1.introduction of BMS

1.
0: Introduction to the specialization
Welcome to the specialization!

Welcome to Algorithms for Battery Management Systems!
Batteries power our modern lives
Dr. Gregory L. Plett University of Colorado Colorado Springs Algorithms for Battery Management Systems | Welcome! 1 of 7
1.0: Introduction to the specialization
What is a battery management system?

Batteries must be managed properly by electronics, software:
Protect the application user
Protect the battery pack itself
Maximize the performance (power and energy) delivered by the battery
Maximize the service life of the battery pack itself
Algorithms are computer methods designed to accomplish a specific task
This specialization is all about computer methods—implemented in

specialized electronics—that protect the user and the battery pack, and
optimize a tradeoff between performance and service life of the battery
What do we cover in this specialization?

This specialization is divided into five courses:
Introduction to battery management systems
Equivalent-circuit cell model simulation
Battery state-of-charge (SOC) estimation
Battery state-of-health (SOH) estimation
Battery-pack balancing and power estimation
An honors track is available, to gain greater
insights and skills
Am I a good fit for this specialization?

You are a good fit for this specialization if you have:
A Bachelor’s degree in Electrical, Computer, or Mechanical
Engineering, or
A B.S. degree with undergraduate-level competency in the following areas:
Math: Differential and integral calculus, operations with vectors and matrices
(mechanics of linear algebra), and basic differential equations
Engineering: Linear circuits (modeling resistors, capacitors, and sources)
Programming: MATLAB, Octave, or similar scientific program environment
There is a quiz this week testing prerequisite knowledge: If you do well on the quiz,
you have the background to do well in the specialization
Is there a textbook?
If you wish for more permanent

and in-depth resources for the
materials I will talk about in this
specialization, two optional
textbooks may be purchased
from Artech House Publishers
Again, welcome!
Again, I am pleased to welcome you to this specialization!
You are going to learn valuable state-of-the-art skills in all the
primary algorithm tasks required by a battery management system
Moreover, you will be able to apply them by implementing them for different
battery-application domains
Credits
Credits for photos on slide 1
All photos are licensed [CC BY 2.0
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)]
Phone: By Hazma Butt, credits to site
http://www.buynothingnew.org/2017/06/sole-treadmill-reviews.html
Electric vehicle: By Automobile Italia,
https://www.flickr.com/photos/automobileitalia/16107441688
Windmill and grid: By Victor Semionov,
https://www.flickr.com/photos/vsemionov/9466995665/in/dateposted/
1.1.1: Welcome to the course!
Welcome to the course!
key on: initialize

meas. voltage estimate estimate balance compute
current state of state of power
Welcome to Introduction to Battery Management Systems! temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
loop once each measurement interval while pack is active
This course is the first in a specialization that investigates the

proper management and control of battery packs, usually comprising many cells
The methods and algorithms we discuss

would typically be implemented by a
battery-management system or BMS
A BMS comprises purpose-built
electronics plus custom designed
algorithms (computer methods): it is an
embedded system
Dr. Gregory L. Plett University of Colorado Colorado Springs Introduction to Battery Management Systems | Battery Boot Camp 1 of 10
What must a BMS do?
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The primary functions of a BMS are to: temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Protect human safety of device’s operator:

Detect unsafe operating conditions and respond
Protect cells of battery from damage in abuse/failure cases
Prolong life of battery (normal operating cases)
Maintain battery in a state in which it can fulfill its functional design requirements
Inform the application controller how to make the best use of the pack right now
(e.g., by providing power limits), control charger, etc.
When do I need a BMS?

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All lithium-ion battery packs require at least a minimal BMS temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
for safety: unmanaged cells can catch fire and explode!

However, there is a cost associated with battery management, so not all
battery-powered applications implement all features
Your battery is “cheap enough” if you can’t remember the last time you replaced it
Larger battery packs represent greater investment, and motivate better battery
management
This specialization focuses on large battery packs although the methods you will
learn are quite general
Vehicle applications justifying complexity
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Vehicular applications include: temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Hybrid-electric vehicle (HEV): Motive

power provided by battery plus at least
one other source (e.g., gasoline engine),
essentially zero all-electric vehicle range
Plug-in hybrid-electric vehicle (PHEV):

Larger battery than HEV allows some
all-electric range under certain operating
conditions
Vehicle applications justifying complexity
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Vehicular applications include: temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Extended-Range Electric Vehicle

(E-REV): Larger battery than PHEV
allows some all-electric range under
full-load conditions.
Electric Vehicle (EV), a.k.a.

Battery-Electric Vehicle (BEV): Battery
provides only motive power.
Other applications justifying complexity

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All of these vehicle types employ battery packs that are temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
“large,” “high voltage,” and “high current”

Some distinctions in design, which we will detail when necessary
Commonalities more significant than differences; when distinctions aren’t
important, we refer to the whole class as xEV
Another large-scale application that justifies advanced battery management is for
grid-storage and backup
What topics will we study in this course?
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temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
In this course, we will study: loop once each measurement interval while pack is active
Battery terminology and composition

How lithium-ion cells are made and how they work
The primary high-level functions of a BMS
BMS electronics and algorithm requirements
Course prerequisites were introduced in Lesson 1.0
A prerequisite quiz is provided for you to be able to judge your
level of preparedness
What skills will you gain in this course?
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After completing the course, you’ll be able to:

Match terminology to a list of definitions

Identify major components of lithium-ion cell and their purpose

List the major functions provided by a battery-management
system (BMS) and state their purpose
Understand how a BMS “measures” current, temperature, and
isolation, and how it controls contactors
Identify electronic components that can provide protection and
specify a minimum set of protections needed
Compute stored energy in a battery pack
List the manufacturing steps of different types of lithium-ion cells
and possible failure modes
For further study

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In this course, we will study

topics covered in chapters 1 of
both Battery Management
Systems, Vol. 1, Battery
Modeling and Vol. 2,
Equivalent-Circuit Methods,
from Artech House
For further study, you can
confer these optional resources
Credits
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Credits for photos in this lesson


BMS on slide 1: Jacob Alder, Utah State University, used with his
permission
Toyota Prius photo on slide 4: By Soknet Soknet, CC-BY-2.0
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Cropped from
https://www.flickr.com/photos/soknet/3561134120/in/dateposted/
Ford CMAX ENERGI on slide 4: By Mariordo (Mario Roberto Durán Ortiz) (Own work) [CC
BY-SA 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)], via Wikimedia
Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
ACMax_Energi_04_2015_SFO_2364.JPG)
Vehicle photos on slide 5: By Kārlis Dambrāns, and Niels de Wit, CC-BY-2.0
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Cropped from
https://www.flickr.com/photos/janitors/7591318464 and
https://www.flickr.com/photos/nielsautos/11322176214.
1.1.2: Introducing important battery terminology
Introducing important battery terminology
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This week, we study topics concerning how electrochemical temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
(battery) cells work, as fundamental preparation for knowing

how to use them optimally in an application
This lesson very quickly covers a lot of background re. battery terminology
Later lessons will discuss battery function, and general application
Even later (especially in the second course of the specialization), we will cover
much more depth in some mathematical understanding of how cells work, and
greater detail in particular areas
Cells
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Cells are the smallest individual electrochemical unit, and temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
deliver a voltage that depends on the cell chemistry

There are primary (single use) and secondary
(rechargeable) cells
A cell is different from a battery, but many people
(including me at times!) use the term “battery” to
describe any electrochemical energy source,
even if it is a single cell, and this can lead to
confusion
Batteries
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Batteries and battery packs are made up from groups of cells temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
These cells can be wired together in series,

in parallel, or in some combination of both
Sometimes they are packaged in a single
physical unit
For example, automotive 12 V lead-acid Cell
batteries comprise six 2 V cells in series
Other times, the connections are external to
the cells
We use schematic symbols to represent cells and batteries Battery
in a circuit diagram.
Nominal voltage and capacity
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Cell (nominal) voltage depends on the combination of active temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
chemicals used in the cell.

For many nickel-based cells, it is 1 2 V (e.g., NiCad, NiMH)
For many lithium-based cells, this is over 3 V
Nominal voltage is often printed on the cell package
Nominal voltage is different from cell voltage under load—it
is more of an average or typical voltage
Cell (nominal) capacity specifies the quantity of charge, in ampere hours (Ah) or
milliampere hours (mAh), that the cell is rated to hold
C rate
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The C rate is a relative measure of cell electrical current temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
It is the constant-current charge or discharge rate that the cell

can sustain for one hour
A 20 Ah cell should be able to deliver 20 A (“1C”) for 1 h or
2 A (“C/10”) for about 10 h (but, the relationship is not
strictly linear)
If the cell is discharged at a 10C rate, it will be completely
discharged in about six minutes
Example: The 1C rate of the example to the right is 1 9 A
Energy and power

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A cell stores energy in electrochemical form, which it can later temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
release to do work
The total energy storage capacity of a cell is roughly its
nominal voltage multiplied by its nominal capacity (mWh,
Wh, or kWh)
Example: The nominal energy storage capacity of the
example to the right is 3 7 V 1 9 Ah 7 03 Wh
The energy release rate is the cell’s instantaneous power (mW, W, or kW)
Cells connected in series
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When cells are connected in series, the battery voltage is the temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
sum of the individual cell voltages

However, battery capacity is equal to individual cell capacity since the
same electrical current passes through all of the cells (charging and
discharging all cells at the same rate)
Example: A battery constructed from three 3 V, 20 Ah cells in series
will have:
A nominal voltage of 3V 9V
A nominal capacity of 20 Ah 20 Ah
A nominal energy capacity of 3 V 20 Ah 180 Wh
Cells connected in parallel
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When cells are connected in parallel, the battery voltage is temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
equal to the cells’ voltage

However, battery capacity is the sum of the cells’ capacities, since the battery
current is the sum of all the cell currents
Example: A battery constructed from five 3 V, 20 Ah
cells in parallel will have:
A nominal voltage of 3V 3V
A nominal capacity of 20 Ah 100 Ah
A nominal energy capacity of
3 V 20 Ah 300 Wh
Summary
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A cell is the smallest electrochemical storage unit loop once each measurement interval while pack is active
Primary cells are not rechargeable; secondary cells are rechargeable

Cells have nominal (i.e., typical) voltage and charge-storage capacities
The C rate is a way of normalizing electrical current to cell nominal capacity
Cells store energy that can be released to do work: rate of energy release is power
Batteries are made by connecting cells in series and/or parallel
We can compute battery nominal voltage, nominal capacity, and nominal energy
ratings by knowing how the cells are connected
Credits
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Lead-acid battery on slide 3: By Thomas Wydra (Own work (Original text: Eigene
Aufnahme)) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Starterbatterie.jpg
VHBW cell on slides 4–6: Raimond Spekking (own work) [CC BY-SA 4.0
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)], via Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
VHBW_for_HB5V1HV_Replacement_Li-Ion_Battery-7119.jpg
1.1.3: What are the parts of an electrochemical cell?
Electrochemical versus lithium-ion cells
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In this lesson, you will learn the primary functional temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
components of an electrochemical cell

I will make a distinction in this specialization between standard (traditional)
electrochemical cells and lithium-ion cells, since they work a little differently
The focus of the specialization is on managing lithium-ion cells; however, you will
need a foundational understanding of standard electrochemical cells to do so
Lithium-ion cells have all the component parts introduced here as well
Next week, we our focus will shift to understanding lithium-ion cells in specific
Functional components of an electrochemical cell
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The drawing below shows a schematic cross-section of an temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
electrochemical cell (the structure of a lithium-ion cell is

shown, but electrochemical cells have the same components):
Negative electrode Positive electrode
Negative electrode
Current collector
Current collector
Positive electrode
Separator
Electrolyte
Separator
Current collectors
We will talk about these components in the next slides
The function of the negative electrode

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In an electrochemical cell, the negative electrode is often a temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
metal or an alloy or hydrogen (lead metal or paste for PbA)

During discharge, it gives up electrons Negative electrode
Electron movement:
to external circuit, is oxidized (OIL:
on discharge
“Oxidation is Loss (of electrons)”)
Separator
During charge, accepts electrons from

external circuit, is reduced (RIG:
on charge
“Reduction is Gain (of electrons)”)
During discharge, it is the anode
Technically, during charge it is the cathode, but most people still call it the anode
The function of the positive electrode
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In an electrochemical cell, the positive electrode is often a temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
metallic oxide, sulfide, or oxygen (lead oxide for PbA)

Positive electrode
Electron movement:
During discharge, accepts on discharge
electrons from circuit, is reduced
Separator
During charge, gives up electrons
to external circuit, is oxidized
on charge
During discharge, it is the cathode

Technically, during charge it is the anode, but most people still call it the cathode
The function of the electrolyte
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As electrons move in the external circuit, compensating ions

must move internal to the cell

Cations are ions with net positive charge: during discharge

they move through the electrolyte toward the positive electrode Electrolyte
Anions are ions with net negative charge: during discharge they
move through the electrolyte toward the negative electrode
The electrolyte provides the medium for internal ion charge
transfer between the electrodes (sulfuric acid for PbA)
The electrolyte is typically a solvent containing dissolved
chemicals—an acid, base, or salt—providing ionic conductivity
It must be an electronic insulator to avoid self discharge
The functions of the separator & current collectors

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The separator electrically isolates the positive and negative temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
electrodes to avoid short circuit and self discharge of the cell

Often made from glass mat or fiber, or polyethylene, or a polymer
Current collector
Current collector
Separator
Since electrodes are often made from powders, current collectors are metal foils—to
which electrodes are adhered—that conduct electrical current to cell terminals
Some example electrochemical cells
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The table below shows components for commonly used temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
electrochemical cells:
Electrochemistry Negative Positive Electrolyte Nominal

electrode electrode voltage
Lead acid Pb PbO2 H2 SO4 2 1V
Dry cell Zn MnO2 ZnCl2 1 6V
Alkaline Zn MnO2 KOH 1 5V
Nickel cadmium Cd NiOOH KOH 1 35 V
Nickel zinc Zn NiOOH KOH 1 73 V
Zinc air Zn O2 KOH 1 65 V
Summary
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The major functional components of an electrochemical cell temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
are: the negative and positive electrodes, the electrolyte, the

separator, and the current collectors
The negative electrode sources electrons on discharge; sinks electrons on charge
The positive electrode sinks electrons on discharge; sources electrons on charge
The electrolyte provides a medium for ion transport internal to the cell
The separator prevents internal short circuit
The current collectors conduct electronic current to the cell terminals
As an example: a lead-acid cell has a lead negative electrode, lead oxide positive
electrode, sulfuric acid electrolyte, and often a glass mat separator
1.1.4: How does an electrochemical cell store and release energy?
Potential energy
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To understand how electrochemical cells store and release temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
energy, we need to understand the idea of potential energy

The skateboard picture illustrates storing
and releasing gravitational potential
energy—a process with which we are all
very familiar
Electrochemical cells instead store
electrochemical potential energy, which
they can later release to do work
The discharge process: Potentials
key on: initialize

meas. voltage estimate estimate compute
Negative electrode Positive electrode current
temperature
state of
charge (SOC)
state of
health (SOH)
balance
cells
power
limits

Separator
Electron movement Electron movement

on discharge on discharge
Cation movement on discharge
Electrochemical potential energy at negative electrode favors a chemical process

that releases electrons into external circuit and cations into electrolyte
Electrochemical potential at positive electrode favors a chemical process that
accepts both electrons from external circuit and cations from electrolyte
The discharge process: Voltage and work

key on: initialize

temperature
state of
charge (SOC)
state of
health (SOH)
balance
cells
power
limits

Separator

Resulting electrical pressure (potential difference) between terminals is cell voltage

Work is performed when external circuit is completed, converting stored
electrochemical potential energy into electrical energy
Rechargeable cells
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In primary cells, this electrochemical reaction is not reversible temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
During discharge, the chemical compounds are changed

permanently and electrical energy is released until the original compounds are
completely exhausted
Primary cells can be used only once
In secondary (rechargeable) cells, this electrochemical reaction is reversible
The original chemical compounds can be reconstituted by the application of an
electrical potential between the electrodes, injecting energy into the cell
Such cells can be discharged and recharged many times
Life is limited by degradation processes, not by primary chemical reaction
The charge process
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temperature
state of
charge (SOC)
state of
health (SOH)
balance
cells
power
limits

Separator

on charge on charge
Cation movement on charge
During charge, cations move from positive to negative electrode through electrolyte;
electrons move from positive to negative electrode through external circuit.
The energy “pumped” into the cell transforms the active chemicals back to their
original state.
Beware overcharge and undercharge!

