MARMARA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE FOR GRADUATE STUDIES

IN PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES

DEFINING THE OPERATIONAL SET

POINTS OF HEAVY DUTY VEHICLE WITH
VIRTUAL CALIBRATION METHOD
SENCER BOLU

MASTER THESIS
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Thesis Supervisor
Prof. Dr. M.Zafer GÜL
Thesis CO- Supervisor
Dr. Emre ÖZGÜL

ISTANBUL, 2022
 Preface

First of all, I would like to thank my advisor, Prof. Dr. Mehmet Zafer Gül, for his
unwavering support in this thesis. In addition, I would like to thank Dr. Emre Özgül, my
team leader and co-advisor, who gave me ideas, encouraged and motivated me to develop
a new methodology for this thesis. Many thanks to my colleague Emre Epgüzel for his
technical support. I would like to thank the Ford Otosan A.Ş family, who took part in the
thesis work and provided me with the opportunity for my studies.

Finally, I would like to thank my wife Tuğba BOLU, my dear mother Fatma BOLU, and
my father Osman Hadi BOLU for their tremendous support. I also wish this thesis to be a
good memory for my daughter Eylül BOLU.

December 2021 Sencer BOLU

Mechanical Engineer

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 Table of Contents
Preface ............................................................................................................................... i

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. ii

ÖZET ............................................................................................................................... iv

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... v

SYMBOLS ...................................................................................................................... vi

ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................. viii

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... ix

LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... xi

1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1

1.1. Literature Survey ....................................................................................................... 2

2. METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................... 4

2.1 I-6 Heavy Duty Diesel Engine Specifications ............................................................ 4

2.2 GT Suite Modeling Approach .................................................................................... 5

2.2.1 Fluid Dynamics Governing Equations .................................................................... 6

2.2.2 Direct Injection Diesel Multi-Pulse Model ............................................................. 7

2.2.3 DI Pulse Model Correlation for I-6 Heavy Duty Diesel Engine Model ................ 10

2.3 Virtual Calibration Methodology for Heat-Up Calibration ...................................... 14

2.3.1 Defining the Engine Operation Points & DoE Parameters Range ........................ 15

2.3.2 Choosing the Optimum DoE Parameter Results According to Base Calibration.. 17

2.4 Virtual Calibration Methodology for High Altitude Calibration.............................. 22

2.4.1 Corrected Limits of the Model .............................................................................. 25

2.4.2 Base Engine Calibration Maps and Correction Maps ........................................... 26

2.4.3 High Altitude Virtual Calibration Model .............................................................. 28

2.4.4 Defining the High Altitude Virtual Calibration DoE Parameters ......................... 30

2.4.5 Choosing the Optimum DoE Parameter Results for Maximum Torque ............... 31

ii
3. RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 32

3.1 Comparison of Virtual Calibration Results with the Dynamometer Test ................ 32

3.2 Comparison of Virtual Calibration Results with High Altitude Vehicle Test .......... 38

4. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE STUDIES ............................................................... 41

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 43

iii
 ÖZET
AĞIR HİZMET TİPİ ARAÇ MOTORUNUN SANAL KALİBRASYON
METODU İLE OPERASYONEL ÇALIŞMA NOKTALARININ
BELİRLENMESİ

Bu tez çalışması Ağır Hizmet Tipi araç motoru olarak kullanılan dizel içten yanmalı
motorun kalibrasyon test maliyetlerini azaltmak adına test çalışmalarına yön vermesi
beklentisiyle yapılmıştır. Test maliyetlerinin düşürülmeye çalışıldığı günümüzde
bilgisayar destekli mühendislik kapsamında, bir boyutlu termodinamik motor modeli
kullanılarak bu maliyetlerin minimize edilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bir boyutlu termodinamik
motor modelleme programı olarak GT-Suite yazılımı kullanılmıştır.

Bu tez çalışması kapsamında iki konu ele alınacaktır. Bunlardan ilki; motorun ısıtma
modundaki kalibrayonu için yapılmış ve belirlenen çalışma noktaları için en az yakıt
tüketimini veren, NOx emisyon şartlarına uyan ve en yüksek türbin çıkış sıcaklığını veren
çalışma noktaları kümesi bulunarak test süresini kısaltmak amaçlanmıştır. İkinci çalışma
konusu ise bu motoru kullanan aracın yüksek irtifa koşullarında yapılan ve maximum
torku elde etmeyi amaçlayan kalibrasyon testleri için bir çalışma uzayı belirlemektir. Bu
çalışma ile farklı irtifalar için motor kalibrasyon haritalarına düzeltme faktörleri
bulunmuştur. Bu çalışma ile amaç; turboşarj şaft hızı, türbin giriş sıcaklığı, kompresör
çıkış sıcaklığı ve silindir içi maksimum basınç limitlerini geçmeyen ve en yüksek torku
veren düzeltme faktörleri belirlenmiştir.

Bu çalışma ile hem motor seviyesi, hemde araç seviyesi kalibrasyon çalışmalarına yol
gösterecek, çalışma sürelerini ve test maliyetlerini azaltacak iki adet metodoloji
geliştirilmiştir.

iv
 ABSTRACT

DEFINING THE OPERATIONAL SET POINTS OF HEAVY DUTY

VEHICLE WITH VIRTUAL CALIBRATION METHOD

This thesis study was carried out with the expectation that the diesel internal combustion
engine, which is used as a Heavy Duty vehicle engine, will guide the test studies in order
to reduce the calibration test costs. Today, when testing costs are tried to be reduced, it is
aimed to minimize these costs by using a one-dimensional thermodynamic engine model
within the scope of computer-aided engineering. The GT-Suite software was used as a
one-dimensional thermodynamic engine modeling program.

Two issues will be discussed in this thesis. The first of these; It is aimed to shorten the test
period by finding a set of operating points that give the least fuel consumption, comply
with the NOx emission conditions and give the highest turbine outlet temperature for the
determined operating points. The second subject of study is to determine a working space
for the calibration tests carried out in high altitude conditions of the vehicle using this
engine and aiming to obtain the maximum torque. In this study, correction factors were
found for engine calibration maps for different altitudes. The aim of this study; The
correction factors that do not exceed the turbocharger shaft speed, turbine inlet
temperature, compressor outlet temperature and in-cylinder maximum pressure limits and
give the highest torque were determined.

Two methodologies have been developed with this study that will guide both engine level
and vehicle level calibration studies and reduce operating times and test costs.

v
 SYMBOLS
Symbol Definition Unit

BSFC Break specific fuel consumption g/kW.h

𝐵𝑆𝑁𝑂𝑥 Break specific nitrogen oxide g/kW.h
P Pressure Pa
m Mass flow rate kg/h or kg/s
H Enthalpy J
tb Breakup time s
T fluid Instantaneous bulk fluid temperature K

𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 Instantaneous bulk wall temperature K

T Temperature K
dx Discretization length m
 Density kg/m3
A Area m2
D Diameter m or in

