PHYSICS

1
 GENERAL PHYSICS
LENGTH AND TIME
FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND SI UNITS
Physical quantities are features or properties of matter that can be measured and consists of numerical
magnitude and a unit. Some examples of physical quantities are;
 Length
 Mass
 Time
The value of a physical quantity is written as a number (numeral) followed by a suitable unit. In Physics,
we adopt the Standard International (SI) unit.
Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol
Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s

MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
Length can be measured using a variety of instruments (tapes, rulers, vernier callipers and micrometer
screw gauge) taking into account the different range of lengths to be measured and the accuracy of
a measuring instrument.
Accuracy of a measuring instrument is the smallest possible measurement that we can make using the
instrument without estimation. Alternatively, it can be defined as the smallest possible division we can
read from the scale of the instrument.
An instrument with a smaller accuracy is more accurate than an instrument with a larger accuracy.
Length Example Instrument Used Accuracy
Very short length Diameter of a metal wire Micrometer screw gauge 0.01 mm
Short length Diameter of a test tube Vernier callipers 0.01 cm
Medium length Width of a student desk Metre rule 0.1 cm
Long length Length of a classroom Measuring tape 0.1 cm

RULERS AND TAPES

The correct way to read the scale of a ruler is shown below. The eye must be placed vertically above
the mark on the scale.
This is to avoid parallax error (reading from wrong directions)

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VERNIER CALLIPERS

A pair of vernier calliper is shown above. It consists of a main scale and a vernier scale.
To read a vernier calliper,
 Read the main scale just before the zero marking on the vernier scale.
 Read the vernier scale reading, which is the mark on the vernier scale exactly coinciding with
a mark on the main scale, Multiply the number on this mark by 0.01 cm for cm scale (or 0.1
mm for mm scale)
 Finally, add the vernier scale reading to the main scale reading.

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MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE
A micrometer screw gauge is shown below. It has two scales: main scale on the sleeve and a circular
scale on the thimble. Each division on the thimble represents a distance of 0.01 mm.

To read a micrometer screw gauge,

 Read the highest scale division that can be seen on the sleeve scale.
 Read the scale on the thimble scale; multiply the number by 0.01 mm.
 Final reading = sleeve reading + thimble reading

POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERRORS IN LENGTH MEASUREMENTS

 Wrong calibration of instrument – where scale is wrongly marked.
 Zero error - instrument is not reading exactly zero before making measurements.
 Human error – failure to read or interpret the printed scale correctly.

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MEASUREMENT OF TIME
Length can be measured using a pendulum, a clock or stopwatch. To measure time interval, a stopwatch
needs to be operated manually by the user.
This however can cause an error called the human reaction time.

SIMPLE PENDULUM
A simple pendulum is made of a mass (usually a bob) tied to inextensible string. The figure below
shows a simple pendulum with length l.

 A simple pendulum makes use of the regular swing of the bob for timing. For a swinging
pendulum, one complete oscillation occurs when a pendulum swings from one extreme
position to another extreme position and back as illustrated by the arrows above. The pendulum
would swing to eternity if it were not for air resistance.
 Time taken for one (1) complete oscillation of the bob is called Period (T) of the pendulum.
 The number of complete oscillations made by the pendulum per second is called the
frequency (f). The SI unit is hertz (Hz)
The relationship between period (T) and frequency (f) is given by:

1
T=
𝑓
 The period of the pendulum depends on;
− The length of the pendulum
− Acceleration due to gravity (g)

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 MOTION

Motion is the change in position of a body with respect to time.

DISTANCE
Distance is the measure of how far apart two points are.

DISPLACEMENT
This is the distance travelled in a specified direction. If you move a distance of 50 m in the northern
direction, the displacement is 50 m due North.

SPEED
Speed can be defined as the rate at which a body covers distance with respect to time. This is the
distance travelled per unit time. In calculations we calculate average speed using the equation;
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
Average speed =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Examples
1. A car travels 300 km from Gaborone to Serowe in five hours, Calculate its average speed.
300
Average speed = = 60 km/h
5

2. A man cycles from Thamaga to Gaborone covering a distance of 42 km in 2 hours. Calculate his
speed in m/s.
42
Average speed = = 21 km/h
2

21 𝑘𝑚 21 ×1000
Changing from km/h to m/s = = 5.83 m/s
ℎ 60 ×60
VELOCITY
Velocity is the speed of something and its direction of travel, example, a cyclist might have a velocity
of 10 m/s due east.
The velocity of a body is uniform or constant if it moves with a steady speed in a straight line and it is
not uniform if the line is curved.

ACCELERATION
A body is accelerating if its velocity is changing (either increasing or decreasing) If a body is moving
with a constant speed (zero acceleration) then u = 0.
The speeds of a car accelerating on a straight road are shown below.
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Speed (m/s) 0 3 6 9 12 15

The speed increases by 3 m/s every second and the acceleration of 3 m/s2 is said to be uniform.
Acceleration is positive if the velocity increases and negative if it decreases. A negative acceleration is
called deceleration or retardation.
A uniform acceleration means a constant (steady) acceleration.

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MOTION GRAPHS
Velocity/Speed – time graphs
If the velocity of a body is plotted against the time, the graph obtained is a velocity-time graph.

Constant velocity Uniform/constant acceleration

The body is not accelerating The body is moving with

but in motion. uniform/constant acceleration.

Decreasing acceleration
Increasing acceleration

The body is moving with The body is moving with

increasing acceleration decreasing acceleration

Uniform/constant deceleration Non - uniform deceleration

The body is moving with uniform The body is moving with

deceleration. non-uniform deceleration.

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Area under a velocity-time graph
The area under a velocity –time graph gives the distance covered by the body. In the diagrams
below, the shaded areas under the velocity-time graphs = distance travelled.

Distance – time graphs

A distance-time graph shows how far an object has travelled in a given time.

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EQUATIONS OF MOTION
Problems involving bodies moving in a straight line with uniform acceleration can be
solved using the four equations of motion.
Five symbols are used in the equations;
u = initial velocity (m/s)
v = final velocity (m/s)
s = displacement (m)
a = acceleration (m/s2)
t = time (s)
Below are the four equations of motions. Each one links four out of the five quantities:
v = u + at (does not include s)
1
s = ut + at2 (does not include v)
2
1
s = (u + v)t (does not include a)
2
v2 = u2 + 2as (does not include t)
If values of three of the quantities s, u, v, a, and t, are known, you can calculate the
value of a fourth by using the appropriate equation.
Examples
1. A car accelerates from rest at 3 m/s2 along a straight road. How far has the car
travelled after 4 s?
u=0 (the car starts from rest)
a=3
t=4
s =?
So, choosing the equation which includes s, u, a, and t, but not v, and omitting units
for simplicity;
1 1
s = ut + at2 = (0 × 4) + × 3 × 42 = 12
2 2
So: distance travelled = 12 m

2. The car is travelling at 20 m/s along a straight road. The driver puts the brakes on
for 5 s. If this causes a deceleration of 3 m/s2, what is the car’s final velocity?
u = 20 (the first speed stated in this question)
a = −3 (deceleration is negative acceleration)
t=5
v =?
So, choosing the equation which includes v, u, a, and t, but not s, and omitting
units for simplicity;
v = u + at = 20 + (−3 × 5) = 5
So: final velocity = 5 m/s

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3. A car moving from rest accelerates at a rate of 2m/s2 for a time of 5 seconds. What
is its velocity at the end of this time period?
u=0
a=2
t=5
v =?
So, choosing the equation which includes v, u, a, and t, but not s, and omitting
units for simplicity;
v = u + at = 0 + (2 × 5) = 10
So: final velocity = 10 m/s

4. A vehicle approaches a set of traffic lights with a speed of 15m/s. When 50m from
the lights the driver brakes and comes to a rest at the lights. Calculate the
deceleration of the vehicle.
u = 15 (the first speed stated in this question)
s = 50
v=0 (Finally stopped)
a =?
So, choosing the equation which includes v, u, a, and s, but not t;
v2 = u2 + 2as = 02 = 152 + 2(50)(a)
0 = 225 + 100a = 100a = -225
Therefore a = -225m/s2 or deceleration = 225m/s2

5. A car moving with a speed of 10m/s begins to accelerate at a rate of 1.5m/s2 for
a time of 10s. How far did it travel over this time interval?

u = 10 (the first speed stated in this question)

a = 1.5
t = 10
s =?
So, choosing the equation which includes v, u, s, and t, but not v;
1 1
s = ut + at2 s = (10 × 10) + × 1.5 × 102
2 2
s = 100 + 75 s = 175m

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THE ACCELERATION OF FREE FALL, g
‘Free fall’ means that there are no forces on the falling object except the pull of Earth’s
gravity.
The acceleration due to gravity is almost 10 m/s2. This means that the speed of a body
in free fall increases about 10 m/s every second.
Air resistance slows down some things more than others. If you drop a coin and a
feather, both fall downwards because of gravity. However, the feather is slowed much
more by the air friction.
In a vacuum (where there is no air), both the coin and the feather fall at a constant
downward acceleration (g); 9.8 m/s2 ≈ 10 m/s2. The coin and the feather now fall at
the same rate and reach the bottom at the same time. This is called acceleration of
free fall. It is the same for all objects falling near the Earth surface, whether light or
heavy.

The acceleration of free fall is donated by italic letter g. The value of g near the Earth
surface is close to 10 m/s2 and decreases as you move away from the Earth and out
into space.

BODY FALLING ON AIR

When an object falls in air, it initially accelerates due to gravity. As it accelerates, the
air resistance opposing its motion also increases so reducing its acceleration.
Eventually, air resistance acting upwards equals the weight of the object acting
downwards. The resultant force on the object is then zero since the gravitational force
balances the frictional force. The object falls at a constant velocity, called its terminal
velocity.

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The value of terminal velocity depends on the size, shape and weight of the object.
Once terminal velocity is reached, the body continues to move at this velocity until it
strikes the ground.
Terminal velocity can therefore be defined as a maximum velocity reached by a falling
object while the weight of the object equals to the air resistance.

BODY FALLING IN A LIQUID

When an object such as a small ball bearing is dropped in a viscous (thick) fluid such
as glycerine, cooking oil or engine oil, it will fall vertically downwards. This is because
of its weight (gravitational pull) which is greater than the upwards viscous force
(upthrust) opposing this motion. As the ball speeds up, the upwards force increases
until eventually is equal to the weight. The forces acting on the ball bearing then
balance and it moves with the constant speed called the terminal velocity.

MEASURING g
When measuring g, in calculations, we use the equations of motion, where now g
replaces a. the height (h) is the distance (s) travelled. g is given a positive sign for
falling bodies and a negative sign for rising bodies since they are decelerating.

Worked Examples
 A ball is projected vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 30 m/s. Find
a. its maximum height
b. the time taken to return to its starting point.( Take g = 10 m/s2 and ignore
air resistance)
c. its maximum height ( this is the vertical distance travelled)

u = 30 m/s
a = −10 m/s2 (a deceleration)
v=0 (the ball is temporarily at rest at its highest point.)
s =? (s represents the vertical height)

We therefore use an equation of motion that does not include t; v2 = u2 + 2as and
substituting a with g = v2 = u2 + 2gs
And substituting = 02 = 302 + 2(−10) (s)
= 0 = 900 + − 20s
= 20s = 900
Dividing by 20 both sides gives s = 45 m

b. The time taken to return to its starting point.

v = u + at and replacing a with g gives v = u + gt
0 = 30 + −10t
10t = 30
t = 3 s.
c. The downward trip takes exactly the same time so the answer is 6 s.