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Manufacturers publish safe operating voltage limits for their cells

Overcharging or overdischarging can cause irreversible damage, fire, or explosion!
Example: If a PbA battery is not maintained at a high state-of-charge, lead sulfate
deposits on both electrodes will begin to form hard crystals, which cannot
be reconverted by a standard fixed-voltage (13 6 V) battery charger.
CC/CV and CP/CV charging modes
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Terminal voltage versus time State of charge versus time current state of state of power
100 temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
4.15 CC/CV CC/CV
CP/CV CP/CV loop once each measurement interval while pack is active
90
4.1
Voltage (V)
SOC (%)
80
4.05
70
Cells are often first
4
60
charged with either
3.95 50
constant-current or
constant-power
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time (s) Time (s)
0 CC/CV
Cell current versus time
0
CC/CV
Cell power versus time
When maximum
−2
CP/CV
−10
CP/CV
permitted cell
voltage is reached,
Current (A)
Power (W)
−4
the cell is held at

−20
−6
−8
−30
that voltage until it
−10
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
−40
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
is fully charged
Time (s) Time (s)
Summary
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Battery cells store energy as electrochemical potential energy temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Whenever an external circuit is completed, the electrochemical

potential energy is converted to electrical energy
The negative electrode supplies electrons to the circuit and the positive electrode
sinks electrons, powering the load and discharging the battery cell
Whenever a charger provides electrical energy to the cell, that energy is stored as
electrochemical potential energy, to be used at a later date
Manufacturer voltage limits must be carefully maintained to ensure safety, longevity
Constant-current/constant-voltage and constant-power/constant-voltage are both
commonly used charging methods
Credits
key on: initialize

Skateboard on slide 1: By Anacristinanorato (own work) [CC

BY-SA 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)],

via Wikimedia Commons, cropped from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Skate_park.png
Phone battery on slide 6: By Mpt-matthew (own work) [CC
via Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:
Expanded_lithium-ion_polymer_battery_from_an_Apple_iPhone_3GS.jpg
Potential energy
key on: initialize

To understand how electrochemical cells store and release temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
energy, we need to understand the idea of potential energy

The skateboard picture illustrates storing
and releasing gravitational potential
energy—a process with which we are all
very familiar
Electrochemical cells instead store
electrochemical potential energy, which
they can later release to do work
The discharge process: Potentials
key on: initialize

temperature
state of
charge (SOC)
state of
health (SOH)
balance
cells
power
limits

Separator

Electrochemical potential energy at negative electrode favors a chemical process

that releases electrons into external circuit and cations into electrolyte
Electrochemical potential at positive electrode favors a chemical process that
accepts both electrons from external circuit and cations from electrolyte
The discharge process: Voltage and work

key on: initialize

temperature
state of
charge (SOC)
state of
health (SOH)
balance
cells
power
limits

Separator

Resulting electrical pressure (potential difference) between terminals is cell voltage

Work is performed when external circuit is completed, converting stored
electrochemical potential energy into electrical energy
Rechargeable cells
key on: initialize

In primary cells, this electrochemical reaction is not reversible temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
During discharge, the chemical compounds are changed

permanently and electrical energy is released until the original compounds are
completely exhausted
Primary cells can be used only once
In secondary (rechargeable) cells, this electrochemical reaction is reversible
The original chemical compounds can be reconstituted by the application of an
electrical potential between the electrodes, injecting energy into the cell
Such cells can be discharged and recharged many times
Life is limited by degradation processes, not by primary chemical reaction
The charge process
key on: initialize

temperature
state of
charge (SOC)
state of
health (SOH)
balance
cells
power
limits

Separator

on charge on charge
Cation movement on charge
During charge, cations move from positive to negative electrode through electrolyte;
electrons move from positive to negative electrode through external circuit.
The energy “pumped” into the cell transforms the active chemicals back to their
original state.
Beware overcharge and undercharge!

key on: initialize

Manufacturers publish safe operating voltage limits for their cells

Overcharging or overdischarging can cause irreversible damage, fire, or explosion!
Example: If a PbA battery is not maintained at a high state-of-charge, lead sulfate
deposits on both electrodes will begin to form hard crystals, which cannot
be reconverted by a standard fixed-voltage (13 6 V) battery charger.
CC/CV and CP/CV charging modes
key on: initialize

Terminal voltage versus time State of charge versus time current state of state of power
100 temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
4.15 CC/CV CC/CV
CP/CV CP/CV loop once each measurement interval while pack is active
90
4.1
Voltage (V)
SOC (%)
80
4.05
70
Cells are often first
4
60
charged with either
3.95 50
constant-current or
constant-power
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time (s) Time (s)
0 CC/CV
Cell current versus time
0
CC/CV
Cell power versus time
When maximum
−2
CP/CV
−10
CP/CV
permitted cell
voltage is reached,
Current (A)
Power (W)
−4
the cell is held at

−20
−6
−8
−30
that voltage until it
−10
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
−40
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
is fully charged
Time (s) Time (s)
Summary
key on: initialize

Battery cells store energy as electrochemical potential energy temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Whenever an external circuit is completed, the electrochemical

potential energy is converted to electrical energy
The negative electrode supplies electrons to the circuit and the positive electrode
sinks electrons, powering the load and discharging the battery cell
Whenever a charger provides electrical energy to the cell, that energy is stored as
electrochemical potential energy, to be used at a later date
Manufacturer voltage limits must be carefully maintained to ensure safety, longevity
Constant-current/constant-voltage and constant-power/constant-voltage are both
commonly used charging methods
Credits
key on: initialize

Skateboard on slide 1: By Anacristinanorato (own work) [CC


via Wikimedia Commons, cropped from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Skate_park.png
Phone battery on slide 6: By Mpt-matthew (own work) [CC
via Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:
1.1.5: What are the best materials to use in an electrochemical cell?
Designing a cell’s electrochemistry
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Battery cell electrochemistry is designed to optimize a number

of factors
We desire high specific energy and/or energy density (energy per mass and/or
energy per volume)
We desire high specific power and/or power density
We also desire low cost, long life, low toxicity, high recyclability, etc.
Energy and power depend on overall maximum cell voltage and current, and
ultimately all of these factors depend directly on the specific materials used in the
electrodes and electrolyte
Dr. Gregory L. Plett j University of Colorado Colorado Springs Introduction to Battery Management Systems | Battery Boot Camp j 1 of 10
Electrode potential
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The propensity of one material to gain or lose electrons in

relation to another material is known as its electrode potential

Compounds with negative electrode potential are used for negative electrodes, and
those with positive electrode potential for positive electrodes
The larger the difference between the electrode potentials of the two electrodes, the
greater the voltage of the cell and the greater the amount of energy that can be
produced by the cell
Can this be tuned arbitrarily? No! All we have to work with are the elements
available in nature
This is what we have to work with

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Periodic table shows the elements we have to work with

Relative reducing and Groups

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
oxidizing capabilities of the

Periods
1 1 Atomic # 2 2
1 H
Hydrogen
Symbol
Name
C Solid
Metalloids
Nonmetals He
Helium
1.00794 Atomic weight Other Noble 4.002602
Halogens
3 2 4 2 Hg Liquid nonmetals gases 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 2 10 2
elements indicated by
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 Li
Lithium
Be
Beryllium Metals
B
Boron
C
Carbon
N
Nitrogen
O
Oxygen
F
Fluorine
Ne
Neon
6.941 9.012182 H Gas 10.811 12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.9984032 20.1797
2 2 Alkali Alkali Lanthanoids Transition Post− 2 2 2 2 2 2
11 8 12 8 13 14 15 16 17 18
metals earth metals transition 8 8 8 8 8 8
arrow below table

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sodium Magnesium
Rf Unknown metals Actinoids metals Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
22.9897693 24.3050 State at room temperature 26.9815386 28.0855 30.973762 32.065 35.453 39.948
19 2 20 2 21 2 22 2 23 2 24 2 25 2 26 2 27 2 28 2 29 2 30 2 31 2 32 2 33 2 34 2 35 2 36 2
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Strong reducing elements

8 8 9 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39.0983 40.078 44.955912 47.867 50.9415 51.9961 54.938045 55.845 58.933195 58.6934 63.546 65.38 69.723 72.64 74.92160 78.96 79.904 83.798
37 2 38 2 39 2 40 2 41 2 42 2 43 2 44 2 45 2 46 2 47 2 48 2 49 2 50 2 51 2 52 2 53 2 54 2
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
8 8 9 10 12 13 13 14 16 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
Rubidium 1 Strontium 2 Yttrium 2 Zirconium 2 Niobium 1 Molybdenum 1 Technetium 2 Ruthenium 1 Rhodium 1 Palladium Silver 1 Cadmium 2 Indium 3 Tin 4 Antimony 5 Tellurium 6 Iodine 7 Xenon 8
grouped on left, strong

85.4678 87.62 88.90585 91.224 92.90638 95.96 (98) 101.07 102.90550 106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.90447 131.293
55 2 56 2 72 2 73 2 74 2 75 2 76 2 77 2 78 2 79 2 80 2 81 2 82 2 83 2 84 2 85 2 86 2
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
6 Cs Ba 57 − 71 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
18 18 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
Cesium 8 Barium 8 Hafnium 10 Tantalum 11 Tungsten 12 Rhenium 13 Osmium 14 Iridium 15 Platinum 17 Gold 18 Mercury 18 Thallium 18 Lead 18 Bismuth 18 Polonium 18 Astatine 18 Radon 18
132.90545 1 137.327 2 178.49 2 180.94788 2 183.84 2 186.207 2 190.23 2 192.217 2 195.084 1 196.9665691 200.59 2 204.3833 3 207.2 4 208.98040 5 (209) 6 (210) 7 (222) 8
oxidizing elements grouped

87 2 88 2 104 2 105 2 106 2 107 2 108 2 109 2 110 2 111 2 112 2 113 2 114 2 115 2 116 2 117 2 118 2
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
7 Fr Ra 89 − 103 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo

18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
Francium 18 Radium 18 Rutherfordium 32 Dubnium 32 Seaborgium 32 Bohrium 32 Hassium 32 Meitnerium 32 Darmstadtium 32 Roentgenium32 Copernicium 32 Ununtrium 32 Flerovium 32 Ununpentium 32 Livermorium 32 Ununseptium 32 Ununoctium 32
(223) 8 (226) 8 (265) 10 (268) 11 (271) 12 (272) 13 (277) 14 (276) 15 (281) 17 (280) 18 (285) 18 (284) 18 (289) 18 (288) 18 (293) 18 (294) 18 (294) 18
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
on right
For elements with no stable isotopes, the mass number of the isotope with the longest half−life is in parentheses.
57 2 58 2 59 2 60 2 61 2 62 2 63 2 64 2 65 2 66 2 67 2 68 2 69 2 70 2 71 2
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
La 18 Ce 18 Pr 18 Nd 18 Pm 18 Sm 18 Eu 18 Gd 18 Tb 18 Dy 18 Ho 18 Er 18 Tm 18 Yb 18 Lu 18
Need elements from far left

18 19 21 22 23 24 25 25 27 28 29 30 31 32 32
Lanthanum 9 Cerium 9 Praseodymium 8 Neodymium 8 Promethium 8 Samarium 8 Europium 8 Gadolinium 9 Terbium 8 Dysprosium 8 Holmium 8 Erbium 8 Thulium 8 Ytterbium 8 Lutetium 9
138.90547 2 140.116 2 140.90765 2 144.242 2 (145) 2 150.36 2 151.964 2 157.25 2 158.92535 2 162.500 2 164.93032 2 167.259 2 168.93421 2 173.054 2 174.9668 2
89 2 90 2 91 2 92 2 93 2 94 2 95 2 96 2 97 2 98 2 99 2 100 2 101 2 102 2 103 2
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
Ac 18
32 Th 18
32 Pa 18
32 U 18
32 Np 18
32 Pu 18
32 Am 18
32 Cm 18
32 Bk 18
32 Cf 18
32 Es 18
32 Fm 18
32 Md 18
32 No 18
32 Lr 18
32
Actinium 18 Thorium 18 Protactinium 20 Uranium 21 Neptunium 22 Plutonium 24 Americium 25 Curium 25 Berkelium 27 Californium 28 Einsteinium 29 Fermium 30 Mendelevium 31 Nobelium 32 Lawrencium 32
(227) 9 232.0381 102 231.03588 92 238.02891 29 (237) 9 (244) 8 (243) 8 (247) 9 (247) 8 (251) 8 (252) 8 (257) 8 (258) 8 (259) 8 (262) 9
and far right sides of table

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Reducing elements Oxidizing elements
Understanding each periodic-table entry
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The number at the top left of each box in the table is atomic
number of the element (number of protons in atom’s nucleus)

The element’s symbol is listed under its atomic number
Groups
Symbols are color coded in this periodic table to indicate
whether element is solid, liquid, or gas at room temperature 1 2
Periods

