into
adulthood, and may also lower self-esteem, as it demands children with
Intellectual disabilities to depend on others, rather than themselves, to solve a
problem. Assistive technology moreover, provides a way for children with
Intellectual disabilities to achieve specific tasks on their own.
As per the Persons with Disabilities (PWD) Act, 1995, Intellectual disabilities
means a condition of arrested or incomplete development of mind of a person
which is specially characterized by sub normality of intelligence. This condition
may occur in the form of borderline Intellectual disabilities, mild Intellectual
disabilities, moderate Intellectual disabilities, severe Intellectual disabilities
and profound Intellectual disabilities. The assistive devices for the persons with
Intellectual disabilities include worksheets, workbooks, picture boards, charts,
pencil grip to aid in writing skills, educational toys and games, blocks, models
of common objects, letters, numerals etc. and need based special devices for
performing activities of daily living (ADLs) and educational materials. The
assistive device also may be any item advised by the Rehabilitation
Professional or treating physician.
4.5 Various types of Evaluation: Entry level, Formative

and Summative, Continuous and Comprehensive
Evaluation (CCE) in the Indian educational system
Entry level
Entry-level evaluation analyzes the school preparedness of all new students to
ensure they have the best possible chance of success in attaining their
academic goals. Evaluation results are used in the placement and advising
process to ensure students are enrolled in courses appropriate to their skill
level. As students matriculate through their academic programs, their progress
is tracked and the information gained is used to evaluate and strengthen
programs and services. An important component of entry-level assessment is
the provision of student support activities. This requires collaboration between
the UAC, General Education Committee (GEC), University Curriculum
Committee (UCC), Enrollment Management Committee and Office of Student
Affairs. The specific priorities for entry-level assessment are to:
 Ensure that entering students have basic skills adequate to succeed in
school.
 Improve retention rates of entering students as they matriculate
through the system.
 Provide entering students with experiences that will help them clarify
their educational and personal goals.
 Evaluate the effectiveness of the entry-level assessment/placement
process.
 Provide university-wide student support services, activities, and
resources which complement academic programs.
 Strengthen the delivery of student services to improve access,
placement, and advisement through integration of assessment and
activities with emphasis on at-risk students.
 Produce useable centralized, qualitative and quantitative information
for use in institutional decision making.
Formative and Summative

Formative Evaluation:
1. Formative evaluation is used during the teaching learning process to
monitor the learning process.
2. Formative evaluation is developmental in nature. The aim of this evaluation
is to improve student’s learning and teacher’s teaching.
3. Generally teacher made tests are used for this purpose.
4. The test items are prepared for limited content area.
5. It helps to know to what extent the instructional objectives has been

achieved.
6. It provides feed-back to the teacher to modify the methods and to prescribe

remedial works.
7. Only few skills can be tested in this evaluation.
8. It is a continuous and regular process.
9. It considers evaluation as a process.
10. It answers to the question, whether the progress of the pupils in a unit is
successful?
Summative Evaluation:
Summative evaluation is used after the course completion to assign the grades.
2. Summative evaluation is terminal in nature. Its purpose is to evaluate

student’s achievement.
3. Generally standardized tests are used for the purpose.
4. The tests items are prepared from the whole content area.
5. It helps to judge the appropriateness of the instructional objectives.
6. It helps the teacher to know the effectiveness of the instructional
procedure.
7. Large number of skills can be tested in this evaluation.
8. It is not regular and continuous process.
9. It considers evaluation as a product.
10. It answers to the question, the degree to which the students have
mastered the course content.
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) was a procedure of
assessment, directed by the Right to Education Act, of India in 2009. This
assessment proposal was introduced by state governments in India, as well as
by the Central Board of Secondary Education in India, for students of sixth to
tenth class and twelfth in some schools.
CCE pattern includes formative and summative assessments to keep a check
on the student’s overall development. Be it digital schooling or physical school
structure, without this periodic and wholesome assessment process, a teacher
cannot deliver constructive feedback to the students. So, the continuous and
comprehensive evaluation process highlights the strengths and addresses the
pain areas of a student for constructive remedial action.
Aim of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)
 Evaluate and guide the students in all aspects of education

 Improve learning outcomes by focusing on skills and cognitive abilities of
students
 Encourage regular assessment and constructive criticism
 Reduce stress and pressure on students
 Enable the instructors with prolific teaching
Features of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)
 Enables effective teaching

 Conducts continuous assessment of student progress
 Helps to create teaching-learning plans for future
 Creates good attitude and imbibes good values in students
 Helps to improve Scholastic as well as Co-Scholastic growth
 Encourages all round development of the students
Aspects of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE):
The assessments of the performance include both scholastic and co-scholastic

activities. Curricular and core subjects-related areas are included within
scholastic activities whereas life skills, attitudes, and values are included within
co-scholastic activities.
A) Scholastic Assessment
Scholastic areas comprise all the activities that are related to various subjects
within the academic curricular; the educator aims to align the cognitive domain
objectives along with different subjects.
To get a better understanding of this they can refer to Bloom’s Taxonomy which
is a framework to classify learning objectives.
 Knowledge- This indicates the elaborate details associated with the

subject matter; it also includes the ability to recall any information about
the structure, pattern, and setting
 Comprehension- This indicates the ability to understand whatever he/she
is listening to and implementing it when and if required
 Application- This indicates the ability to apply any theory or principle to
solve a problem
 Analysis- The ability to identify faults and fallacies
 Synthesis- This relates to combining separate entities and elements into
a whole
 Evaluation- Ability to conclude something after thoughtful analysis of
given variables
The educators must ensure that the students participate in various activities in
all the subject areas; in case the student falters anywhere the teacher should
guide him/her accordingly. The learning objectives can only be achieved
through online assessment and active engagement from the students
combined with productive feedback and guidance from the teachers; this is
where the importance of continuous and comprehensive evaluation lies.
B) Co-Scholastic Assessment
It has been a long and repetitive practice of most schools to focus more on the
scholastic activities while ignoring the co-scholastic activities. With major
educational reforms introduced over the years, schools and colleges alike have
emphasized co-curricular activities. These activities include:
 Life Skills
 Attitude
 Social Values
Life Skills
The essential abilities that enable an individual to deal with any given situation
tactfully and effectively are called life skills. In other words, these are psycho-
social and interpersonal skills that help people to make decisions, make
appropriate judgments, come up with innovative and creative solutions to a
problem and enhance one’s productivity.
UNICEF, UNESCO, and WHO have enlisted ten core life skills that are
instrumental in dealing with daily challenges and overcoming difficulties. The
core skills are as follows:
 Self-awareness
 Empathy
 Critical thinking
 Creative thinking
 Decision making
 Problem-solving
 Interpersonal relationship skills
 Effective communication
 Coping with stress
 Coping with emotions
How To Assess Life Skills?

 Individual assessment: This includes any activity or task which is
performed by any student individually.
 Group assessment: This includes any single project or assignment that is
assigned to a group of students wherein they collaborate and complete
the task.
 Self-assessment: Based on given criteria the students are supposed to
evaluate their progress, understanding of subjects, knowledge, and skills,
etc.
 Peer-assessment: In this particular assessment students are paired in a
group wherein one student assesses the work of another.
Attitude
One of the most assured ways to identify a student’s outlook and state of mind
is through his/her behavior and attitude in the classroom. The teachers must
focus on the student’s development of healthy behavior and attitude towards
their teachers, peers, classmates, programs of the school, and the whole school
environment. The institutes can make use of student tracking system to get
complete track record of student’s behavior in institute.
How To Assess The Students’ Attitude?
Various techniques which can be utilized effectively to assess the student’s

behavior are as follows:
 Self-report inventories
 Attitude scales
 Survey
 Interview
 The biographical and essay methods
 Projective tests
 Error-choice techniques
 Indirect observation
Co-Curricular Activities
The growing concern for the holistic development of students has urged the
schools to put equal emphasis on co-curricular activities which include various
recreational games and sports. It has been discovered that sports and any other
activities contribute to beneficial physical development, character education,
and social skills.
Some of the noteworthy co-curricular activities include :
 Debates
 Sports competition
 Cultural programs
 Story writing
 Drama club
 Yoga
 Drawing
Functions of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)
 Helps in the development of new and effective teaching strategies

 Aids regular assessment to understand student’s progress
 Helps to understand the weaknesses and strengths of students
 Enables the teacher to understand problems faced by students and make
changes in teaching techniques
 Encourages self-assessment among the students
 Helps students to develop good habits, work on their weaknesses and
correct the errors
 It gives an idea about the change in student’s attitudes and values
 It gives reports about student’s progress over a period of time
Key Benefits of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)
1. A very common occurrence among students is that they get extremely

stressed out due to exams; some even stay up all night just to revise that one
chapter in which he/she has a problem. CCE is a useful tool that can be used to
reduce the anxiety or fear which clouds their minds whenever the exams
approach nearer.
2. The CCE evaluates the learning needs and abilities of students. With CCE,
students can constantly test their abilities and put their best foot forward. The
CCE allows teachers and students to identify the areas where students need
more help.
3. CCE helps teachers to systematize their strategies for effective teaching.