Kp Pressure loss coefficient -

As Heat transfer surface area m2

h Specific enthalpy J/kg

𝑒 Internal energy J
u Velocity of fluid m/s
𝐴𝑛 Injector nozzle area m2
𝑑𝑛 Injector nozzle diameter mm
𝐶𝑑 Injector nozzle discharge coefficient -
𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑗 Velocity at injector nozzle m/s
S Spray tip length mm
𝑚̇𝑖𝑛𝑗 Injection mass flow rate kg/h or kg/s
𝜌𝑙 Liquid fuel density kg/m3
𝜌𝑔 Liquid fuel density kg/m3
ΔP Pressure drop across injector nozzle Pa

vi
𝜏𝑖𝑔𝑛 Ignition delay -
[𝑂2 ] Oxygen concentration %
𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑛 Time at ignition s
𝑚𝑝𝑚 Premixed mass kg or g
𝑘 Turbulent kinetic energy J/kg
𝑉𝑐𝑦𝑙 Cylinder volume cm3

vii
 ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviation Definition

AFR Air fuel ratio

CA Crank angle
CFM1D 0-dimensional coherent flame model
CO2 Carbon diaoxide
DoE Design of experiment
ECU Electronic control unit
EGR Exhaust gas recirculation
EVC Exhaust valve closing
EVO Exhaust valve opening
IVC Intake valve closing
IVO Intake valve opening
NEDC New European driving cycle
NOx Nitrogen oxide
OEM Original equipment manufacturer
PFP Peak Fire Pressure
PID Proportional integral derivative
SCR Selective catalytic reduction
SOI Start of ignition
TOC Total cost of ownership
VGT Variable geometry turbine

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Non-Dimensionilized Valve Lifts. ................................................................... 5
Figure 2. GT-Suite Model................................................................................................ 6
Figure 3. Schematic of Staggered Grid Approach. .......................................................... 7
Figure 4. Brake Torque Model & Test Results ............................................................. 12
Figure 5. Air Mass Flow Rate Model & Test Results ................................................... 12
Figure 6. Cylinder Maximum Pressure Model & Test Results ..................................... 12
Figure 7. Turbine Inlet Temperature Model & Test Results ......................................... 13
Figure 8. Turbocharger Shaft Speed Model & Test Results .......................................... 13
Figure 9. Brake Specific Fuel Conscumption Model & Test Results ........................... 13
Figure 10. Brake Specific NOx Model & Test Results ................................................. 14
Figure 11. PID Controllers Location in Model. ............................................................. 16
Figure 12. 1000 rpm 400Nm BSFC-TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point.
........................................................................................................................................ 18
Figure 13. 1000 rpm 400Nm BSNOx-TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point.
........................................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 14. 1000 rpm 400Nm TOC-TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point. 19
Figure 15. 1000 rpm 800Nm BSFC-TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point.
........................................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 16. 1000 rpm 800Nm BSNOx -TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point.
........................................................................................................................................ 20
Figure 17. 1000 rpm 800Nm TOC-TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point. 20
Figure 18. 1000 rpm 1200Nm BSFC-TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point.
........................................................................................................................................ 21
Figure 19. 1000 rpm 1200Nm BSNOx -TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base
Point. ............................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 20. 1000 rpm 1200Nm TOC-TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point.
........................................................................................................................................ 21
Figure 21. Variable Geometry Turbine(VGT). .............................................................. 23
Figure 22. Mass Flow Rate & Expansion Rate Comparison of a Fixed Geometry and a
VGT Turbine Example [10] ........................................................................................... 24
Figure 23. High Altitude MAF Calibration Map Calculation. ....................................... 27

ix
Figure 24. High Altitude MAP Calibration Map Calculation. ....................................... 27
Figure 25. High Altitude SOI Calibration Map Calculation. ......................................... 27
Figure 26. High Altitude Virtual Calibration Model. .................................................... 29
Figure 27. Torque Target PID with Turbine Inlet Temperature Limit .......................... 29
Figure 28. 1000 rpm 400Nm BSFC-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration
Point. ............................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 29. 1000 rpm 400Nm BSNOx-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration
Point. ............................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 30. 1000 rpm 400Nm TOC-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration Point.
........................................................................................................................................ 33
Figure 31. 1000 rpm 800Nm BSFC-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration
Point. ............................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 32. 1000 rpm 800Nm BSNOx-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration
Point. ............................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 33. 1000 rpm 800Nm TOC-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration Point.
........................................................................................................................................ 34
Figure 34. 1000 rpm 1200Nm BSFC-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration
Point. ............................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 35. 1000 rpm 1200Nm BSNOx-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration
Point. ............................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 36. 1000 rpm 1200Nm TOC-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration
Point. ............................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 37. Brake Torque Comparison of Model Results with Vehicle Test Data .......... 38
Figure 38. Air Mass Flow Rate Comparison of Model Results with Vehicle Test Data.39
Figure 39. SOI Comparison of Model Results with Vehicle Test Data. ........................ 39
Figure 40. Boost Pressure Comparison of Model Results with Vehicle Test Data. ....... 40
Figure 41. Turbine Inlet Temperature Comparison of Model Results with Vehicle Test
........................................................................................................................................ 40
Figure 42. Compressor Outlet Temperature Comparison of Model Results with Vehicle
Test Data. ........................................................................................................................ 41

x
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Engine Technical Specification. ........................................................................ 4
Table 2. Model Correlation Limits. ............................................................................... 10
Table 3. Engine Calibration Limits................................................................................ 11
Table 4. DoE Design for 1000 rpm 400 Nm Region. .................................................... 16
Table 5. DoE Design for 1000 rpm 800 Nm Region. .................................................... 16
Table 6. DoE Design for 1000 rpm 1200 Nm Region. .................................................. 17
Table 7. The Corrected Limits of Full Load Correlation. .............................................. 26
Table 8. High Altitude Virtual Calibration DoE Desing Space. .................................... 30
Table 9. High Altitude Virtual Calibration DoE Results. .............................................. 31
Table 10. 1000 rpm 400 Nm Results Table. .................................................................. 37
Table 11. 1000 rpm 800 Nm Results Table. .................................................................. 37
Table 12. 1000 rpm 1200 Nm Results Table. ................................................................ 37

xi
1. INTRODUCTION

The determination of the CO2 and NOx emission standards determined by the European
Commission with stricter rules every year triggers the manufacturers to make changes
in engine subsystems and to develop new engine calibrations. According to the latest
standards set by the European Commission, the CO2 targets will be recorded according
to the fleet averages and the expected CO2 reduction is 15% from 2025 and 30% from
2030.[1]

Although the current CO2 emission has global effects such as global warming, air
pollution and an increase in carbon footprint, NOx emission has local effects and
threatens human health. While manufacturers try to reduce CO2 emissions by reducing
fuel consumption, they aim to reduce NOx emissions by developing different
subsystems. Diesel engine vehicles have various subsystems to reduce NOx emissions.
The system considered in this study is SCR and it is designed to convert the NOx
emissions of the engine into N2 and water. When the SCR system is above a certain
temperature, it can work more efficiently with an additive solution called Adblue,
reducing NOx emissions. It is difficult to maintain this temperature during the cold start
of the vehicle and can be achieved with the calibration of the heating mode used in the
vehicle. Heating mode calibration increases the turbine outlet temperature and ensures
that the SCR system is heated as quickly as possible and thus NOx conversion is done
properly.

It is inevitable to perform engine calibration work within the framework of the rules
determined by the European Union Commission and in the subsystem changes that
companies make in order to compete. Carrying out these calibration studies in the
dynamometer test environment, preparing the test system, instrumenting and performing
the tests are factors that both increase the development costs and increase the time spent.

Another challenge for calibration improvement is vehicle tests in high-altitude

environment conditions. For diesel engines, turbine inlet temperature, peak firing
pressure (PFP), turbocharger shaft speed, compressor outlet temperature and air-fuel
ratio (AFR) are the most critical parameters and the engine calibration needs to be

1
constrained with respect to these parameters. After most of the engine calibration
studies, manufacturers need to plan high altitude tests and find out high altitude
calibration multipliers for ensuring no torque derate or provide minimum torque derate
to customer satisfaction.