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 MASS, WEIGHT AND CENTRE OF MASS
MASS
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter or substance in a body. The Standard
International (S.I) unit of mass is kilogram (kg). Matter can also be measured in grams
(g) milligram (mg) and tonnes (t).
The mass of a body does not change irrespective of its position on earth. The
instruments used to measure mass are a triple beam balance, an electronic balance
lever-arm scale and top-pan balance.

INERTIA
Inertia is the property of matter that causes it to resist change in its velocity. It is the
tendency of a body to remain at rest if it is at rest and if in motion, to continue moving.
When a moving car suddenly stops, passengers and other things in a car are thrown
forward in an attempt to continue moving, that is why seat belts are needed.
The larger the mass of the body the greater is its inertia. It is difficult to accelerate or
bring to rest a large truck than a small car.

WEIGHT
Weight is the force of gravity acting on a body. The force of gravity is not the same
everywhere; the weight of an object is therefore not the same everywhere. The further
an object is away from the centre of the Earth, the less the force of gravity on it. Thus
the object’s weight gets less as it moves away from the Earth, even though the amount
of matter (the mass) does not change. The International (S.I) unit of weight is Newton
(since it is a force) and the instrument used to measure weight is a spring balance or
force meter.
The weight of a body is given by:
W= mg

Where: Weight (W) is given by multiplying mass (m) by gravitation (g)

In calculations, g is normally taken to be equal to 10 N/kg unless otherwise stated.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT

Mass of an object Weight of an object
Is always the same Varies from place to place
Is a measure of inertia Is a force
Is measured using a beam balance or Is measured using a spring balance or
electronic balance compression balance / force meter
Is measured in kilogram (kg) Is measured in Newton (N)

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CENTRE OF GRAVITY (CENTRE OF MASS)
The centre of mass of a body is the point in an object through which its whole weight
appears to act.
The weight of an object is the force due to gravity, when the object is at rest. This
force acts on the centre of gravity or centre of mass of the object.
All objects can be thought of as behaving as though all their mass is concentrated at
a single point. The position of this point affects the stability of the object.
The centre of mass/gravity of regular laminas (a flat sheet) or regular-shaped objects
is at the geometrical centre of the object.
Some examples are given in the figures below.

To find the centre of mass of irregular laminas or objects;

 Take a lamina with three holes in it as shown below and hang it on a support.

 Hang a plumb line, (a string with a small mass attached at the end and wait
until the shape come to rest.
 The string will pass through the centre of mass of your object. Draw this line
down your object.
 Hang the lamina in all the three different positions, the plumb lines will still pass
through the centre of mass. Draw the lines.
 The point at which the lines drawn intersect is the centre of mass.

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STABILITY
Stability is the ability of an object to retain its original position after being displaced.

The position of the centre of mass affects the stability of a body. In our daily lives, we
always need to increase the stability of different objects. To increase the stability of
an object;
 The centre of mass should be as low as possible.

 The base area should be as large as possible.

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 FORCES

a) EFFECTS OF FORCE ON SHAPE AND SIZE

A force is a push or a pull. It is a vector (has direction) the SI unit of force is
the Newton (N). Force is measured using spring balance or force meter.
Examples of forces include; weight, tension, friction magnetic, electrostatic,
and air resistance. Force can;
 Cause a body at rest to start moving
 Cause a moving body to stop
 Change the direction of a moving body
 Speed up a moving body
 Slow down a moving body
 Change the shape or size of an object
LOAD AND EXTENSION
When an elastic spring is stretched by a force, its shape and size changes - it becomes
thinner and longer. The change in length of the spring is called an extension. The
level of this extension can be calculated by subtracting the original length from the
new length.
The extension of the spring is directly proportional to the stretching force so long as
the spring is not permanently stretched. This means that doubling the force doubles
the extension and tripling the force triple the extension and so on.

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The extension of a spring increases up to a certain limit when elasticity is lost and the
spring deforms. This is called the elastic limit of the spring. When this elastic limit is
not exceeded, the spring returns to its original length when the force is removed. If
the elastic limit is passed, the spring is permanently stretched, it does not go back to
its original length when the load is removed. This is the end of the straight part of the
graph called limit of proportionality.

HOOKE’S LAW
The Hooke’s law states that Force is proportional to extension.
The spring constant or force constant, k of a spring is the force needed to cause
a unit extension. The force constant tells us how stiff the spring is and differs from
one spring to the other.
If a force F produces extension x then:

F = kx
Worked Examples
 An elastic spring 10 cm long becomes 15 cm long when stretched by a force of
10 N. What is the force constant of the spring?
𝑭 𝟏𝟎
From F = kx = k= = k= = 2N/cm
𝒙 𝟓

 A load of 3 N is added to a steel spring of length 9.5 cm. Its length increases to
21.5 cm. Calculate the spring constant of the spring.
The extension of the spring = (21.5 - 9.5 = 12 cm
𝑭 𝟑
From F = kx = k= = k= = 0.25N/cm
𝒙 𝟏𝟐

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b) EFFECTS OF FORCE ON MOTION
Newton’s second law of motion states that:
When a force acts on a body, it causes the body to accelerate on the direction of the
force. The acceleration is directly proportional to the size or magnitude of the force.
For an object with a constant mass m, the force F, is the product of an object’s
mass and its acceleration a. The formula below is used to calculate any of these
factors if we know the values of the other two.

Force = mass × acceleration F = ma

 Force is measured in Newton, N
 Mass is measured in kilograms, kg
 Acceleration is measured in meters per second squared, m/s2

Worked Examples
 A force of 6 N is applied to an object of mass 2 kg.
Calculate the acceleration of the mass.
𝑭 𝟔𝑵
From F = ma = a= = a= = 3m/s2
𝒎 𝟐 𝒌𝒈

 A car of total mass of 1 500kg is travelling at 25 m/s. The driver applies brakes
and the car comes to rest with uniform acceleration.
Calculate the braking force.
𝑭 𝟔𝑵
From F = ma = a= = a= = 3m/s2
𝒎 𝟐 𝒌𝒈

c) TURNING EFFECTS OF FORCES

The force applied to the spanner below has a turning effect on the nut. A longer
spanner has the larger turning effect than a short spanner.

The moment of a force is defined as the turning effect of the force about a pivot and
is the product of the force (F) and the perpendicular distance (d) from the line of action
of the force to the pivot.
SI unit of the moment of the force is Newton-metre (Nm) and is a vector quantity. To
measure the moment of the force we use the formula below:

Moment of force = Force × distance

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Worked Examples
Calculate the moment of force in figures (a) and (b) showing spanners of different
sizes.

The moment of a longer spanner is greater than that of a short spanner; it can
therefore be concluded from the calculations that a longer spanner has a larger turning
effect than a short spanner.

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
The principle of moments states that:
When in equilibrium, the total sum of anticlockwise moments is equal
to the total sum of clockwise moment.
The forces acting on a beam below are balanced (in equilibrium). The clockwise
moment is equal to the anticlockwise moment.

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The examples below show the dynamic equilibrium or balance of forces - The
anticlockwise moment is equal to the anticlockwise moment.
Example 1

Example 2

The diagram below shows all the forces acting on a rule which is suspended. Weights
are hung from the rule so that it is balanced.
 The 2 N and 3 N forces each have a clockwise moment about the pivot.
So, sum of clockwise moment = (2 × 0.2) + (3 × 0.6) = 3.2 Nm
 The 9 N and 4 N forces each have an anticlockwise moment about the pivot.
So, sum of anticlockwise moment = (9 × 0.2) + (4 × 0.1) = 3.2 Nm

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ENERGY, WORK AND POWER
(a) ENERGY
Energy is the ability to do work. Men and machines need energy to do work.
Men get energy from food while machines get energy from electricity or fuels
such as petrol and coal.
The law of conservation of energy states that energy is never created or
destroyed. It is only changed from form to another.
The SI unit of energy is Joule (J).

FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy can take a number of different forms, these are:
 Kinetic energy – energy a body possesses due to its motion
 Chemical energy – energy produced from atoms and molecules when
they interact and combine.
 Nuclear energy – energy produced due to nuclear reaction.
 Gravitational potential energy – energy a body possesses due to
its position in a gravitational field.

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY (GPE)

Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is a type of potential energy that comes from
Earth’s gravity. It is an energy stored in an object based on its height and mass.
To calculate GPE we use the following equation:

GPE = m × g × h

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity which is equals 9.8 m/s2 which is
normally rounded to 10 m/s2. The height (h) is the distance above ground and m
is the mass in kg.

Example
 What is the gravitational potential energy of a 2 kg rock sitting at the top
of a 10 m high cliff? Take g =10m/s2.
Gravitational potential energy = mgh
= 2 × 10 × 2
= 200 J

KINETIC ENERGY (KE)

Kinetic energy is the energy an object has due to its motion. As long as an object
is moving at the same velocity, it will maintain the same kinetic energy.
The kinetic energy of an object is calculated from the velocity and the mass of the
object. To calculate the kinetic energy we use the equation:
𝟏
KE = mv2
𝟐

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 Example
 A golf ball of mass 80 g is found to be moving at a speed of 50 m/s.
Calculate the kinetic energy of the golf ball.
1
Kinetic energy = mv2
2
1
= × 0.08 × 502
2
= 100 J
ENERGY INTERCHANGES
The body has a g.p.e only when resting at maximum height; k.e= 0J since v= 0m/s.
When it begins to fall, its g.p.e is changed into k.e. and as it gains speed, more and
more of its g.p.e is changed into k.e.
Between maximum height and the ground, the body has both g.p.e and k.e
At the point just before it strikes the ground, all its g.p.e is changed to k.e; g.p.e=0J
since h = 0 m; k.e is maximum.
For a body projected upwards, all its k.e. becomes g.p.e at maximum height.
The total amount of energy at the beginning and the end is the same.

(b) WORK
Work is done when a force acts on an object to move it some distance from
the start (displacement).
Work can be calculated as the force × the distance moved.

Work = Force × distance W = Fd

The standard unit for work is the Joule (J)
Examples
(i) A student throws a stone with a force of 10 N. The stone travels 20
meters. What is the total work?
Work = force × distance
= 10 N × 20 meters
= 200 J
(ii) A car travels along a straight level road at a constant speed for 200 m
against a frictional force of 300 N. calculate the work done by the car.
Work = force × distance
= 300 N × 200 meters
= 60 000 J

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 (c)POWER
Power is the rate of doing work. In other words, it is a measurement of how
fast you are using energy. The standard unit for measuring power is the Watt.
This is the same as a joule/second (J/s). The equation below can be used to
calculate power:

𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑾
Power = P=
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕

Power can also be calculated from the force and velocity of an object using the
formula:
Power = Force × velocity

Example
(Take acceleration due to gravity = 10 m/s2)
1. A man lifts some weights of mass 200 kg to a height of 2 metres in 4 seconds.

(a) What type of energy has the weights got?

(b) How much work has the man done in lifting the weights?
(c) What is the power developed by the man?

Answers
(a) Gravitational potential energy

(b) How much work has the man done in lifting the weights?

GPE = mgh
= 200 × 10 × 2
= 4000 J

(c) What is the power developed by the man?

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
Power =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

4000
Power = = 1000 W
4

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 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figure below shows a pendulum clock.

A bob of mass 0.025 kg takes 1.0 second to complete one oscillation.

(a) Define an oscillation.

………………………………………..……………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Determine the time taken by the bob to move from A to B.

Time taken = ……………………………….. [1]

(c) (i) Calculate the potential energy gained by the bob when it moves from
B to C. (g = 10 N/kg)

Potential energy = ……………………………….. [2]

(ii) Calculate the velocity of the bob when it passes point B.

Velocity = ……………………………….. [2]

(iii) What assumption did you make in answering (c)(ii)?
…………………………………………………………………………………….……………
………………………………………………………………………………………..……. [1]

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2. The figure shows a diagram of a pendulum swinging to-and-fro about point A. The
pendulum bob swings from A to the right, back through A to the left and back to
A again. It takes 2.00 s to complete this movement.