1 1 Atomic #
Full element name is listed under element’s symbol 1 H

Hydrogen
Symbol
Name
Finally, mean atomic weight is listed under element name 1.00794
3 2
Atomic weight
4 2
(where atomic weight of proton or neutron equals 1 g mol 1 )

1 2
2 Li
Lithium
Be
Beryllium
List of numbers in top right of box indicate number of

6.941
11 2
8
9.012182
12 2
8
electrons in each electron shell (each shell corresponds to 3 Na Mg

1 2
Sodium Magnesium
22.9897693 24.3050
possible set of electron energy levels)
Organization of the periodic table
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The background color of each box indicates whether element

is a metal or nonmetal (if so, what kind), or a metalloid

The rows of the table are called periods Groups
All elements in any period have the same number of 1 2
electron shells
Periods
1 1 Atomic #
Period number equals number of electron shells 1 H

Hydrogen
Symbol
Name
1.00794 Atomic weight
The columns of the table are called groups 3 2 4 2

1 2
2 Li Be
All elements in any group (generally) have the same
Lithium Beryllium
6.941 9.012182
2 2
number of valence electrons in their outer valence shell
11 8 12 8
3 Na Mg
1 2
Sodium Magnesium
(but, transition metals are a little strange) 22.9897693 24.3050
Why number of valence electrons is important

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Elements within each individual group (column) have same

number of valence electrons (except transition metals)

Since number of valence electrons determines how the
element reacts with others, those
within a particular group tend to
have similar chemical properties
When the outer electron shell is full, +3 +6 +27
as in the noble gases, there are no

Lithium: Carbon:
“free” electrons available to take 1 valence 4 valence
part in chemical reactions electron electrons
Cobalt: 2 valence electrons
Hence the noble gases are chemically non-reactive or inert
Valence
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The most reactive elements are at the left and right of table
Alkali metals, group 1, have only one valence electron

Halogens, group 17, are short only one valence electron

Atoms having one or two valence electrons more than a closed shell are highly
reactive because the extra electrons are easily removed to form positive ions
Reducing agents in left columns have surplus of valence-shell electrons, which
they donate in a redox reaction, becoming oxidized
Atoms having one or two valence electrons fewer than a closed shell are also highly
reactive because of a tendency either to gain the missing electrons and form
negative ions, or to share electrons and form covalent bonds
Oxidizing agents in right columns have a deficit of valence-shell electrons and
accept electrons in a redox reaction, becoming reduced
Electrochemical series
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The atom’s energy level is changed by gaining or losing

electrons, and it is this energy that is released as electrical

energy during discharge, or absorbed during charge (of a secondary battery)
The difference in electrical potential Strengths of oxidizing and reducing agents
energy before and after a reaction can Reduction half-reaction Potential E 0 (V)
be measured as a voltage difference LiC
.aq/
Ce ) Li.s/ 3.04
The electrochemical series is a list or NaC.aq/
Ce ) Na.s/ 2.71
table of metallic elements or ions C C 2e
Zn2.aq ) Zn.s/ 0.76
/
arranged according to their electrode 2HC C 2e ) H2 0.00
half-reaction potentials Cu2C C 2e
.aq/
) Cu.s/ 0.34
(A short example table to the right) F2.g/ C 2e ) 2F.aq/ 2.87
Electrochemical series (cont)

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The values for the table entries are reduction potentials:

Lithium at the top of the list has the most negative number,
indicating that it is the strongest reducing agent
Fluorine is the strongest oxidizing Strengths of oxidizing and reducing agents
agent, having the largest positive value Reduction half-reaction Potential E 0 (V)
for standard potential
LiC C e ) Li.s/ 3.04
If we were to create a cell combining .aq/
C
Na.aq/ C e ) Na.s/ 2.71
the top and bottom reactions, the cell C C 2e ) Zn
Zn2.aq 0.76
voltage would be 5:91 V (but so far we / .s/
C
2H C 2e ) H2 0.00
cannot, since there is no known 2C
electrolyte that will withstand that Cu .aq/
C 2e ) Cu .s/ 0.34
voltage without decomposing) F2.g/ C 2e ) 2F.aq/ 2.87
Summary
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For high specific energy and power, we desire light elements

(near the top of the periodic table)

For high voltage, we want strong oxidizing and reducing agents paired together,
having an excess and a deficiency of valence electrons (near left and right sides of
the periodic table)
Other considerations include: availability of an electrolyte to support the half-cell
reactions, low cost, long life, low toxicity, high recyclability, etc.
1.1.6: Example electrochemical (including lead-acid) and nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) cells
Introducing the Daniell Cell
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In this lesson, we look at the operation of three example cells temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
We start with the so-called Daniell cell which is perhaps the

simplest to understand
Each “half cell” consists of a solid metal
electrode submerged in an electrolyte solution
In the negative electrode, the electrolyte is
ZnSO , which dissociates into Zn plus SO
when dissolved in water
In the positive electrode, the electrolyte is
CuSO , which dissociates into Cu plus SO
when dissolved in water
Discharging a Daniell Cell
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On discharge, the zinc electrode dissolves, releasing Zn temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
into the electrolyte

The positive electrode consumes Cu (copper
is plated onto the copper electrode)
This produces a temporary deficiency of SO
in the negative-electrode region and a surplus
in the positive-electrode region
Thus, SO diffuses through the porous disk
from the positive-electrode region to the
negative-electrode region to compensate
The opposite process happens on charge
Voltage of a Daniell Cell

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At the negative electrode, we have the redox reaction temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Zn Zn, having standard potential 0 76 V

At the positive electrode, we have the redox
reaction Cu Cu, having standard
potential 0 34 V
Overall reaction: Zn Cu Zn Cu,
having standard potential
0 34 V 0 76 V 1 10 V
Note: “standard potentials” assume specific electrolyte concentrations, temperature
Therefore, the actual voltage varies somewhat from standard potential in practice
Lead-acid electrochemical cells
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A lead-acid cell comprises two lead-based plates and an temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
aqueous sulfuric-acid (H SO electrolyte

In the fully discharged state, both electrodes are PbSO
and the electrolyte is a dilute H SO Pb PbO2
When discharging, the negative-electrode reaction is 2− +
+ SO4 H 2−
Pb(s) SO (aq) PbSO (s) , and the positive- H SO4
2−
electrode reaction is PbO (s) SO (aq) H(aq) SO4
+
PbSO (s) H O H H
+
2−
The total reaction is Pb(s) PbO (s) H SO (aq) SO4 + SO4
2−
H
PbSO (s) H O
Opposite occurs when charging: when fully recharged, the negative electrode is Pb,
the positive electrode is PbO , electrolyte is a more concentrated solution of H SO
Lead-acid voltage
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The standard potential of the negative-electrode reaction temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
is 0 356 V and the standard potential of the reaction

at the positive electrode is 1 685 V
Therefore, the full cell has standard potential Pb PbO2
1 685 V 0 356 V 2 041 V
2− +
Voltage varies with concentration of the sulfuric acid H
+ SO4 H SO4
2−
(state of charge) and with temperature SO4

2−
Note that vehicle “12 V” lead-acid batteries comprise six H

+
H
+
individual lead-acid cells internally wired in series 2−

SO4 2−
+ SO4
H
Similarly, “6 V” motorcycle lead-acid batteries comprise
three individual lead-acid cells internally wired in series
Lead-acid charge/discharge protection

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Need to protect against overcharge: temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Electrolysis of water evolves H and O gasses

Electrolysis of other compounds in electrodes and
electrolyte can create poisonous gasses
Gasses cause bulging and deformation of sealed batteries
Need to protect against overdischarge:
Lead-sulphate crystals form which often cannot be
decomposed, causing capacity loss
In practice, should: limit depth of discharge; trickle charge
when charged but not in use to prevent leakage draining the
battery; use pulses to break up lead-dioxide crystals on
charge; trickle charge to equalize cells in series
Lead-acid battery construction
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Lead-acid batteries aren’t often built with solid lead plates temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Instead, the electrodes are usually constructed from a

lead-alloy grid (for strength) covered with a sponge-like
lead paste (to increase surface area, for higher power)
In “flooded” cells, the separator is a simple spacer and
the electrolyte is liquid
In “absorptive glass mat” (AGM) cells, the separator is a
glass mat saturated with a minimal amount of electrolyte
Gassing of AGM cells is not a concern due to minimal electrolyte: cell can be sealed
Silica can be added to electrolyte to make a gel: also allows for sealed construction
and less stratification of H SO concentrations (yields longer life but lower power)
Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) cells
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More recently new cell chemistries have been developed using temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
alternative chemical reactions to the traditional redox scheme

Metal hydride cells depend on ability of some metallic
alloys (“hydrides”) to absorb large amounts of hydrogen
(like a sponge), which can reversibly react in a battery
As we will see, lithium-ion cells work in a similar way
Such metals or alloys are used for the negative
electrodes; the positive electrode is nickel hydroxide
The electrolyte, which is a hydrogen-absorbent aqueous solution such as aqueous
potassium hydroxide, takes no part in the reaction but serves to transport the
hydrogen between the electrodes.
The NiMH negative electrode

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The “magic” of the NiMH cell is in its negative electrode, temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
which is a rare-earth hydrogen-absorbing metal alloy

Either of the “AB ” form where “A” can be lanthanum,
cerium, neodymium, praseodymium and “B” can be
nickel, cobalt, manganese, or aluminum
Or of the “AB ” form where “A” can be titanium or
vanadium and “B” can be zirconium or nickel, doped
with chromium, cobalt, iron, or manganese
Key point: hydrogen is absorbed into metal alloy without
changing its chemical formulation or structure
Very gentle when compared with standard redox reactions, leading to very long life
of NiMH cells
Calculating NiMH voltage
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Negative-electrode reaction M H MH where “M” temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
is the metal hydride and where the half-cell standard potential

is generally around 0 8 V (depending on the metal)
Positive-electrode (which is nickel hydroxide (Ni OH ) in NiMH) reaction is
Ni OH OH NiOOH H O , having a standard potential of 0 5V
Thus, the overall reaction is Ni OH M NiOOH MH, having a standard
potential 0 5V 0 8V 1 3V
Must guard against overcharge: Oxygen gas is evolved when positive electrode no
longer has Ni OH left to react with OH , but if charged slowly O diffuses,
recombines safely with H to form water
Must also guard against overdischarge: H gas is evolved
Summary
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We have seen examples of Daniell, lead-acid, and NiMH cells temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
In each case, we investigated the individual half-cell electrode

reactions and were able to predict an overall cell voltage
Despite many overall similarities, there were significant distinctions
The Daniell cell uses two different electrolytes
Lead-acid uses sponge lead paste spread on a lead-alloy grid to increase power
NiMH uses hydrogen-absorbing metal hydride for one electrode, extending life
While the BMS algorithms we study are general in nature, we will apply them
specifically to lithium-ion, which has distinctions from what we have seen so far
Therefore, our focus next week will be on understanding lithium-ion cells
Credits
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Daniell cell on slides 1–3: The original uploader was Ohiostandard,

CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)], via Wikimedia
Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.png
Battery charger on slide 6: By U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Franklin R. Ramos
[Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Westward_battery_charger.jpg
Lead-acid cutaway drawing on slide 7: By KVDP (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SLA_battery.png
Credits (continued)
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Additional credits for photos in this lesson

NiMH cells on slide 8: CC0 Pixabay license

(https://pixabay.com/en/service/terms),
https://pixabay.com/en/battery-energy-current-electrically-1071317/
Hydride structure on slide 9: By Graeme Bartlett (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hexagonal_Chromium_Hydride.jpg
1.1.7: Where from here?
Summary of this week
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At the end of every week, we quickly summarize progress temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
made during the week and preview upcoming topics

This week, we introduced the primary functions of a BMS
We looked at when a BMS is needed, and some example applications
We learned some important definitions for talking about cells and batteries and
how to design a battery pack to meet given requirements
We saw how a standard electrochemical battery cell works, including how it
produces a voltage and the dis/charge processes
We learned some overall concepts of how cells are designed
Finally, we studied some example electrochemical cells
Where from here?
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The focus of this specialization is on lithium-ion cells, which

work a little differently from standard electrochemical cells

Next week, we turn our attention to learning about Li-ion cells

Why would we be interested in them? What are
advantages?
How does their operational mechanism differ from standard
electrochemical cells?
What materials are used for current collectors, electrodes,
separator, electrolyte, in different types of Li-ion cells?
Finally, we consider whether the global lithium supply is
sufficient to meet possible future demand
Credits
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Direction arrow on slide 2: Pixabay license

(https://pixabay.com/en/service/license/),
https://pixabay.com/en/direction-away-forward-target-1019767/
1.2.1: Benefits of lithium-ion cells
Lithium-ion cell preview
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Last week, we spent most of our effort studying background temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
topics related to how battery cells work, in general

As concluding examples, we looked at the copper-zinc Daniell cell and lead-acid
batteries, both of which are standard electrochemical cells
We also talked about nickel-metal-hydride cells, for which the negative electrode
works on a different principle
Recall that the metal hydride absorbs hydrogen much like a sponge absorbs
water, without changing its structure or chemical composition
This is a far gentler process than a standard chemical reaction, and so NiMH
cells tend to have much longer lifetimes than lead-acid cells, for example
We will see that in lithium-ion cells, both electrodes work on this principle
Dr. Gregory L. Plett University of Colorado Colorado Springs Introduction to Battery Management Systems | How Lithium-ion Cells Work 1 of 5
Specific energy and energy density
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Specific energy and energy density measure the maximum temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
stored energy per unit weight or volume (respectively)

For a given weight, higher specific
energy stores more energy
For a given storage capacity, higher
specific energy cells are lighter
For a given volume, higher energy
density stores more energy
For a given storage capacity, higher
energy density cells are smaller
Lithium ion has higher energy density and specific energy than historic chemistries
Advantages of lithium ion

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They have higher energy density than most secondary cells temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Operate at higher voltages than other rechargeable cells,

typically about 3 7 V for lithium-ion vs. 1 2 V for NiMH or NiCd
Often a single cell can be used rather than multiple NiMH or NiCd cells
Lower self-discharge rate than other types of rechargeable cells
NiMH and NiCd cells can lose anywhere from 1–5 % of their charge per day, even
if they are not installed in a device
Lithium-ion cells will retain most of their charge even after months of storage
Long life due to gentler intercalation mechanism in each electrode
Disadvantages of lithium ion
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Lithium-ion batteries are (presently) more expensive than temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
similar capacity NiMH or NiCd batteries

Are more complex to manufacture, and are (presently) manufactured in much
smaller numbers than NiMH or NiCd batteries
Because high energy densities are obtained by using more reactive chemicals
They tend to be less stable and require special safety precautions
Need special circuitry to protect battery from damage due to over/undercharge
Caution: The quality of cell materials and cell construction matters!
Impurities limit cell performance that can be achieved
Cells from different manufacturers with similar cell chemistries and similar
construction may yield different performance
Summary
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The primary benefits offered from lithium-ion cells are: temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
High energy density and specific energy