Reducing test costs and finding suitable solutions in a short time is one of the goals of
manufacturers, not only in the automotive sector, but also in many other research and
development fields. It is aimed to transfer the test studies to be carried out in this context
to a reliable and reproducible simulation environment. In this thesis, there are two
methodologies that are about the exhaust heat up calibration and high altitude calibration
multiplier shown to reduce test costs and time.The determination of the CO2 and NOx
emission standards determined by the European Commission with stricter rules every
year triggers the manufacturers to make changes in engine subsystems and to develop
new engine calibrations. According to the latest standards set by the European
commission, the CO2 targets will be recorded according to the fleet averages and the
expected CO2 reduction is 15% from 2025 and 30% from 2030.

1.1. Literature Survey

Milloet et al. [2] carried out an optimization study on a single working point with the
help of a genetic algorithm. The aim of this study was to reduce emissions and BSFC.
With the method they used, they were able to reduce the working time and obtained
consistent results.

Özgül et al. [3] aimed to accurately predict NOx emissions by using 1-D thermodynamic
simulation models. Because one of the most important conditions for virtual calibration
in the model environment is to make the correct NOx estimation. In their study, 9L
Heavy-Duty diesel engine is used for test and GT-Suite software is used for a
thermodynamic modeling environment. Extended Zeldovich mechanism is embedded
to GT-Suite software and they aimed to find out calibration multipliers for fast NOx
prediction. As a result of this study NOx calibration can be achieved with engine
parameters map like; turbine inlet temperature, in-cylinder maximum temperature,
maximum pressure, load, CA50, exhaust gas recirculation rate and fuel–air ratio.

2
Grahn et al.[4] Using 1-D thermodynamic simulation models, developed a virtual
calibration methodology and found the required set points in order to stay under the
targeted BSFC and NOx limitations in the determined driving cycle. As a result of this
study, targets are achieved with less time and test cost.

Anderlohr et al.[5] aimed to demonstrate importance of system modelling during the

engine and engine calibration development. During the study Coherent Flame Model
which is called CFM1D has been developed and improved continuously. As a result of
this study, calibrational pre-mapping of a 4-cylinder turbocharged engine is prepared
and evaluation on NEDC and real cycles are performed.

Zaglauer et al.[6] presented evolutionary algorithm for the automatic calibration of

virtual engine simulation models. During the study, GT-Suite engine modelling tool is
used for the optimization study. Injection timing, throttle angle, engine speed, valve
timing, valve lift, and wastegate orifice diameter are used as a optimization variables.In
this study, Nelder Mead Simplex Algorithm and Evolutionary Algorithm are compared
with respect to error function of the optimization.End of the study, it is shown that the
evolutionary algorithm is very robust against noisy factors and it looks globally for the
optimum. On the other hand it leads to a great time saving.

Grasreiner et al.[7] aimed to demonstrate the help of virtual methods during the
development of a spark-ignited combustion engine. In their study, for calibrating the
ECU Virtually, quasi-dimensional combustion prediction is used in combination with a
gas exchange analysis. In this study GT-Suite is used as a software environment for all
thermodynamic modeling and simulations tasks and MATLAB is used for integrated
optimization studies. As a conclusion, it is shown that the fully coupled QD model can
contribute to an efficient and robust calibration.

3
2. METHODOLOGY

2.1 I-6 Heavy Duty Diesel Engine Specifications

In this study, 12.7 L 500 PS I-6 direct injection compression ignition is used. This engine
is used for a long-haul commercial truck and general specifications are shown in Table-
1 below.

Volume 12.7 L
Engine Rated Power 500 PS
Compression Ratio 18.5:1
Bore/Stroke 130mm / 160 mm
Number of Cylinders 6
Injection System Common Rail
Injection System Pressure 2000 bar
Piston Shape Bowl Type
Nozzle Type Bosch Common Rail Nozzle
Injector Angle 146
Injector of Nozzle Holes 8
Maximum Peak Firing Pressure 200 bar
Engine Speed Range 500 rpm to 2100 rpm
Turbocharger Type VGT
Table 1. Engine Technical Specification.

4
The exhaust and intake valve lift profiles are shown in Figure-1 Below. Because of the
confidentiality values are non-dimensionalized.

Figure 1. Non-Dimensionilized Valve Lifts.

2.2 GT Suite Modeling Approach

GT-Suite is a software used for system modeling during the design of many
technological products in recent years. It has many modeling capabilities such as
Internal Combustion Engine Modeling, Thermal Management Modeling, Electric
Vehicle Modeling, Battery-Electric Motor Modeling, Fuel Cell Powertrain Modeling,
Lubrication Modeling. For this, it uses the energy, momentum and continuity equations
that will be mentioned in the next section. This software was used to model the engine
used in this study. Combustion engine modeling consists of many sub-parts and systems.
These subsystems and parts can be listed as follows; Intake Line, Compressor, charge
air cooler, intake manifold, cylinders, injectors, cranktrain, exhaust manifold, turbine,
EGR line, EGR cooler, exhaust line. The model used is in the Figure-2 below.

5
 Figure 2. GT-Suite Model.

2.2.1 Fluid Dynamics Governing Equations

In the 1-dimensional thermodynamic model, all overhead lines are represented in the
model as one or more volumes, and the boundary conditions are determined. GT-Suite
was created as a thermodynamic model software and performs solutions for each volume
with Continuity, momentum and energy equations. Scalar quantities such as temperature,
pressure, internal energy, and enthalpy are considered constant in each volume. Vectorial
parameters such as mass flow and velocity are calculated for each boundary condition.
Schematic of staggered grid approach is shown in Figure-3 The equations 1,2 and 3 are
shown below;

𝑑𝑚
Continuity: = ∑𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑚̇ (1)
𝑑𝑡

6
 𝑑(𝑚𝑒) 𝑑𝑉
Energy: = −𝜌 + ∑𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠(𝑚̇𝐻 ) − ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − 𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 ) (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝜌𝐻𝑉) 𝑑𝑝
Enthalpy: = ∑𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠(𝑚̇𝐻 ) + 𝑉 − ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − 𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 ) (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝜌𝑢|𝑢| 𝑑𝑥𝐴 1
𝑑𝑚̇ 𝑑𝑝𝐴+∑𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠(𝑚̇𝑢)−4𝐶𝑓 −𝐾𝑝 ( 𝜌𝑢|𝑢|)𝐴
2 𝐷 2
Momentum: = (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

Figure 3. Schematic of Staggered Grid Approach[8].

2.2.2 Direct Injection Diesel Multi-Pulse Model

GT-Suite is capable of non-predictive, semi-predictive, and predictive combustion

modeling. One of the predictive combustion models name is “Direct Injection Diesel
Multi-Pulse Model” which is called “DI Pulse” model. If the injector map used in the
engine is available, making the model correlation using the predictive combustion model
will make the model usable at different engine speeds and load points in future studies.
In addition, the DI Pulse combustion model can also calculate NOx emissions. The
correlation of NOx emission is critical for engine models because of the limits set by the

7
European Union commission are also of great importance in fuel consumption studies.
In this combustion model, the cylinder contents are discretized into three thermodynamic
zones, each with their own temperature and composition. The main unburned zone
contains all cylinder mass at IVC, the spray unburned zone contains injected fuel and
entrained gas, and the spray burned zone contains combustion products. The DIPulse
model also includes several submodels which simulate the relevant physical processes
taking place during injection and combustion. There are four main submodels for the DI
Pulse model and these submodels need to be correlated with their multiplier. The
submodels and their multipliers are shown below.

