Content-based Instruction

Content-Based Instruction (CBI) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) are
two approaches to language teaching that focus on teaching subjects like history or social
studies rather than just language skills. In CBI, students learn language and content together,
often with a language teacher and a content teacher working together. CLIL is similar but
emphasizes teaching content through a second language, like English, and aims to promote
multilingualism in Europe while preserving local languages.

While CBI emerged more informally, CLIL was officially proposed by the European
Commission in 1976 to encourage teaching in multiple languages. CLIL aims not only to
promote multilingualism but also to maintain local languages' importance. Unlike CBI, CLIL
focuses on developing English language skills for communication across languages.

Both Content-Based Instruction (CBI) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
are considered approaches rather than methods because they provide principles for designing
language courses without prescribing specific teaching methods.

An application of principles of Communicative Language Teaching

One reason for the growth of these programs is their alignment with Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) principles. CLT emphasizes real communication and information
exchange in the classroom. In CBI and CLIL, language learning occurs naturally as students
engage with real-world content, rather than focusing solely on language-based topics like
grammar or functions. This approach allows students to learn language as a by-product of
studying meaningful content.

The basis for on-arrival and mainstreaming programs.

In many English-speaking countries, there has been a significant influx of immigrants and
displaced individuals. On-arrival programs focus on teaching language skills needed for
survival in the new environment. These learners must understand various types of real-world
content to navigate their new lives. Content-based programs are often used in these situations.
Mainstreaming programs, also known as Programs for Students with Limited English
Proficiency (SLEP), cater to children whose parents may have been part of on-arrival
programs. These programs help students integrate into regular school curriculum by teaching
them the language and skills necessary for academic tasks and understanding academic
content in a second language. CBI is seen as a method to enhance both academic skills and
language proficiency.

Support for immersion education.

In some countries, like Canada where English is the majority language and French is the
second language, there's a method called immersion education that's been around since the
1980s. Immersion education means teaching all school subjects, like math and science, in the
second language instead of the first. For instance, in an immersion program, an English-
speaking child would learn math and science in French instead of English. The goal of
immersion programs is to help students become really good at the second language, like
French, and also to appreciate the language and culture. These programs exist in many parts
of North America, offering immersion in languages like French, German, Spanish, Japanese,
Chinese, and even Hawaiian.

Promotion of bilingualism through CLIL

In Europe, there's been a big increase in programs using CLIL, which stands for Content and
Language Integrated Learning. This is part of a plan to encourage people to be bilingual. The
European Commission wants people in the European Union to be good at their native
language plus two other languages. This is known as the "1+2 policy". CLIL is seen as a
response to globalization and the need for countries to have strong economies based on
knowledge and skills. CLIL classrooms often involve students actively learning by asking
questions and solving problems. There are a few reasons why CLIL has become more popular
in Europe: families want their kids to know more than one language, governments want to
improve language education for economic reasons, the European Commission wants to
strengthen Europe as a whole, and language experts see the potential for connecting language
learning with other subjects in school.

CBI and CLIL have some basic ideas they're built on:

- Learning a second language works better when you use it to understand things, not just to
learn the language itself. This is different from regular language courses, where you focus
more on the language itself and pick content that helps with that.

CBI and CLIL are more in tune with what learners actually need when learning a second
language. These programs help learners get ready for academic studies or for living in an
English-speaking place. CLIL programs also aim to help individuals grow and become
bilingual citizens.

Content serves as the foundation for engaging the mind and promoting interaction, which are
essential for learning a second language. By focusing on understanding and expressing
meaningful content, learners activate cognitive skills crucial for learning and engage in
natural language development through interaction.

Brinton (2007) offers a detailed explanation for why Content-Based Instruction (CBI) is
beneficial:

1. CBI blends language and content seamlessly, erasing the divide between them.

2. It considers the learner's interests and future language usage, making it more relevant.

3. CBI exposes learners to meaningful language through authentic materials, aiding language
acquisition.

4. It adjusts teaching to match learner proficiency levels and skills.

5. Language is seen in the context of communication, emphasizing real-world usage.

6. Sustained exposure to content provides meaningful material for language acquisition.

7. While rich input is vital, it's not enough for advanced language skills development.

8. Providing feedback on accuracy helps students improve their language output.

9. CBI supplements input exposure with language-focused instruction, like grammar and
vocabulary.

10. It aims to balance fluency and accuracy in language learning.

CLIL is rooted in principles aimed at achieving various language learning goals, as outlined
by Coyle et al. (2010: 42):

• Content isn't just about gaining knowledge; it's about learners creating their understanding
and skills, promoting personalized learning.