Long life
Higher voltage and lower self-discharge rates
The primary disadvantages of lithium-ion cells are:
Need for proper management to guarantee safety (which is what this
specialization is all about!)
Cost (of the cells, plus the supporting electronics)
However, lithium-ion cells and electronics are becoming less expensive and over
time we should see their price decrease significantly
1.2.2: What makes lithium-ion cells different from electrochemical cells?
The process of intercalation
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Lithium-ion cells work differently from the electrochemical cells temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
we looked at last week

Both electrodes depend on an intercalation Negative electrode Positive electrode
(graphite) (e.g., LiCoO2 )
mechanism rather than redox reactions
Discharge Charge
Lithium is stored in the electrodes much like
water is stored in a sponge
Li is stored in the electrodes, and Li moves
through the electrolyte
Li enters an electrode, becoming Li when an
electron is available; Li exits an electrode and
becomes Li when it can give up an electron Separator
Requirements of the electrode structure
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Intercalation involves insertion of lithium ions into crystalline temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
lattice of host electrode without changing its crystal structure

These electrodes have two key properties: (graphite) (e.g., LiCoO2 )
Open crystal structures, allowing insertion or Discharge Charge
extraction of lithium ions in the vacant spaces
Ability to accept compensating electrons
Within the electrode, the lithium atom’s electron
is loosely shared with neighboring atoms
The lithium is not tightly bonded in one place; it
is actually quite free to move around
Separator
The discharge process

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During discharge, Li exits the surface of the negative-electrode temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
particles, gives up an electron, becoming Li in the electrolyte

Li diffuses outward from center of
negative-electrode particles to
equalize concentrations, replenishing
Li at particle surface (over time)
Meanwhile, electron travels through
external circuit to positive electrode
Li joins with the electron, and Li enters positive-electrode particles at their surface
Li diffuses into positive-electrode particles to equalize concentration (over time)
The charge process
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The process is completely reversible; thus lithium passes back temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
and forth between electrodes during charging and discharging

During charge, Li exits surface of positive- Negative electrode Positive electrode
(graphite) (e.g., LiCoO2 )
electrode particles, gives up an electron,
Discharge Charge
becoming Li in the electrolyte
Meanwhile, the electron is forced (by charger)
through external circuit to negative electrode
Li joins with the electron, and Li enters
negative-electrode particles at their surface
Diffusion of Li in both electrodes equalizes
internal concentrations (over time) Separator
Particle nature of electrodes
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It is critical to understand that the electrodes are not temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
homogeneous blocks, but rather millions of small particles
Mesophase carbonaceous spheres (graphite) Lithium manganese oxide

Increases surface area, decreases cell resistance, enhances power capability
Polished electrode cross section

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The photo shows a polished cross-sectional slice of electrode temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
to further illustrate its particle nature (with voids for electrolyte)

Mixed in with primary electrode materials are:
Binders (to glue things together) and
Conductive additives (to enhance electron
conduction, which is otherwise poor in
positive-electrode materials)
These are not “active” portions of the cell, so
are not often mentioned, but are always present
Electrolyte often also has additives to inhibit
side reactions and extend life
Summary
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Lithium-ion cell electrodes are made of small particles to temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
increase surface area (and therefore power capability)

Particles are made from compounds having open crystalline structure that can
accept lithium without changing crystal structure
Lithium intercalates into and deintercalates out of particle from surface
Within particles, diffusion equalizes lithium concentrations over time
During discharge, Li moves from negative-electrode to positive-electrode particles,
via intermediary electrolyte (where it is Li ); during charge, the opposite occurs
Electron moves through external circuit to compensate
Credits
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Images of lithium-ion electrodes on slides 5–6 courtesy Sangwoo

Han, used with permission (images on slide 5 captured using

scanning electron microscope (SEM), and image on slide 6 milled
using focused ion beam (FIB))
Diffusion image on slide 3: By BruceBlaus (Own work) [CC BY 3.0
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blausen_0315_Diffusion.png
1.2.3: Negative electrodes for lithium-ion cells
Cell formats
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We begin this lesson by considering cell structure temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Lithium-ion cells are manufactured in different form factors

Cylindrical cells are. . . err. . . cylindrical (round “jelly roll”)
Prismatic cells are. . . prismatic (flat “jelly roll”)
Pouch cells are also flat, but comprise stacked plates
Cylindrical cells Prismatic cells Pouch cells
Electrode coating
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Electrodes in lithium-ion cells of any form factor are of similar temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
structure and are made by similar processes

The active electrode materials are coated on both sides of metallic foils which act
as the current collectors conducting the current into and out of the cell
Positive current collector
Positive electrode active material
Negative current collector

Negative electrode active material
Two basic electrode structures are used, depending on cell form factor:
A stacked structure for use in pouch cells, and
A spiral wound structure for use in cylindrical/prismatic cells
Stacked electrode structure

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Pouch/prismatic cells are often used for high capacity battery temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
applications to optimize the use of space

Pouch designs use a stacked electrode structure in Negative
which the negative- and positive-electrode foils are electrode
cut into individual electrode plates which are stacked
alternately and kept apart by the separator
Separator may be cut to the same size as electrodes
but more often is a long strip wound zig-zag between Positive
alternate electrodes in the stack electrode Separator
All negative-electrode tabs are welded in parallel and to the cell’s negative terminal;
all positive-electrode tabs are welded in parallel and to the cell’s positive terminal
Cylindrical and prismatic electrode structure
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For cylindrical cells the negative- and positive-electrode foils temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
are cut into two long strips which are wound on a cylindrical
mandrel, together with the
separator to hold the electrodes Mandrel Mandrel
apart, to form a jelly roll

Positive
Positive electrode
Most prismatic cells are electrode
constructed similarly, by winding

Negative
electrodes on a flat mandrel electrode Negative
electrode
Separator
Separator
Microscale structure of graphite
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We now start to examine the different materials used in the temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
electrodes of lithium-ion cells, starting with negative electrode

Presently, essentially all commercial
lithium-ion cells use some form of graphite
(C6 ) for the negative-electrode material
Graphite has graphene layers of C6
structures that are tightly bonded
These layers are loosely stacked and there is
room for lithium to intercalate between them
Mesoscale structure of graphite

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Carbon used in negative electrodes can come from natural or temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
synthetic sources (which have somewhat different layering

properties), or from natural “hard” or disordered carbons, which have many small
pockets of graphene layers, arranged in random configurations
Natural or synthetic graphite Hard carbon

These carbons have somewhat different voltage and lifetime properties
Alternate negative-electrode material LTO
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Lithium titanate oxide (Li4 Ti5 O12 , LTO) is an alternative temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
negative-electrode material
It has very different crystal Open-circuit potential of common
negative-electrode materials
structure from graphite 2
In figure, Li is purple; Ti
OCP vs. Li/Li+ (V)

1.5
is orange; O is red; green LTO

polyhedra show fixed
1
Hard carbon
Coke
crystal structure 0.5 MCMB
Lithium diffuses through 0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
openings in crystal Stoichiometry (unitless)
Disadvantage: high open-circuit potential (making cell voltage low)

Advantage: nearly indestructible — very long life
Future negative-electrode material silicon
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Silicon is a very promising negative-electrode material temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Using graphite, one can store up to one Li per six C atoms;

using silicon, one can (in principle) store four Li per every Si atom!
Therefore, energy density using silicon electrodes can be much higher
Unfortunately, while volume change for a charge/discharge cycle for graphite is
around 10 %, it is around 400 % for silicon
Therefore, silicon electrodes tend to fracture quickly
and have short lives
Possible workarounds: mix graphite with silicon, or
build small forests of silicon nanowires with space
in-between to allow for expansion
Summary
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Lithium-ion cells are manufactured in pouch, prismatic, and temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
cylindrical form factors

In any of these cases, current-collector metal foils are generally coated on both
sides with electrode active materials
In the negative electrode, the most common active material is some form of carbon:
natural or synthetic graphite, or hard carbon
Lithium titanate oxide (LTO) is an alternative material, which greatly increases cell
longevity, but is costly and significantly lowers energy density
Future lithium-ion cells will probably include silicon in the negative electrode to
improve energy density (presently, cycle life of silicon is low)
Credits
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Credits for images in this lesson:

Graphite structure on page 5 drawn with VESTA. See, Momma, K.

and Izumi, F., “VESTA 3 for three-dimensional visualization of crystal,
volumetric and morphology data,” Journal of Applied Crystallography, 44, 1272–1276 (2011)
LTO structure on page 7 also drawn with VESTA: See, reference above
Silicon nanostructures on page 8, By Christoph Kubasch (2005) [CC BY-SA 3.0
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Black_Silicon_-_ASE.jpg
1.2.4: Positive electrodes for lithium-ion cells
Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO)
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Last lesson, we looked at different materials that could be

used in negative-electrodes in lithium-ion cells

Now, we look at materials for positive electrodes instead,

for which there are more options from which to choose
In 1980, John B. Goodenough discovered that Lix CoO2
(LCO) was a viable material for lithium intercalation
Li intercalates between the layers of CoO6 octahedra
LCO has layers, somewhat like graphite, so it is often
called a “layered cathode”
LCO and other layered cathodes
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LCO is commonly used in portable-electronics cells, but

suffers some problems when trying to scale up:

Cobalt is rare, toxic, and expensive;

Only about half its theoretic capacity is useable (“x” can
be in ), else cell ages rapidly
Ni can substitute Co, giving higher energy density (higher
voltages, same capacity), but is not very thermally stable
Al, Cr, and Mn can be substituted as well, resulting in
somewhat different properties
NCM (a.k.a. NMC) is a blend of Ni, Co, and Mn, which
retains the layered structure, and has properties from all
three constituent metals; NCA is a blend of Ni, Co, and Al
Spinel cathodes
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In 1983, Goodenough and Thackery proposed Lix Mn2 O4 meas. voltage

current
temperature
estimate
state of
charge (SOC)
estimate
state of
health (SOH)
balance
cells
compute
power
limits
(LMO) as an alternate intercalation material: Mn sits in loop once each measurement interval while pack is active
the octahedral sites, Li in the tetrahedral

This material has a cubic “spinel” structure. It allows 3D
diffusion (vs. 2D for layered and 1D for olivine)
Value of “x” typically varies between 0. . . 1, but can go as
high as 2 (LMO unstable in acidic conditions when x )
LMO is cheaper and safer than LCO, but can have short
lifetime due to the manganese dissolving into the
electrolyte under some conditions
Additives can be added to help prevent this, but this “art”
is presently well guarded by trade secrets
Olivine cathodes
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In 1997, Goodenough proposed olivine-style phosphates meas. voltage
current
temperature
estimate
state of
charge (SOC)
estimate
state of
health (SOH)
balance
cells
compute
power
limits
as a third major category of positive-electrode material loop once each measurement interval while pack is active
Lix FePO4 (LFP) is the most common in this family

This material is low cost, and low toxicity, but also has low
energy density due to a low open-circuit potential and low
specific energy due to heaviness of Fe
1D structure tends to have high resistance, which can be
overcome in part by using very small particles and
including conductive additives
There are other candidate positive-electrode materials,

but they are mostly mixtures of the above.
Summary
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Since essentially all lithium-ion cells presently in use have temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
graphitic negative electrodes, lithium-ion cell cells are often

referred to simply by their positive-electrode chemistry (e.g., an “LFP cell”, etc.)
The open-circuit potential curves for different Open-circuit potential of common
positive-electrode materials
positive electrode chemistries are drawn 4.4
Layered cathodes (LCO, NMC, NCA) can use 4

OCP vs. Li/Li (V)
only around half their theoretic capacity

+
3.6
Olivine cathodes (LFP) have low voltage (and
very little state information in their voltage) 3.2
LMO
LCO
NCA
LFP
Spinel cathodes (LMO) are inexpensive and NMC
2.8
non-toxic, but can degrade rapidly 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Stoichiometry (unitless)
0.8 1
Credits
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LCO structure on slides 1–2 drawn with VESTA. See, Momma, K.

and Izumi, F., “VESTA 3 for three-dimensional visualization of crystal,
volumetric and morphology data,” Journal of Applied Crystallography, 44, 1272–1276 (2011)
LMO structure on page 3 also drawn with VESTA: See, reference above
LFP structure on page 4 also drawn with VESTA: See, reference above
1.2.5: Electrolytes and separators for lithium-ion cells
Electrolytes for lithium-ion cells
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We have now seen the most common materials used for temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
negative and positive electrodes in lithium-ion cells

We turn our focus to the principal remaining components, starting with electrolyte
The electrolyte comprises a salt, acid, or base dissolved in a solvent and is the
media that conducts ions between electrodes
Cells using aqueous (solvent = water) electrolytes are limited to less than 2 V as
water dissociate into oxygen and hydrogen in the presence of higher voltages
Since their overall voltages are above 2 V, lithium-ion cells use electrolytes
comprising non-aqueous organic solvents plus a lithium salt
Electrolyte acts purely as ion conductor, not taking part in the chemical reaction
Electrolyte solvents used in lithium-ion cells
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Solvents include ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
dimethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate

EC PC DMC EMC DEC
O O O O O
C C C C C
O O O O O O O O O O
H2 C CH2 H2 C CH CH3 CH3 CH2 CH3 CH2 CH2
CH3 H3 C
CH3 CH3
A common feature to these solvents is the double-bonded oxygen, which develops

a slight negative charge, polarizing the molecule so that it dissolves salts
Electrolyte salts used in lithium-ion cells

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The most commonly used salt in lithium-ion cells is LiPF6 temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
(Lithium hexafluorophosphate, which is quite difficult to say!)