Entrainment[8] model is defined with the below equation and the multiplier is called
Entrainment Rate Multiplier (Cent).

1 𝑡 8 𝑡
𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝑡 [1 − ( ) ] ≤1
16 𝑡𝑏 𝑡𝑏
𝑆= (1)
15 𝑡 0.5 𝑡
𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝑡𝑏 ( ) ≥1
{ 16 𝑡𝑏 𝑡𝑏

2𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑛 2Δ𝑃 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝑑𝑚 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝑑𝑢

𝑡𝑏 = 4.351√ 𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑗 = 𝐶𝑑 √ = = −𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝑔 𝐶𝑑 𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝜌𝑙 𝐴𝑛 𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑡 𝑢2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑆
𝑢= 𝑚𝑢 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑗 𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑗
𝑑𝑡

t = time 𝐴𝑛 = injector nozzle area

tb = breakup time 𝑑𝑛 = injector nozzle diameter
u = velocity at spray tip 𝐶𝑑 = injector nozzle discharge coefficient

8
 𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑗 = velocity at injector nozzle 𝜌𝑙 = liquid fuel density
S = spray tip length 𝜌𝑔 = gaseous fuel density
𝑚̇𝑖𝑛𝑗 = injection mass flow rate ΔP = pressure drop across injector nozzle

Ignition delay[8] model is defined with the below equation and the multiplier is called
Ignition Delay Multiplier (Cign).

3500
𝜏𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 𝐶𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜌−1.5 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) [𝑂2 ]−0.5 (2)
𝑇

𝑡 1
Ignition occurs when ∫𝑡 𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜏 𝑑𝑡 = 1
0 𝑖𝑔𝑛

𝜏𝑖𝑔𝑛 = ignition delay T = pulse temperature

[𝑂2 ] = oxygen concentration 𝜌 = pulse gas density

Premixed Combustion[8] model is defined with the below equation and the multiplier is called
Premixed Combustion Rate Multiplier (Cpm).

𝑑𝑚𝑝𝑚 2
= 𝐶𝑝𝑚 𝑚𝑝𝑚 𝑘(𝑡 − 𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑛 ) 𝑓([𝑂2 ]) (3)
𝑑𝑡

t = time 𝑘 = turbulent kinetic energy

𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑛 = time at ignition [𝑂2 ] = oxygen concentration
𝑚𝑝𝑚 = premixed mass

Diffusion Combustion[8] model is defined with the below equation and the multiplier is called
Diffusion Combustion Rate Multiplier (Cdf).

𝑑𝑚 √𝑘
= 𝐶𝑑𝑓 𝑚 3 𝑓([𝑂2 ]) (4)
𝑑𝑡 √𝑉𝑐𝑦𝑙

𝑉𝑐𝑦𝑙 = cylinder volume 𝑘 = turbulent kinetic energy

[𝑂2 ] = oxygen concentration

9
2.2.3 DI Pulse Model Correlation for I-6 Heavy Duty Diesel Engine Model

The GT suite engine model was correlated for 31 different operating points collected in
the dynamometer environment for the Eu6-e emission level calibration. In the correlated
engine model, the targeted mass flow rate value and boost pressure in the dynamometer
test environment were entered as the target value for the PID controller. The boost
temperature is entered as the charge air cooler outlet temperature. Fuel injection amount
and start of injection (SOI) were also entered into the model according to the
dynamometer data. The total amount of fuel was injected only at the main injection
timing as the sum of the pilot and main injection amount. According to these entered
dynamometer data, the purpose of the correlation is to match the following parameters
with the test data; torque, boost pressure, airflow rate, maximum in-cylinder pressure,
specific fuel consumption (BSFC), turbocharger shaft speed, EGR percentage,
compressor inlet-outlet temperature and pressure values, turbine inlet-outlet
temperature, and pressure.

Torque +- 2%
Cylinder Maximum Pressure +- 5 bar
Air Mass Flow Rate +- 2%
Boost Pressure +- 2%
Breake Specific Fuel Consumption +- 2%
Air-Fuel Ratio +- 2%
Turbocharger Shaft Speed +- 2%
Brake Specific NOx +- 2%
Compressor Outlet Pressure +- 2%
Compressor Outlet Temperature +- 10°C
Turbine Inlet Pressure +- 2%
Turbine Inlet Temperature +- 50°C
Table 2. Model Correlation Limits.

10
This set of combustion parameters defines Entrainment Multiplier, Diffusion Multiplier,
Ignition Delay Multiplier, Premixed Combustion Rate Multiplier parameters as
explained in the previous section. Correlation check is done with respect to the table
below. Performance parameters need to be within the specified range below.

Another important item is calibration limitation. Calibration limits consist of the

operating temperature, pressure and speed limits of some parts, which are determined
by the part manufacturers, and that the engine can operate under suitable conditions
without malfunctionsThe calibration limitations are important parameter for the virtual
calibration studies. Calibration limits are indicated the table below.

Cylinder Maximum Pressure 200 bar

Turbine Inlet Temperature 670 °C
Compressor Outlet Temperature 210 °C
Turbocharger Shaft Speed 110 krpm
Air Fuel Ratio 18
Table 3. Engine Calibration Limits.

The correlation study is performed by determining the Entrainment Multiplier,

Premixed Multiplier, Ignition Delay Multiplier and Diffusion Multiplier with an
optimization study. Some of the important parameters are shown below for the
correlation check. The NOx correlation in 1-dimensional simulations is a study subject
in itself, and the study of Özgül et al.[3] was used in this thesis study and the NOx
correlation was also performed successfully.

11
 Figure 4. Brake Torque Model & Test Results

Figure 5. Air Mass Flow Rate Model & Test Results

Figure 6. Cylinder Maximum Pressure Model & Test Results

12
 Figure 7. Turbine Inlet Temperature Model & Test Results

Figure 8. Turbocharger Shaft Speed Model & Test Results

Figure 9. Brake Specific Fuel Conscumption Model & Test Results

13
 Figure 10. Brake Specific NOx Model & Test Results

2.3 Virtual Calibration Methodology for Heat-Up Calibration

In this part of the study, the Eu6-E calibration-level has been contributed to the heating
mode study for the engine. The purpose of the engine operating mode, which the
calibration teams call the heating mode, is to increase the turbine outlet temperature. In
this way, it aims to quickly heat-up the selective catalytic reduction converter subsystem.
It makes the NOx emissions suitable for the regulations in case the engine is first started
and in low load operating regions. While doing this, the amount of fuel injected should
be increased as little as possible and the turbine outlet temperature should be increased
with other calibration parameters such as start of injection, air flow rate and boost
pressure. For this reason, the best operating point is selected so that the inverse ratio
between the BSFC and the turbine outlet temperature is optimized.

Another critical point is the financial cost reflected to the vehicle owner. This cost occurs
either as the excess fuel consumption is used to heat the SCR system or by increasing
the consumption of ammonia-based solution (Adblue) used in the aftertreatment system
to reduce NOx emissions. In a part of the study, this comparison will be mentioned.

14
2.3.1 Defining the Engine Operation Points & DoE Parameters Range

Engine heat up mode is critical for the low speed and low load region which is called as
“Low-End” region. Because the turbine outlet temperature is lower than the convenience
SCR inlet temperature for the NOx reduction chemical reaction. In order to overcome
the thermal inertia of the SCR system when the engine is first started, it is essential to
increase the turbine outlet temperature. For this reason, the selected points were chosen
for the engine speed of 1000 rpm and the torque values of 400-800-1200 Nm.