(a) (i) What term is used to describe one complete to-and-fro swing of the
pendulum?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(ii) What is the period of the pendulum?

Period = ……………………………….. [1]

(iii) Calculate the frequency of the pendulum.

Frequency = ……………………………….. [2]

(b) What effect do the following have on the period of the pendulum?
(i) Increasing the mass of the bob.
…………………………………….…………………………………………..…………… [1]
(ii) Decreasing the length of the string.
…………………………………….………………………………………………..……… [1]
3. The figure shows a simple pendulum which is swinging between extremities a and
b.

It takes 0.2 s for the pendulum to swing form a to b.

(a) Calculate the period of the pendulum.

Period = …………………………..…….. [2]

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 (b) Calculate the frequency of the pendulum.

Frequency = ……………………………….. [2]

4. The figure below shows vernier callipers being used to measure the length of a
wooden block.

(a) What is the length of the block?

Length = ……………………………….. cm [1]

5. The figure shows a pair of vernier callipers with its jaws closed.

(a) What is the reading on the vernier callipers?

Reading = ……………………………….. cm [1]

26
The figure below shows the same vernier callipers used to measure the diameter of a
small test tube.

(b) What is the reading on the vernier callipers?

Reading = ……………………………….. cm [1]

(c) Determine the diameter of the test tube.

diameter = ……………………………….. cm [1]

6. A student performs an experiment to determine the period of a simple pendulum.

She uses a stopwatch to record the time taken for 20 oscillations. The figure below
shows the face of the stopwatch used.

(a) What is the time recorded by the stop watch?

Time = ……………………………….. [1]

(b) Calculate the period of the pendulum.

Period = ……………………………….. [2]

(c) State one factor that would affect the period of the pendulum.
………….…………………………...……………………………………….……….…………….. [1]
(d) After some time, the pendulum would stop oscillating. Give a reason for this
observation.
………………………………………………………..………………………………………………. [1]

27
7. (a) Define the term speed.
…..……………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) The figure below shows a speed-time graph of a train.

(i) For which part of the graph was the acceleration of the train greatest?
Explain your answer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(ii) Calculate the distance travelled by the train in part CD.

Distance = ……………………………. [2]

(iii) Determine the resultant force acting on the train par BC.
Explain your answer
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

8. (a) Define moment of a force.

…..……………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

(b) The figure below shows a uniform metre rule of mass 0.15 kg pivoted at the
20.0 cm mark. The rule is balanced by the tension in a string at the 80.0 mark
as shown.

28
 Calculate
(i) The weight W of the rule, (g = 10N/kg)

W = ……………………………… N [2]
(i) The tension on the string

W = ……………………………… N [2]
9. The figure below shows a thermostat for an electric appliance.

(a) State the purpose of the thermostat.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) State one electrical appliance that uses a thermostat.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Describe how the thermostat above works.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
(d) Suggest a reason why material Z must be an insulator.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
10. The figure below shows the scales of the beams of a triple beam balance that is
used to measure the mass of an aluminium block.

(a) Define the term mass

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

29
 (b) (i) What is the mass of aluminum block as shown by the scales?

Mass = ……………………g [1]

(ii) Calculate the weight of the block. (g = 10 N/kg)

Weight = …………………… [2]

(c) (i) The figure below shows two identical cylinders, G and H, placed on top of a
bench.

F1 is the minimum force needed to topple over cylinder G.

F2 is the minimum force needed to topple over cylinder H.
Explain why F1 is larger than F2.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

(ii) Cylinder G above topples over.

What is the name given to the equilibrium state of the cylinder after
toppling?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
11. The figure below shows a speed – time graph of a car.

(a) Describe the motion of the car between A and C.

AB ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
BC …………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

30
 (b) Calculate
(i) The total distance covered by the car.

Distance = ………………………………. [2]

(ii) The average speed of the car.

Distance = ………………………………. [2]

12. The figure below shows a sketch of the speed – time graph of a car during a part
of its journey. The car covered a distance of 10 000 m between 0 and 550 seconds.

(a) Describe the motion of the car from 0 to 550 seconds.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Calculate the distance travelled by the car between 250 and 550 seconds.

Distance = ………………………………. [2]

(c) (i) Determine distance covered by the car between 0 and 250 seconds.

Distance = ………………………………. [1]

(iii) Calculate the initial speed of the car.

Initial speed = ………………………………. [2]

31
13. The figure below shows a speed – time graph of a stone thrown vertically upwards.

(a) Describe the motion of the stone in the four seconds.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
(b) Calculate the maximum height reached by the stone.

Height = ………………………………. [2]

(c) Explain how the shape of the graph shows that air resistance was negligible.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

14. (a) State the principle of moments.

…..……………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

(b) The figure below shows Neo and David on a see-saw pivoted at the centre. Neo
has a mass of 30 kg and David has a mass of 20 kg. (g = 10N /kg)

(i) Calculate the weight of David.

Weight = ………………………. [2]

(ii) Calculate the moment of David about the pivot.

Moment = ………………………. [2]

32
 (iii) The sea-saw is in equilibrium. Calculate the distance of Neo from the
pivot.

Distance = ………………………. [2]

15. The figure below shows the speed – time graph a part of a car journey.

(a) Describe the motion of the car between P and Q.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) How long did the car take to move from Q to R?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Calculate the distance between P and Q.

Distance = …………………………… [2]

(d) Find the acceleration of the car between R and S.

Acceleration = …………………………… [2]

33
16. The figure below shows a boy of mass 15 kg about to slide down a very slippery
slope, which is 30 m long.

(a) First of all the boy climbs through a vertical height of 3 m to reach the top of
the slope.
Calculate the work done by the boy to reach the top of the slope.

Work done = ……………………………….. J [3]

(b) What is the major energy changes as the boy moves down the slope?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(c) Find the velocity of the boy when he reaches the end of the slope.

Velocity = ……………………………….. m/s [3]

17. A boy drops a stone of mass 0.5 kg into a well. The stone takes 2 seconds to
reach the bottom of the well. (g = 10 N /kg)
(a) Calculate the depth of the well.

Depth = …………………………. [2]

(b) Calculate the kinetic energy of the stone just before it reaches the bottom of
the well.

Kinetic energy = …………………………. [2]

(c) Calculate the velocity of the stone just before hitting the bottom of the well.

Kinetic energy = …………………………. [2]

(d) What assumption did you make in answering (b)?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(e) If the boy now drops a 1.0 kg stone into the well, how would the value of
the kinetic energy compare with your answer in (b)?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

34
 THERMAL PHYSICS
THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER
Heat has two important effects on matter. These are expansion and contraction.
When heat is added to a substance, the particles move faster and the space between
them increases.
Solids, liquids and gases all expand when heat is added. When heat leaves all
substances, the particles moves slower and get closer which results in the matter
contracting.
The mass of the object remains the same.

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN SOLIDS

The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of heat on solids.

The metal ball easily fits into the ring before being heated but after being heated, it
does not fit into the ring. It fits again into the ring after coiling it. This shows that,
solids expand when heated and contract when cooled.

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN LIQUIDS

The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of heat on liquids.

When the flask is heated, the level of the liquid rises. When cooled, the level of the
water goes down. The conclusion from this set up is that liquids also expand when
heated and contract when cooled.

35
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN GASES
The set-up below is of an activity to demonstrate effects of heat on gases.

The balloons increased in size when the air in the bottle was heated and decreased in
size when the air was cooled. It can therefore be concluded that gases also expand
when heated and contract when cooled.
The expansion and contraction are highest in gases followed by liquids and is lowest
in solids.

PROBLEMS OF EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN EVERYDAY LIFE

The problems of expansion and contraction are mostly encountered in the following
fields; railway, pipes or plumbing, glasses and electric or telephone cables. The table
shows the problems and their solutions.

Problem area Problem Solution

Railway lines Buckles rails which derail
trains
Plumbing It makes pipes that carries
hot water or oil to burst
Cables It makes cables to snap in
winter or hang too low in
summer
Glasses It makes glass break or crack.
Gaps are left between the rails to allow
for expansion
Loops are made to give them room to
expand and contract.
When laid in winter they are, slightly
tightened to give them room for
expansion and when laid in summer
some sag is allowed to allow for
contraction.
Thinner glasses are made to prevent
cracking or breaking.

36
USES OF EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
 THERMOMETERS
Expansion and contraction of mercury inside a thermometer makes mercury
move up and down the column of the thermometer. The extent of the
expansion or contraction corresponds with temperature.

 BIMETALLIC STRIP
This is made up of two strips of different metals that are joined together.

One of the metals is brass while the other is usually iron. These metals expand
at different rates when heated. Brass expands more than iron. This makes the
strip to bend towards iron. The diagrams below show a bimetallic strip when
before heating and after heating:
Bimetallic strips are used in some thermostats – devices for keeping a
steady temperature.
 THERMOSTAT
This device control temperature of some electrical appliances such as electric
iron or fire alarm. It is made up of a bimetallic strip. When the temperature
rises, the bimetallic strip bends, the contacts separate, and the current is cut
off. When the temperature falls, the bimetallic straightens, and the current is
switched on again. Below is a thermostat found in an electric iron.

 FIRE ALARMS
This device also uses a bimetallic strip. When temperature within the house
increases, it makes the bimetallic strip to bend and switch on the bell which
alerts people.

37
 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
The temperature of a substance is a number which express its degree of hotness or
coldness. It is measured by means of a thermometer.
FIXED POINTS
A thermometer is useless without a temperature scale (the markings on the
thermometer) Fixed Points are used in calibrating thermometers. To calibrate a
thermometer is to mark a thermometer so that you can use it to accurately measure
temperature. A fixed point is a standard degree of hotness or coldness such as the
melting point of ice or boiling point of water. The two fixed points are determined as
follows:
1. Upper fixed point (steam point)
The bulb of the thermometer is placed into a container filled with pure boiling
water or placed just above the container (so that it is in contact with the
emerging steam) A mark will be made at the highest temperature reached and
assigned the value of 100°C.
2. Lower fixed point (ice point)
The bulb of the thermometer is immersed into a container filled with pure
melting ice. A mark will be made at the lowest temperature reached and
assigned the value of 0°C.

The distance between the ice point and the steam point is divided into equal parts and
each mark is a measure of 1°C.
SENSITIVITY AND RANGE
Range and sensitivity are very important when dealing with temperature. Below is
some descriptions of how range and sensitivity depend on bulb size, stem length, stem
diameter and thickness of glass.
Sensitivity: - the change in reading of the thermometer for a small change in
temperature. For liquid-in-glass thermometer to have increased sensitivity, it should
have:
 A narrow bore
 Large bulb
Range: - the scope of temperature that the thermometer can measure. Examples,
laboratory thermometer ranges from -10 °C to 110 °C and clinical thermometer ranges
from 35 °C to 42 °C. The range depends on the liquid used for the thermometer;
mercury and alcohol give different range for the thermometer.

38
Whether mercury or alcohol is used in a thermometer depends on the range over
which temperature is to be measured. The two liquids have different freezing and
boiling points.
Two common liquid-in-glass thermometers are:
1. The laboratory thermometer

Structure (design) Purpose (working principle)

1. The mercury is contained in a thin-wall Allows conduction of heat quickly
glass bulb through the glass to the liquid.
2. The bulb is made small to contain small A small amount of liquid is more
amount of liquid. responsive to heat.
3. The bore of capillary tube is fine and Good sensitivity and even expansion
uniform
4. The walls of the long tube above the This acts as a magnifying glass for
bulb are made thick. easy reading of the mercury thread
in the steam.
5. The size of the thermometer is The small size allows it to be
relatively small. portable and also cheap to produce.