Some other candidates include LiBF4 (lithium
tetrafluoroborate) and LiClO4 (lithium perchlorate)
Note: the solvent does not participate in the (normal)
chemical processes of a lithium-ion cell
But, different solvents have different properties
re. aging, low-temperature performance, etc.
So, we often refer to the electrolyte by naming only its
salt, even though the electrolyte also includes solvent
Separators for lithium-ion cells
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The separator is a permeable membrane with holes large temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
enough to let Li pass through unimpeded, but small enough

that the negative- and positive-electrode particles do not touch (which would
short-circuit the cell); it is also an electronic insulator
Looks like thin white plastic, but under magnification it is possible to see the pores
Figure on right shows relative scale of one LMO particle on top of separator
Current collectors
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The inside of a lithium-ion cell is a very harsh environment, temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
with Li and F being particularly reactive elements

Need current collectors that will withstand that
environment, such that they will not react with the
electrolyte
Positive electrode (high potential region) uses
aluminum foil, which does not react with electrolyte
so long as cell voltage is above around 2 V
Negative electrode (low potential region) uses
copper foil which does not react with electrolyte
under similar conditions
Summary
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Lithium-ion electrolyte solvent is usually a combination of EC, temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
PC, DMC, EMC, and/or DMC

Electrolyte salt is usually LiPF but is sometimes LiBF or LiClO
PF anion is inert toward strong reducing agents, such as lithium metal
Separator is a nonconductive porous membrane that prevents short circuits
Current collectors are copper and aluminum foils
Credits
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Credit for images in this lesson:

Image of salt on slide 3: By APPER at the German language

Wikipedia [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)], via
Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Speisesalz.jpg
Separator SEM images on slide 4: Image courtesy Sangwoo Han
Aluminum foil on slide 5: By Emilian Robert Vicol, public domain,
https://www.flickr.com/photos/free-stock/4999892549
1.2.6: Is lithium going to run out?
Is lithium going to run out?
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Is there enough lithium for xEVs and other applications? temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Chart shows relative abundance of elements in earth’s crust:

9
10
Abundance, atoms of element per 10 atoms of Si

Rock-forming elements
6
O
Si
We see that Li is between 20 and 100
10
times more abundant than Pb and Ni
Al
H Na Ca Fe
6
K
Mg Ti
Still challenging to find in nature since

C
P
3 F S Mn
10 Li Sr Ba
Cl Zr
N Cu Zn
very reactive and not usually found in its

B Rb Ce
VCr Ga Nb Nd
Be Gd Pb
Sc Co Ni Y Sn La Th
As Sm DyEr Hf
Yb Ta U
Cs Pr
free state, but in compounds
10
0 Ge Br
Mo Eu W Tl
Sb Ho
Cd Tb
Ag
I Tm Lu Hg
Se In Bi
-3
10
Ru
Pd
Te
Au
Cd and Hg—usage deprecated because
of toxicity—1000 times less common
Major industrial metals in red Rh Re Pt
Precious metals in purple Os
Rare earth elements in blue Rarest "metals" Ir
-6
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
than Li
Atomic number, Z
How much lithium is in a lithium-ion cell?
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The lithium content in a lithium-ion cell is actually quite small temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Consider an LCO cell (positive electrode LiCoO2 )

Lithium content in LiCoO2 is only 7 % by weight
LiCoO2 comprises 33 % of cell weight, so Li
content of electrode 2 % of cell weight
Electrolyte ( 10 % of cell weight) also contains
some dissolved lithium
Overall, total lithium content in high-energy cell
3 % by weight
So, what does this mean?

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So, lithium content in high-energy cell 3 % by weight

xEV cells weigh about 7 kg kWh 1 : Li content 0 2 kg kWh 1 loop once each measurement interval while pack is active
200-mile EV needs 60 kWh battery: Li content 12 kg / EV

PHEV batteries 10 % of EV-battery capacity
HEV batteries require even less capacity
1 million EVs would consume 12 000 tons of Li (without
recycling); 1 million P/HEVs would consume 1 200 tons
Known available supply of Li is over 200 billion tons, including
from seawater
Each human being presently alive could own more than 2000
EVs, without recycling!
Summary
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Lithium is one of the most abundant elements on the planet! temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
A simple approximate analysis shows that known available

supply of lithium is more than sufficient to meet demand for consumer electronics,
xEVs, and other applications, even without recycling
Recycling only improves the picture
Note that other elements, such as cobalt, are also used in lithium-ion cells are are
more scarce than lithium (but this gets less press)
Credits
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Graph on slide 1: By Gordon B. Haxel, Sara Boore, and Susan

Mayfield from USGS; vectorized by User:michbich [Public domain],
(http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2002/fs087-02/) via Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Elemental_abundances.svg
Piles of lithium salts on slide 2: By Luca Galuzzi (Lucag), edit by Trialsanderrors [CC BY-SA
2.5 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)], via Wikimedia Commons,
Piles_of_Salt_Salar_de_Uyuni_Bolivia_Luca_Galuzzi_2006_a.jpg
Tesla S on slide 3: CC0 Public Domain (https://pixabay.com/en/service/terms),
cropped from original at
https://pixabay.com/en/car-electric-tesla-s-electric-car-1209912/
key on: initialize

This past week, we extended beyond understanding electro- temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
chemical cells and focused our attention on learning about

lithium-ion cells
Why would we be interested in them? What are their advantages?
How does operational mechanism differ from standard electrochemical cells?
What materials are used for current collectors, electrodes, separator, electrolyte,
in different types of Li-ion cells?
Finally, we considered whether the global lithium supply is sufficient to meet
possible future demand
Where from here?
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The focus of this specialization is on BMS algorithms

So, next week we turn our attention to learning about major

BMS functions
What does a BMS need to do?
What are design considerations for BMS and battery-pack
architecture?
What are the sensing requirements of a BMS, and how
does it meet those requirements?
How does a BMS safely dis/connect pack from load?
What does BMS need to know about thermal management?
Credits
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“Now what?” sign on slide 2: By John Eisenschenk, [CC BY 2.0

(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)],
https://www.flickr.com/photos/johne777/11873522964
Article concerning battery-pack life I mention during my narrative on slide 2:
https://electrek.co/2016/11/01/tesla-battery-degradation/
1.3.1: What are the primary functions of a BMS?
Introduction and BMS functionality
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This specialization investigates the proper management and temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
control of battery packs, usually comprising many cells

The methods and algorithms we discuss would typically be implemented by a
battery-management system or BMS, which is an embedded system (purpose-built
electronics plus processing to enable a specific application).
Dr. Gregory L. Plett University of Colorado Colorado Springs Introduction to Battery Management Systems | BMS sensing and high-voltage control 1 of 10
Why do we need a BMS?
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A BMS has the following priorities:

Protects safety of the operator of the host application;

detects unsafe operating conditions and responds

Protects cells of battery from damage in abuse/failure cases
Prolongs life of battery (normal operating cases)
Maintains battery in a state in which it can fulfill its functional
design requirements
Informs the host-application control computer how to make the
best use of the pack right now (e.g., power limits), control
charger, etc.
General BMS functionality (1 of 5)

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BMS is interconnected with all temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
battery-pack components and with

host-application control computer
Cooling system
Functionality can be broken down into
several categories: Cell
Cell Battery Host-
1. Sensing and high-voltage control Cell Management application
Measure voltage, current, System control
Cell computer
temperature; control contactor,
pre-charge; ground-fault detection,
thermal management Cell Contactor control,
pack measurement
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Cooling system
Cell Battery Host-
2. Protection against Cell Management application
Over-charge, over-discharge, System control
Cell computer
over-current, short circuit, extreme
temperatures
Cell Contactor control,
pack measurement
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Cooling system
Cell Battery Host-
3. Interface Cell Management application
control
Range estimation, communications, Cell System
computer
data recording, reporting

pack measurement

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Cooling system
Cell Battery Host-
4. Performance management Cell Management application
State-of-charge (SOC) estimation, System control
Cell computer
power-limit computation,
balance/equalize cells
pack measurement
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Cooling system
Cell Battery Host-
5. Diagnostics Cell Management application
Abuse detection, state-of-health System control
Cell computer
(SOH) estimation, state-of-life
(SOL) estimation
pack measurement
The issue of cost
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There is a cost associated with battery management, so not

all applications implement all features

Rule of thumb: Your battery is “cheap enough” if you cannot remember
when you replaced it last
Larger battery packs represent greater investment and motivate
better battery management, even if there is an associated cost
This specialization focuses on large (e.g., vehicular, grid) battery
packs although the methods we discuss are quite general
That is, we will investigate sophisticated methods that work
well in all scenarios, but may not be justifiable
economically in every case
Summary
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A BMS is an embedded system that protects safety host- temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
application operator, protects battery from abuse, prolong

battery life, maintains battery in a functional state, and informs host application how
to make the best use of the pack right now
The BMS functional requirements fall into five general categories
1. Sensing, high-voltage control 4. Performance management
2. Protection 5. Diagnostics
3. Interface
We will look at these requirements in order over the next lessons
We also noted that there are different levels of sophistication in how a BMS works:
our focus is on advanced methods that may have higher cost, but give better results
Credits
key on: initialize


Priority list on slide 2: Public domain (https://pixabay.com/en/service/terms),

cropped from original at
https://pixabay.com/en/checklist-choice-priorities-survey-2277701/
Image of coins on slide 8: Public domain (https://pixabay.com/en/service/terms),
https://pixabay.com/en/achievement-bar-business-chart-18134/
1.3.2: What are some reasons for modular design?
Meeting energy and power specifications
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High-power batteries deliver high voltage, high current, or both temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Chemistry of individual cells fixes their voltage range, so for

high-voltage packs, we must stack cells in series: pack cell
Cell construction places limits on cell current, so for high-current packs, we must
wire cells in parallel: pack cell
Similarly, capacity in ampere hours scales as: pack cell
Therefore, total pack energy and power can be computed as
pack cell cell and pack cell cell
Conclusion: to meet energy/power specifications, the product of and must

meet some criteria, but the individual values of and are flexible
Series and parallel cells
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Design of , determined by economic, safety factors temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
For safety, want voltage 100 V (sometimes 50 V)

To minimize power-electronics cost want voltage 600 V
These considerations limit
For efficiency, want to minimize current to reduce losses
(and want to use thin higher- wire to reduce copper costs)
This consideration limits
So, packs often designed using modules having voltage 100 V,
which are then wired in series for a high-voltage pack
But, there are also reasons for wiring modules in parallel
e.g., “2P3S” module has 2 parallel, 3 series cells
Example of Nissan Leaf

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Most automotive battery packs manufactured from identical temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
modules (e.g., Leaf pack comprises 48 “2S2P” modules)
Smaller modules are easier to handle

Modules can be tested before integrating them into the pack
Ideally, same modules can be used in a range of different packs, reduces NRE costs
Design of modules
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Design extreme 1: Parallel-cell modules (PCM)

Design extreme 2: Series-cell modules (SCM)

96 Cell Groups (PCMs) in Series 96 Cells in Series
(SCMs) in Parallel
3 Parallel Cells
3 Cell Groups
Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell SCM
Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell
Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell
PCM
Can design battery packs and BMS for either—usually use something in-between
e.g., consider an 18-cell “3P6S” module: Module power and energy both
approximately that of a single cell (but not quite, in practice, as we shall find)
BMS architecture
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A modular battery pack suggests a hierarchical master–slave

BMS design as well

One “slave” BMS unit is associated with each module

Module’s cells welded/bolted to slave PCB, minimizing wiring
and wiring losses
Slave has electronics for voltage measurement, cell balancing
There is then normally a single “master” unit for each pack
Master measures pack current, controls contactors
Communicates with slaves via daisy-chain or star architecture
Master/slave communication uses few (e.g. two)
wires—minimizes wiring-harness nightmare
BMS slave role

key on: initialize
BMS slave needs to:

Measure voltage of every cell within the module

Measure temperatures
Ideally of every cell, but in many packs some temperatures
are estimated, especially if the pack has cells in parallel
Balance the energy stored in every cell within the module
As we will see in Course 5 of this specialization, this is
needed as cells have different efficiencies, self-discharge
rates, etc.
Communicate this information to the master
BMS master role
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BMS master needs to

Control contactors that connect

battery to load
Monitor pack current, isolation
Communicate with BMS slaves
Communicate with host-
application controller
Control thermal-management
Is slave design reusable?
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Is slave design reusable for different packs?

Often “yes”, assuming electronics flexible in terms of number

of cells monitored, physical size matches different applications
While electronics design may be reusable in most cases, may
need to redesign PCB footprint to fit individual applications
For high volumes there may be overall cost savings in
developing a specific slave optimized for a given module
Different cell chemistries need different voltage and temperature
ranges, but these can often be accommodated via simple
software changes
Is master design reusable?

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Is master design reusable for different packs?

More difficult than for slave designs

Master needs to be more flexible; for example,

Number and type of contactors it controls
Types of current sensors used
Ways it connects to charger, thermal management system
This can be accomplished by incorporating extra analog and
digital input/output in a generic design, which gives flexibility via
software changes
Summary
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For high energy and/or high power, we need to configure cells temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
in parallel and series in high-capacity battery packs

Safety, cost limit number in series; losses vs. cost give tradeoff for number in parallel
Modular design has advantages in handling, testing, reduced NRE
Modular pack design also motivates master/slave topology for BMS
Slaves handle voltage/temperature measurement, balancing
Master handles current/isolation sensing, contactor control, thermal-management
Credits
key on: initialize


Battery pack on slide 2: By Lead holder (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.01 ],
via Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lithiumion-
laptop-battery-internals.jpg
Gen 1 Nissan Leaf cell and module on slide 3: By Qurren (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.01 ], via
Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nissan_Li-
ion_Battery_(used_on_Leaf)_in_Tokyo_Motor_Show_2009.jpg
Leaf cutaway on slide 3: By Tennen-Gas (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.01 ], via Wikimedia
Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nissan_Leaf_012.JPG
Recycle symbol on slides 8 and 9: By Users Cbuckley, Jpowell on en.wikipedia [Public
domain], via Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Recycle001.svg
1
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0
1.3.3: How to sense all cell voltages in a BMS?
1a. Battery-pack sensing: Voltage
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We now begin to look at the five requirement areas of a BMS temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
design in more detail

This week, our focus is on requirement 1, sensing and
high-voltage control
We start by considering how we measure cell voltage
All cell voltages are measured in a lithium-ion pack
Indicator of relative balance of cells
Input to most SOC and SOH estimation algorithms
Safety: overcharging a lithium-ion cell can lead to “thermal
runaway,” so we cannot skip measuring any voltages
Some methods for analog-to-digital conversion
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At the most basic level, voltage is measured using an analog- temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
to-digital converter (ADC, A/D, A–D, A2D, or A-to-D)

There are several common ADC architectures; for example,
A direct-conversion or flash ADC uses a bank of comparators and fixed reference
voltages, outputs code of closest reference (fast, expensive)
Successive approximation compares input to output from DAC and uses feedback
to modify DAC signal, resolving input to desired accuracy (slow, inexpensive)
Delta-sigma ( ) uses oversampled 1-bit flash ADC to encode difference ( )
between approximation and input, sums ( ) differences and filters to give final
high-resolution result at desired slower sample rate (very popular)
All are generally implemented in ICs due to need for precisely matched components
Resolution of an ADC
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The resolution of an ADC is the smallest change in the

input signal that can be measured; it is also the step

size between consecutive ADC output codes

Example ADC input/output relationship
An ADC having an -bit output has output codes 111
110
If these are distributed evenly over an input range from

ADC output code
101
RefLow to RefLow FSR , the resolution is FSR

100
011
For example, if an ADC has input range of 0 V to 5 V 010
and has 16 bits of precision, the resolution is

001
000
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
5V 0V V
Input ( VIn - VRefLow ) / EFSR
This is also often termed the “LSB voltage”
Accuracy of an ADC
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The accuracy of an ADC has to do with the absolute

difference between the reported value and the true value:

difference may be due to several sources 4

Original and quantized signal
Input signal
Quantization error (unmeasurable value between )

Quantized signal
2
Value (V)
Offset error (constant difference between ideal and 0
measured value over whole measurement range) -2
Gain error (difference between slope of ideal and

-4
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)
measured value over whole measurement range, 0.5

Quantization error
expressed as %)
Value (V)
Nonlinear error (deviation between actual and ideal step 0
widths, expressed as ADC counts)

-0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)
Other ADC considerations
key on: initialize

Temperature:
Offset/gain/nonlinear errors are function of temperature

Timing jitter:
Absolute time between samples is not exactly constant
Aliasing:
By Nyquist sampling theorem, sample rate should be at
least twice the highest frequency in the input signal cos(2π 5t)
cos(2π 2t)
7 Hz samples
Otherwise, high-frequency inputs will be aliased as
low-frequency signals in the sampled signal
Chipsets
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Special chipsets are made to aid high-voltage BMS design temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Low-cost “dumb” measurement chips used in modules,

proximate to cells; high-cost computational processing in distant master unit
Special chips implement difficult task of highly accurate A2D voltage sensing with
high common-mode rejection and fast response in high-EMI, high-heat,
high-vibration environments
Can often be placed in parallel for redundant fault-tolerant designs.
Multiple vendors make chipsets (e.g., Analog Devices, Maxim, Texas Instruments)
Example chipset: LTC6811
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We consider a specific example (LTC6811) designed by temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Analog Devices (formerly Linear Technology)

Monitors up to 12 cells in series in a
module, 100s of cells in series in pack
Has built-in isolated communications
between daisy-chained parts
Supports internal or external cell-
equalization circuitry
Powered by module itself, or externally
Measures up to five temperatures (more
with some external circuitry)
Selecting a chipset
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Points to be considered in a design: temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
How many cells can each IC monitor?