As mentioned in the previous section, the 3 important parameters of engine calibration

are boost pressure called MAP, air flow rate called MAF and start of injection called
SOI. Many different results will be obtained by changing these values in the Design of
Experiment (DoE) intervals determined according to the base calibration values. The
operating points determined here and the DoE ranges of these operating points are given
in the table below.

With the help of PID controller in GT-Suite engine model;

• The peak fire pressure (PFP) is controlled by the start of injection,

• The airflow rate (MAF) is controlled by the EGR valve
• The boost pressure (MAP) is controlled by the variable geometry turbine
rack position

15
 Figure 11. PID Controllers Location in Model.

Parameters Unit Range Number of DoE Levels

Peak Fire Pressure (PFP) bar 50-110 7
Airflow (MAF) kg/h 200-300 11
Boost Pressure (MAP) bar 1.1-1.5 5
Table 4. DoE Design for 1000 rpm 400 Nm Region.

Parameters Unit Range Number of DoE Levels

Peak Fire Pressure (PFP) bar 80-150 8
Airflow (MAF) kg/h 250-700 10
Boost Pressure (MAP) bar 1.1-1.6 6
Table 5. DoE Design for 1000 rpm 800 Nm Region.

16
 Parameters Unit Range Number of DoE Levels
Peak Fire Pressure (PFP) bar 80-150 8
Airflow (MAF) kg/h 350-750 9
Boost Pressure (MAP) bar 1.4-2.2 9
Table 6. DoE Design for 1000 rpm 1200 Nm Region.

2.3.2 Choosing the Optimum DoE Parameter Results According to Base Calibration

For the operation points determined within the scope of this study, 385 different model
results were obtained for the 1000 rpm 400 Nm operating point, 480 for the 1000 rpm
800 Nm operating point and 648 different model results for the 1000 rpm 1200 Nm
operating point.

These model results were primarily filtered against the calibration limits specified in
section 2.2.3. Among the results, designs that did not give the desired torque value were
also eliminated. Then, considering the fuel consumption and NOx emission values at the
same operating point of the base calibration model, the operating points pareto giving the
highest turbine outlet temperature were selected. Selected values are shown with the
arrows in figures.

The DoE results and the selected operation points and the model results of the base
calibration are shown in the figures below. In the results part of the study, the model
results of the calibration parameters of the heat up mode determined by the calibration
team will be compared with the selected Pareto results with the DoE results.

Another important criterion in the selection of Pareto points is Total Cost of Ownership
(TOC). This value also includes the cost of Adblue used to reduce NOx emissions from
the engine. The TOC calculation is shown with the Equation-5 and assumptions shown
below is used by quoting the article published by Özgül et al.[3] at each operating point,

17
it was tried to stay below the TOC value of the base calibration.

(𝑁𝑂𝑥 )(𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟)(𝑈𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒) (𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶)(𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒)

𝑇𝑂𝐶 = + (5)
𝜌𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒
Conversion Factor = 2.008 𝑈𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒
=3
𝜌𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 1.0930g/cm3 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 0.835 g/cm3

1.0

0.75
Non-Dimensional BSFC

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 12. 1000 rpm 400Nm BSFC-TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point.

As it is shown in the Figure-12, considering the base calibration point of 1000 rpm 400
Nm operating point, five operating points that the BSFC values are close to the base
calibration point and higher turbine outlet temperature were selected. As it is shown in
the Figure-13 and Figure-14 The BSNOx values of these selected points were also
checked according to the base calibration point and lower values were selected compared
to the base calibration point. The TOC value is also important for the end customer, and
the cost caused by Adblue used for NOx reduction is also considered, and it is aimed to
keep this value below the baseline calibration point.

18
 1.25

1.0
Non-Dimensional BSNOx

0.75

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 0.875

Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 13. 1000 rpm 400Nm BSNOx-TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point.

0.85

0.60
Non-Dimensional TOC

0.35

0.1

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.125
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 14. 1000 rpm 400Nm TOC-TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point.

1.0

0.75
Non-Dimensional BSFC

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.25
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 15. 1000 rpm 800Nm BSFC-TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point.

19
As it is shown in the Figure-15, considering the base calibration point of 1000 rpm 800
Nm operating point, five operating points that the BSFC values are close to the base
calibration point and higher turbine outlet temperature were selected. As it is shown in
the Figure-16 and Figure-17 The BSNOx values of these selected points were also
checked according to the base calibration point and lower values were selected compared
to the base calibration point. The TOC value is also important for the end customer, and
the cost caused by Adblue used for NOx reduction is also considered, and it is aimed to
keep this value below the baseline calibration point.

1.25

1.00
Non-Dimensional BSNOx

0.75

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 0.875
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 16. 1000 rpm 800Nm BSNOx -TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point.

1.50

1.25

1.00
Non-Dimensional TOC

0.75

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.125 0.375 0.625 0.875 1.125 1.375
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 17. 1000 rpm 800Nm TOC-TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point.

20
 1.50

1.25
Non-Dimensional BSFC

1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 18. 1000 rpm 1200Nm BSFC-TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point.
2.00

1.75

1.50
Non-Dimensional BSNOx

1.25

1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 19. 1000 rpm 1200Nm BSNOx -TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base
Point.

1.25

1.00
Non-Dimensional TOC

0.75

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 20. 1000 rpm 1200Nm TOC-TTURO DoE Space Comparison with Base Point.

21
As it is shown in the Figure-18, considering the base calibration point of 1000 rpm 400
Nm operating point, four operating points that the BSFC values are close to the base
calibration point and higher turbine outlet temperature were selected. As it is shown in
the Figure-19 and Figure-20 The BSNOx values of these selected points were also
checked according to the base calibration point and lower values were selected compared
to the base calibration point. The TOC value is also important for the end customer, and
the cost caused by Adblue used for NOx reduction is also considered, and it is aimed to
keep this value below the baseline calibration point.

2.4 Virtual Calibration Methodology for High Altitude Calibration

The second methodology introduced in this thesis; aimed to narrow the working space
for high altitude calibration studies. OEMs developing internal combustion engines
have to work on vehicle calibration and engine tests each year, covering the high testing
costs. Among these vehicle tests, the operating conditions are the most challenging and
one of the highest costs is the high altitude tests. Especially, heavy-duty commercial
vehicle customers care that their vehicles give the same power sustainably and stably
under all conditions. Due to the physical limits of the components that make up the
internal combustion engines, they must be limited by the controllers in terms of
calibration. This limitation causes lower power output, and high altitude calibration
studies can minimize this low power output.

22
Since internal combustion diesel engines can operate at high compression ratios, they
are equipped with a turbocharger system to increase volumetric efficiency and control
the air charge into the cylinder. The 12.7 L 500PS heavy-duty commercial diesel engine
used for this study also has a VGT (Variable Geometry Turbine) type turbocharger
system.

Figure 21. Variable Geometry Turbine(VGT)[9].

The fundamental difference between a fixed geometry turbine and a variable geometry
turbine is shown in Figure 21 [9]. Compared to a fixed geometry turbine, the variable
geometry turbine allows significant flexibility over the pressure ratio/flow relationship
across the turbine and by extension, the engine ΔP. Variable geometry turbine is
provide better low speed torque characteristics, reducing turbocharger lag and in diesel
engines. It helps to control EGR flow also.