2. A clinical thermometer

Structure (design) Purpose

1. The glass wall of the bulb is thin
2. The bulb is made small to contain small
amount of liquid.
3. The bore of capillary tube is very fine
4. A narrow constriction (kink) is found in
the tube just above the bulb
Allows rapid conduction of heat
through the thin wall to the mercury
in the bulb
A small amount of liquid is more
responsive to heat.
Sensitivity is improved
The constriction prevents the
contracting mercury from flowing
back

39
 MELTING AND BOILING
When a solid is heated, it melts to a liquid. The process is called melting.
During melting, the particles of the solid gain sufficient energy and vibrate until they
overcome the forces of attraction between them, moving faster and further apart.
There is no rise in temperature at this juncture. The heat energy is utilised to bring
about a separation of particles at this temperature. The temperature remains constant
until the whole solid has melted into a liquid.
Similarly, when a liquid is heated, it boils to a gas. The process is called boiling.
During boiling, the particles of the liquid gain sufficient energy and slide over each
other until they overcome the forces of attraction between them, moving randomly
and very fast. Similar to melting, there is no rise in temperature at this juncture. The
heat energy absorbed brings about further separation of particles at this temperature.
We call this boiling point of a substance. The temperature remains constant until the
whole liquid has boiled into a gas. When a liquid changes to gaseous state, the process
is called evaporation.

Heating curve

 In region AB, the temperature of the solid is rising. The solid starts to melt at
point B.
 In region BC, the solid is melting. The temperature remains constant until all
the liquid has melted. This is because during melting, heat energy is taken in
by the particles of the solid to break down forces of attraction, instead of being
used to raise its temperature. This temperature is called melting point. In
this region, the substance exists as a mixture of solid and liquid.
 In region CD, the temperature of the liquid is increasing. This happens after all
the particles have changed into the liquid state, further heat causes the
particles to gain kinetic energy and raise the temperature. The liquid starts to
boil at point D.
 In the region DE, the liquid is boiling. The temperature remains constant until
all the liquid has changed to gas. This temperature is called boiling point. In
this region the substance exists as a mixture of liquid and gas. The temperature
of the gas would continue to rise if heat is supplied to the gas beyond point E
continuously.
A gas can be changed into a liquid if it is cooled; the particles lose energy and move
closer together from gas to a liquid state. The process is called condensation. As the
temperature of the liquid decreases, it loses more energy and particles come even
closer together and start to solidify and that is freezing.

40
 Cooling curve
 In region AB, the gas is cooling. It starts to condense at point B
 In region BC, the gas is condensing into a liquid. The temperature remains
constant until all the gas has condensed at point C.
 In region CD, the temperature of the liquid is decreasing. It starts to solidify at
point D.
 In the region DE, the liquid is changing to solid. The temperature remains
constant until all the liquid has solidified at point E. During freezing, heat
energy is given out by the liquid particles as they slow down to take up fixed
and orderly positions in the solid. The release of energy compensates for the
loss of heat energy to the surroundings and so the temperature of the
substance remains constant. This temperature is called freezing point. The
temperature of the solid would continue to drop if heat is transferred out of
the solid beyond point E continuously.
Note that:
− The temperature is unchanged during the change of state of a substance.
− The temperature at which solid melts is called the melting point.
− The temperature at which the liquid boils is called boiling point.
There are few substances which change directly from a solid to a gas without becoming
a liquid when they heated. This process is called sublimation. Cooling causes a
change from a gas directly back to a solid. Example of substances that undergo
sublimation is carbon dioxide (dry ice), mothballs and iodine.
Note: Melting and boiling points of pure substances are fixed. Hence, the melting
point and the boiling point of a substance can be used to determine the purity
of a substance.

41
The differences between boiling and evaporation are outlined below.

BOLING EVAPORATION
Occurs at a fixed and constant Occurs at any temperature
temperature
Fast process Slow process
Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs from the surface of the liquid
Bubbles are formed No bubbles are produced

42
 TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY
Heat always moves from a hotter place to a cooler one. This is called heat transfer.
There are three methods of heat of heat transfer. They are:
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation

CONDUCTION
This is the way heat moves mainly through solids. It is passed by hot particles to cooler
ones. Conduction takes place at different rates in different solids. Materials that
conduct heat quickly are said to be conductors and those that do not heat well are
said to be insulators or poor conductors of heat.
The diagram below is of a set-up to investigate conduction of heat in solids.

If you heat one end of a solid bar, the heat energy will travel through the solid from
the hot region to the cold region. The heat is transferred by particles as they bump
into the neighboring particles and transfer heat energy in the process.
Conduction occurs between two objects that are touching, it therefore occurs between
particles of solids, liquids and gases that collide into each other.
Since the particles of solids are closest to one another, conduction occurs fastest in
solids. Similarly, because the particles of gases are the furthest from one another,
conduction is slowest in gases.

CONVECTION
This refers to the movement of heat through fluids (liquids and gases). If a fluid is
heated, hot particles become less dense and move to the top of the liquid while cold
ones with high-density sinks to the bottom. This creates convectional currents,
which carries heat around the fluid. The diagrams below show convectional currents
in liquids and in gases.

43
RADIATION
This is the movement of heat through an empty space. Unlike conduction and
convection the there are no particles involve in movement of heat through radiation.
An object which is hotter than its surrounding radiates heat. Heat from the sun reaches
us through radiation.

Solids have a higher heat transfer rate than that of liquid and liquids are also higher
in heat transfer rate than gases. This is because particles in a solid are closely packed
as compared to liquids and in gases are far apart.

ABSORPTION OF HEAT
This refers to the rate at which heat is taken into an object. Different surfaces absorb
heat at different rates.
The set-up below shows two different sheets of tin plate with corks held onto their
surfaces by wax. One sheet is silver and the other one is painted black. A burner is
put midway between them.

OBSERVATION
When the burner is lit, both surfaces receive equal heat. In a very short time, the wax
on the dull plate melts and the cork falls while the silver plate remains cool and the
wax not melted.
CONCLUSION
Black surfaces or dull coloured surfaces are good absorbers of heat whereas silvery or
light coloured surfaces are poor absorbers of heat. This is because lightly coloured or
silvery coloured surfaces reflected heat outwards.

44
EMISSION OF HEAT
This refers to the release of heat to the surrounding.
In the set-up below two containers were filled with warm water. One container is shiny
metal container and the other one is dull black container.

OBSERVATIONS
The shiny metal container would be warmer after some minutes because its shiny
surface reflects heat radiation back into the container so less heat is lost.
The dull black container would be cooler because it is best at emitting heat radiation.
CONCLUSION
Black or dull coloured surfaces are good emitters of heat whereas white or bright
coloured surfaces are poor emitters of heat. This is because white or bright coloured
surfaces reflected heat inwards.

OTHER APPLICATIONS OF EMISSION OF HEAT

 The cooling fins on the heat exchangers at the back of the refrigerator are
painted black so that they lose heat more quickly.
 Saucepans and kettles are shiny and polished – they are poor emitters and
they therefore keep their heat longer.
In general, surfaces that are good absorbers of radiation are good emitters when hot.

REFLECTION OF HEAT
Shiny surfaces are very good reflectors of heat. Sometimes it is important to direct the
heat to where it is needed. Some devices and equipments use the idea of the ability
of shiny surfaces to reflect heat and direct it to serve its purpose. Applications of
reflection of heat include:
 A VACUUM FLASK
A vacuum or Thermos flask is used to make hot liquids hot and cold ones cold
for a long time. It does this by preventing heat loss or gain by conduction,
convection and or radiation. Below is the diagram of a vacuum flask.
 The silvering of both walls on the vacuum
side reduce heat loss or gain by radiation.
Any amount of radiation is reflected back
across the vacuum side.
 A double – walled glass vessel with a
vacuum between the walls prevents heat
gain or loss by conduction and convection.
 A plastic cap is a good insulator and reduces
heat gain or loss by conduction and
convection.

45
 A CAR ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM
This helps cool the car engine and prevent it from ‘knocking’ or damaged due
to overheating. The cooling system also uses conduction, convection and
radiation to cool the engine. Below is the diagram of a car engine:

 The cylinders conduct heat to water.

 Heat from water move by convection to the radiator.
 The radiator (black in colour) radiates heat to the surrounding.

HEATING SYSTEM
Water is heated in the boiler and rises up by convection to the hot water tank
while colder water flows from the tank to the boiler.

The convection current keeps the water in the tank hot.

The water taken to the taps is replaced by cold water from the cistern. This
water is fed to the bottom of the tank where the water is coldest. The tank
may be insulated to reduce heat loss by conduction and convection.

 GREENHOUSE
The Sun’s radiation passes easily through the glass of a greenhouse and
warms the plants inside. The warmed plants also radiates heat, but some of
this is reflected back by the glass. This is how a greenhouse traps the Sun’s
heat – this is called the greenhouse effect.

46
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figure below shows an experimental set-up place used to study thermal energy
transfer through different materials. Uniform aluminium and iron blocks were fixed
to a copper rod.

Identical coins were attached to the ends of the blocks using wax. After heating the
copper rod for a few minutes, the coin attached to the aluminium block fell first.

(a) Name the main method by which thermal energy from the flame reaches the
aluminium block.
………….………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
(b) Describe the process by which thermal energy reaches the aluminium block.
…………..……………………………………………………………………………………..…….……
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(c) Explain why the copper rod is heated at the midpoint.
………….………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
(d) What conclusion can be made from this experiment?
……………………………………………………………………………..……….………………………
…………………….…………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
2. The figure below shows a plug of water in a capillary tube fitted to an empty flask.

(a) State and explain what will be observed when the flask is placed in hot water.
…………..……………………………………………………………………………………..…….……
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(b) The experiment is repeated with the flask placed 25 cm from a heater. A second
identical flask is painted back on the outside, and also placed 25 cm from the
same heater. The heater is then switched on.

47
 Suggest ad explain what will be observed in the two flasks
………….………………………………………………………………………………..………….………
……………………………………….……………………………………..……….………………………
…………………….…………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
3. The figure shows a simplified model of a system used to heat water.

(a) Name the process by which energy passes through the metal to heat the
water inside the boiler.
………….………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
(b) Name and describe the process by which heat energy is transferred from the
boiler to the water in the storage tank.
…………..……………………………………………………………………………………..…….……
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [3]
(c) Suggest one method of reducing energy loss from the storage tank.
………….………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]

4. The figure shows a glass beaker containing water at 2°C.

After some time droplets of water formed on the outer wall of the glass beaker.
Explain how the water droplets are formed on the outer wall.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………[3]

48
5. The figure shows a graph of a gaseous substance cooling from 200°C.

(a) What is the freezing point of the substance?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) Tick the two correct boxes about the substance between 6 and 20 minutes.

It is changing into a solid

It loses heat energy

Its temperature is constant

Its volume remains constant [2]

(c) State two differences between boiling and evaporation.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………..…………………..………..…………………………………………………………………. [2]
6. The figure the temperature-time graph of a solid substance when heated.

State what happens at each stage.

Sate I …………………………………………………………………………………………………...
Sate II …………………………………………………………………………………………………...
Sate III ……………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]

49
7. The figure shows a set-up used to determine a fixed point of a thermometer.

(a) What are fixed points?

…………..……………………………………………………………………………………..…….……
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) Name and state the temperature value of the fixed point to be determined in
the figure.
Name: ………….……………………………………………………………………………..…….
Temperature: ………….………………………………………………………………..……. [1]
(c) Explain why;
i. Ice made from tap water is not suitable for this experiment.
……………………………………………………………………………..……….……… [1]
ii. The ice should be melting
……………………………………………………………………………..……….……… [1]
8. The figure shows a temperature time graph of a substance being cooled.