Continual evaluation allows the teacher to detect weaknesses and identify
certain students' learning styles. By identifying a student's learning difficulties
on a regular basis, it helps in improving student performance.
4. CCE is child-centric and treats each student as an individual. It aims to build

on the unique abilities, strengths, and development of each child.
5. Continuous and comprehensive assessment which is a crucial part of this

evaluation structure helps to assess the progress of the students.
6. The CCE provides teachers with various assessment activities that allow them
to diagnose students' defects. When a teacher gives feedback of assessment
activities, he/she helps students identify problem areas and provides feedback
and support to help them improve their performance.
Unit 5: Teaching strategies for students with SLD
5.1 Strategies for teaching reading and
comprehension: Multisensory teaching (e.g.,
Orton - Gillingham method, Fernald method),
spelling rules, error analysis
5.6. Strategies for teaching handwriting
(adaptations), spelling (phonics and
spelling rules) and written expression
(grammar, ideation, language usage)
5.7. Strategies for teaching math (number facts,
computation, application)
5.8. Strategies to develop Metacognition
5.9. Peer-tutoring, co-operative learning, Co-
teaching strategies
5.1 Strategies for teaching reading and comprehension:
Multisensory teaching (e.g., Orton - Gillingham
method, Fernald method), spelling rules, error analysis
Literacy teaching and learning are core responsibilities of teachers and schools.
Yet teaching reading and writing is a complex and highly skilled professional
activity. Many young learners start school with little knowledge about how to
read and write. Teachers are tasked with helping children to bridge the
significant gap between linking their written and spoken language. Learning to
read is critical, with research showing that reading for pleasure can:
 Promote improved health and wellbeing

 Help build social connections and relationships
 Increase the chances of social mobility.
Teaching reading is an evolving and non-linear process that works differently

for each young student. The programmes of study for reading at key stages 1
and 2 include word reading and comprehension (both listening and reading).
Early primary teachers are tasked with developing competence in both
dimensions. Teaching reading will involve teaching letters, sounds and
vocabulary, but beyond this, it will also involve strategies such as guided
reading and building background knowledge.
Multisensory teaching (e.g., Orton - Gillingham method, Fernald method)
Orton -Gillingham method

The Orton-Gillingham Approach is a direct, explicit, multisensory, structured,
sequential, diagnostic, and prescriptive way to teach literacy when reading,
writing, and spelling does not come easily to individuals, such as those with
dyslexia. It is most properly understood and practiced as an approach, not a
method, program, or system. In the hands of a well-trained and experienced
instructor, it is a powerful tool of exceptional breadth, depth, and flexibility.
The essential curricular content and instructional practices that characterize

the Orton-Gillingham Approach are derived from two sources: first from a
body of time-tested knowledge and practice that has been validated over the
past 80 years, and second from scientific evidence about how individuals learn
to read and write; why a significant number have difficulty in doing so; how
having dyslexia makes achieving literacy skills more difficult; and which
instructional practices are best suited for teaching such individuals to read and
write.
The Approach is so named because of the foundational and seminal

contributions of Samuel T. Orton and Anna Gillingham. Samuel Torrey Orton
(1879-1948) was a neuropsychiatrist and pathologist. He was a pioneer in
focusing attention on reading failure and related language processing
difficulties. He brought together neuroscientific information and principles of
remediation. As early as 1925 he had identified the syndrome of dyslexia as an
educational problem. Anna Gillingham (1878-1963) was a gifted educator and
psychologist with a superb mastery of the language. Encouraged by Dr. Orton,
she compiled and published instructional materials as early as the 1930s which
provided the foundation for student instruction and teacher training in what
became known as the Orton-Gillingham Approach.
The Orton-Gillingham Approach is most often associated with a one-on-one

teacher-student instructional model. Its use in small group instruction is not
uncommon. A successful adaptation of the Approach has demonstrated its
value for classroom instruction. Reading, spelling and writing difficulties have
been the dominant focus of the Approach although it has been successfully
adapted for use with students who exhibit difficulty with mathematics.
The Orton-Gillingham Approach always is focused upon the learning needs of

the individual student. Orton-Gillingham (OG) practitioners design lessons and
materials to work with students at the level they present by pacing instruction
and the introduction of new materials to their individual strengths and
weaknesses. Students with dyslexia need to master the same basic knowledge
about language and its relationship to our writing system as any who seek to
become competent readers and writers. However, because of their dyslexia,
they need more help than most people in sorting, recognizing, and organizing
the raw materials of language for thinking and use. Language elements that
non-dyslexic learners acquire easily must be taught directly and systematically.
The Principles of the Orton-Gillingham Approach
Structured: Every lesson in Orton-Gillingham is organized around a consistent
set of strategies, activities, and patterns. The student always knows what to
expect throughout each lesson.
Students easily transition from activity to activity since they are familiar with
the routine and this creates an anxiety free environment for both the student
and the teacher.
Sequential: Each skill is taught in a logical order or sequence. The student
starts out learning simple word patterns (CVC) and then progresses gradually
step by step to more difficult and complex ideas including vowel patterns,
multisyllabic words, spelling rules, affixes, and morphemes.
Because all the teaching skills are taught from the ground up, the student will
never have any reading or spelling gaps in Orton-Gillingham.
Cumulative: Each Orton-Gillingham lesson builds upon itself. The student is
taught a skill and doesn’t progress to the next skill until the current lesson is
mastered. As students learn new material, they continue to review old
material until it is stored in the student’s long term memory.
Explicit: The teacher is at the center of instruction in an Orton-Gillingham
lesson. The instructor teaches the student exactly what they need and never
assumes or guesses what the student already knows. Orton-Gillingham uses a
lot of continuous student-teacher interaction in each lesson.
Multisensory: In an Orton-Gillingham lesson, the teacher uses the student’s
sensory pathways: auditory, visual, and tactile.
When learning the vowel ‘a’ for example, the student might first look at a
picture of an APPLE, then close their eyes and listen to the sound, then trace
the letter in the air while speaking aloud. This combination of listening,
looking, and moving around creates a lasting impression for the student.
Systematic Phonics: Orton-Gillingham includes systematic phonics, beginning
with the alphabetic principles in the initial stages of reading development and
advancing to more complex principles as the students progress. Students learn
that words are made up of individual speech sounds, and the letters of written
words graphically represent each of these speech sounds.
Fernald method
Grace Fernald was a special educator who worked with struggling learners.
She pioneered a new, multisensory approach to teaching spelling called the
VAKT technique, which stands for visual-auditory-kinesthetic-tactile. It
presents new words to students through all their senses, making it easier for
them to understand and remember. Fernald's approach requires individual
attention, but it is effective in improving spelling and reading, and it helps
struggling learners to keep up with their classmates.
The Fernald Method is a systematic, multisensory instructional approach that
incorporates use of the visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile (VAKT)
modalities simultaneously. The association of sensory and perceptual cues
reinforces the mental image of words as well as the association between
printed words and their oral representations.
Use of this approach also improves memory for printed words and word parts.
The Fernald Method is intended for individual or small-group instruction.
Purpose
The Fernald Method improves sight word acquisition and word identification
skill in students who have failed to learn to read through other instructional
methods or who have particular difficulty learning exception or phonetically
irregular words (e.g., once). Using this method, students are expected to retain
reading recognition of the words learned.
A different procedure is used to teach the written spelling of words for long-
term retrieval.
Procedure
The Fernald Method consists of four stages through which the student
progresses as reading and writing proficiency increase.
Stage I
1. Solicit the student’s interest and involvement. Tell the student that you will
be showing him or her a new way to learn words. Explain that while the
method requires concentration and effort, it has been successful with students
who have had problems remembering words.
2. Select a word to learn. Have the student select a word to learn. Discuss the
meaning of the word.
3. Write the word. Sit beside the student and model these steps: (a) say the
word, (b) use the word in large manuscript, a crayon or marker to write or
cursive (depending upon which the student uses) in a 5'' x 8'' index card, and
(c) say the word again as you run your finger underneath the word.
4. Model word tracing for the student. Say: “Watch what I do and listen to
what I say.” Use the following steps: (a) say the word; (b) trace the word using
one or two fingers, saying each part of the word as you trace it; (c) say the
word again while underlining it with the tracing fingers in a fluent motion; and
(d) have the student practice tracing until the process is completed correctly.
5. Trace the word until learned. Have the student continue tracing the word
until the student is sure he or she can write the word from memory with no
errors.
6. Write the word from memory. When the student feels ready, remove the
model and have him or her write the word while saying it. If at any point the
student makes an error, stop the writing immediately, cover or erase the error,
and have the student use the tracing procedure again before proceeding.
7. File the word. After the student has written the word correctly three times
without the model, have the student file it alphabetically in a word bank.
8. Type the word. Within 24 hours, type each word the student has learned
that day. Reading the typed word will help the student establish the link
between handwritten and typed words.
As soon as a student can write words, begin story writing. The student
selects a topic. Have the student trace any words that he or she does not know
how to spell. Type the story within 24 hours so that the student has an
opportunity to read newly learned words in context.
Important points. During stage one instruction, observe the following:
 Finger contact is important in tracing.