23
Figure 22. Mass Flow Rate & Expansion Rate Comparison of a Fixed Geometry and a
VGT Turbine Example [10]

The VGT type turbocharger system makes it possible to benefit more from the low
exhaust gas enthalpy by narrowing the volume of the turbine blades with the valves it
has in its turbine. This provides high air charge to the engine even at the low air
pressure, especially for diesel internal combustion engines. However, the benefit
provided here is naturally limited by the situation allowed by the calibration limits
specified in the Table-3.

In the case of low air pressure, the following four scenarios may occur.

1) The controller trying to adjust the Boost pressure according to the base calibration
can do this by dimming the VGT Rack position. Reducing the rack position allows the
exhaust gas passing over the turbine to pass through a narrower section, thus increasing
the shaft speed and allowing the compressor to rotate at a higher speed, thus providing
the desired boost pressure to the engine. The danger here is that while providing the
desired boost pressure, the shaft speed exceeds the limits set by the manufacturer. This
situation is absolutely unacceptable.

2) In the same situation as the first scenario, even if the condition speed does not exceed
the limit, it may be possible for the compressor outlet temperature to exceed the limit.
This situation is absolutely unacceptable.

3) When the fuel map entered into the Electrical Control Unit (ECU) is kept the same,

24
if the amount of air taken into the engine decreases, the exhaust manifold gas
temperature will increase and it may be possible for the turbine inlet temperature to
exceed the temperature specified by the manufacturer. This situation is absolutely
unacceptable.

4) In the same situation as the third scenario, even if the turbine inlet temperature does
not exceed the limit, AFR (Air-Fuel Ratio) may fall below the determined limit. In this
case, the exhaust gas will be black and visible. This situation is absolutely unacceptable.

Despite the scenarios mentioned above, in addition to the calibration maps created for
sea level, correction maps and correction factors for high altitude are determined and
loaded into the ECU.

2.4.1 Corrected Limits of the Model

The main aim of high altitude calibration studies is to realize the full load power target.
However, the scenarios mentioned in the previous section constitute the constraints in
achieving this goal. It is very important not to exceed the component limits to create
outputs that can support high altitude calibration work. The numerical differences
between the model results and the test results occurring in the 12.7 L 500 PS motor
correlation study are taken into account. In high altitude calibration studies, it is
requested that the model results do not exceed these limits. These new limits are called
“corrected limits”. The difference of the “corrected limits” for the full load curve are
given in Table-7.

While determining the correction factors, the aim is to determine the correction factors
that will not exceed these limits and that the highest torque curve can be obtained. In
this study, correction factors that do not exceed the component limits and can obtain the
highest torque curve on the model were tried to be determined. The aim is not to
determine these factors directly, but to narrow the workspace of calibration engineers in

25
order to reduce testing time and costs.

Engine Speed [rpm] 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

Shaft Speed Limit [k-rpm] +5 +5 +5 +5 +4
Compressor Outlet Temperature Limit [°C] -4 -6 -10 -11 -11

Turbine Inlet Temperature Limit [°C] -21 -26 -30 -26 -31
PFP Limit [bar] -2 +1 +2 -4 -7
Table 7. The Corrected Limits of Full Load Correlation.

2.4.2 Base Engine Calibration Maps and Correction Maps

The maps created while performing the engine calibration are loaded into the ECU.
Maps are generated as indicated torque on the X-axis and rpm on the Y-axis. The
relevant target is determined on the maps determined by the power requested by the
driver using the accelerator pedal and the current engine speed. Controllers achieve these
goals by controlling the actuators on the engine. These maps are MAF, MAP and SOI
maps and may differ for different engine operating modes. The maps used for sea-level
calibration in this study are called "base calibration maps".

In order to modify the base calibration maps in high altitude calibration studies, there
are maps called correction maps and correction factors that are used as their multiplier
and vary for each different altitude.

Correction maps are created during the high altitude tests performed at the first change
need that arises when moving away from sea level. The correction factor is also saved
as "1" at the altitude point where the MAF-MAP or SOI correction map is created.

26
However, from this point on, when going to higher altitude regions, the correction maps
are kept constant, while the base calibration maps are changed with the help of
correction factors. The altitude at which these correction factors and correction maps
occur may be different for each map. Therefore, studies on correction factors at different
heights are done by taking the MAF-MAP and SOI correction factors into account.

The following methods are used for different heights using base calibration map,

correction map and correction factor.

Figure 23. High Altitude MAF Calibration Map Calculation.

Figure 24. High Altitude MAP Calibration Map Calculation.

Figure 25. High Altitude SOI Calibration Map Calculation.

27
2.4.3 High Altitude Virtual Calibration Model

While creating a high-altitude virtual calibration model, the design of the model close
to real control systems directly affects the relationship between the results and reality.
The same strategy should be followed on the model as the engine calibration maps are
governed by the indicated torque and engine speed inputs. After obtaining the base
engine calibration map and the correction map, these maps must be entered into the
model. A multiplier object must be placed in order to be able to change the correction
maps.

The model works with 4 controllers. These are Boost Pressure (MAP) controller, Mass
Airflow(MAF) Controller, Peak Fire Pressure (PFP) Controller and Torque controller.
Rack position controls the boost pressure. Rack position can vary between 0.1-1. The
MAP increases as the rack position is lowered, and the MAP decreases as the rack
position is opened. The EGR valve position controls the MAF. EGR Valve position can
vary between 0-90. The MAF decreases as the EGR Valve position opens, and increases
as the EGR valve position closes.SOI is imposed as a variable. When the SOI is
advanced the PFP increases. When the SOI is delayed, PFP decreases.

The torque controller determines the amount of fuel injected and ensures that the
required fuel is injected by the injectors to achieve the targeted torque value. However,
the torque controller has a dependency on limits such as Turbine Inlet Temperature, and
AFR. If the amount of fuel that the model will send to the injectors to reach the target
torque value at the relevant operating point causes exceeding the specified limits, the
output of the controller, that is, the amount of fuel, is restricted and the desired torque
value is waived.

28
The purpose of the controllers is to create operating conditions that do not exceed the
specified component limits and give the highest torque value. These limits are input to
the controller as corrected limits, which are found by taking into account the difference
between the results of the correlation model and the actual limits.

Figure 26. High Altitude Virtual Calibration Model.

Figure 27. Torque Target PID with Turbine Inlet Temperature Limit

29
2.4.4 Defining the High Altitude Virtual Calibration DoE Parameters

The high altitude virtual calibration study was conducted for vehicle performance at
1500 meters. As stated in the previous sections, the correction factors were determined
as "1" for the altitude at which correction maps were created. It means that for high
altitude operating points, the minimum value of the correction factor sould be "1" for
MAP and MAP parameters. In this study, to see any difference for lower correction
factor values the minimum value is decided as “0.5” for MAF and “0” for MAP factors.
But the SOI, with respect to calculation methodology, correction bigger than “0” affects
the SOI input. So its minimum value is adjusted as “0”. The correction factor should
increase as you go to higher altitudes. The purpose of the correction factor; is to reduce
the target values determined in the base calibration maps. In order to decrease the target
values, it is possible to increase the correction factor according to the formula used.

In this DoE design “Full Factorial” design option is selected and the design ranges are
divided into equal intervals. DoE design space was determined for MAF-MAP and
SOI maps, as indicated in the Table-8 below. Totally 396 design points are created for
each engine operation point.

Calibration Map DoE Range Design Number

MAF 0.5-1.5 6
MAP 0-2 11
SOI 0-1 6
Table 8. High Altitude Virtual Calibration DoE Desing Space.