(a) At what temperature is the substance condensing?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) i. What is meant by the term melting point?
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
ii. If the substance is heated in its solid state, at what temperature would
it melt?
……………………………………………………………………………..……….……… [1]

50
9. (a) Describe how solids conduct heat.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(b) An iron rod and a copper rod of similar dimensions are heated from the same
source.
Complete the table below to show whether the listed quantities of the rods will
increase, decrease or remain the same during the heating process.
Quality How it works
Mass
Volume
Density
[3]
(c) The figure shows a bimetallic strip made out of brass and copper, before
heating and after heating.

i. Why does the strip bend during heating?

………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
ii. Give one use of bimetallic strip.
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
10. A girl pours hot water into a bottle and a Thermos flask, she notices that the
bottle gets hotter than the thermos flask.

(a) By what process does heat from the water in the bottle reach her hand?
………….………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
(b) Name two features of the thermos flask that reduce heat loss from the flask,
and explain how each reduces heat loss.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…..……..……………………………………………………………………………………..…….……
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [4]

51
11. The figure shows a set-up used to investigate heat radiation. The heater is placed
an equal distance from each of the two identical metal plates. One plate is painted
all over with black paint on both sides and the other is painted shinny on both
sides. A coin is stuck at the back of each metal plate level with the heater.

(a) Why is the heater placed an equal distance from each of the metal plates?
………….………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
(b) The coin on the plate on the right drops off after a few minutes. The coin on
the plate on the left drops off a few minutes later.
Explain what is happening.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [3]
12. The figure shows below shows the cooling system of a refrigerator.

(a) The pipes and the fins at the back of the refrigerator are painted black.
Explain why;
i. the pipes and the cooling fins are painted black.
………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
ii. There are many fins fitted along the pipe
………………………………………………………………………..…………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………….……… [2]
(b) Explain why the body of the refrigerator is painted white
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [3]

52
13. The figure shows below shows a test-tube containing water and some ice.

(a) If heat is supplied continuously, the ice finally melts.

Suggest one method through which most heat energy reaches and eventually
melts the ice.
………….………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
Give a reason for your answer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………..……………………………………………….. [2]
(b) Name two other methods of heat transfer and explain why they transfer less
heat energy than the method named above.
Name: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Explanation ………………………………………………………………………………...…….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Name: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Explanation ………………………………………………………………………………...…….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
14. The figure shows two kettles with equal volumes of water heated to boiling.

By which process does heat energy

i. Reach the water in the aluminium kettle?
………………………………………………………....…………………………………. [1]
ii. Spread in the water?
………………………………………………………....…………………………………. [1]
iii. In which kettle will the water cool faster when heating stops?
………………………………………………………....…………………………………. [1]
Explain your answer above.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [3]

53
15. The figure shows two flasks inverted in beakers containing water. The kettle are
left in the sun.

In which set up will bubbles be produced more rapidly.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
Explain your answer
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]

16. The figure shows an electric kettle used to heat some water of mass 0.5 kg.

(a) State the method by which heat energy is transferred from the heating
element to the water.
………………………………………………………..……………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Explain why the heating element is placed at the bottom.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(c) Explain how heat energy is spread throughout the water by convection.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [3]

54
 PROPERTIES OF WAVES, LIGHT & SOUND

WAVE MOTION
A wave is produced by a disturbance and transmits energy from one place to another
– they are “energy carriers.” Example can be a vibrating object, or energy carried by
a water wave when a stone is thrown in a pond or a sound wave from the loudspeaker
to an audience’s ears. The most common waves found in daily life are water, sound
and electromagnetic waves.
A line joining all crests or troughs is called wavefront. It can also be defined as a line
joining all identical points of the wave. The distance between two successive
wavefronts is equal to one wavelength.

GENERAL WAVE PROPERTY

The two types of waves are longitudinal and transverse waves.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE WAVE

55
DESCRIBING WAVES
Waves are usually described in terms of their wavelength, amplitude or
frequency.
 WAVELENGTH
This refers to the distance between two successive crests, troughs, rarefactions
or compression. It can also be described as the shortest distance between two
identical points on a wave. The diagrams below show wavelengths of
longitudinal and transverse waves:

 AMPLITUDE
It refers to the height of the crest or the depth of a trough measured from the
normal. It can also be described as, the maximum amount of movement of a
particle of the medium from its rest position. The diagram below shows
amplitudes on a transverse waves:

 FREQUENCY
This refers to the number of waves produced per second. It is measured in,
hertz (Hz).
It should be noted that waves with shorter wavelength have higher frequencies
whereas those with longer wavelengths have low frequencies. Sound with high
frequency (ultrasound) can be, used to examine the position of the baby
during pregnancy. The diagram below shows waves with different frequencies:

 SPEED
The speed of the waves is measured in metres per second (m/s)

56
THE WAVE EQUATION
The speed, frequency, and wavelength of any set of waves are linked by this equation:

Speed = frequency × wavelength V=fλ

Where speed is in m/s, frequency in Hz, and wavelength in m.

Worked Example
A coin is dropped into a pool. Waves spread out from the centre with a frequency of
5 Hz and a wavelength of 15 cm.
Calculate the speed of the waves.
Speed = frequency × wavelength
Speed = 6 Hz × 15 cm
= 90 cm/s

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF WAVES

Figure below shows a displacement-position graph of a wave. It gives the displacement
of the particles along the wave at a particular instant.
From the graph, we can determine the amplitude A and wavelength λ of the wave.

This displacement-position graph is for both transverse and longitudinal waves though
it looks like a transverse wave. The only difference is that the displacement of the
particles in a transverse wave is perpendicular to the direction of wave motion whereas
the displacement of particles in a longitudinal wave is parallel to the direction of wave
motion.
The figure below shows a displacement-time graph of a wave. It gives the
displacement of a particular particle as time changes.

From the graph, we can determine the amplitude A and period T of the wave.

57
 REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction is the bending of light which occurs when it passes through an angle from
one transparent material to another. It is due to the change of speed by light as it
enters a material of different density.
When the ray enters an optical denser medium from a less dense one (e.g. from air to
glass or water), it bends towards the normal and bends away from the normal when
it enters a less dense material from a denser one (e.g. from glass or water to air).
REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS BLOCK

When a ray passes through a glass block, it bends towards the normal and when it
leaves it bends away from the normal.

REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH

Refraction makes water (or glass) looks less deep than it really is. Its apparent depth
is less than its real depth.

LAWS OF REFRACTION
 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal are all in the same plane.
 The ration of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is a constant.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓

58
REFRACTIVE INDEX
The refractive index of a material measures how much refraction takes place when
light enters that material. It is defined by the equation:

Refractive index = 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 (𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒊𝒓)

𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎

Alternatively, the refractive index, n, of the medium can also be defined as the ratio
of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in that medium. This means
that refractive index has no units; it is a pure ratio.
Worked Examples
1. Glass has a refractive index of 1.5. Given that the speed of light in a vacuum
is 3 × 108 m/s.
Calculate the speed of light in glass.

= 2 × 108 m/s

2. A ray of light enters a pond at an angle of incidence of 34°. Given that the
refractive index of glass is 1.33.
Calculate the angle of refraction of the ray.

r = 25°

CRITICAL ANGLE (C)

This is the angle of incidence in the optically denser medium for which the angle of
refraction in the less dense medium is 90°.

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Total internal reflection occurs if the angle of incidence is greater than the critical
angle.
When light travels from an optically denser medium to an optically less dense medium
and the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, all the light is reflected
back into the optically denser medium. This is known as total internal reflection.

59
Total internal reflection takes place only when:
 The rays are travelling in an optically dense medium towards a less dense
medium
 The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.

APPLICATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION – OPTICAL FIBRES

An optical fibre is a thin and flexible rods made of special glass or transparent through
which light signals can be sent.
When light enters it, it is totally reflected many times until it comes out from the other
end. They can be tied in knots and pushed down your throat to take photographs of
the inside of your lungs.
Telephone or computer messages can also be transmitted by light along optical fibres.

MIRAGE
Mirage is a natural occurrence that creates an illusion of water due to refraction of
light. It happens when the ground is very hot and the air is cool. The hot ground
warms a layer of air just above it. When light moves from through cold air (denser)
and into the layer of hot air, it is refracted (bends). This causes the observer to see a
bright water-like patch on the ground.

60
LENSES
Lenses bend light and form images. The two main types of lens are:
 CONCAVE LENS – (DIVERGING LENS)
A lens which is thin in the middle and thickest around the edge.
When rays parallel to the principal axis pass through a concave lens, they are
bent outwards.

 CONVEX LENS – (CONVERGING LENSES)

A lens which is thickest at the centre and thin around the edges is called a
convex lens.
When rays parallel to the principal axis pass through a convex lens, they are
bent inwards.

CONSTRUCTION OF RAY DIAGRAM

You can predict where a convex lens will form an image by drawing a ray diagram.
Below are construction rules to guide you when drawing the rays
1. Rays parallel to the principal axis are refracted through F.
2. Rays passing through F are refracted parallel to the principal axis.
3. Rays passing through C are not refracted.

61
The ray diagrams above show that as the object is moved towards the lens, the image
becomes bigger and further away.

CONVEX LENS AS A MAGNIFYING GLASS

If an object is closer to a convex lens than the principal focus, the rays never converge.
Instead, they appear to come from a position behind the lens. The image is upright
and magnified. It is called a virtual image because no rays actually meet to form it and
it cannot be projected on a screen. This is how a convex lens is often used as a
magnifying glass.

62
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Electromagnetic Spectrum consists of different kinds of waves. They are;

 Radio waves  Ultra-violet radiation

 Microwaves  X-rays
 Infra – red radiation  Gamma rays
 Visible light

Each type of wave is produced in its own way and has different applications. In terms
of wavelength, they range from the shortest gamma rays to the longest radio waves.

PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Although the electromagnetic waves have different wavelength and applications, they
have some common properties listed below:
 They are all transverse waves.
 They transfer energy from one place to another.
 They all show wave properties such as reflection and refraction.
 They can all travel through a vacuum.
 They all travel at 3 × 108 in a vacuum.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The following table summarizes the wavelength, source and applications of all
electromagnetic waves.
WAVES WAVELENGTH SOURCE(S) USES
y-ray (gamma 10-13 m  radioactive  Radiotherapy
ray) nuclei
X –ray 10-10 m  X-ray tube  Medical diagnosis
 Diagnosis of flaws in
machines
Ultraviolet (UV) 10-8 m  The sun  Causing sun tan
radiation  Mercury lamp  Causing skin cancer
 Halogen lamp  Stimulating the
production of vitamin
D in skin
Visible light 10-7 m  The sun  Enhance vision
(violet to red  Lamp
Infrared radiation 10-4 m  Hot / warm  Remote control
objects
Microwaves 10-2 m  Man-made  Microwave oven
transmitter  Radar
 Telecommunications
Radio waves 10-2 m – 103  Man-made  Telecommunications
m transmitter  TV and radio
broadcasting

63
 SOUND
Sound is a form of energy produced by vibrating objects such as guitar, drums and
bells. It moves in the form of a wave through a medium.
Sound is longitudinal wave and appears as a succession of compressions and
rarefactions.
These successions of compressions and rarefactions move across the air pushes
against the molecules of air in front of it, the molecules will transport sound by going
forward and backwards towards the ear.

Sound waves travel need a medium for transmission. They cannot travel through a
vacuum because there are no molecules to pass on the vibrations. Sound can therefore
travel through a medium such as solid, liquid or gas.
Sound travels faster in denser media, so it travels faster in liquids than in gases and
fastest in solids. The table below shows relative speed of sound through different
medium:

MEDIUM SPEED OF SOUND

Steel 4000m/s
Water 1483m/s
Air 330m/s

THE SOUND WE HEAR

We usually hear different sounds. The sound we hear can be described in terms of
their pitch or loudness.