• Content is linked to learning and thinking processes, so learners must analyze it for its
linguistic demands to interpret it effectively.

• The language learned should relate to the learning context, aiding in content reconstruction
and cognitive processes, and should be clear and accessible.

• Interaction in the learning setting is crucial, especially in a foreign language medium.

• The relationship between languages and cultures is intricate, necessitating intercultural

awareness.

• CLIL is part of the broader educational framework and must consider contextual variables,
such as overall curriculum goals, for effective implementation.

Here's a breakdown of the underlying assumptions about language in CBI and CLIL:

1. **Lexis Integration**: Specialized vocabulary plays a central role in merging language

with content. Subject-specific vocabulary is vital in both CBI and CLIL, often identified
through corpus research. This includes technical and abstract vocabulary necessary for
conveying content.

2. **Grammar for Content**: Grammar serves as a tool for expressing content. Learners
acquire grammar based on its role in communicating content, rather than focusing solely on
grammatical difficulty. A pragmatic approach is taken, integrating grammar across CLIL
lessons.
3. **Text and Discourse**: Language is viewed as text and discourse-based, emphasizing
how meaning and information are conveyed through longer stretches of language. CLIL
lessons focus on how language is used in disciplinary-based genres, essential for academic
learning.

4. **Integrated Skills**: Language use involves multiple skills working together. CBI and
CLIL integrate skills such as reading, listening, writing, and speaking, reflecting real-world
language use. Topic-based courses offer coherence and continuity across skill areas,
promoting the integration of knowledge, language, and thinking skills.

Absolutely, here's a simplified breakdown of the assumptions underlying CBI and CLIL:

1. **Comprehension is Key**: Understanding the subject matter presented in the second

language is crucial. Teachers adjust speech to make content easier to understand, using
techniques like slower speech and repetition.

2. **Negotiating Meaning**: Both teachers and learners collaborate to understand content,

often through multiple exchanges or clarifications.

3. **Corrective Feedback**: Learners don't just pick up language; they also learn from
corrective feedback provided by teachers, which can take various forms like explicit
corrections or repetitions.

4. **Dialogic Talk**: Effective classroom discourse in CBI and CLIL classrooms aims for
common understanding through structured discussions and questioning, promoting exposure
to rich language.

5. **Prior Knowledge Matters**: Learners bring various prior knowledge to learning,

including knowledge about the world and events, which can facilitate learning content in a
second language.

6. **Scaffolded Learning**: Scaffolding involves temporary assistance by teachers to help

learners understand tasks, gradually allowing them to take on more responsibility for their
learning. It's especially important in CBI and CLIL, where students tackle complex ideas in a
foreign language.

CBI Courses

Theme-based Model

In the Theme-based model of Content-Based Instruction (CBI), language learning revolves

around central themes or topics, such as "modern cinema" or "cities." These themes serve as
the framework for organizing the syllabus, with language acquisition being secondary to the
main subject matter. Typically used in university courses, this approach integrates language
analysis and practice within the context of the chosen theme. Students engage with readings,
discussions, audiovisual materials, and written assignments, all centered around the theme, to
develop their language skills. At the elementary and secondary levels, theme-based modules
help students prepare for mainstream subjects by teaching them essential strategies and skills
needed for those subjects. Beyond academia, theme-based courses are also employed in
private language schools, where a set of themes guides language learning over a semester,
covering various language skills and grammar within each theme.

Sheltered Model

The Sheltered model of Content-Based Instruction involves content courses taught in the
second language by a specialist in the subject area to a group of English as a Second
Language (ESL) learners. This approach is often seen at the university level, particularly in
countries like Canada and the United States. Since the ESL students are grouped separately
from native speakers, the instructor must ensure that the content is presented in a way that is
easily understood by second language learners. This may involve selecting texts appropriate
for the learners' proficiency level and adjusting course requirements to match their language
abilities, such as reducing the number of written assignments.

Adjunct Model

In the Adjunct model, students are enrolled in two connected courses: one focusing on content
and the other on language. Both courses share the same subject matter and support each other
with coordinated assignments. Typically, these courses aim to prepare students for integration
into mainstream education, such as entering high schools in English-speaking countries or
attending English-medium universities. They often include instruction on academic language
and vocabulary, along with study skills necessary for academic success. Implementing this
model requires careful coordination to ensure that both courses complement each other
effectively, which may involve adjusting the content and structure of both courses.