30
2.4.5 Choosing the Optimum DoE Parameter Results for Maximum Torque

In this part of the study, simulation results for 1000-1200-1400 and 1600 rpm were
created. After 396 design points were concluded for each motor speed, the results were
filtered in the following order and the correction factors giving the highest torque value
were recorded. The table of values found for each engine speed is given. Separate factors
were found for each engine speed. However, the engine electronic control unit (ECU)
uses the same correction factors for all engine speeds at each altitude. For this reason, a
new set of values that can be used for all engine speeds is found by averaging the
correction factors found. By running the model again with this value set, it is checked
whether the results exceed the corrected component limits and it is expected not to
exceed them. The determined average correction factors are also shown in the table as
average values.

1) Results with compressor outlet temperature below the corrected limit

2) Results with turbine inlet temperature below the corrected limit
3) Results with turbocharger shaft speed below the corrected limit
4) Results below the Peak Fire Pressure adjusted limit

Engine Speed Correction Factors

rpm MAF MAP SOI
1000 1.5 1.6 1
1200 0.9 1.6 0.6
1400 0.9 1.6 1
1600 1.3 1.6 1
1800 1.5 1.6 0.8
Average Values 1.22 1.6 0.88
Table 9. High Altitude Virtual Calibration DoE Results.

31
3. RESULTS

3.1 Comparison of Virtual Calibration Results with the Dynamometer Test

The results of the study for Heat Up Calibration were compared with the test results.
Considering these results, it was seen that a set of values close to the operating point
determined by the calibration team was obtained under the operating conditions of the
1000 rpm 400-800-1200 Nm region. Correct determination of NOx target limit also
affects the results. The methodology established by this study was validated by testing.
It has been shown that a DI Pulse correlated GT-Suite engine model can produce results
that will reduce test costs and times.

Figures show the base correlation point, the heat up operating point set found by the
model, and the operating point results found in the test environment by the calibration
teams.

1.00

0.75
Non-Dimensional BSFC

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 28. 1000 rpm 400Nm BSFC-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration
Point.

32
 1.25

1.00
Non-Dimensional BSNOx

0.75

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 29. 1000 rpm 400Nm BSNOx-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration
Point.

0.85

0.60
Non-Dimensional TOC

0.35

0.1

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.125
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 30. 1000 rpm 400Nm TOC-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration Point.

In Figures 28, Figure 29 and Figure 30, the operating points selected as a result of GT-
Suite 1-D thermodynamic analyses and the chosen operating point in the dynamometer
test environment as a result of calibration development studies and called "CAL
Mapping" point were compared. As seen in the graphs, the results found for the 1000
rpm 400 Nm operating point are very close. The results show that the study can be done
in a simulation environment and the outputs found will reduce testing time and costs.

33
 1.00

0.75
Non-Dimensional BSFC

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 31. 1000 rpm 800Nm BSFC-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration
Point.
1.25

1.00
Non-Dimensional BSNOx

0.75

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 32. 1000 rpm 800Nm BSNOx-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration
Point.
1.50

1.25

1.00
Non-Dimensional TOC

0.75

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 33. 1000 rpm 800Nm TOC-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration Point.

34
 In Figures 31, Figure 32 and Figure 33, the working points selected as a result of GT-
Suite 1-D thermodynamic analyses and the chosen operating point in the dynamometer
test environment as a result of calibration development studies and called "CAL
Mapping" point were compared. As can be seen in the graphs, the BSNOx value of the
selected point at the end of the test was taken to a lower region compared to the base
calibration point at the 1000 rpm 800 Nm operating point. Since the selected operating
points in the analysis results are determined according to the BSNOx value of the base
calibration point, the points marked with "star" can be accepted from the results found.
The results show that as long as the conditions of the desired operating point are
determined correctly, the study can be performed in the simulation environment and the
found outputs will reduce the testing time and costs.

1.50

1.25
Non-Dimensional BSFC

1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 34. 1000 rpm 1200Nm BSFC-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration
Point.

In Figures 34, Figure 35 and Figure 36, the working points selected as a result of GT-
Suite 1-D thermodynamic analyses and the chosen operating point in the dynamometer
test environment as a result of calibration development studies and called "CAL
Mapping" point were compared. As seen in the figures, the results found for the 1000
rpm 1200 Nm operating point are very close. The results show that the study can be
done in a simulation environment and the outputs found will reduce testing time and
costs.

35
 2.00

1.75

1.50
Non-Dimensional BSNOx

1.25

1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 35. 1000 rpm 1200Nm BSNOx-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration
Point.

1.25

1.00
Non-Dimensional TOC

0.75

0.50

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Non-Dimensional Temperature

Figure 36. 1000 rpm 1200Nm TOC-TTURO Results Comparison with Calibration
Point.

The calibration points found in the virtual calibration study performed with the GT-Suite
Engine Model and indicated in the graphics above are given in Table-10 for 1000 rpm
400 Nm operating point, Table-11 for 1000 rpm 800 Nm operating point, Table-12 for
1000 rpm 1200 Nm operating point. The tables show the differences regarding to base
calibration. In the simulation environment, at least 1 operating point close to the test
points could be determined for each operating point. The results of the method show
that it can be used to reduce operating time and costs in the test environment.

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 Parameters 400 Nm Case Numbers
Base CAL 1 2 3 4 5
BSFC (g/kWh) Reference 8.95 -2.34 2.87 5.75 7.62 8.93
Delta TTURO 36 80 63 53 46 41
NOx(g/kWh) Reference -0.16 0.18 0.17 0.14 0.08 -0.04
Boost Pressure (bar) Reference 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13
Airflow (kg/h) Reference -18 33 23 13 3 -7
SOI (°) Reference -12.44 -6.89 -8.25 -9.27 -10.09 -10.78
PMAX (bar) Reference 22.5 21 21 21 21 21
Table 10. 1000 rpm 400 Nm Results Table.

Parameters 800 Nm Case Numbers

Base CAL 1 2 3 4 5
BSFC (g/kWh) Reference -0.71 -0.7 0.6 1.85 2.62 2.68
Delta TTURO Reference -2 101 84 64 47 38
NOx(g/kWh) Reference 12.26 11.26 9.79 4.75 0.54 -1.9
Boost Pressure (bar) Reference -0.16 0.13 0.14 0.11 0.08 0.09
Airflow (kg/h) Reference 29 68 68 18 -26 -19
SOI (°) Reference -8.3 -8.17 -5.01 -7.12 -8.45 -5.29
PMAX (bar) Reference 27 39 29 29 29 19
BSFC (g/kWh) Reference -0.71 -0.7 0.6 1.85 2.62 2.68
Table 11. 1000 rpm 800 Nm Results Table.

Parameters 1200 Nm Case Numbers

Base CAL 1 2 3 4
BSFC (g/kWh) Reference 0.18 -2.48 1.52 -0.69 -1.92
Delta TTURO Reference 12 83 58 44 18
NOx(g/kWh) Reference -0.04 1.86 0.26 1.46 1.58
Boost Pressure (bar) Reference 0.09 0.25 0.25 0.15 0.05
Airflow (kg/h) Reference 42 117 67 67 67
SOI (°) Reference 4.75 5.36 3.16 2.26 4.24
PMAX (bar) Reference -13.5 2 2 2 2
Table 12. 1000 rpm 1200 Nm Results Table.