 PITCH
This is the highness or lowness of a sound note. High-pitched sound can be
created through;
− Shortening the length of the vibrating object
− tightening the vibrating object
− Decreasing the thickness of the vibrating object.
Low-pitched sounds can be created through
− Increasing the length the vibrating object
− Loosening the vibrating object.
− Increasing thickness of the vibrating instrument

64
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PITCH AND FREQUENCY
The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch of a sound notes. That is sound
waves with higher frequencies are always high pitched. Likewise those with low
frequencies are low pitched. The diagrams below show waves with different pitches:

 LOUDNESS
This refers to the amount of sound energy enters our ears. A sound note is
louder when more sound enters our ears per second. An instrument can be
made louder by plucking or heating it harder.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AMPLITUDE AND LOUDNESS

The larger the amplitude the louder the sound note. That is a sound wave with
large amplitude has a louder sound than the one with smaller amplitudes. The
diagrams below show waves with different loudness:

ECHOES
When one shouts in an empty house or next to a hill or a cliff, they normally hear their
voices back. This is caused by the reflection of sound.
The reflected sound is called an echo. An echo travels at the same speed as the
original sound wave.
Ships use echo-sounding equipment to estimate the depth of the sea. Bats also use
an echo to avoid obstacles. When you stand some few meters from the wall and bang
two wooden blocks, stop and listen, you will hear some sound coming from the
direction of the wall after some time, that sound is an echo.

AUDIBLE FREQUENCIES
Human ear can only hear sounds with a frequency of between 20 Hz and 20 000 Hz.
This frequency range is called the range of audible frequencies.

65
ULTRASOUND
Sounds with frequency above 20000 Hz cannot be heard by human ear and are called
ultrasonic sounds or ultrasound. Some animals like bats can produce and hear
ultrasound. This ability enables them to navigate and find their prey. For human,
ultrasound has many useful applications in our daily life as described below.
 Ultrasound can be used by doctors to examine the inside of human bodies –
ultrasound provides a safe and efficient way of showing the development of an
unborn baby.

 Sonar instruments emit ultrasound in water and detect the corresponding

reflected echoes from different objects. They can be used to determine the
depth of sea bed or to locate shoals of fish.

QUALITY OF SOUND WAVES (TIMBRE)

The quality of sound depends upon the waveform. Some objects such as a tuning fork
produces a pure note with only one frequency. Other instruments usually produce
many frequencies or harmonics at the same time. All the harmonics add together to
give a complicated waveform.
In an empty hall, the reflected sound can take long time to die away. A long
reverberation time makes it difficult for you to hear someone speaking.
The acoustics of a hall can be improved by using curtains, carpets and any soft
material which can absorb the sound.

66
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figures below show the displacement/time graphs for sound waves X and Y.

A B

(a) On figure B, show

(i) The wavelength of sound Y, and label it λ.
(ii) The amplitude of sound Y and label it A. [2]

(b) (i) Which sound is louder? Explain your answer.

……………………………………………………………………………………………….....
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Which sound has the higher pitch? Explain your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….....
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) What type of a wave is sound?
………………………………………………………………………..………………………………. [1]
2. The figure below shows waves on the surface of a liquid.

(a) What type of wave is illustrated above?

….......………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) On the diagram, show one wavelength and label it λ.
(c) X is a particle on the surface of a liquid.
On the diagram, draw an arrow to show the direction in which the particle is
moving. [3]

67
3. The figure below shows lines that represent the peaks of water waves produced
when a stone is dropped into a pond.

(a) What type of wave is the water wave formed in the pond?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) The distance between point S and point T is 1.0 m.
(i) Calculate the wavelength of the waves.

Wavelength = ………………………… [1]

(ii) The wave peak at point S takes 2 seconds to reach point T.
Determine the speed of the waves.

Speed = ………………………… [2]

(c) Bats use ultra-sound of frequency 70 000 Hz to find their path.
Sound travels at a speed of 330 m/s in air
(i) Calculate the wavelength of the sound waves.

Wavelength = ………………………… [2]

(ii) State one other use of ultra-sound.
………………………………………………..……………………………………………. [1]
(d) Fig (a) and (b) show the waveforms of two musical notes. The time scales
shown on both graphs are identical.

(i) Give two characteristics which are similar in both notes.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(ii) State one way in which the sound waves are different.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

68
4. The figure below shows the displacement-time graph for a water wave in a shallow
pond.

(a) What is the amplitude of the wave?

Amplitude = ……………………………. [1]

(b) What is the period of the wave?

Period = ……………………………. [1]

(c) Determine the frequency of the waves.

Frequency = ……………………………. [1]

(d) The waves travel 6 m along the pond in 4s.
(i) Calculate the speed of the waves.

Speed = ……………………………. [2]

(ii) Determine the wavelength of the waves.

Wavelength = ……………………………. [2]

5. (a) The figure below shows the air particles when two sound waves, A and B
pass through the air in the same time interval.

(i) Which sound has the higher pitch? Explain your answer
.………………………………………………………………………………………………....
.………………………………………………………………………………..…………… [2]
(ii) One wave is reflected by a vertical wall. What effect does this have on
its pitch? Explain your answer.
.………………………………………………………………………………………………....
.………………………………………………………………………………..…………… [2]
(b) A student stands 400 m away from a vertical wall. She fires a starter pistol
and hears an echo after 2.4s. Calculate the speed of sound in air.

Speed = ……………………………. [2]

69
6. The figure below shows a sound wave passing through air and glass.

(a) On figure label compression with a letter C and a rarefaction, with a letter R.
(b) What happens to the speed, frequency and wavelength of the sound wave as
it enters glass? (Tick one box only in each row)

[5]
7. The figure below shows two lenses.

(a) Write down the names of the lenses.

Lens V ……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Lens W ……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Lens V is used to form images of objects.
Complete both diagrams to show the position of the images. Draw each image
and label it I.

70
State two features of the image formed.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]

State two features of the image formed.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
8. The figure below shows light travelling from air into a glass block of critical angle
42°. The diagram is not drawn to scale.

(a) Name the process occurring at point B.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) In the figure above, complete the path of the light ray from point C.
(c) The refractive index of glass is 1.5.
Calculate the angle of incidence i.

Angle of incidence = …………………………………… [2]

71
9. The figure below shows a light moving from air into a parallel-sided glass block.

(a) In the figure above, complete the path of the ray until it leaves the glass block.
(b) What is meant by refractive index?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) The refractive index of glass block is 1.5.
Calculate the angle of refraction when the angle of incidence i is 40°.

Angle of refraction = …………………………………… [2]

(d) The figure shows a ray of light entering a semi-circular glass block of refractive
refractive index of glass block is 1.5.

(i) Explain why the ray does not bend when it enters the glass block.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) Calculate the critical angle of the glass block.

Critical angle = …………………………………… [2]

(iii) How will the ray proceed when it reaches side AB.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

72
10. The figure below shows a rectangular glass block, PQRS with a light ray incident
on the side PS at an angle of incidence of 60°. The ray continues through the glass
block as shown to emerge from side QR. The refractive index of glass is 1.50 and
the critical angle is 42°.

(a) Calculate the angle of refraction on side PS. Show your working.

Angle = …………………………………… [2]

(b) Explain why the ray does not emerge from side PQ, but does emerge from side
QR.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]

11. A magnifying glass produces a virtual enlarged image.

Complete the diagram to show;

(a) Where the object should be placed. Label the object O. [1]
(b) How the image is formed. [4]

73
12. The figure shows a converging lens used as a magnifying lens.

(a) Complete the path of the ray after passing through the lens and find the
principal focus. Label it f.
(b) What is the focal length of the lens?
………………………………………………………………………………………………mm [3]

13. The figure below shows a fish O at the bottom of a pond and its image I when
viewed from outside the pond.

(i) On the figure, complete the path of the rays to show how the image I of
the fish is formed.
(ii) Calculate the refractive distance.

Refractive index = …………………………………… [3]

74
14. The figure below shows a prism as used in a projector to make the image upright.
(the diagram is not to scale)

(a) Complete the path of the rays to show how the image becomes upright on
the screen.
(b) Name the effect that the rays undergo along the side ZY.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
15. The table below shows critical angles of water, diamond and glass.
Material Critical angle
Water 48.8°
Diamond 24.4°
Glass 41.8°

(a) What is critical angle?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) X and Y are material in the table above. Use the information from the table
and the paths of the rays below to identify materials X and Y.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]

75
16. The table below shows a slide projector.

(a) On the figure above, draw two rays to show how an image of the slide is
formed on the screen. [2]
(b) Give two properties of the image formed.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) If the image is not clear, how can it be focused?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) Give one way in which the image formed by a projector is different from
that formed by a camera.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
17. The diagram below shows two rays from an object incident on a convex lens of
focal length 15 cm.

(a) On the diagram above, draw the paths of the rays after refraction by the
lens. [2]
(b) On the diagram, draw the image formed. [2]
(c) The object is moved back to a distance of 34 cm from the lens.
State the properties of the image formed.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

76
18. (a) RB 2 radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 107 MHz around Mahalapye.
The speed of electromagnetic waves is 3 × 108m/s.
Calculate the wavelength of the transmitted waves.

Wavelength = ……………………………….. m [2]

(b) Another radio station broadcasts on a frequency of 100 MHz. the speed of
radio waves is 3 × 108m/s. (1 MHz = 1 × 106 Hz)
i. Calculate the wavelength of the wave.

Wavelength = ……………………………….. m [2]

ii. How long does the transmission take to travel 6000 km?

Time = ……………………………….. s [2]

19. A thunderstorm approaches Boiki’s village. Boiki then runs towards the base of a
nearby cliff.
(a) The thunderstorm produces thunder and lightning. Why does Boiki see
lightning flash before he hears the thunder?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
Boiki hears a second sound from the cliff.
(b) State the term used to describe this sound.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Explain why the first sound is louder than the second sound.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
20. A figure below shows a practical application of echo sounding in mineral
prospecting. (The average speed of sound in rocks = 4500 m/s)

(a) A transmitter sends out shock waves and the receiver detects an echo from
the coal deposit 2 s later. How deep is the coal deposit in km?

Depth = ……………………………….. [3]

77
 (b) The transmitter sends out a signal, but the receiver detects several signals
in succession.
Suggest why the receiver picks up more than one signal.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
....................................................................................................... [2]

21. Tshepo and Kagiso stand in front of a high vertical cliff 640 m away to measure
the speed of sound in air. When Tshepo hits a drum Kagiso starts a stopwatch.
She stops the watch when she hears the echo. The time measured by Kagiso is 4s.
(a) Calculate the speed of sound in air.

Speed of sound = ………………………… [2]

(b) How will the pitch of the original sound compare with that of the echo?
……………………………………………..……………………………………………………. [1]
(c) Explain why the original sound is louder than the echo.
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………. [1]

22. The figure below shows two rays of light reflected from a pebble at the bottom of
a pool.

(a) On the diagram;

i. Continue the paths of the two rays when they emerge from the water
surface. [2]
ii. Use the refracted rays to show the position of the image of the pebble,
label the image I. [2]
(b) The real depth of the pool is 1.5 m and the image appears to be 1.1 m
beneath the water surface.
Calculate the refractive index of the water.