 After tracing, the student should write the word without looking at the
model.
 The word should always be written as a unit from the beginning. In the case
of an error, cover or remove the mistake and start over from the beginning.
 Always use words in context to provide meaning.
 Encourage the student to say each part of the word while tracing and
writing.
Stage II
During Stage II the student no longer needs to trace words to learn them and
the stories increase in length. The student learns a word by looking at it, saying
it, and writing it. The teacher writes requested words, saying each part of the
word while writing it while the student listens and watches.
The student looks at the word, says the word, and then writes the word
without looking at the copy.
As in Stage 1, select the words to be learned from the stories that the
student is writing. Continue to write the learned words.
Stage III
By Stage III the student learns directly from the printed word without having it
written. Pronounce the word for the student, have him or her look at the word
and pronounce it before writing it. At this stage, introduce books. Select
interesting books and tell the student any unknown words. After reading, have
the student review and write the new words.
Stage IV
At this stage, the student recognizes known words in print and also begins to
notice the similarities between parts of unknown words and known words. The
student begins to recognize many new words without being told what they
are. Provide enough assistance with unknown words at Stage IV so that
reading proceeds smoothly.
One helpful technique at this stage is to have the student glance over a
paragraph and lightly underline any unknown words. Tell the student the
words and have the student write them before beginning to read. Using this
technique, the student can read the new material smoothly without
interruption.
Spelling rules
Spelling is the ability to make a visual representation of a word. To spell, we
need to think about the individual units of sound in a word (phonemes) and
then write the letters that represent those sounds (graphemes).
If you look down this list you will notice these recurring spelling problems:
 Homophones: Homophones—words that sound the same but are

spelled differently—constitute about 20 percent of the misspelled
words (e.g., there spelled their).
 Apostrophes: Words that contain an apostrophe make up about 10
percent of the misspelled words, some of which are also homophones
(e.g., you’re spelled your, it’s spelled its).
 Separation/Joining Errors: Another highly predictable spelling
problem involves words that lend themselves to inappropriate
separation or joining (e.g., because spelled be cause, a
lot spelled alot).
 Errors in Compound Words: Another common spelling problem is the
misspelling of compound words by wrongly separating them, or less
commonly, by wrongly joining an open compound or joining a
compound with a hyphen (e.g., outside spelled out side, ice
cream spelled icecream, baby-sit spelled babysit, etc.).
Words that primary grade students misspell are in many instances the same
words intermediate and middle school students continue to misspell. When
researchers closely examined the 25 most frequently misspelled words at each
grade level they noted a startling amount of overlap across grade levels from
one through eight.
At the same time, an examination of a typical spelling curriculum shows that

many of these frequently misspelled words are taught fairly early in the
spelling curriculum. Unfortunately, many of these words are taught only once
within the span of an eight-year spelling curriculum.
Teaching these words one time in a spelling series that covers six or eight
grade levels is not adequate for many students to learn these words. Teachers
should implement a system for reviewing and recycling these words until
students demonstrate mastery. Students should be monitored and held
accountable for correctly spelling these words in their daily work. Words that
continue to be misspelled should be recycled into the next spelling lesson.
The chart below shows some examples of spelling rules appropriate to teach in
the primary grades. As in teaching syllable types or other phonics rules, it is
helpful to focus on having children look for patterns in printed words as
instead of just reciting the rules. However, we must understand the
generalizations, as well as their common exceptions, in order to teach them
effectively to children.
Spelling Rule
Description Examples Comments
(Generalization)
If a closed syllable The rule also applies to

“Floss” rule for will, pill, tell,
ends with an f, l, many words ending in /z/
final f, l, s dull, miss,
or s immediately (e.g., jazz, fuzz, buzz), but
after the short vowel mess, staff, is less consistent for these
sound, double the gruff, sniff words.
final letter.
stick, duck, The rule does not apply

block, deck, unless the relevant sound
If a closed syllable snack comes immediately after
ends in the sound the short vowel. For
/k/, /ch/, or /j/ hatch, itch, example, in desk and task,
immediately after crutch, the /k/ does not come
Rule for –ck, - match right after the short vowel
the short vowel
tch, -dge sound, so these words are
sound, then use – bridge,
ck to spell /k/, - spelled with –k, not –ck.
dodge,
tch to spell /ch/, grudge, Lunch and branch are
and –dge to spell /j/ fudge, spelled with –ch not –tch,
badge for similar reasons.
Use the kit, kept, K must be used instead

letter k, not c, to keep, rake, of c because a c before e,
K rule spell the sound /k/ spoke, spiky, i, or y would be “soft” and
before the letters e, Kyle would be pronounced /s/.
i, or y.
sit, sitting,
sitter; plan,
planned, This rule only applies to
planning, endings that begin with a
When adding an
planner; fun, vowel, such as –ed, -ing, -
ending to a closed
funny; sun, er, -est, or –y. If the
syllable base word, if
sunny ending begins with a
the closed syllable
Doubling rule consonant, such as –ful, -
ends in just one jump, ness, or –ly, the rule does
consonant, double it. jumped, not apply (e.g., glad,
Otherwise, just add jumping, gladly, sad, sadness). In
the ending. jumper; this case, you just add the
mist, ending.
misted,
misty; land,
landed,
landing
Again, this rule only

applies to endings that
begin with a vowel,
like, liked,
such as –ed, -ing, -er, -est,
When adding an liking; spice,
or –y. If the ending begins
ending to a silent e spicy; hope,
Dropping silent with a consonant, such
base word, drop the hoped,
e as –ful, -ness, or –ly, the
silent e before hoping; fine,
rule does not apply
adding the ending. finer, finest,
(e.g., hope, hopeful; like,
fined
likeness; late, lately). For
these words, keep the e,
and add the ending.
This rule applies even

when the ending does not
shady, begin with a vowel, as in
shadiness, the case of –ness, -
shadiest, ful, or –ly. However, the
shadier; base word must end in a y
When adding an
happy, preceded by a consonant;
ending to a base
happiness, if the final y is preceded
word that ends in
happily; by a vowel, the rule does
Y-to-I rule a y preceded by a
shiny, not apply (e.g., joy, joyful;
consonant,
shininess, play, playing, playful,
change y to i, then
shinier; played; prey, preying,
add the ending.
sunny, preyed). Also, the
sunniest; ending –ing is an
fancy, exception (e.g., fancy,
fanciful fancying; copy, copying);
for these words, just add
the ending.
Phonics instruction also teaches spelling patterns and spelling rules. It teaches
about parts of words called syllables. Learning common syllable patterns can
help people become better readers and spellers.
To thrive in both reading and spelling, here are 15 important rules to know.
1. Vowels in syllables: Every syllable of every word must have at least one
vowel sound. A vowel can stand alone in a syllable, as in u•nit and an•i•mal. It
can also be surrounded by consonants, as in jet, nap•kin, and fan•tas•tic.
2. Short and long vowels: Vowels can make different sounds. The sounds they
make depend on where they are in a word. For example, is the vowel followed
by a consonant? This helps determine if the vowel makes its short or long
sound: go vs. got, she vs. shed, hi vs. him.
When there’s only one vowel in a syllable and it is followed by at least one
consonant, the vowel usually makes its short sound. Examples include on, itch,
mas•cot, and Wis•con•sin. This pattern is called a “closed syllable” because
the consonant “closes in” the short vowel sound.
When there is only one vowel and it is at the end of a syllable, the vowel
makes its long sound, as in he and ban•jo. This pattern is called an “open
syllable.”
3. Silent e: When e is the last letter in a word, and there’s only one other vowel
in that syllable, the first vowel in that syllable is usually long and the e is silent,
as in sale and in•side. This syllable pattern is called “vowel-consonant-e.”
Some teachers call this the “silent e” rule. Some call it the “magic e” rule. The e
gives all its power to the other vowel and makes that vowel use its long sound
(“say its name”).
4. Consonant blends and digraphs: Digraph is a fancy word for two letters that
represent one sound. In a digraph made of consonants, the two consonants
work together to form a new sound. Examples include chap, ship, thin, whiz,
and photo. Consonant blends are different. These groups of two or more
consonants work together. But unlike digraphs, their individual sounds can still
be heard as they’re blended together. Examples include clam, grasp, and scrub.
5. Vowel digraphs: In a vowel digraph, two vowels are side by side. The first
vowel is long and says its name. The second vowel is silent, as in boat, paint,
and beach.
Sometimes, two vowels work together to form a new sound. This is called a
diphthong. Examples include cloud and boil.
6. R-controlled vowels: When a syllable has a vowel that is followed by r, the

vowel is “controlled” by the r and makes a new sound. Examples include car,
bird, germ, form, and hurt. This rule is sometimes called “bossy r” because
the r “bosses” the vowel to make a new sound.
7. The “schwa” sound: Any vowel can make the schwa sound; it sounds like a
weak uh or ih. Words like from and final have the schwa sound. Some words
have more than one schwa sound, like apartment and banana. It’s the most
common sound in the English language.
8. Soft c and hard c, and soft g and hard g: When the letter c is followed by
the vowels e, i, or y, it usually makes its soft sound. Examples of that
are cent, circus, and cyclone. With other vowels, the letter c makes a hard
sound, as in cat and cot.
Likewise, when the letter g is followed by the vowels e, i, or y, it usually makes