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 3.2 Comparison of Virtual Calibration Results with High Altitude Vehicle Test

High altitude vehicle tests are challenging and costly tests in terms of engineering.
Multiple vehicles must be instrumented and carefully transported for these tests.
Especially considering the lack of appropriate technical equipment in the region where
the test is carried out, in case of any malfunction, the tests may be delayed or the test
time and costs may increase even more.

In this part of the study, the model results of the correction factors found and the vehicle
test results at 1500 meters altitude were compared. Comparison is performed for
operating points corresponding to engine speeds 1000-1200-1400-1600 and 1800 rpm.
Since the compared test results cannot be made on a flat plateau and take place in
transient conditions, it cannot be expected to exactly match the model results. However,
the model results indicate a strategic direction to the calibration work teams and narrow
their working space. Thus, a shorter and less costly test process will be realized.
Brake Torque, SOI, Air Mass Flow Rate, Boost Pressure, Compressor Outlet
Temperature and Turbine Inlet Temperature were compared in the study. Unfortunately,
PFP comparison was not possible because there was not PFP instrumentation on the
vehicle.

1.25

1.00
Non-Dimensional Brake Torque

0.75

0.50

0.25

Figure 37. Brake Torque Comparison of Model Results with Vehicle Test Data

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 In Figure-37, Brake Torque data collected as transient in the vehicle test and steady state
model results at 1000-1200-1400-1600 and 1800 rpm engine speeds are compared. It has
been shown that the created correction factor values represent the engine brake torque
1500m high altitude in the simulation environment.

1.00

0.75
Non-Dimensional Air Mass Flow Rate

0.50

0.25

Figure 38. Air Mass Flow Rate Comparison of Model Results with Vehicle Test Data.

In Figure-38, Air mass flow rate data collected as transient in the vehicle test and steady
state model results at 1000-1200-1400-1600 and 1800 rpm engine speeds are compared.
It has been shown that the created correction factor values represent the air mass flow
rate at 1500m high altitude in the simulation environment.

0.25
Non-Dimensional Start of Injection

0.50

0.75

1.00

1.25

1.50

1.75

Figure 39. SOI Comparison of Model Results with Vehicle Test Data.

39
 In Figure-39, SOI data recorded as transient in the vehicle test and steady state model
results at 1000-1200-1400-1600 and 1800 rpm engine speeds are compared. It has been
shown that the created correction factor values represent 1500m high altitude in the
simulation environment. The reason of the difference may be suffered from the PFP
limitations. But it can not be measured at the high altitude tests.

1.75

1.50
Non-Dimensional Boost Pressure

1.25

1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

Figure 40. Boost Pressure Comparison of Model Results with Vehicle Test Data.

In Figure-40, Boost pressure data collected as transient in the vehicle test and steady state
model results at 1000-1200-1400-1600 and 1800 rpm engine speeds are compared. It has
been shown that the created correction factor values represent the boost pressure at
1500m high altitude in the simulation environment.

1.50

1.25
Non-Dimensional Turbine Inlet Temperature

1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

Figure 41. Turbine Inlet Temperature Comparison of Model Results with Vehicle Test

40
 1.75
Non-Dimensional Compressor Outlet Temperature

1.50

1.25

1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

Figure 42. Compressor Outlet Temperature Comparison of Model Results with Vehicle
Test Data.

In Figure-41 and Figure-42, turbine inlet temperature and compressor outlet temperature
collected as transient in the vehicle test and steady state model results at 1000-1200-
1400-1600 and 1800 rpm engine speeds are compared. In these comparison, corrected
limitations are used. It has been shown that the created correction factor values represent
the turbine inlet temperature and compressor outlet temperature at 1500m high altitude
in the simulation environment.

4. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE STUDIES

Both studies were done on 12.7L 500PS heavy duty diesel engine and GT-Suite software
environment was used. GT-Suite software can be used in thermodynamic simulation
studies with 1-D analysis method. In order to carry out these studies, the performance
correlation of the engine model was carried out with the DI-Pulse combustion model.
After performing the performance correlation, BSNOx correlation was also made.
The first study has revealed a methodology for the engine heat up mode, which is
performed by dynamometer tests. The resulting need to heat the catalyst in the low load
zones of the 12.7L 500PS heavy duty truck engine is met with a different Engine
Operating Mode. This engine operating mode is called "heating mode". The results
presented with the 1-D GT Suite engine model were made at 1000 rpm engine speed and
400-800-1200 Nm torque operating points. The model results compared with the test

41
results showed that the selected operating points can reduce the dynamometer test time
and costs.

The second study has revealed a methodology that guides high-altitude vehicle tests.
High altitude vehicle tests are difficult and costly. For engine calibration in high altitude
tests, it is intended to have a correction factor or calibration factor that will not reduce
torque. In this study, the 1500 m high altitude region was selected for comparison and
the correction factor group needed for this region was found. When the model results
were compared with the transient test results, it was revealed that the results could narrow
the working space of the calibration teams.

With this study, it has been revealed that test studies can be reduced. Test times can be
reduced by using this method in different operating modes of internal combustion
engines. In addition, vehicle instrumentation, transportation costs and engineering costs
can be reduced with the calibration study performed at the vehicle level. Validation was
performed for 1500 meters high altitude in the working example. The same operation can
be repeated for different height levels.

42
REFERENCES

[1] Official Journal of the European Union, L 198, 25 July 2019 Vol.62

[2] Millo F., Arya P., Mallamo F., (2018). Optimization of Automotive Diesel Engine
Calibration Using Genetic Algorithm Techniques, Energy, Volume 158, 807-819.

[3] Özgül E., Şimşek M., Bedir H., (2020). Use of thermodynamical models with
predictive combustion and emission capability in virtual calibration of heavy duty
engines, Fuel, Volume 264, 8-10.

[4] Grahn M., Johansson K., McKelvey T., (2014). Model-based diesel engine
management systemoptimization for transient engine operation, Control Engineering
Practice, Volume 29, 195-197.

[5] Anderlohr J., Richard S., Font G., Peretti F., (2012). An advanced simulation
platform to support combustion developments in DISI engines: From engine design to
control and calibration, The International Federation of Automatic Control Rueil-
Malmaison, October 2012, 200-203.

[6] Zaglauer S., Knoll U., (2012). Evolutionary Algorithms for the Automatic
Calibration of Simulation Models for the Virtual Engine Application, IFAC Proceedings
Volumes, Volume 45, 178-181.

[7] Grasreiner S., Neumann J., Wensing M., Hasse C., (2017) Model-based virtual
engine calibration with the help of phenomenological methods for spark-ignited
engines, Applied Thermal Engineering, Volume 121, 195-199.

[8] Gamma-Technologies-LLc. Gt-Power Flow Theory Manual; 2020, 1-3.

[9] Heisler H., (1995) Advanced Engine Technology, 1st Edition., Edward Arnold
Publishing Company, London.

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[10] Schmitt, F., (2008). Future Passenger Car R2S Charging Systems using VTG and
Low Pressure EGR, GT-SUITE Conference 2008.

44
CURRICULUM VITAE

Name Surname: Sencer BOLU

EDUCATION:
• B.Sc.: 2015, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Engineering Faculty, Mechanical
Engineering
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE AND REWARDS:
• 2017-2019 Body Exterior Engineer at Ford OTOSAN Gölcük Location
• 2019-2021 Engine Performance & Energy Management Engineer at Ford
OTOSAN Sancaktepe R&D Center
• 2021-Currently Thermal Management System Engineer at TOGG A.Ş R&D
Department

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