Refractive index = ………………………… [2]

78
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

MAGNETISM
Magnetism is a property of matter which produces a field of attraction and repulsion
forces.
A magnet is a device that produces a magnetic field. Magnetite is a natural magnet
but there are many different types of artificial magnets such as bar magnets and
horseshoe magnets.
A magnetic material is one which can be magnetized and is attracted to magnets.
Magnetic materials include iron, nickel, cobalt and alloys such as steel – these magnetic
materials are called ferromagnetic.
Magnetic materials are described as hard or soft depending on how well they keep
their magnetic when magnetized.
Hard magnetic materials such as steel are difficult to magnetize but once
magnetized do not readily lose their magnetism.
Soft magnetic materials such as iron are relatively easy to magnetize but their
magnetism is temporary. They are used in the cores of electromagnets and
transformers because their magnetic effect can be switched on or off easily.
Every magnet has two (2) poles. These poles are known as South Pole (S) and the
North Pole (N). The poles are near the ends of a magnet.

If the N pole of a magnet is brought near the N pole of a suspended magnet repulsion
occurs. Two S poles also repel.

N and S poles always attract.

Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.

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INDUCED MAGNETISM
When a piece of unmagnetised magnetic material touches or is brought near to the
pole of a permanent magnet, it becomes magnet itself - we say that magnetism is
induced in the material.

MAGNETISATION OF IRON AND STEEL

Some iron nails and steel paper clips can be hung from a magnet as shown below.
Each nail or clip magnetizes the one below it and the unlike pole that are formed
attract. If the iron chain is removed by pulling the top nail away from the magnet, the
chain collapses, showing that magnetism induced in iron is temporary.
When the same is done with the steel chain, it does not collapse; magnetism
induced in steel is permanent.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL

Iron and steel can both be attracted by magnets. Hence both maybe changed into
magnets. However, magnets formed from iron and steel are different. The table
below shows a summary of these differences.
IRON STEEL
Gets magnetized easily Harder to magnetize
Loses its magnetism quickly Loses its magnetism slowly
Used to make temporary electromagnets Used for making permanent magnets

Magnetic materials like iron which magnetize easily but do not keep their magnetism
are said to be soft.
Those like steel which are harder to magnetize than iron but stay magnetized are
hard.
NB: Steel make hard or permanent types of magnets whereas iron makes soft or
temporary magnets.

METHODS OF INDUCING MAGNETISM

There are two main ways of inducing magnetism. These are stroking and
electrically.

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INDUCING MAGNETISM ELECTRICALLY
The diagram below shows a set-up used to demonstrate how an iron ail is magnetized
(made to behave like magnets) using electricity.

RESULTS
When the nail is removed from the coil and brought to some iron filling, it attracts
them though it did not before being put in the coil. This shows that magnetism can be
induced through electricity.

INDUCING MAGNETISM BY STROKING

The diagram below shows a set-up used to demonstrate an activity to show how iron
or steel can be magnetized (made to behave like a magnet) by stroking.

Note that where the North

Pole of the magnet
emerges during stoking
becomes the South Pole
in the iron rod.

RESULTS
At the beginning the nails did not attract the fillings but after being stroked or rubbed
with a magnet they attract the fillings. This shows that magnetism can be induced
through stroking.

DEMAGNETIZATION
Magnetic substances have some small areas where groups of atoms are aligned like
the poles of a magnet. These regions are called domains. All domains of a magnetic
material tend to align themselves in the same direction when placed in a magnetic
field.

81
When the domains are disarranged, the magnet becomes demagnetized. A magnet
can be demagnetized through:
 Heating – due to increased vibrations the domains lose their alignment.
 Hitting or hammering – magnetic domains also lose alignment when
hammered.
 Placing the magnet in a solenoid connected to an alternating current source
and slowly removing it will demagnetize the magnet.

MAGNETIC FIELD
A space around a magnet where it produces a magnetic force is called a magnetic
field.
A magnetic field has a direction and this is represented by lines with arrows which
point away from a North Pole towards a South Pole as shown below.

A magnetic field can be detected using;

 A plotting compass is placed at a point such as A near the pole of a magnet.
Some marks at different positions are made as the compass is moved to new
positions. The dots are then joined to give one line of force with an arrow to
show the direction.

 Iron fillings can be sprinkled on a sheet of paper which is put on top of a bar
magnet. As the paper is tapped gently with a pencil, a pattern of the fillings
should form from the lines of force. Each filing turns in the direction of the field
when the paper is tapped.

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STATIC ELECTRICITY
A nylon garment often crackles when it is taken off. We say it is charged with static
electricity. Pens and combs made of certain plastics become charged when rubbed
on the sleeve and can then attract scraps of paper.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CHARGES

When a strip of polythene (white) is rubbed with a cloth, it becomes charged with
stationary or static electricity because of the friction caused. When it is hung up and
another rubbed polythene strip is brought near repulsion occurs. See fig below.

Attraction occurs when a rubbed cellulose acetate (clear) strip approaches.

This shows there are two kinds of electric charges. That on the cellulose acetate is
positive (+) and that on polythene is negative (-) It also shows that:
Like electric charges repel.
Unlike electric charges attract.
NB. The closer the charges, the greater the force.

CHARGING, ATOMS AND ELECTRONS

Objects become charged because the atoms of all substances contain both negative
and positive charges.
The positive charges, (protons) are in the central core or nucleus of the atom. The
negative charges, (electrons) are spread in orbits/shells round the outer part of the
atom.
In an uncharged or neutral atom the number of protons (+) is equal to the number
of electrons (-)

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The production of charges can be explained by supposing that electrons are
transferred from one material to the other. E.g. when polythene strip is rubbed on
wool, some of the outer electrons are knocked off the wool and move to the polythene.

This means that the polythene has extra electrons and the wool has fewer electrons
than protons. This results in a negatively charged polythene and a positively charged
wool. Notice that only the negative electrons can move – the positive protons remain
fixed. The rubbing does not make the charges – it simply separates them.

ELECTRIC FIELD
An electric field is a region in which an electric charge experiences an electric
force.
The direction of electric fields are shown by lines with arrows (electric field lines).
The figure below shows the electric fields due to small charged spheres.

Below are figures showing electric field patterns:

 The filed lines start at positive charges and end at negative charges
 The field lines do not cross one another
 The density of field lines represents the strength of the electric field

84
The presence of the electric field can be justified by suspending a positively charged
body by an insulating thread near the negative charge. It will be observed to be
attracted to the negative charge. This shows that the body experiences an electric
force and that an electric field is present.
The amount of electric charge is measured in coulombs, usually shortened to C.
THE GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE
This is an instrument used to tell whether an object is charged. It consists of a metal
cap on a metal rod at the foot of which is a metal plate having a leaf of gold foil
attached. See fig. below. The rod is held by an insulator in a case with glass sides to
protect the leaf from external forces.

a. Detecting a charge
Bring a charged polythene strip towards the cap: the leaf rises away from the
plate. On removing the charged strip, the leaf falls again.
The negatively charged polythene induces charges in the electroscope by
repelling negative electrons down the metal plate/rod and the leaf. Because
the like charges repel each other, the leaf is repelled and lifted.

b. Charging by contact
If a charged polythene strip is firmly pressed across the edge of the cap, the
leaf would rise and stay up even when the strip is removed. This happens
because the electroscope has now become negatively charged by contact with
the polythene strip.

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INSULATORS AND CONDUCTORS
When you touch the cap of the charged electroscope with different things, e.g. a piece
of paper, a wire, your finger, comb, a cotton handkerchief, a piece of wood, a glass
rod, a plastic pen, rubber you will notice that the leaf either falls or not.
When the leaf falls, charge is passing to and from the ground through you and the
material touching the cap.
If the fall is rapid or fast, the material is a good conductor.
If the fall is slow, the material is a poor conductor.
If the leaf does not alter or respond, the material is a good insulator.
 Insulators are those materials that do not allow electrons to pass through them.
E.g. plastic, air, rubber.
In an insulator, all electrons are bound firmly to their atoms. An insulator can be
charged by rubbing because the charge produced cannot move from where the
rubbing occurs i.e. the electric charge is static.
 Conductors are those materials that allow electrons to move through it. The
moving electrons are an electric current. E.g. skin, metals, water.
In a conductor, some electrons can move freely from atom to atom. A conductor
will become charged only if it held with an insulating handle; otherwise the electrons
are transferred between the conductor and the ground via our body.

ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION
When a positively charged rod is brought near to a small piece of uncharged aluminium
foil, the aluminium foil is attracted to the rod. This is because the induced charges
appear on the aluminium foil.

When the rod is placed near to the foil, the rod attracts the free electrons inside the
foil. This results in the near side of the foil becoming negatively charged, and the other
side positively charged. The rod therefore attracts the near side of the foil but repels
the far side. This process is called electrostatic induction.
Electrostatic induction is a process whereby a conductor becomes charged
when a charged body is brought near it but not in direct contact with it

86
A negatively charged polythene rod held above a small piece of aluminium foil will
attract it due to electrostatic induction.
The charge on the rod pushes free electrons to the bottom of the foil (aluminium is a
conductor), leaving the top of the foil short of electrons, i.e. with a net positive charge,
and the bottom negatively charged.
The top of the foil is nearer the rod than the bottom. Hence the force of attraction
between the negative charges on the top of the foil is greater than the force of
repulsion between the negative charge on the rod and the negative charge on the
bottom of the foil. The foil is therefore pulled to the rod.

A small scrap of paper, although an insulator, is also attracted by a charged rod. There
are no free electrons in the paper but the charged rod pulls the electrons of the atoms
in the paper slightly closer (by electrostatic induction)
This effect of electrostatic induction may also be shown by bringing a negatively
charged polythene strip near to an insulated metal sphere X which is touching a similar
sphere Y. The electrons in the spheres are repelled to the far side of Y.

If X and Y are separated, with the charged strip still in position, X is left with a positive
charge (deficient of electrons) and Y with a negative charge (excess of electrons)

87
The steps below show how one metal sphere can be charged by induction.

DANGERS OF STATIC ELECTRICITY

Electric Shock
If your body provides path for a large current to flow through, enabling a charged
object discharged, you will get an electric shock.

Fires and Explosions

A spark may appear near a charged object. Is there is a nearby inflammable liquid,
the spark can cause fire or even explosions

Lightning
A tall building is protected by a lightning conductor consisting of a thick copper strip
on the outside of the building connecting metal spikes at the top to a metal plate in
the ground.

In a thunderstorm, the clouds are charged by friction with air current. Due to the huge
amount of charges on the cloud, the lightning flash is produced.
If a negatively charged cloud passes overhead, it induces a positive charge on the
point at the top of the lightning conductor. The point then repels positive charges to
the cloud to neutralize it, so it is less likely to produce a lightning flash.
The electrons that are attracted to the conductor travel down it to the Earth. An electric
current flows through the wire.

88
 ELECTRIC CURRENT
Current is the flow of electric charge through a medium. It is the flow of electrons
along the connecting wires in a circuit. The electrons flow from negative to positive of
the power supply. Conventionally, we shall take current as a flow of positive charge
from positive terminal to negative terminal. We keep this convention when drawing
circuit diagrams, but you should remember that, in a circuit, the electrons are really
moving in the opposite direction to the conventional current.

The more the charges passing through the wire in one second, the bigger the current
is. We can therefore say that; Current (I) is the rate of charge flowing.

Current is measures by using an ammeter and the S.I unit of current is ampere, (A).
Charge is measured in coulomb, (C). The ammeter is connected in series and since
it has a very low resistance it has a negligible effect on current.
The positive terminal of the cell is connected to the positive terminal of the ammeter
and the negative terminal of the cell is connected to the negative terminal of the
ammeter as shown below.

ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE
For a charge to flow through a circuit, there must be a ‘push’ from a current source;
this source can be a cell or battery. As a result of this ‘push’ the electrons receive
energy from the power source and the amount of this energy is determined by this
push of power supply. The electrons lose this energy as they pass through the circuit
components. The electromotive force (emf) of a power supply is the push that causes
a flow of current in the circuit.
The electromotive force is defined as the total energy dissipated by a current source
in driving a charge round a complete circuit. The S.I unit of emf is volt, (V).