its soft sound. Examples of that are gel, giant, and gym. With other vowels, the
letter g makes a hard sound, as in gas, gorilla, and yogurt.
9. The “fszl” (fizzle) rule: The letters f, s, z, and l are usually doubled at the end
of a one-syllable word immediately following a short vowel. Examples include
stuff, grass, fuzz, and shell. Exceptions include quiz and bus.
10. Ending in k or ck: When a one-syllable word ends with the /k/ sound
immediately following a short vowel, it’s usually spelled with ck, as in duck and
trick. When the /k/ sound follows a consonant, long vowel sound, or
diphthong, it’s usually spelled with k, as in task, cake, soak, and hawk.
11. The /j/ sound and the /ch/ sound: In a one-syllable word, when a /j/ sound
immediately follows a short vowel, it’s spelled dge as in badge, hedge, bridge,
dodge, and smudge. (The d “protects” the vowel from the “magic e” rule.)
In a one-syllable word, when a /ch/ sound immediately follows a short vowel,

it’s usually spelled tch as in catch, fetch, stitch, blotch, and clutch. The
exceptions to this rule are such, much, rich, and which.
12. Drop the e with -ing: When words end with a silent e, drop the e before
adding -ing. Examples: bike/biking, give/giving, and dodge/dodging. This rule
also applies to other suffixes that start with vowels, like -ed, -er, -able, and -
ous. Examples: grieve/grievous, excite/excitable, and hope/hoped.
13. Doubling: In a one-syllable word like win where one short vowel is followed
by one consonant, double the consonant before adding a suffix that starts with
a vowel. Examples: winner, winning, winnable.
14. Plurals: For most words, add s to make them plural, as in cat/cats. But
when a singular word ends with s, sh, ch, x, or z, add es to make it plural, as in
classes, brushes, and foxes.
15. Y rules: To make plural a word that ends in a vowel immediately followed
by y, just add s, as in toy/toys. When y immediately follows a consonant,
change the y to i and add es. Examples: family/families, pony/ponies, and
treaty/treaties.
Suffixes follow a similar set of y rules. When there’s a vowel right before y,
keep the y and simply add the suffix. Examples include play/playing and
annoy/annoying.
When a word ends with a consonant followed immediately by y, change

the y to i before adding suffixes like -ed and -est. Examples include
carry/carried and happy/happiest.
But when the suffix begins with i, keep the y and simply add the suffix, as in
fly/flying and baby/babyish.
Exceptions to the rules
Most words in the English language follow phonics rules. But any exceptions to
these rules need to be taught and memorized for reading and spelling. These
words are often found on lists of sight words or high-frequency words.
Error analysis
Error is condition of being wrong in belief or conduct. Error as a systematic

deviation accepted system of the target language. Error cannot be self-
corrected until further relevant (to the error) input (implicit and explicit) has
been provide and converted into intake by the learners. In other word, error
requires further relevan learning to take place before they can be self-
corrected. The learner is not aware of making errors because of the lack of
knowledge about the target language. The writer defines that logical to the
learner but not usual to native speaker. Ellis (1985:68) in Yenni (2007) claims
that the distincation between errors and mistakes is unobservable in practice.
Error analysis is attempt to study the learner’s errors. The fact that the
learners do many errors and the errors can be observed, analyzed and
classified to reveal something of the system operating within the learner, and
it is called as error analysis. According to Carl James (1998:62) in Yenni (2007)
“Error analysis is on the other side of the question, being the study of linguistic
ignorance, the investigation, being the study of linguistic ignorance the
investigation of what people do not know and how the attempt to cope with
their ignorance.”
Error analysis is a method used to document the errors that appear in learner
language, determine whether those errors are systematic, and (if possible)
explain what caused them. Native speakers of the target language (TL) who
listen to learner language probably find learners' errors very noticeable,
although, as we shall see, accuracy is just one feature of learner language.
While native speakers make unsystematic 'performance' errors (like slips of the
tongue) from time to time, second language learners make more errors, and
often ones that no native speaker ever makes. An error analysis should focus
on errors that are systematic violations of patterns in the input to which the
learners have been exposed. Such errors tell us something about the learner's
interlanguage, or underlying knowledge of the rules of the language being
learned.
A theoretical aspect of error analysis is part of method used in investigating of

the language learning process. The practical aspect of error analysis is its
function in guiding the action that we must correct a nonsatisfactory state of
affairs for the students or teacher.
According to Corder (1981:165) in Yenni (2007) “error analysis had two

functions; the first is theoritical one and the second is a practical one. The
theoritical aspect of error analysis part of method used in investigating the
language learning process, we have a means of describing the student’s
knowledge to the teaching he has been receiving. The practical aspect of error
analysis is its function in guiding the action we must take to correct no
satisfactory state of affairs for the students or teachers.
The writer defines that an error analysis is defined as a systematic description

and explanation of errors made by the learners or user in their oral and written
production in the target language. It seems that the error analysis may be
carried out in order to find out how well someone knows a language, find out
how person learns a languge an dobtain information on common difficulties or
in the preparation on teaching materials.
Types of Error
There are some types of error that made by the students in studying and using
English as foreign language. Dulay (1982) in Yenni (2007) book devide “errors
into main categories, they are: omission, substitution, addition, ordering.”
1. Errors of Omission The first type of errors is error of omission happens when
one or more elements of sentence is/or omitted. The elements of sentence
should be presented, but the learner doesnot present them. According to
Hornby (1974:585) in Yenni (2007) “ommision is leaving undone those things
that ought to be done.
2. Error of Substitution The second types of error are error of substitution

means that the wrong items have chosen in a place of the right one. Error of
substitution happens when some elementin a sentence are substituted by
another. According to Hornby (1974:863) in Yenni (2007) “substitution is acting
for or serving for another.”
3. Error of Addition The third types of errors is error of addition means that
some elements are pesented which should not be there. It happens because
the learners and some elements of a sentence where should not be added
there. According to Hornby (1974:11) in Yenni (2007) “addition is process of
adding”
4. Error of Ordering The fourth types of errors is error of ordering is the error
where the elements presented are corectly but wrongly sequenced. According
to Hornby (1974:591) in Yenni (2007) “ordering is way in which things are
placed in relation to one another.”
Although some learner errors are salient to native speakers, others, even
though they’re systematic, may go unnoticed. For this reason, it is valuable for
anyone interested in learner language to do a more thorough error analysis, to
try to identify all the systematic errors. This can help researchers understand
the cognitive processes the learner is using, and help teachers decide which
might be targeted for correction. Researchers have worked out the following
procedure for doing an error analysis Corder (1975).
1. Identify all the errors in a sample of learner language

For each error, what do you think the speaker intended to say, and how they
should have said it? For example, an English learner may say, "*He make a
goal." This is an error. However, what should the learner have said? There are
at least two possible ways to reconstruct this error: (1) He MAKES a goal, and
(2) He IS MAKING a goal. In this first step of an error analysis, remember that
there may be more than one possible way to reconstruct a learner
error. Tarone & Swierzbin (2009, p.25) offer another example from an English
language learner:
Learner: …*our school force us to learn English because um it’s, it’s a trend.
Here are three different possible reconstructions:
a. Our school forced us to learn English because it was a trend.

b. Our school required us to learn English because it was a popular
language.
c. Because everyone felt it was important, English was a requirement at
our school.
The way you reconstruct a learner error depends on what you think the
intended message is. An added complication is that any given learner
utterance may contain errors at many levels at once: phonological,
morphological, syntactic, lexical.
Finally, determine how systematic the error is. Does it occur several times, or is
it just a performance slip (a mistake)? Even native speakers of a language make
one-off mistakes when they're tired or distracted.
2. Explain the errors

Once you've identified systematic errors in your sample of learner language,
think of what might have caused those errors. There are several possibilities.
Some errors could be due to native language transfer (using a rule or pattern
from the native language). Some could be developmental—errors most
learners make in learning this language no matter what their native language.
Induced errors may be due to the way a teacher or textbook presented or
explained a given form. Communication strategies may be used by the learner
to get meaning across even if he or she knows the form used is not correct
(Selinker 1972 discusses these and other possible causes of systematic learner
errors). Explaining errors in learner language isn't always straightforward; for
example, sometimes an error may appear to have more than one cause.
As Lightbown & Spada (2013, p. 45) say, "... while error analysis has the
advantage of describing what learners actually do … it does not always give us
clear insights into why they do it."
What error analysis misses