How many cells total can be monitored?
Does it support passive/active balancing?
What is the measurement accuracy?
How many temperature measurements can be made?
How many wires to communicate from IC to IC?
What is chipset availability and cost, per cell?
Summary
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All battery cell voltages in a lithium-ion battery pack must be temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
monitored continuously
This is done using an analog-to-digital converter, generally built into an IC
Resolution and accuracy are A2D features that must be considered in a design
Special chipsets are available from several silicon vendors to help monitor
high-capacity battery packs
We discussed some criteria to consider when selecting a chipset
Credits
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Lithium-ion battery fire on slide 1: By Daniel Steger (own work)

[CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)],
http://openphoto.net/gallery/image/view/18613
LTC6811 block diagram on slide 7: from http://www.linear.com/docs/46925,
“Maximizing Cell Monitoring Accuracy and Data Integrity in Energy Storage Battery
Management Systems”
1.3.4: How to sense module temperature in a BMS?
1b. Battery-pack sensing: Temperature
key on: initialize

Battery cell operational characteristics and cell degradation

rates are very strong functions of temperature

Don’t charge at low temperature; control thermal management

systems to keep temperature in “safe” region
Unexpected temperature changes can indicate cell failure or
impending safety concern
Ideally, we measure each cell’s internal temperature; but,
With accurate pack thermal model, can place sensors external
to one or more cells per module and calibrate internal
temperatures
How to measure temperature: Thermocouple
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Electronics cannot measure temperature directly; instead,

must convert temperature to voltage, measure via A2D

One method to produce a voltage proportional to temperature is to
use a thermocouple, which comprises two dissimilar metals in
contact with each other and acts as a miniature battery
Thermocouple produces very small voltage when its temperature is
different from a reference temperature (proportional to the difference)
The thermocouple voltage can be amplified and measured and
temperature can be computed from this measurement
Design challenge: the reference temperature must be independently
known or measured: thermocouples best suited for laboratory testing
and not for production BMS designs
How to measure temperature: Thermistor

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Can instead use a thermistor, which is a component that is temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
designed to have resistance that varies over a wide range

with temperature
Negative-temperature-coefficient (NTC) thermistors have
resistance that varies inversely with temperature, and
Positive-temperature-coefficient (PTC) thermistors have
resistance that varies proportionally with temperature
If we can measure thermistor resistance, we can then infer
temperature
But, we cannot measure resistance directly either. . .
Voltage-divider circuit
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To measure resistance, we can use a voltage-divider circuit

In the circuit, the top resistor has resistance that does not
vary appreciably with temperature, but the lower resistor therm
has value that is designed to vary significantly with temperature
We compute overall current as therm
Then, we note that the measured voltage is therm therm or
therm
therm
therm
The value of is designed to limit power loss through the

circuit but provide a useful measurement range for therm
Voltage-divider analysis
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If we measure therm and know the circuit-design parameters,

we can rearrange the prior expression to get

therm
therm
therm
Thermistor data sheet will give an equation relating therm to

temperature; for example, we might have
therm exp
where is temperature being measured, is resistance at

reference temperature ; temperatures converted from celsius
to kelvin by adding , is a device parameter
Voltage-divider + thermistor example

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Left plot shows thermistor resistance for an NTC device temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
having 100 k at 25 C and

Thermistor resistance A2D voltage with 100-kΩ divider Lookup table for temperature
2 5 125
Measured voltage (V)
Temperature (°C)
100
Resistance (MΩ)
4
1.5 75
3 50
1
2 25
0.5 0
1
−25
0 0 −50
−50 −25 0 25 50 75 100 125 −50 −25 0 25 50 75 100 125 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C) Measured voltage (V)
If 5 V, 100 k , therm varies with temperature as shown in middle plot

For efficiency, relationship between therm and can be precomputed and stored in
a lookup table (LUT, right plot)
Summary
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To preserve battery health, it is important to monitor and temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
control cell temperatures

Usually too expensive to measure all temperatures; instead measure module
temperatures and use thermal model to extrapolate to cells in module
To measure temperature, must convert into a voltage signal
Can use thermocouple with amplifier, or
Thermistor plus voltage-divider circuit
Thermistor-based solutions are most popular in practice
Credits
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Hot/cold icon on slide 1: By Google; editor Li Chao [CC BY-SA 4.0

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Emoji_hot_and_cold.svg
Thermocouple with meter on slide 2: By Harke (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0
Thermoelement-Thermometer_Omega_(1).jpg
Thermistors on slide 3: By Tomi Knuutila, [CC BY-SA 2.0
https://www.flickr.com/photos/yourbartender/5447374145
1.3.5: How to sense battery-pack current in a BMS?
1c. Battery-pack sensing: Current
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Battery pack electrical current measurements are required: temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
To monitor battery-pack safety

To log abuse conditions
By most state-of-charge and state-of-health algorithms
We cannot measure electrical current directly—must convert to voltage and
measure via A2D
There are two basic methods to do so:
Using a resistive shunt, and
Using a Hall-effect mechanism
Shunt current sensor
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Shunt sensor is low-value (e.g., 0 1 m ) high-precision temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
resistor in series with battery pack, usually at low-voltage end

Current computed by measuring voltage
drop: shunt shunt
Since the shunt resistance must be
small (to avoid large power losses due to Pack
BMS
shunt heating), the voltage drop Amplifier
across the shunt will be small as well Shunt
So, the voltage is usually amplified

before sensing and the calculation for
current is adjusted accordingly
Shunt details
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Examining the device in more detail, note that there are

four connection terminals

One large terminal on the top is connected to the

negative terminal of the battery stack, the other to the
output negative terminal of the battery pack
Pack current passes through parallel plates that form
the calibrated resistance in the center of the shunt
The resistance between the two smaller screw
terminals is calibrated, and the sensing leads are
connected to these smaller terminals
Kelvin four-wire connection
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Connecting using these four terminals is called a Kelvin

connection and enables four-wire voltage measurement

Essentially no current is drawn by the A2D, so there is

negligible voltage drop across resistance of smaller
terminals: current can be calculated as stated earlier
However, if one were to (mistakenly) connect the voltage-
sensing wires to the larger terminals, the voltage drop of
the battery-pack current passing through the uncalibrated
resistance of the terminals would significantly degrade the
accuracy of the current calculation
Shunt current-sensor comments
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Some comments on current-sensing shunts: temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Power and sense connections must be made separately

Shunts have no offset at zero current, so are good to avoid drift in coulomb
counting (but, offset might still be introduced by amplifier or A2D)
Current shunts are not electrically isolated from the pack: if BMS must be isolated
from pack, extra circuitry is required
Resistance of current shunt changes with temperature, so temperature must be
measured and resistance calibrated
Heat generated via shunt losses must be dissipated
Amplification of shunt signal is necessary—wiring must be shielded from EMI
Hall-effect current sensing

key on: initialize

If a coil is wrapped around a primary current-carrying temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
conductor, the electromagnetic field produced by the

conductor induces a secondary current in the coil
Hall-effect sensors measure this induced
current to infer the primary current
Main battery-pack current-carrying wire BMS
passes through the oval opening in the Pack
center of the sensor—no direct electrical Conditioning
connection is made between the sensor

and the high-voltage battery pack
Hall-effect current-sensor comments
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Some comments on Hall-effect sensors:

Hall-effect sensors are electrically isolated from pack

current, so no special isolation circuitry is needed
Feedback circuitry is needed to guard against sensor
magnetic hysteresis (sometimes packaged with sensor)
Even so, Hall-effect sensors suffer from offset at zero
current, which changes with temperature
Even if “zeroed” at room temperature, will report
incorrect current as they change temperature
As the bias plays havoc with a number of BMS
algorithms, some kind of compensation is necessary
Summary
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Battery pack electrical current must be measured to monitor temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
safety, log abuse, and inform SOC and SOH algorithms

Two methods may be used: either current shunt or Hall-effect sensor
Both methods have advantages and disadvantages and both are in common use in
BMS today
1.3.6: How to control contactors with a BMS?
1d: High-voltage contactor control
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When not in use, the battery pack internal high-voltage bus

is completely disconnected from the load at both terminals

Dis/connecting pack at both terminals requires two

high-current capable relays or “contactors”
A low-voltage/low-current signal activates the contactor,
closing an internal switch that connects its main terminals
As load is often capacitive, if both contactors were closed
simultaneously, enormous current would flow instantly,
potentially welding the contactors closed or blowing a fuse
So, a third “pre-charge” contactor is used
In this lecture, we study how the contactors are controlled
when the battery pack is connected to the host application
Step 1: Close negative contactor
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Positive contactor current
temperature
state of
charge (SOC)
state of
health (SOH) cells
power
limits
Contactor wiring diagram is shown to

Precharge
the left
contactor Precharge Pack is initially at rest; all contactors
Pack voltage
Bus voltage
resistor
are open
Then negative contactor activated
Connects “ ” terminal of the load to
“ ” terminal of battery pack
Negative contactor
(Thick lines show activated
connections)
Step 2: Close precharge contactor

key on: initialize

temperature
state of
charge (SOC)
state of
health (SOH) cells
power
limits
Precharge contactor activated next

Precharge Precharge resistor limits current,
contactor Precharge pack charges capacitive load
Pack voltage
Bus voltage
resistor
Resistor temperature is monitored:
if too high, load may have short
circuit, pack disconnects
Bus and pack voltages also
Negative contactor
monitored: if they don’t converge
quickly enough load may have
short-circuit fault, pack disconnects
Step 3: Close positive contactor
key on: initialize

temperature
state of
charge (SOC)
state of
health (SOH) cells
power
limits
If bus and pack voltages become

Precharge
contactor Precharge “close enough” “quickly enough,” then
Pack voltage
Bus voltage
resistor
BMS closes/ activates the main “ ”
terminal contactor
Load is now directly connected to
pack through low-resistance path
Negative contactor Precharge path is still connected
Step 4: Open precharge contactor
key on: initialize

temperature
state of
charge (SOC)
state of
health (SOH) cells
power
limits
Precharge
contactor Precharge
Pack voltage
As a final step, after the positive

Bus voltage
resistor
contactor is closed, the precharge

contactor may be opened
Pack operation commences
Negative contactor
Shutdown
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temperature
state of
charge (SOC)
state of
health (SOH) cells
power
limits
Procedure to follow on pack shutdown

Precharge
not as clear
contactor Precharge Abrupt disconnect may cause
Pack voltage
Bus voltage
resistor
arcing/welding of contactor
Could activate precharge path prior
to main contactor disconnect, giving
current path to prevent welding, but
Negative contactor might blow precharge resistor
Capacitive load likely stores enough
energy to prevent either problem
Summary
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There is a need for care when connecting the battery pack to temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
its load on power-up

For the common scenario of a capacitive load, a precharge path is needed to
charge the load relatively slowly before the main contactor is closed
This imposes the need for pack and bus-voltage monitoring, precharge-resistor
temperature monitoring, as well as the use of three contactors
Note: clever designs can use pack current sensor instead of pack and bus-voltage
monitoring, saving need for additional sensors
Contactor control on power-down is likely not as critical
Credits
key on: initialize


Contactor on slide 1: By Leonard G. at English Wikipedia [CC SA

1.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/sa/1.0/)], via Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Contactor200AmpSealed.jpg
1.3.7: How to sense electrical isolation in a BMS?
1e. Isolation sensing
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Isolation sensing detects presence of a ground fault

balance
Primary concern is safety: Is it safe to touch a battery

terminal and chassis ground at the same time?