Skill-based Model

In the Skills-based model, the focus is on developing specific academic skills, such as
academic writing, alongside the study of particular subject areas in academic disciplines. This
approach shares similarities with English for Specific Purposes (ESP) or English for
Academic Purposes (EAP). Students may engage in writing activities related to the material
they are currently learning in their academic courses, or the language course itself may
replicate academic processes, including lectures, readings, and discussions leading to writing
assignments. Students are tasked with writing in various formats, such as short essays,
summaries, critiques, and research reports, to demonstrate their comprehension of the subject
matter and expand their knowledge into new areas. Writing is integrated with reading,
listening, and discussions about the core content, as well as collaborative and independent
research stemming from the core material.

CLIL Courses

Supporters of CLIL often speak of it in very enthusiastic terms, as seen in the statement by
Paran (2013: 140). They portray CLIL as a comprehensive educational approach that spans
across all levels of education, from primary school to adult education, and encompasses
various formats, ranging from a few hours of instruction per week to more intensive modules
lasting several months. CLIL can involve diverse activities such as project work, exam
preparation, drama, puppet shows, chemistry experiments, and mathematical investigations.
In essence, CLIL is described as flexible and dynamic, aiming to integrate language learning
with other subjects in a way that benefits learners of all kinds, providing them with valuable
educational outcomes.

CLIL courses cover a wide range of subjects and age groups, as illustrated by Coyle et al.
(2010: 18-22). For primary school students (ages 5-12), there are examples like a module on
climate change aimed at building confidence, which involves 15 hours of class-based
communication with students from another country. Teachers use CLIL-designed materials
and networking systems for this approach. Another example focuses on developing key
concepts and learner autonomy through subject-based learning in home economics, requiring
40 hours of instruction. Activities are developed using CLIL models and bilingual materials,
with collaboration between subject and language teachers. For secondary school students
(ages 12-19), there are interdisciplinary approaches, such as a set of subjects from the natural
sciences, preparing learners for more in-depth CLIL education. Here, subject and language
teachers collaborate closely, following an integrated curriculum.

At the secondary level, logistical considerations become more pronounced, as seen in the first
two examples. One approach involves dual-school education, where schools in different
countries collaborate to teach a specific course or module using Voice over Internet Protocol
(VoIP) technologies like Skype, with the CLIL language being an additional language in both
countries. Another approach is bilingual education, where learners study a significant part of
the curriculum through the CLIL language for several years, aiming to achieve content-
learning goals and advanced language skills. Additionally, interdisciplinary module
approaches are utilized, where subjects like environmental science or citizenship are taught
through CLIL, involving teachers from various disciplines. Language-based projects, led
primarily by language teachers, focus on authentic content learning and communication
through the CLIL language, often in international partnerships. Lastly, specific-domain
vocational CLIL enables learners to develop competence in the CLIL language for task-based
functions like customer service or information processing, with content and language teachers
working together. This model aligns closely with the adjunct model used in CBI programs,
emphasizing a tight integration of language and content teaching and learning.

Procedure

Because CBI and CLIL are approaches rather than methods, they don't prescribe specific
techniques or lesson procedures. Instead, they adapt existing teaching procedures based on
whether the focus is on content or language. In a content-driven approach, procedures
commonly used to teach subject matter in content classes are employed, adjusting them as
needed for learners' language proficiency levels. Conversely, in a language-driven approach,
techniques typically used in language courses, such as communicative or text-based
approaches, might be utilized. This flexibility allows educators to tailor their instructional
methods to best suit the goals and needs of their students within the context of CBI or CLIL.

Conclusion

Content-based approaches in language teaching have gained popularity since the 1980s, while
CLIL-based methods have seen a surge in Europe since the late 1990s. However,
implementing these approaches poses challenges for both teachers and learners. Critics argue
that language teachers may lack the training to effectively teach content subjects, and team-
teaching arrangements could be cumbersome. Similarly, CLIL teachers may require
substantial preparation and ongoing support. Despite these challenges, proponents believe that
both approaches offer significant advantages over traditional methods. Nonetheless, research
on CLIL's effectiveness remains inconclusive, with some studies suggesting success in certain
contexts but not others. As researchers continue to investigate instructional strategies and
learning outcomes in CBI and CLIL classrooms, the expansion of these approaches is
anticipated to persist globally.