Error analysis is a good first step, but it also can miss important features of
learner language. First, in focusing only on errors, you may miss cases where
the learner uses the form correctly. For example, you may notice that a learner
makes errors in pronouncing a TL sound before consonants, but not notice that
she is producing the sound correctly before vowels. The second thing an error
analysis misses is avoidance. Schachter (1976) pointed out that learners can
avoid using features of a TL that they know they have difficulty with. For
example, you may see very few errors in relative clauses in a sample of English
learner language, but then realize that's because the learner simply isn't
producing many relative clauses—correct OR incorrect. Avoidance can lead to
the absence of errors—but absence of errors in this case does NOT mean the
learner has no problems with relative clauses. Finally, error analysis focuses
only on accuracy. Accuracy is just one of three ways of describing learner
language: accuracy, complexity and fluency. If teachers judge learner language
only in terms of accuracy, the learners' development of complexity and fluency
can suffer.
5.2 Strategies for teaching handwriting (adaptations),

spelling (phonics and spelling rules) and written
expression (grammar, ideation, language usage)
Contrary to the view that handwriting is a trivial skill, handwriting actually is

important for a number of reasons.
One involves the concept of mental resources to which I have alluded in

several other columns, in relation to reading and mathematics as well as
writing. Just as effortful word decoding may impair reading comprehension, or
lack of automatic recall may reduce the mental resources available for learning
advanced computational algorithms in math, labored handwriting creates a
drain on mental resources needed for higher-level aspects of writing, such as
attention to content, elaboration of details, and organization of ideas.
Because handwriting is a basic tool used in many subjects — taking notes,

taking tests, and doing classroom work and homework for almost every
content area as well as in language arts classes — poor handwriting can have a
pervasive effect on school performance.
Moreover, when handwriting is perceived as arduous and time-consuming,

motivation to write may be greatly reduced, leading to a lack of practice that
may further compound difficulties with writing.
Finally, handwriting in the earliest grades is linked to basic reading and spelling
achievement; for example, when children learn how to form the letter m, they
can also be learning its sound. Attention to the linkages among handwriting,
reading, and spelling skills can help to reinforce early achievement across these
areas.
There are four main aspects of handwriting instruction: pencil grasp,

formation, legibility, and pacing.
Pencil grasp: When it comes to how a child holds a pencil, there

are correct and incorrect grasps. The correct grasps—in which the
index finger and thumb hold the pencil against the middle finger—
result in comfortable and efficient handwriting, while incorrect grasps
can cause poor letter formation and fatigue.
A student with a poor pencil grasp may benefit from using tools such as
a pencil grip or from wrapping a rubber band around the ring finger and
pinkie—not too tightly!—to fold them against the hand. You can also
teach the “pinch and flip” trick: The student places the pencil with the
writing end facing her, pinches the pencil between the thumb and
index finger, and flips the pencil into the correct position.
Formation: This refers to how a student goes about forming letters.

Straight lines are easier for students to write than curved ones, so it’s
developmentally appropriate to teach students to write capital letters
before moving on to lowercase ones.
It’s critical that handwriting instruction be integrated with phonics

instruction: As students learn how to write the letters, they should also
be learning and practicing the sounds that the letters make.
Handwriting and dictation activities are the cornerstone of any
multisensory phonics instruction program, as requiring students to
consistently practice forming the letters while connecting them to
sounds will serve to better embed phonics concepts in the brain.
For students who struggle with letter formation, explicit instruction is

particularly important. Students should be taught to start their letters
at the top (or middle, as is the case with some lowercase letters), and
use continuous strokes as much as possible. Some letters will require
them to lift up their pencils, and they should be taught when to do this.
Using lined paper is helpful, as is giving students a variety of visual
aids: arrow cues for stroke direction, dots for starting points, dotted
letters for tracing, etc. Students also benefit from “skywriting” letters—
tracing letters in the air with an index finger while holding their arm
straight out.
The letters b, d, p, and q are often confused by younger students.

Teaching the correct formation of these letters can help diminish the
confusion, as they have different starting points—b, for instance, starts
from the top, whereas d starts in the middle. Internalizing the motor
patterns for these letters can help make recognition more automatic.
Legibility: An important factor impacting legibility is spacing between

words. It’s helpful to encourage students to use a “finger space”
between words—right-handed students can put an index finger on the
line after one word before writing the next one. This technique doesn’t
work for left-handed students, who will benefit from using a narrow
tongue depressor as a spacing tool.
Pacing: If students are using an appropriate pencil grasp and forming

letters correctly, that will often solve any pacing challenges. Another
factor to consider when looking at pacing is the press: Students should
not be pressing the pencil down on the paper too hard as they write
because doing so can lead to writing fatigue and a greatly reduced rate
of letter production. But if they press too lightly, it can be a sign of
weak muscles or inappropriate pencil grasp. Encourage students to
write with a variety of materials (markers, short pencils, crayons,
erasable markers on whiteboards) to help them adjust how hard they
press.
Adaptations
Classroom materials and routines
 Provide pencil grips or different types of pens or pencils to see what

works best for the student.
 Provide handouts so there’s less to copy from the board.
 Provide typed copies of classroom notes or lesson outlines to help the
student take notes.
 Provide extra time to take notes and copy material.
 Allow the student to use an audio recorder or a laptop in class.
 Provide paper with different-colored or raised lines to help form letters
in the right space.
 Provide graph paper (or lined paper to be used sideways) to help line up
math problems.
Giving instructions
 Provide paper assignments with name, date, title, etc., already filled in.
 Provide information needed to start writing assignments early.
 Help the student break writing assignments into steps .
 Provide a rubric and explain how each step is graded.
 Give examples of finished assignments.
 Offer alternatives to written responses, like giving an oral report.
Completing tests and assignments
 Adapt test formats to cut down on handwriting. For example, use “circle
the answer” or “fill in the blank” questions.
 Grade based on what the student knows, not on handwriting or spelling.
 Use a scribe or speech-to-text so the student can dictate test answers
and writing assignments.
 Let the student choose to either print or use cursive for handwritten
responses.
 Allow a “proofreader” to look for errors.
 Provide extended time on tests.
 Provide a quiet room for tests if needed.
Spelling (phonics and spelling rules)

Handwriting has many layers. It involves:
 Knowing the alphabetic code for the 42 phonemes (sounds) and linking
these letter shapes to the correct phonemes.
 Learning letter formation using a tripod grip for both uppercase and
lowercase letters
 Linking both upper and lower case according to the phoneme.
 Knowing the position of these letter shapes within lines on a page.
Research has consistently demonstrated that a succesful literacy program is

most effective when it includes explicit instruction designed to improve a
students ability to accurately read and spell individual words and their ability
to comprehend and utilise a variety of language-based processes.
The components of effective reading and spelling instruction include:
 explicit and systematic phonemic awareness instruction

 systematically sequenced phonics instruction
 guided and repeated oral reading with appropriate error correction and
feedback to improve reading fluency
 direct instruction in vocabulary, reading
comprehension and spelling strategies
Learning to read and spell is essentially learning a code. The letters we use are
simply symbols or written code for the speech sounds of English. Learning
about the relationship between the letters of the alphabet and the speech
sounds they represent allows us to “crack the code” and learn to both read
(decode) and spell (encode).
Synthetic Phonics is a way of teaching children to read and spell. It has been
identified both here and overseas as the most successful approach to the
teaching of reading and spelling. The ‘synthetic’ component reflects the
practice of ‘synthesising’, or blending together. The ‘phonic’ part reflects the
process of linking individual speech sounds (phonemes) to written symbols
(graphemes). Essentially, when a child learns to read using Synthetic Phonics
they learn to link letters to speech sounds and then blend these sounds
together to read words. They also learn to separate (segment) words into their
constituent sounds and link these sounds to letters in order to spell them.
The ability to hear, isolate, blend and manipulate speech sounds (essential for
reading and spelling) is dependent on a child's phonological and phonemic
awareness ability. Children with literacy related learning difficulties often
require additional support and intervention to develop these skills.
A good literacy program also includes explicit instruction
in vocabulary, reading fluency and reading comprehension strategies. This
instruction should be extended into the secondary school years, particulary as
the demands of school change and students are exposed to significantly more
complex vocabulary and the need to be more strategic in their use of
comprehension strategies.
Written expression (grammar, ideation, language usage)
Early writing instruction should emphasize that written language conveys

meaning. Just as readers monitor comprehension while they are reading,
writers monitor the comprehensibility of their writing. The teacher should
constantly ask students to reread their writing to make sure it makes sense and
that they are writing what they mean to say. Frequent rereading often leads to
revising.
To learn all the skills necessary for written expression, a highly structured,
explicit, systematic teaching approach is needed with many opportunities for
students to practise and apply learned skills.
Students must be taught to identify the features and structures of texts when
reading and work towards transferring their spoken language into written
work. Providing students with the structure and strategies for building suitable
sentences and paragraphs, and the composition of simple texts, will give them
the foundation skills necessary to write effectively in the upper primary and
secondary years.
When approaching the effective teaching of written expression, a strong

literacy program will include the following:
 Explicit and structured teaching of written

language conventions and literary techniques
 Direct and explicit instruction in literary genres and text structures
 Guided and repeated composition practice to improve fluency
 Direct and robust instruction in vocabulary and word choice
 Explicit teaching of the grammatical structure of spoken and written
language
Students need to be taught to write simple, grammatically correct sentences
before learning to write compound and complex sentences. Sentence-level
activities should also teach basic editing skills. Grammar must be taught in the
context of combining words and building sentences, not just analysing parts of
speech in isolation. Words must be combined to communicate thoughts and
ideas meaningfully. Word banks can be a useful tool to support the generation
and organisation of ideas; however, students also need to be taught the
function of the words and how to use them in their writing.
The structure of a paragraph varies based on the text it is written for (e.g.
descriptive, narrative, persuasive); however, all typically follow a common
pattern. A paragraph generally begins with a topic sentence which introduces
the main idea, and is followed by sentences supporting or describing the topic.
Young or struggling writers should first be taught to construct their paragraph
with their topic sentence as the first sentence. When students become more
proficient at writing sentences and constructing paragraphs, they can be
shown how to position a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph for effect.
Ideation is the formation of ideas or concepts. The ideation in student writing