Battery “should” be completely isolated from chassis
ground, so “should” be no problem
FMVSS says isolation is sufficient if less than 2 mA of
current will flow when connecting chassis ground to
either the positive or negative terminal of the battery
pack via a direct short
Dr. Gregory L. Plett j University of Colorado Colorado Springs Introduction to Battery Management Systems | BMS sensing and high-voltage control j 1 of 9
Setting up problem
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In the diagram, paths between battery and chassis

ground are drawn as red (ideally infinite) resistors

The “isolation resistance” Ri is the lesser of R1 and R2 . ❱✶ ✂✄ ✷
So, Ri must be greater than Vb =0:002 D 500Vb
❘✁
Chassis
For the BMS to sense whether the pack is sufficiently
isolated from the chassis, it must somehow measure Ri
To do so, we measure V1 and V2 using a high-impedance A2D, 10 M

This breaks strict isolation, but not enough to worry about
Note polarity of voltmeters—both V1 and V2 are positive
Redrawing circuit to clarify analysis

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If we redraw the circuit, it becomes more clear that

❱✶ ❘✁ ✂✄ ✷ R1 and R2 form a voltage divider
Chassis
We want to find the smaller of the two resistances
In a voltage divider, the smaller voltage
corresponds to the smaller resistor
So if V1 < V2 find R1 , else find R2
✷ ✂✄
Note also that I1 D I2 so V1 =R1 D V2 =R2
❱✶ ❘✁ We’ll use this identity as we solve the problem
Chassis
Fault on low side: Find 1 R
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If the fault is on the low side, we want to solve for R1

balance
We insert a known large resistance R0 between battery

and chassis ground, via a transistor switch, as shown

This again breaks strict isolation, but not enough to
✦
worry about if R0 is “big enough” (i.e., 500Vb / ✶ ✁✂ ❱✷ ❘✵
We measure V20 . Note that by KCL, VbR V2 D RV2 C RV2

0 0 0 Chassis
1 2 0
Substitute Vb D V1 C V2 and R2 D R1 .V2 =V1 /,
.V1 C V2 / V0 V0 V0
R1
2
D R2 C R2
2 0
0
V2 .V1 =V2 / V20
D R1
CR
0
Fault on low side: Find R1 (continued)
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Last slide, we concluded
.V1 C V2 / V0 V20 .V1 =V2 / V20

R1
2
D R1
CR
0
Now, combine terms that include R1 ✦
✁✂ ❱✷ ❘✵
.V1 C V2 / V0 V 0 .V1 =V2 / V20
✶
2
R1
2
DR Chassis
0
Rearranging,

R1 D R0
.V1 C V2 V
0 0
V .V D R0
CV V1 0
1 =V2 // 1 V2 V2
V0 V0
2 2
2 2 2
Isolation is deemed sufficient if Ri > Vb =0:002 or R1 > 500Vb
Fault on high side: Find 2 R

key on: initialize
Procedure is similar if the initial voltage measurements

except that now we want to find R2

V1 > V2
We insert a known large resistance R0 between battery
and chassis ground, via a transistor switch, as shown
We now measure V10 . Then, by KCL, ❘✵ ❱✶
✦
✂✷
✁
Vb V10 V10 V10
DR CR
Chassis
R2 1 0
Substitute Vb D V1 C V2 and R1 D R2.V1=V2/

V1 C V2 V10 V10 .V2 =V1 / V10
R
D R
C R
2 2 0
Fault on high side: Find 2 (continued) R
key on: initialize

Last slide, we concluded
V1 C V2 V0 V 0 .V2 =V1 / V0
R2
1
D 1
R2
C 1
R0
Now, combine terms that include R2 ✦

❘✵ ❱✶ ✂✷
V1 C V2 V0 V 0 .V2 =V1 / V0
✁
1
R2
1
D 1
R0
Chassis
Rearranging,

R2 D R0
.V1 C V2 V
0 0
V .V D R0
CV V2 0
2 =V1 // 1 V1 V1
V10 V10
1 1
1
Isolation is deemed sufficient if Ri > Vb =0:002 or R2 > 500Vb
Summary
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In a vehicle application, we must maintain isolation between

high-voltage battery pack and chassis of the vehicle

Isolation is deemed sufficient if less than 2 mA of current will flow if a direct short is
placed between one terminal of the battery pack and the chassis
We explored the FMVSS procedure for determining the isolation resistance Ri of
the battery pack
Isolation is sufficient if Ri > 500Vb
Credits
key on: initialize


Chevy Volt under the hood on slide 1, By Mariordo (Mario Roberto

Durán Ortiz) (Own work) [CC BY-SA 4.0
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chevrolet_Volt_WAS_2017_1516.jpg
1.3.8: How to control battery-pack temperature with a BMS?
1f. Thermal control
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Thermal runaway temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Cathode active material breakdown
Oxygen release and ignition
Possible venting
Won’t go into detailed thermal-management
Exothermal breakdown of electrolyte
Release of flammable gases control strategy in this specialization
However, important to understand safety and
Pressure and temperature increase
Separator Melts
Breakdown of SEI layer

life impacts of temperature
Temperature rise
Generally, lithium-ion cells last longest if
Copper
negative!
Safe
Positive!electrode maintained in temperature band from about
electrode breakdown
current
operating
window Lithium plating
10 C to 40 C during use
collector
Important to keep uniform temperature
during charge
dissolves
across battery pack for uniform aging
Types of thermal management
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Air cooling may be sufficient,

especially for EV (low rates)

Liquid cooling may be necessary for some aggressive
P/HEV applications, or range and life extension
Photos show cutaways of Chevy Volt and Tesla S,
both of which use liquid thermal management
Heating may be necessary to avoid charging at low
temperatures—high risk of cell damage if pack is
charged when cells below about 0 C
Active (refrigerant) cooling when vehicle plugged in
may extend life enough to warrant use
Summary
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Important to keep battery-pack cells at a “comfortable” temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
temperature to ensure safety and to extend life

Also important to keep cells at a uniform temperature for consistent aging (also
reduces need for many temperature sensors)
Present commercial systems use either air or liquid systems, and some reports
indicate that range and life are negatively impacted by air systems
Active heating and cooling while vehicle plugged in can extend life, shorten
charge times
While we don’t focus on it in this algorithms specialization, design of the thermal-
management system is challenging and very important part of overall xEV design
Credits
key on: initialize


Chevy volt cutaway on slide 2: By Mariordo Mario Roberto Duran

Ortiz (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0
Chevy_Volt_drivetrain_cut-away_WAS_2010_8889.JPG
Tesla S cutaway on slide 2: By Oleg Alexandrov (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tesla_Motors_Model_S_base.JPG
key on: initialize

This past week, we devoted our attention to learning about temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
major BMS functions, preparing to develop BMS algorithms

What does a BMS need to do?
What are design considerations for BMS and battery-pack architecture?
We looked closely at BMS requirement 1: sensing and high-voltage control
What are the sensing requirements of a BMS, and how does it meet those
requirements?
How does a BMS safely dis/connect pack from load?
What does BMS need to know about thermal management?
Where from here?
key on: initialize

Next week, we continue to learn about major BMS functions

Requirement 2: Protection
Against what? How?

Requirement 3: Interface
With what? How?
Requirement 4: Performance management
Includes introduction to SOC, SOH, total energy, and
available power estimation
Requirement 5: Diagnostics
Credits
key on: initialize

Destinations sign on slide 2: Pixabay license

(https://pixabay.com/en/service/license/),
https://pixabay.com/en/sign-places-travel-information-429419/
1.4.1: How can a BMS protect the user and battery pack?
Introduction to week 4
key on: initialize

In week 3, we focused on
balance
requirement 1 of a BMS, sensing and loop once each measurement interval while pack is active
high-voltage control
Cooling system
This week, we turn our attention to
the other four requirements Cell
To review, these were: Cell Battery Host-
Cell Management application
2. Protection System control
Cell
3. Interface computer
4. Performance management
5. Diagnostics Cell Contactor control,
In this topic, we consider protection pack measurement
Dr. Gregory L. Plett University of Colorado Colorado Springs Introduction to Battery Management Systems | BMS Design Requirements 2–5 1 of 8
BMS requirement 2: Protection
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BMS must provide monitoring and control to protect: temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Cells from out-of-tolerance ambient operating conditions

User from consequences of battery failures
High-energy storage batteries can be very dangerous:
If energy is released in an uncontrolled way (short circuit, physical damage), can
have catastrophic consequences
In a short circuit, hundreds of amperes can develop in microseconds; protection
circuitry must act quickly
What to protect against

key on: initialize

Different applications and different cell chemistries require temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
different degrees of protection

Failure in a lithium-ion cell can be very serious: explosion/fire
Protection is indispensable in automotive environment
Protection must address following undesirable events or conditions:
Excessive current during charging or discharging
Short circuit
Over voltage and under voltage
High ambient temperature, overheating
Loss of isolation
Abuse
Overcurrent/overtemperature protection
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When possible, fallback protection paths should be

implemented
Red = cell-manufacturer specified region where cells

will most likely be subject to permanent damage
Anywhere else “okay” but need margin of error
Generally design to limit cell’s operating conditions to
smaller “safe” region, shown here in green
Safety devices are then specified to constrain cells to
safe region
White = safety margin
Overvoltage/overtemperature protection
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Similar for voltage limits:

But, each protection device added into main current

path increases battery impedance, reducing power

delivered to load
Examples of protection devices include:
Thermal fuse: Opens contactor when limit
Conventional fuse: May not act quickly enough
Active fault detection: BMS monitoring for fault
conditions
Fault detection/tolerance
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Another aspect of protection is detecting, withstanding, and temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
(when possible) rectifying faults

State-of-art BMS use processors having dual CPUs that execute the same
instructions at slightly different times on different cores, then compare results
Slaves often can detect most cell faults without intervention of the main processor
Cell over/under voltage, over/under temperature, redundant sensing, etc.
Serious slave faults should be able to shut pack down without using master
microprocessor
Some more complex faults (for example isolation) must be detected by software
Link between master and slaves must have high EMI immunity
Standards
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Different applications have different standards for safety temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Passenger cars having maximum gross vehicle mass up to

3500 kg fall under ISO26262:2011
Electric motorcycles fall under ISO/PAS 19695:2015 (similar to ISO26262)
Larger trucks over 3500 kg, such as Ford F250, 350, Chevy Silverado 2500, as
well as semis, buses, etc...) fall under IEC61508
While these safety standards have the same goals they are different in application
Use different “safety integrity levels” (SILs), evaluated in different ways
Very difficult to design to all these standards simultaneously
Standards are complex—require courses of their own to understand how to comply
Summary
key on: initialize

It is critical to protect battery-pack operator and pack itself temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Good design practice to require multiple protections to fail

before pack itself fails
Redundancy of sensing and processing enables fault detection
Standards (beyond scope of this specialization) inform best-practices designs,
robust fault-tolerant implementations
1.4.2: How must a BMS interface with other system components?
BMS requirement 3: Interface
key on: initialize

Have now looked at requirements 1

and 2 of a BMS, sensing and

high-voltage control; protection Cooling system
In this topic, we consider
Cell
requirement 3, interface
Cell Battery Host-
Communications, charger control, Cell Management application
control
data recording, range estimation Cell System
computer

pack measurement
3a. Communication via CAN bus
key on: initialize

Control Area Network (CAN) bus is industry ISO standard for temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
on-board vehicle communications

Designed to provide robust communications in the very harsh automotive operating
environments with high levels of electrical noise
Two-wire serial bus designed to network intelligent sensors and actuators; can
operate at two rates:
High speed (e.g., 1M Baud): Used for critical operations such as engine
management, vehicle stability, motion control
Low speed (e.g., 100 kBaud): Simple switching and control of lighting, windows,
mirror adjustments, and instrument displays (etc.)
Format of CAN-bus packet

key on: initialize
The protocol defines the following:

Method of addressing the devices connected to the bus

Data format (the “message”)

Transmission speed, priority
0...8
1−Bit SOF
1−Bit RTR
2−Bit ACK
settings, and sequence 29−Bit 6−Bit 16−Bit 7−Bit

Byte
Error detection and handling CAN Control
Data
CRC End of
ID Field Field Frame
Control signals Field
Data frames are transmitted sequentially over the bus.
3b. Charger control
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Battery packs are charged in two ways:

Random: Charge delivered in unpredictable

patterns; e.g., regenerative braking

Control by providing inverter power limits
Plug-in: For EV/PHEV/E-REV
Control charger current, voltage, balancing
Often CP/CV; more exotic methods
possible
Heating systems may be required
What limits fast charging?
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Passenger vehicles require approximately 200–300 Wh mile 1 temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
For 300 mile range, 60–90 kWh capacity, charge in 3 min.

requires a rate of up to 1.8 MW!
Domestic 15 A 110 V or 1 5 kW “level 1” service charges pack in 40–60 h
Domestic 30 A 220 V or 6 6 kW “level 2” service charges pack in 10–15 h
DC “level 3” (CHAdeMO) fast charging, 500 V, 125 A can provide up to 80 %
charge in 30 min
Tesla “level 3” fast charging for model S can provide 50 % charge in 20 min
So, limit is usually the electrical service, not the battery pack
However, battery can limit charge rates at high SOC and low temperature
3c. Log book function

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For warrantee and diagnostic purposes, BMS must store a log

of atypical/abuse events
Abuse type: out of tolerance, voltage, current, temperature

Duration and magnitude of abuse
Can also store diagnostic information regarding
Number of charge/discharge cycles completed
SOH estimates at beginning of each driving cycle
And much more. . .
Data stored in nonvolatile (e.g., FLASH) memory and
downloaded when required
3d. Range estimation
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How far can I drive before available energy is depleted? temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Heavily influenced by environmental factors:

What are the vehicle characteristics?
How is the vehicle being driven (gently/aggressively)?
Are there a lot of hills, a lot of wind?
Is it warm or cold out?
At present, it appears that each OEM will have their own range algorithms
But, will look briefly at vehicle simulation in course 2
Sufficient for now to produce inputs to those algorithms; esp. available energy
Summary
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BMS must communicate critical information to host application temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Often done via CAN-bus protocol

Communication needs are application-specific, but often include
How to control charger to avoid safety hazards
Entries from logbook of atypical/abuse events
Range estimates (distance- or time-to-empty)
And of course, estimates of available energy and power, etc.
We consider what estimates a BMS must make in the next topic
Credits
key on: initialize

Tesla with supercharger on slide 4: Pixabay CC) license,

https://pixabay.com/en/tesla-tesla-model-x-charging-1738969/
Logbook on slide 6: Pixabay CC0 license,
https://pixabay.com/en/sketchbook-book-notes-calendar-156775/
1.4.3: Why must a BMS estimate SOC and SOH?
BMS requirement 4: Performance management
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So far, we have now looked at temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
requirements 1 through 3 of a BMS

We now consider requirement 4, Cooling system
performance management
Cell
State-of-charge (SOC) estimation, Cell Host-
Battery
power-limit computation, Cell Management application
control
balance/equalize cells Cell System
computer

pack measurement
What needs to be estimated, and why?
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Battery applications need to know two battery quantities:

How much energy is available in the battery pack

How much power is available in the immediate future

Knowing energy is most important for applications such as EV:
Tells me how far I can drive
Knowing power is most important for applications such as HEV:
Tells me whether I can accelerate or accept braking charge
Both are important for applications such as E-REV/PHEV
Why must we estimate energy, power?