is very important. Students will acquire and execute creative thinking methods
and processes and develop an understanding of a cyclical process of design
thinking to generate questions and solutions.
Develop inventive concepts using various problem-solving techniques, like

convergent thinking. And also develop basic abilities to interpret, recognize,
construct, appreciate and negotiate information presented in the form of
visible actions, images, objects and symbols, natural .
5.3 Strategies for teaching math (number facts,

computation, application)
Similiar to the principles of high-quality literacy instruction, the initial teaching
of numeracy should be carefully sequenced, highly structured, and explicit.
When approaching the effective teaching of mathematics, a strong numeracy
program will include the following:
 explicit and systematic instruction in building number sense

 guided and repeated practice of effective counting strategies
 direct and systematic instruction in calculation techniques (procedural
knowledge)
 direct instruction in the language of mathematics
 cumulative instruction in developing number facts with brief and
purposeful practice
Individual differences observed in children's mathematics development is

often related to variations in the development of their underlying approximate
number system (also known as number sense). Number sense is one of the
most important developments in the early years for the acquisition of
numeracy skills and is seen as one of the biggest predictors of mathematical
proficiency in primary school.
Delays in number sense not only reduce the ability to utilise effective
calculation techniques, but they also reduce the development of maths
reasoning skills and number fact storage by reducing a student's ability to use
strategic counting, understand the base-10 number system and work with
place value, utilise estimation skills to check their answers, change
computational strategies when the need arises and to develop an
understanding of the language of mathematics (including the link between
number words and numerals).
A well rounded numeracy program explicitly teaches these foundation skills

and regularly rehearses and reviews these component skills when tackling
higher order mathematical tasks.
Number facts are simple addition, subtraction, multiplication and division facts
which are sometimes referred to as number bonds.
Children learn these basic facts between the ages of 4 and 10. Throughout
their primary school experience, they will be taught these key facts and
encouraged to practice and memorise them until they can be recalled instantly
with little working out.
Number facts are important for your child to learn because they form the
building blocks for higher-level Maths skills.
Adding and subtracting large numbers, long multiplication and division, telling
the time and counting money are all concepts of Maths that children will
encounter early on in their life. Therefore, if they have mastered number facts,
they will find it easier to solve problems more quickly and understand the
relationship between numbers, like how 4-2=2 because of 2+2=4.
How are children are taught number facts at school
Teachers begin with concrete representations of numbers (actual objects or

pictures of objects) when introducing the concept of addition and subtraction.
Then move onto pictorial representation (using dots):
And finally onto abstract symbols (digits):
Once they are familiar with the concept of addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division children begin to memorise the number facts and practice quick
recall.
Methods such as flash cards, fact triangles, fact families, games, ICT games
are used to improve quick recall in a fun way. There may also be displays in
the classroom to help children memorise the number facts. Number facts need
to be practised regularly so some schools may also do weekly timetables
tests/challenges.
Everyday Mathematics recognizes that, even in the computer age, it is
important to teach children how to compute "by hand".
Instead of requiring all students to learn the same computation procedure, by

rote, at the same time, Everyday Mathematics aims to make students active
participants in the development of algorithms. This process begins by
developing students' background skills and knowledge in three areas: basic fact
skills, place value skills, and their understanding of the meanings of operations.
Once these background skills are in place, and before students are taught
standard algorithms, they are encouraged to invent and share their own ways
for doing operations.
Giving students the opportunity to invent and share their own operational
procedures has the following benefits:
 Childrenare more motivated to solve problems when they have to come

up with their own strategies instead of just following a rote procedure.
 Children
with different learning styles are given problem-solving options.
They may choose to use manipulatives, drawings, oral and written
words, or symbols to represent and solve problems.
 Childrenbecome adept at changing problems into easy-to-solve
equivalent problems. For example, 30-17 is equivalent to 30-10-7.
 When children explain and discuss their own algorithms with other
children, they internalize what the operations mean and learn from
each other. Children's discussions also provide valuable information
that can help teachers assess the development of their numerical
thinking.
After children have had opportunities to experiment with their own operation
procedures, they are introduced to standard algorithms and a number of
alternative algorithms. Multi-digit addition and subtraction algorithms are
formally introduced in second grade, and most children should be proficient in
the use of at least one algorithm for each operation by the beginning of fourth
grade. Division algorithms are introduced in fourth grade, with proficiency
expected in fifth grade.
5.4 Strategies to develop Metacognition
The word "metacognition" is derived from the Greek root word "meta"
meaning "beyond" and the Latin word "cognoscere" meaning "getting to
know".
But along with more modern usage of the prefix "meta", it is now more usually
defined as "thinking about thinking". Metacognition is the ability to reflect and
critically analyse how you think. Essentially, it is best thought of as having self-
awareness that enables individuals to monitor, reflect and analyse their
performance. Students who can do this are more likely to learn more
efficiently, more effectively and therefore make more progress.
Metacognition is a term used for the methods that can help learners
understand how they learn. In other words, metacognition means processes
created for the learners to 'think' how they 'think'. Metacognition helps
learners in becoming aware of their individual learning experiences and the
activities they involve themselves in their paths toward professional and
individual growth. Some examples of metacognitive activities include:
planning how to perform a learning task, applying appropriate strategies and
skills to solve a problem, self-assessment and self-correction as a result of
evaluating one's own progress toward completing a task.
Metacognition is beneficial in student learning because it allows learners to
reflect on what they know, who they are, what they wish to know, and how
they can reach that point. Reflection is an important aspect of learning and
teaching. Teachers must be reflective in their practice so that they can keep on
growing, continue to meet their students’ needs, and evaluate their own
growth and skills. It is important to motivate students to practice reflection so
that they can build their individual reflective practices and develop
metacognitive skills to prepare for their future. At Structural Learning, we
argue that classroom culture is a significant driver for developing
metacognitive mindsets. If talking about learning is part of your day-to-day
classroom practice then your pupils are halfway there. Developing a healthy
balance of both content knowledge and procedural knowledge is a
fundamental classroom challenge. We have been helping children develop
their knowledge about cognition and how they can manage it more effectively
As part of everyday teaching, some of the most common strategies used to
embed metacognitive strategies are:
Explicit teaching:With a focus on activating prior knowledge, introducing new

knowledge and skills, modelling the application of knowledge and skills, and
providing ample opportunity for independent practice and reflection.
Supporting students to plan, monitor, and evaluate their work/learning:

Explicitly teaching skills in these areas, and structuring work around these
phases, will give students the opportunity to gradually internalise these
techniques and use them to take control of their own learning.
Developing rubrics (and wherever possible co-designing them with students):

Assist students with the monitoring of learning and the setting of individual
learning goals that are specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and timely
(SMART).
Modelling of thinking: Verbalise the thought processes used to consider,

analyse and solve problems. This may be as simple as 'thinking aloud'.
Questioning: Both in terms of using questions to engage students, to monitor

their progress and stimulate their thinking, as well as valuing questions from
students as a form of feedback and an opportunity for clarification/extension
of learning.
5.5 Peer-tutoring, co-operative learning, Co-teaching

strategies
Peer-tutoring
Peer tutoring is a flexible, peer-mediated strategy that involves students
serving as academic tutors and tutees. Typically, a higher performing student
is paired with a lower performing student to review critical academic or
behavioral concepts.
Why choose peer tutoring?
 It is a widely-researched practice across ages, grade levels, and subject

areas
 The intervention allows students to receive one-to-one assistance
 Students have increased opportunities to respond in smaller groups
 It promotes academic and social development for both the tutor and
tutee
 Student engagement and time on task increases
 Peer tutoring increases self-confidence and self-efficacy (Spencer, 2006)
 The strategy is supported by a strong research base (e.g., Calhoon, Al
Otaiba, Cihak, King, & Avalos, 2007; Kunsch, Jitendra, & Sood, 2007;
Vasquez & Slocum, 2012)
What are the most frequently used peer tutoring models?
Classwide Peer Tutoring (CWPT): Classwide peer tutoring involves dividing the
entire class into groups of two to five students with differing ability
levels. Students then act as tutors, tutees, or both tutors and tutees. Typically,
CWPT involves highly structured procedures, direct rehearsal, competitive
teams, and posting of scores (Maheady, Harper, & Mallette, 2001). The entire
class participates in structured peer tutoring activities two or more times per
week for approximately 30 minutes (Harper & Maheady, 2007). While the
procedures and routines in CWPT remain the same, student pairings or groups
may change weekly or biweekly. In CWPT, student pairings are fluid and may
be based on achievement levels or student compatibility. Students may
Cross-age Peer Tutoring: Older students are paired with younger students to
teach or review a skill. The positions of tutor and tutee do not change. The
older student serves as the tutor and the younger student is the tutee. The
older student and younger student can have similar or differing skill levels,
with the relationship being one of a cooperative or expert interaction. Tutors
serve to model appropriate behavior, ask questions, and encourage better
study habits. This arrangement is also beneficial for students with disabilities
as they may serve as tutors for younger students.
Peer Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS): PALS, a version of the CWPT model,
involves a teacher pairing students who need additional instruction or help
with a peer who can assist (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Burish, 2000). Groups are flexible
and change often across a variety of subject areas or skills. Cue cards, small
pieces of cardstock upon which are printed a list of tutoring steps, may be
provided to help students remember PALS steps (Spencer, Scruggs, &
Mastropieri, 2003). All students have the opportunity to function as a tutor or
tutee at differing times. Students are typically paired with other students who
are at the same skill level, without a large discrepancy between abilities.
Reciprocal Peer Tutoring (RPT): Two or more students alternate between

acting as the tutor and tutee during each session, with equitable time in each
role. Often, higher performing students are paired with lower performing
students. RPT utilizes a structured format that encourages teaching material,
monitoring answers, and evaluating and encouraging peers. Both group and
individual rewards may be earned to motivate and maximize
learning. Students in RPT may prepare the instructional materials and are
responsible for monitoring and evaluating their peers once they have selected
a goal and reward as outlined by their teacher.
Same-age Peer Tutoring: Peers who are within one or two years of age are
paired to review key concepts. Students may have similar ability levels or a
more advanced student can be paired with a less advanced student. Students
who have similar abilities should have an equal understanding of the content
material and concepts. When pairing students with differing levels, the roles
of tutor and tutee may be alternated, allowing the lower performing student
to quiz the higher performing student. Answers should be provided to the
student who is lower achieving when acting as a tutor in order to assist with
any deficits in content knowledge. Same-age peer tutoring, like classwide peer
tutoring, can be completed within the students’ classroom or tutoring can be
completed across differing classes. Procedures are more flexible than
traditional classwide peer tutoring configurations.
How should peer tutors be trained?
 Establish rules for confidentiality of student progress.
 Define and develop procedures for social skills students may need
throughout peer tutoring (i.e., sharing, taking turns, using respectful
language, and accepting criticism or feedback).
 Define and develop procedures for moving into peer tutoring groups
quickly and quietly.
 Explain and model peer tutoring and allow students to practice prior to
the first peer tutoring session. Consider using a prepared script for
practicing interactions (Fulk & King, 2001).
 Train students how to provide feedback for correct and incorrect peer
responses, including praise.
 Teach students how to carefully monitor their own and their partner’s
progress.
Planning and Implementing a Peer Tutoring Program
 Clarify the specific objectives of the tutoring program, including both

academic and social objectives when appropriate.
 List objectives in a form that can be easily measured. For example:
 “Students serving as tutees will improve reading fluency by 30% on
classroom reading materials in the next 12 weeks.”
 “Performance of all students on weekly spelling tests will improve to an
average of 85%; no student will score lower than 60%.”
 “Within 8 weeks, students involved in tutoring will report that math is at
least their third favorite class.”
 Choose tutoring partners carefully. No firm conclusions can be drawn to
direct tutoring choices; nevertheless, several considerations should be
taken into account. Some teachers have recommended choosing
students as tutors who are conscientious in class, and who generally
have to work for their grades. These teachers have believed that the
brightest students may have less empathy for students who do not learn
easily (Jenkins & Jenkins, 1981), although, exceptions to this are
commonly found. Other considerations include the compatibility of the
tutoring pair. Teachers should find pairs who will work together well;
however, they should also encourage pairing students who are different
in gender, race, or socioeconomic status whenever possible, and not
exclusively support established groupings.
 Establish rules and procedures for the tutoring program. These rules
should cover how students are to interact with each other, and specify
the type of interactions that are not acceptable. Procedures should
specify the times and dates of tutoring, the materials to be used, and the
specific activities to be undertaken.
 Implement the tutoring program, monitor it carefully, and be consistent
in enforcing the rules and procedures. Modify rule and procedures as
necessary.
 Evaluate the program frequently, and do not wait for the end of the
program to determine whether it was effective. Collect information
throughout the program, and predict whether it will be successful. If
progress is not being made, modify the program.
Co-operative learning
Cooperative learning aims to organize class activities. Also, it aims to into a

social and educational learning experience. Also in it, students work together
in groups to perform a task. John Dewey the education reformer introduced
this theory. It is the responsibility of the teacher to carefully select the group.
Each member is responsible for learning. And also, to teach what is taught to
his/her teammates.
Cooperative learning is an activity which helps students to work in groups.
Also, it enables them to learn and teach group members. Also, the success of
each member depends on the group’s success.
Cooperative learning is a teaching method. It arranges and mixes students of

different level of ability and learning into groups. Also, it focuses on group
success rather than individual success.
Types of Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning divides into 3 parts:
 Formal learning
 Informal learning
 Cooperative learning
1. Formal Learning
The formal group assigns tasks and projects. Also, they stay together until the
assignment completes. The group has a clear structure. Besides, the teacher
selects the groups. Depending on the assignments, the group can be
heterogeneous and homogeneous. Likewise, three to five-person groups is
believed to be most productive.
2. Informal Learning
These are just the opposite of formal learning. Also, they are not structured
very well. Typically they involve activities that take few minutes. In addition,
they usually have two to three members. They are suitably used for rapid
activities like check for understanding, quick problem solving or review, etc.
these help in changing the format of the lecture. Also, they give students a few
minutes to talk about a concept with a go over.
3. Cooperative Learning
They are usually long term support group. Also, their minimum duration is a
semester but they can last for years. Due to their duration, they generally
become friends or acquaintances. The members support and cooperate with
each other outside the group.
Elements of Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is when students work in small groups to achieve a
common goal. Educators can use this method in every grade. In this learning
method, students can earn from their conversations with one another. By
working together, they can analyze each other's ideas and clarifying their own.
To be effective, there are five essential components of small-group learning:
1. Positive Interdependence: It means that they have clear goals or target.
Also, their effort not only helps oneself but the group. Positive interdependence
is committed to personal success. as well as the success of every member of the
group.
2. Individual and Group Accountability: The group is accountable for its
actions. Also, the members are accountable for their fair contribution. And also
for achieving the group goal. Besides no one can copy or steal others work.
Everyone’s performance must be assessed. And its results should be given to
the group.
3. Small group and Interpersonal skills: Small group and interpersonal skills
require carrying out as part of a group. Basically, they are teamwork skills. Self-
motivation, efficient leadership, decision making, trust building,
communication, and conflict managing are basic skills.
4. Promotive face-to-face Interaction: This means that students share each
other success by dividing resources. Also, to learn they help, give confidence,
support, and admire each other’s work. Educational and individual both are
part of this common goal.
5. Group Processing: Group members require experiencing free to
communicate frankly with others. Also, they feel each other’s concern and
make merry at accomplishments. Besides, they should converse about
achieving the goal and maintaining helpful working relations.
At the same time, the following characteristics need to be present:
 When designing cooperative learning activities, teachers need to clearly

identify to students their individual responsibility and accountability to
the group.
 Each member must have a task they are responsible for and that cannot
be completed by other members.
Side-note: This article uses the terms "cooperative" and "collaborative"

interchangeably. However, certain researchers distinguish between these two
types of learning, outlining the key difference being that collaborative learning
focuses mainly on deeper learning.
Benefits
Teachers make frequent use of group work, and thus cooperative learning, for
a number of reasons:
1. Change Things Up. It is beneficial to have a variety in your instruction; it

keeps students engaged and enables you to reach a larger number of
learners. Cooperative learning also changes students' and teachers' roles
as teachers become facilitators of learning, guides on the side if you will,
and students take on more responsibility for their own learning.
2. Life Skills. Cooperation and collaboration are crucial skills that students
will continue using far beyond their schooling years. One of the key
elements in a workplace is collaboration, and we need to get our
students ready to cooperate, to be responsible and accountable, and to
possess other interpersonal skills for effective professional lives.
Cooperative learning is also proven to foster students’ self-esteem,
motivation, and empathy.
3. Deeper Learning. Collaborating with others has a potent and positive
effect on students’ thinking and learning—through well-executed
cooperative learning tasks, students often deepen their understanding
of the assigned content. Students engage in thoughtful discourse,
examine different perspectives, and learn how to disagree productively.
Challenges and Solutions
Despite cooperative or collaborative learning being ingrained in teaching

practices for decades now, it has also been demonstrated that small group
activities aren’t always very efficient. Some of the main challenges turn out to
be students' free-riding (the lack of participation on behalf of some students),
their focus on individual academic goals while neglecting collaborative goals,
and teachers’ difficulties in accurately assessing students’ participation.
Some specific recommendations resulting from the above-mentioned

challenges are that teachers should focus on:
1. Defining specific collaborative goals (in addition to the academic content

goals)
2. Training students in social interactions for productive collaboration
3. Monitoring and supporting student interactions
4. Assessing the collaborative process—productivity and the learning
process of individuals and the whole group (thanks to increased
professional development)
5. Applying the findings into future cooperative learning tasks
Co-teaching strategies
Students at all academic levels benefit from alternative assignments and

greater teacher attention in small-group activities that co-teaching makes
possible. Co-teaching allows for more intense and individualized instruction in
the general education setting increasing access to the general education
curriculum while decreasing stigma for students with special needs. Students
have an opportunity to increase their understanding and respect for students
with special needs. Students with special needs have a greater opportunity for
continuity of instruction as the teachers benefit from the professional support
and exchange of teaching practices as they work collaboratively.
Co-teaching involves two or more certified professionals who contract to share