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Can’t measure available energy or

available power
Instead, must estimate these values

To estimate energy, we must know (at
Q
least) all cell states-of-charge and
Energy
capacities SOC
Pack
To estimate power, we must know (at Calculations
Power
least) all cell states-of-charge and R
resistances
Why must we estimate SOC, SOH?
key on: initialize

But, cannot directly measure these parameters either! temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Therefore, must estimate SOC, SOH

V Q
Model Energy
Pack
I Based SOC
Calculations
Estimators Power
T R
Available inputs include all cell voltages, pack current, and

temperatures of cells or modules.
Quality of estimates
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There are both good and poor methods to produce estimates:

Poor methods are generally simpler to understand, code,

and validate, but yield less-accurate results

Impacts of a poor estimator can be:
Abrupt corrections when voltage or current limits exceeded,
leading to customer perception of poor drivability, or
Overcharge or overdischarge, which damages cells, or
Compensating for uncertainty by overdesigning pack
All of these have costs in dollars, weight and/or volume
Summary
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Applications need to know battery available energy and power temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Can’t measure; must estimate based on , ,

These also must be estimated using measured voltage, current, and temperature
Major premise of this specialization: investing in good BMS electronics and
algorithms can reduce pack size and result in considerable net savings
Course 2: How to model cells, needed by algorithms
Course 3: Advanced methods for SOC estimation
Course 4: SOH estimation
Course 5: Balancing and power-limits estimation
Preview of these next
Credits
key on: initialize


Lemonade on slide 2: CC0 public domain, cropped from

https://pixabay.com/en/drinks-juice-fruit-juice-summer-1430739/
Photo of Rudolph Kalman (pioneer of estimation theory and inventor of the “Kalman filter”
we will study in Course 3) on slide 5, By Greuel, Gert-Martin [CC BY-SA 2.0 de
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/de/deed.en)], via Wikimedia
Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rudolf_Kalman.jpg
(cropped)
1.4.4: What are cell SOC and battery-pack SOC?
What really is state-of-charge (SOC)?
key on: initialize

BMS must estimate SOC as input to algorithms that compute

available energy and available power

But, what really is a good physical/electrochemical understanding of SOC?
Dis/charging cell moves lithium between negative and positive electrodes
Current collector
Current collector
Separator
Cell SOC related to average Li concentration in the negative-electrode particles
Dr. Gregory L. Plett j University of Colorado Colorado Springs Introduction to Battery Management Systems | BMS Design Requirements 2–5 j 1 of 6
What is physical basis for cell SOC?
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Maximum theoretical concentration of

balance
cells
❝s✱♠ ① temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) limits
lithium in electrode particle is cs;max

✦✶✁✂✄
Average concentration of Li in particle at time k is cs;avg;k

Then, present lithium stoichiometry is k D cs;avg;k =cs;max
This is a kind of electrode SOC, different from cell SOC
Stoichiometry must remain between 0% > 0 and 100% < 1
Then, cell SOC is (note: 0neg neg pos pos
% < 100% , but 0% > 100% )
´k D .kneg 0neg neg
% /=.100% 0neg
%/
D .k 0% /=.100% 0% /
pos pos pos pos
☎✵✆
How does SOC relate to cell voltage?

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Cell voltage depends on Li surface concentration in particles

that contact positive and negative current collectors

SOC depends on average concentrations over entire electrode: not the same
Further, average concentrations not affected by
Changing temperature, which changes voltage: doesn’t change SOC
Resting a cell, which changes voltage: doesn’t change SOC
Entire current profile vs. net current, which changes voltage but not SOC
In summary, SOC changes only due to passage of current, either charging or
discharging the cell due to external circuitry, or due to self-discharge within the cell
Voltage useful as indirect indicator of SOC, but not as measurement of SOC
How does SOC relate to cell current?
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SOC is related to cell current via

Z t
1
´.t/ D ´.0/ i./ d
Q 0
Cell current is positive on discharge, negative on charge
is cell coulombic efficiency 1 but 1
Q is the cell total capacity in ampere seconds (coulombs)
Note, Q measures number of vacancies in the electrode crystal structure between
0% and 100% that could hold lithium: It is not a function of temperature, rate, etc.
Estimating SOC via this integral equation is called “coulomb counting”
We’ll see in course 3 that coulomb counting has some serious limitations
What about “pack state-of-charge”?
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Final point: What is “pack SOC?”

balance
Consider example
Should “pack SOC” be 0 % because we cannot discharge?

Should “pack SOC” be 100 % because we cannot charge?
Should “pack SOC” be the average of the two, 50 %?
The term “pack SOC” is ill-defined, and should never be used
One issue this points out is the need for cell balancing (course 5)
Why might we even want to know “pack SOC”?
Setpoint control: Average SOC of all cells might work for this
Fuel gauge: Real issue is battery-pack available energy
Summary
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SOC has a real physical basis that can be connected directly

to cell electrochemistry
If we know average Li concentration in either electrode, then
´k D .kneg 0neg neg
% /=.100% 0neg
%/
D .kpos 0pos pos
% /=.100%
pos
0% /
Generally, we don’t: so can direct measurements of voltage or current tell us SOC?
Not by themselves. We must somehow combine (cf. course 3)
Finally, “pack SOC” doesn’t make sense and should not be used
“Pack-average SOC” is a more careful wording if that is what is meant
1.4.5: How do I compute cell available energy and power?
Cell total energy estimate
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Energy is an ability to do work, measured in Wh or kWh temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Cell total energy is equal to

OCV versus SOC for six cells at 25°C
OCV d nom 4
Open-circuit voltage (V)

min
Not a function of temperature or rate 3.5
But, impossible to get all energy out of cell at 3
high rates and cold temperatures

Why we need power estimates as well 2.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
State of charge (%)
Cell available power estimate
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Power is rate at which can move energy without exceeding

cell or electronics design limits

Dis/charging at too high a power level will accelerate cell

degradation and lead to premature battery-pack failure
Power is instantaneous quantity: in W or kW
But, estimate must provide moving-window power limits
Calculate to enforce design limits (e.g., on cell voltage and
current), predictive over second future time horizon
Update at a faster rate than once every seconds
Cell available power estimate

key on: initialize

Pulse test voltage versus time temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
4.2
In course 5, we will explore advanced
4
methods to compute cell power
Voltage (V)
3.8 In the meantime, we introduce a simple

3.6
(and commonly used) approach
Run hybrid pulse power characterization
3.4
(HPPC) tests; tabulate cell resistance at
0 10 20 30 40 50 different SOC and temperature setpoints
Time (s)
HPPC discharge power
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For HPPC discharge power, assume

cells
R +
temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) limits
simplified cell model

OCV(z(t))
+
OCV v(t)
OCV −
-
Assume we’re concerned only with keeping voltage between min and max
For discharge power, set dis and clamp min
OCV min
dis min
dis
HPPC charge power
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Using same simplified cell model

OCV
R +
For charge power, set chg and max OCV(z(t))
OCV max
+
chg max v(t)
chg −
Note that this quantity is negative: Can multiply by (take
absolute value) if need to report as positive value -
Usually derate HPPC estimates since the equations assume
initial equilibrium condition
Summary
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Cell total energy easily computed using cell SOC , total temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
capacity , and OCV relationship

Cell available power is estimated over future moving-window time horizon to avoid
damaging cell, electronics
HPPC method is simple way to characterize cell and estimate power
Has limitations, as we will see in course 5, so HPPC computations should be
derated in practice
Credits
key on: initialize


Blurry image outside of moving window on slide 2: Pixabay CC0

license (https://pixabay.com/en/service/license/); cropped from
https://pixabay.com/en/transport-blurry-moving-tram-bus-2262256/
1.4.6: How do I compute battery-pack available energy and power?
Computing battery-pack available power
key on: initialize

Recall that HPPC cell discharge power is computed temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
cell OCV min

dis min
dis
Computing power in series multi-cell battery pack, still clamp min

But, must use minimum limiting current, multiply by number of cells in series
pack OCV min

dis min min
dis
Similarly, for charge (remembering charge power is negative)
pack OCV max

chg max max
chg
Computing battery-pack total energy
key on: initialize

Recall that cell total energy is computed as

balance
OCV d nom
min
In a battery, each cell may have different and

Computing battery-pack energy is a three-step process
1. Determine minimum Ah to discharge any cell to min
Start with generic SOC equation
Ah discharged
Set , min , , rearrange
Ah discharged min min
Computing battery-pack total energy (cont.)

key on: initialize

2. For this many Ah discharged, compute resulting temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
SOC of all cells:

Ah discharged
low
3. Compute total battery discharge energy
pack OCV d
low
Reminder: Can’t extract all energy at high rates and

cold temperatures, still need power-limit estimates
Using lookup table for efficiency
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Integrated OCV can be stored in look-up table

(LUT) for “instant” computation

Integrated OCV vs. SOC for six cells at 25°C

% zRef is vector of SOC points , e . g . , 4
% zRef = zmin :0.01:1; Note: zmin = 10%
% ocvVec is a vector of OCV values
Integrated OCV (V)

3
% corresponding to each SOC point .
% ivzRef is integrated OCV function : 2
ivzRef = cumtrapz ( zRef , ocvVec ) ;
1
% Table lookup uses " interp1 . m " to find

% OCV integrated between zmin and " z ". 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
ivz = interp1 ( zRef , ivzRef , max ( zmin , z ) ) ; State of charge (%)
Summary
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Can now compute estimates of battery-pack power over future temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
time horizon and battery pack total energy by expanding on

how we computed cell power and energy
Have also seen first example Octave/MATLAB code to implement a look-up table
This completes our introduction to requirement 4 for BMS (estimation)
Will spend much more time examining (better) methods to do so in courses 3–5
Will spend the remainder of this week considering BMS requirement 5, diagnostics
1.4.7: What kinds of diagnostics must a BMS report?
BMS requirement 5: Diagnostics
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So far, we have looked at BMS temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
requirements 1 through 4
We now consider final requirement 5, Cooling system
diagnostics
Cell
Abuse detection, state-of-health Cell Host-
Battery
(SOH) estimation, state-of-life Cell Management application
control
(SOL) estimation Cell System
computer

pack measurement
External abuse detection
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BMS often is not in control of battery-pack destiny temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
Provides guidance to host application, which host might ignore

BMS must detect and log external abuse: violation of voltage, current, power,
temperature limits
Log for warranty and post-mortem diagnostics
Internal failure detection

key on: initialize
BMS must detect and log

Voltage-, current-, temperature-sensor failures

Failures of balancing system

Contactor failure
Fan or pump failures, loss of coolant
Loss of communications, garbled or missing messages
from host
State-of-health (SOH)
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BMS must report a battery state-of-health (SOH) estimate

Not precisely defined; generally, quantifies cell aging to date

Two measurable indicators change as cell ages naturally
Capacity decreases 20 % to 30 %: (capacity fade)
Resistance increases 50 % to 100 %: (power fade)
Estimating and as the pack operates will give
indicators of life. We study this in course 4
Can also define state-of-life (SOL), which tries to predict how much life remains as
a percentage or calendar time
Issue: Future rate of cell abuse and aging may differ from past
Summary
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Final BMS requirement we look at is diagnostics

Need to be able to detect and log external failures that impact battery
Need to be able to detect and log internal failures that impact battery
Need to be able to monitor SOH due to normal degradation processes
May need to predict SOL as well
Credits
key on: initialize

Puffy iPhone battery cell on slide 2: By Mpt-matthew (Own work)

[CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], cropped from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:
Failed capacitors on slide 3: By Fromthehill [CC BY-SA 3.0
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nichicon_2200uF_6.3V_swollen_
leaking_capacitors_Compaq_year_2001_motherboard.jpg (cropped)
“Dead” cell on slide 4: Pixabay license (https://pixabay.com/en/service/license/),
https://pixabay.com/en/dead-battery-leak-leakage-charge-1623377/
key on: initialize

This past week, we concluded our overview

look at major BMS functions

Requirement 2: Protection Cooling system
Requirement 3: Interface Cell

Cell Battery Host-
Requirement 4: Performance management Cell Management application
control
Special emphasis on understanding Cell System
computer
meaning of SOC, SOH, total energy and
available power Cell Contactor control,
Requirement 5: Diagnostics pack measurement
Decision point
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This brings us to the end of the non-honors version of temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
course 1 in the BMS algorithms specialization

Decision point:
Honors track has one more week in
course 1, looking into how Li-ion cells
are manufactured, how they age and fail
Remaining courses focus on how to
estimate battery internal state, and how
to control battery operation
Where from here?

key on: initialize

All future discussion moves towards learning how to design temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
and implement BMS monitoring and controls algorithms

To be able to do so, we need a way to describe
mathematically how battery cells behave
So, course 2 “How to create and simulate equivalent-circuit models” introduces
Some helpful battery models
How to find parameter values for models
Methods and example code to simulate battery cells and battery packs
Example of how to simulate a battery load
Important note
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Note also that many/most of the methods we talk about are temperature charge (SOC) health (SOH) cells limits
patented and owned by battery-application companies

This is true even of methods commonly found in the literature—most have been
developed by companies for their own use
Strongly motivates research to develop methods that are sufficiently different from
those that have been patented, so that they may be implemented freely (or, so
that you may patent them!)
But, it also means that you may not use these methods commercially without
license from the patent owner
Credits
key on: initialize


Fork in road on slide 2: By Mark Turnauckas, [CC BY 2.0

https://www.flickr.com/photos/marktee/5923492105

1.introduction of BMS

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1.

0: Introduction to the specialization

Welcome to the specialization!

1.0: Introduction to the specialization

What is a battery management system?

This specialization is all about computer methods—implemented in

1.0: Introduction to the specialization

What do we cover in this specialization?

Am I a good fit for this specialization?

1.0: Introduction to the specialization

If you wish for more permanent

1.0: Introduction to the specialization

Welcome to the course!

key on: initialize

loop once each measurement interval while pack is active

This course is the first in a specialization that investigates the

The methods and algorithms we discuss

1.1.1: Welcome to the course!

What must a BMS do?

key on: initialize

loop once each measurement interval while pack is active

Protect human safety of device’s operator:

1.1.1: Welcome to the course!

When do I need a BMS?

meas. voltage estimate estimate balance compute

loop once each measurement interval while pack is active

for safety: unmanaged cells can catch fire and explode!

Vehicle applications justifying complexity

key on: initialize

loop once each measurement interval while pack is active

Hybrid-electric vehicle (HEV): Motive

Plug-in hybrid-electric vehicle (PHEV):

1.1.1: Welcome to the course!

Vehicle applications justifying complexity

key on: initialize

loop once each measurement interval while pack is active

Extended-Range Electric Vehicle

Electric Vehicle (EV), a.k.a.

1.1.1: Welcome to the course!

Other applications justifying complexity

meas. voltage estimate estimate balance compute

loop once each measurement interval while pack is active

“large,” “high voltage,” and “high current”

What topics will we study in this course?

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Battery terminology and composition

1.1.1: Welcome to the course!

What skills will you gain in this course?

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After completing the course, you’ll be able to:

Match terminology to a list of definitions

Identify major components of lithium-ion cell and their purpose

1.1.1: Welcome to the course!

For further study

meas. voltage estimate estimate balance compute

loop once each measurement interval while pack is active

In this course, we will study

key on: initialize

Credits for photos in this lesson

loop once each measurement interval while pack is active

Introducing important battery terminology

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loop once each measurement interval while pack is active