instructional responsibility for a single group of students primarily in a single
classroom or workspace for specific content or objectives with mutual
ownership, pooled resources and joint accountability. (Friend & Cook 2016)
 Infuse high-leverage practices. Every aspect of co-teaching
should emphasize HLPs.
 Co-plan at the mega, macro, and micro levels. Mega-level planning
involves the overall plans for the school year (concepts, units,
books/chapters). Macro-planning occurs every quarter, unit, or
chapter. Micro-planning is the day-to-day planning and will be more
manageable if the mega- and macro-planning has occurred.
 Consider your responses. Take time to reflect on what your co-teacher
does, how you respond to it, and the results of your actions. Is there a
different way to respond that would communicate your feelings and
get a better outcome?
 Record and share anecdotal notes. Use an agreed-upon format to take
notes during planning and instruction that you can share with one
another. Be sure the form includes information not only on students,
but also on the teacher actions that may enhance or detract from
learning.
 Use strategies that provide high-quality core instruction to all
learners. Access resources that help reframe thinking about what
students may be able to do.
 Continue learning. Think how you will implement the co-teaching "do
betters" as a team. Craft ways to collaboratively be lifelong learners
who reflectively appreciate and expand their compatibility, parity, and
effectiveness.
Fortunately, a lot of available research categorizes different models of

co-teaching.
 One Teach, One Observe: One co-teacher has primary instructional

responsibility while the other co-teacher gathers specific observational
information on students or the (instructing) teacher. The key to this
strategy is to have a focus for the observation.
 One Teach, One Assist: One co-teacher has primary instructional
responsibility while the other co-teacher assists students with their
work, monitors behaviors, or corrects assignments.
 Station Teaching: The co-teaching pair divides the instructional content
into parts and the students into groups. Groups spend a designated
amount of time at each station. Of-ten an independent station will be
used.
 Parallel Teaching: Each co-teacher instructs half of the students. The
two co-teachers are addressing the same instructional material and
present the lesson using the same teaching strategy. The greatest
benefit is the reduction of student to teacher ratio.
 Supplemental Teaching: This strategy allows one co-teacher to work
with students at their expected grade level, while the other co-teacher
works with those students who need the information and/or materials
extended or remediated.
 Alternative/Differentiated Teaching: Alternative teaching strategies
provide two different approaches to teaching the same information. The
learning outcome is the same for all students; however, the instructional
methodology is different.
 Team Teaching: Team taught lessons that are well planned exhibit an
invisible flow of instruction with no prescribed division of authority.
Using a team teaching strategy, both teachers are actively involved in
the lesson. From a student’s perspective, there is no clearly defined
leader, as both teachers share the instruction, are free to interject in-
formation, and available to assist students and answer questions.
6 M O D E LS O F C O - TE A CH I N G : P R O S A N D CO N S
One Teaching, One Observing: This model implemented both with
purpose and without. It takes time to develop a working relationship
with another teacher. When the relationship isn’t working, this model
appears more often, and often without purpose.
When one teacher is directly instructing the students, the other should
be observing. The observing teacher is collecting data, which can be
useful in determining what instruction takes place next, which students
need additional help, and what co-teaching model may be used next to
address any identified needs.
Pros: less time collaborating, less interruption, more focused and

purposeful data collection.
Cons: loss of one instructor, can be used too often due to a lack of
planning or a lack of content knowledge or self-efficacy, can be
underutilized for its intended purpose without focused data collection.
One Teaching, One Assisting: This model is often implemented in a

one-sided fashion, with one teacher left in the role of assistant. This
model can be extremely useful if the teachers swap roles so that both
gain comfort in teaching the content and in assisting students one-on-
one. Being professional and looking for signs that students are either
not on task or are struggling with the content and sharing those signs
with the other teacher can mean the difference between a student’s
success or failure in a lesson.
Pros: less interruption between teachers, more eyes on students to

identify those in need.
Cons: loss of one instructor, can be used too often due to a lack of
planning or a lack of content knowledge or self-efficacy, can be
underutilized for its intended purpose without a focused group of
students to assist based on the lesson design.
Parallel Teaching: Parallel teaching work extremely well—it can be a

great way to reduce the feel of a larger class. By breaking the students
into two groups and teaching the lesson simultaneously, more students
can get the close, small-group instruction that research indicates helps
struggling learners. More students have the opportunity to ask
questions throughout the process than they would in a larger group.
This is also a great model when the content is extremely challenging

because it allows each teacher to really differentiate instruction for
each student in the smaller group.
Pros: smaller instructional groups, more time for students to fill in

instructional gaps, classroom management is easier.
Cons: difficult logistics, takes more time to collaboratively plan,

requires that both teachers have content expertise.
Station Teaching: Station teaching is a way for each teacher to own a

piece of the content and replicate that piece of the lesson multiple
times within the same period with different groups of students. Unlike
parallel teaching, teachers using this model can each focus more on a
specific part of the lesson as groups rotate through each teacher’s
station. Additional stations that aren’t led by one of the two teachers
can foster students’ independence and give them time to practice the
material.
Pros: capitalizes on each teacher’s strengths, smaller instructional

groups, refined lesson planning.
Cons: takes more time to plan, requires good timing on the part of both
teachers.
Alternative Teaching: Teachers use this model to help a small group of

students accelerate their learning, catch up on missed content, or fill in
their gaps in understanding. The keys are finding space so that the
other students are not disrupted while this small-group instruction is
taking place, and ensuring that students in the small group don’t miss
new information.
Pros: gives students opportunities to close instructional gaps, can help

students with chronic absenteeism, focuses resources on a target
student population.
Cons: requires dual planning of time and content so that there’s no

missed instruction.
Team Teaching: A true team-teaching lesson is a thing of beauty. Two

teachers whose personalities complement each other offer benefits for
all students in the classroom. Getting to this point requires years of
experience, collaborative planning, and a positive, professional
relationship that is always being refined and improved. Supervisors and
principals need to know that this model can be achieved by making the
teaching pairs a priority when scheduling the building.
Pros: capitalizes on two teachers’ expertise and instructional strategies,

gives both teachers the spotlight in front of the entire class.
Cons: often requires experience in working together (although it can be
done with a new pair of team-teachers), immense planning, and a
healthy relationship in order to work.

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D.Ed.

Special Education IDD

1.1. Stages of learning – Acquisition, maintenance, fluency and generalization

Unit 2: Individualised Educational Programme and teaching strategies

Unit 3: Teaching strategies for individuals with ASD

3.1. Structure and Visual Support (TEACCH, Structured Teaching)

Unit 4: Teaching strategies for students with ID

Unit 5: Teaching strategies for students with SLD

1.1 Stages of learning – Acquisition,

Ways of presenting the task

Teaching procedure for fluency building

Teaching procedure for maintenance

A second type of generalization activity is known as differentiation. Children

Teaching Procedures for Generalization

1.2 Principles of teaching – concrete,

 He believed curriculum should foster the development of problem-

Three Stages of Representation

1. Enactive, which is the representation of knowledge through actions.

1.3 Teaching methods – e.g., multisensory, play way,

Multisensory Approach is the simultaneous use of visual, auditory, and

INDEPENDENCE: From the moment of birth onwards, humans strive towards

 Beginning at an early age, Montessori students develop order,

Play Way Method

Play-way in education insists on child centered education. It advocates

The project method is a teacher-facilitated collaborative approach in which

Project method of teaching has evolved from the philosophy of

1. Principle of Utility. Choose those projects which are closer to the

What is task analysis?

Need for task analysis

If a task has numerous sub-tasks, take a set of only 10-12 sub-tasks

 The word increases makes it clear that the stimulus presented as a

Continuous schedule of reinforcement

Because of this dense ratio of response to reinforcement, CRF schedules are

Problems with CRF schedules

 A student whose behaviour is on a CRF schedule may become satiated

Intermittent Schedules of reinforcement

Either knowingly or unknowingly most of us acquire behaviours through

Modelling is a method of teaching by demonstration. It can be used to teach

Modelling can be an effective way to prompt behaviours if certain conditions

Shaping refers to sequential, systematic reinforcement of successive

- Harish remains in his seat for 3 minutes.

There are six steps that should be followed in shaping behaviour.

1. Select the target behaviour in precise and behavioural terms.

Total task presentation

Prompting And Fading

A prompt is a form of temporary assistance used to help a student perform in

If a student does not perform a task/activity when we make a verbal request,

Level-1 Verbal Request (VR)

Giving additional instructions, emphasizing important words by saying them

FADING: The process of gradual decrease in assistance or help by so that the

The approach of fading is built on studies in operant conditioning in which a

Importance of Teaching Aids

Teaching aid is a smaller and narrower term than teaching material or

 The teaching material covers the topics as per course or syllabus to be

 They help to teacher to make Teaching-Learning process interactive.

 When a teaching aid(any) is used for learning a concept it is technically

 Planning, implementation and evaluation of the students are done with

Teaching aids are useful to:

 ensure that your point is understood,

 signal what is important/essential,

 enable students to visualise or experience something that is impractical

 engage students’ other senses in the learning process,

 facilitate different learning styles.

According to UNESCO, "ICT is a scientific, technological and engineering