89
If the emf of a cell is 1.5 V, each coulomb of a charge passing through it is given 1.5
joules of energy by the cell.

Note that a cell supplies energy but not charges. Its function is to drive and push the
free electrons in the circuit to flow.
The emf of a cell can be measured using a voltmeter by connecting it directly across
the terminals of a cell.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (P.D)

For an electric current to flow through a circuit component, there must be a potential
difference between its ends. The electric charge is not made by the cells or battery, it
is in the connecting wires of a circuit all the time and the cell or battery provides an
electric pressure difference which moves it through the wires. Scientists call this
pressure difference the potential difference (p.d.)
When current passes through a circuit component, electrical energy is converted into
other forms of energy (for example, to light and heat)
The energy converted per unit charge passing through a component is called the
potential difference (p.d.) across the component.
The potential difference (also called voltage) across a circuit component is a measure
of the amount of electrical energy that is converted into other forms of energy every
time one coulomb of charge passes through it. Like emf, potential difference is
measured using a voltmeter and the unit is volts.

When we say that the potential difference (p.d) across a lamp is 6 V, it means that the
lamp converts 6 joules of electrical energy into other forms when each coulomb of
charge passes through it.

90
A voltmeter is always connected in parallel to the component whose p.d is required as
shown below;

RESISTANCE
Electrical conductors allow electricity to pass through them while insulators or non-
conductors do not allow electricity to pass through them; they completely oppose the
flow of current through them.
Electric current does not flow at the same rate through all substances, in some
materials, they move easily while in some others they struggle to move or do not move
at all.
Although conductors allow electricity to pass through them, they at the same time
oppose the flow of electricity to a certain extent thus affecting the size or strength of
current flowing through that conductor. This opposition of the passage of current is
called resistance.
Different conductors offer different amounts of resistance. This means that the
strength of current through all conductors will not be the same, if the resistance is
high, the current will be low and vice versa. The resistance of a conductor depends on
different factors such as the type of material, its length and cross-sectional area.
Resistance is usually represented by the letter R and measured in ohm (Ω). To
calculate resistance the following equation is used;

𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 Or 𝑽
Resistance = R =
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑰

MEASURING RESISTANCE
To find the resistance of a resistor, use the circuit shown below.

Adjust the variable resistor and take different readings from the ammeter and
𝑉
voltmeter. Calculate the average resistance using the formula R =
𝐼

91
FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE
Experiments have shown that the resistance of a material depends on;
 Length of the material – if the length is doubled, the resistance is also
doubled. The resistance (R) is proportional to the length, (l) of the wire.
 Cross – sectional area – if the cross sectional area is halved, the resistance
is doubled. The resistance (R) is inversely proportional to the cross sectional
area.
Other factors affecting resistance include the kind of material used and
temperature. Copper is a good conductor and is used for connecting wires while
nichrome has more resistance and therefore used in the heating elements of electric
heater.
The resistance of a wire also changes as the temperature changes. For metallic
wires, as the temperature increases, the resistance increases.
But for some materials (semiconductors) like silicon and germanium, as temperature
increases, the resistance decreases.

OHM’S LAW
If we plot a graph of the current passing through a resistor against the voltage across
it, we get a straight line through the origin.

This means that the current (I) is proportional to the voltage (V). This is Ohm’s Law.
Ohm’s Law states that the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference (V) across it, provided the physical conditions
and temperature remains constant.
1
The gradient of the straight line in the current – voltage graph is . The steeper the
𝑅
graph, the lower the resistance. The flatter the graph, the higher the resistance.

OHMIC AND NON - OHMIC CONDUCTORS

 Ohmic Conductors
Conductors that obey Ohm’s Law are called OHMIC CONDUCTORS.
Examples are copper and other metals. When you plot the current – voltage
graph, you will get a straight line passing through the origin.

92
 Non - Ohmic Conductors
Not all objects and substances give a straight line for the current – voltage
graph. If you investigate how the current (I) varies with the voltage (V) in a
filament lamp (e.g. a light bulb) you can see that the graph is not a straight
line. Conductors like the lamp are Non – Ohmic Conductors because they
do not obey Ohm’s law.
As the current flows through the metal filament, it gets hotter and so its
resistance increases. This means the graph gets flatter as shown below.

Another example of a non-ohmic resistor is a thermistor. It is used in electronics

and is made of a semiconductor.
As more current flows through the thermistor, it gets hotter and its resistance
decreases, the graph gets steeper.

93
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
The amount of current, which flows in a circuit is determined by:
 The total resistance of all components in the circuit.
 The voltage provided by the energy source.
Resistors and other components can be connected either in series or in parallel or
in a combination of both.

CIRCUIT SYMBOLS OF COMPONENTS

When we draw diagrams of circuits, we use symbols for each component. The table
shows the symbols commonly used in drawing circuits.

SERIES CIRCUITS
In a series circuit below, all the electrons that go through one lamp must also go
through the other. The lamps are sad to be connected in series.

 Current - If we add an ammeter to the above circuit, and to different positions,

it will be noted that the same current flows through each point of a series circuit.
The current flow is the same throughout a series circuit.

94
 Potential difference - If we add three voltmeters to the circuit, one across the
battery (terminal p.d) and the other two across the two lamps, it will be noted
that;
V = V1 + V2

Sum of the potential differences (voltage) across individual components in a series

circuit is equal to the potential difference across the whole circuit.
For a series circuit, the component (resistor) with the highest resistance has the
highest potential difference across it.

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
In a parallel circuit below, where the two lamps are connected in parallel, the electrons
splits at the junction P and the currents join again at junction Q.

 Current – Each lamp has its own branch and when the switch is closed both
lamps light up. When three ammeters are connected as shown below, ammeter
A1 measures the total current of the circuit. Ammeters A2 and A3 measure the
current through lamps L1 and L2 respectively.

From the ammeters, we can draw that

I1 = I2 + I3

The current in the main circuit is the sum of the currents in the separate branches.

95
 Potential difference – If three voltmeters are connected as shown in the next
below, the p.d across each one of them is equal to the terminal p.d of the source;
V = V1 = V2

 Each component (resistor) connected in parallel has the same potential difference
to the terminal p.d of the source. The component with the smallest resistance
allows the largest amount of current to pass through it.

RESISTORS IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

The resistance of two or more resistors connected in a series circuit adds up to make
the total resistance. That is;

Total Resistance (RT) = R1 + R2 + R3

EXAMPLE
Below is the diagram of series circuit with resistors connected as shown.
Calculate the total resistance in the circuit.

SOLUTION
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
= 2Ω + 3Ω + 4Ω
= 9Ω

96
RESISTORS IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Parallel circuits always provide an alternative pathway for current flow.
The total resistance (RT) for resistors in parallel is calculated by the formula:
The reciprocal of the total resistance (R) is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of
individual resistances.

1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3
EXAMPLE
The diagram below shows some resistors connected in parallel with one another.
Calculate the total resistance in the circuit.

SOLUTION
1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + +
RT 4 6 12

1 3+2+1
=
RT 12
1 6
=
RT 12

1
= 0. 5
RT
1
𝑅𝑇x = 0.5 × RT
RT

0.5 RT = 1
1
RT = 0.5
RT = 2Ω

97
PRACTICAL ELECTRIC CIRCUITRY
 Electrical Energy and Power
Energy is always measured in Joules (J)
Electrical power is the rate of using electrical energy. It is measured in joules
per second (J/s) called watts (W).
The following equations can be used to calculate power.

Power =
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
Or P=
𝑬 P = VI
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕 Or

If a lamp is marked 100 W, it means it is converting electrical energy to light and heat
at a rate of 100J per second.
For resistors, we can combine the equation P = VI with V = I2R, so that we get
alternative equations:

COST OF ELECTRICITY
Since the joule is a very small unit of energy, the energy consumed in household
appliances is measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
One kilowatt-hour is the amount of energy that is used by a 100 W appliance in one
hour. If you look at the electricity meter at home, you will find that it is marked in
kilowatt-hours (kWh). It is therefore called kilowatt-hour meter.
The kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy (not power) and is calculated by:

Since 1 kW = 1000 W and 1 h = 3600 s, 1 kWh = 3, 600,000J.

Worked example
If electrical energy costs P0.75 per unit, what is the cost of running an air – conditioner
with an average power of 1000 W for 10 hours?
Solution: energy supplied to the air-conditioner in 10 hours is
E = Pt = 1 kW × 10 h = 10 kWh
Cost = P0.75 × 10 kWh
Cost = P7.50

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DANGERS OF ELECTRICITY
Mains electricity is dangerous if not properly used. Possible hazards include fires,
shocks, burns or death.
A person gets electric shock if a current flows through his body. This may have some
effects on the heart.
Severity depends on the value of the current and the time for which it passes. Age,
health and moistures of the skin are other factors. The dangers of electricity can be
caused by;
 Damaged insulation
The wires of the electrical cables are insulated in rubber or plastic. As the
insulating materials deteriorate with time, the wires get exposed and may
cause electric shock to the user if they are touched accidentally.

 Overheating of cables
Overheating of a cable occurs when a low rated cable is wrongly used on a
high power rated electrical appliance. This way, the appliance draws more
current than what the cable permits resulting in overheating. This can result in
generation of a large amount of heat which can melt the insulation and start
fire.

 Damp conditions
The water or moisture provides a conducting path for a large current which
may flow through the human body causing electric shock.

 Overloading of sockets
Plugging too many equipments into a single socket ricks an electric fire around
the socket due to large currents being drawn.

SAFE USE OF ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME

 Fuses
A fuse is a safety device which is made of copper wire. If a fault occurs and
too much current flows, the fuse wire melts before anything else is damaged
or starts a fire.
The following figure shows a cartilage fuse and its circuit symbol.

Fuses Rating
The fuse rating is the maximum current that the fuse can carry without melting.
Only certain fixed values are available e.g. 5 A, 13 A, 15 A and 30 A.
A fuse must be connected to the live wire of a circuit. When the fuse is blown,
the electrical appliance is disconnected from high voltage (live wire).

99
 Switches
A switch is used to disconnect or connect an electrical appliance to the mains
supply. In the case of leakage of current or exposed live wire, a switch can be
used as a safety device to cut off the current.
Switch should be installed on the live wire so that the electrical appliance is
disconnected from high voltage (live wire) when the switch is open.

 Earth Wire
Earth wire is connected to the metal casing of an electric appliance. In case of
leakage of electricity, the user may get electric shock if the live wire is
connected to the metal casing. The earth wire allows the current to flow
through it to the ground. It can protect the user from fatal electric shock.

 Double Insulation
Some electrical appliances are double insulated. They only have a 2 – pin plug.
The cable only consists of two wires.
Double insulation means that the user is protected from electric shock by two
independent layers of insulation. The symbol below is for double insulation.

 Lighting Circuits
For the circuits inside the house, there are some lighting circuits. Each circuit
is controlled by a wall switch and protected by a fuse rated at 5 A.
All the lamps are connected in parallel so that they can operate independently.

 Three – Pin Plugs

Three – pin plugs are usually used for connecting appliances to sockets. For
safety reasons the earth pin is longer and thicker than the live and neutral pins.
The sockets are mechanically protected. The earth pin must enter the top hole
before the other two pins can enter the bottom holes.

Wiring A 3 – Pin Plug

Colour codes for wires from the mains;
− Neutral : blue
− Live : brown
− Earth: Green and Yellow

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS
An electric current produces a magnetic field. However, the reverse is also possible:
a magnetic field can be used to produce an electric current.
When an electric current travels through a wire there is magnetic field all around the
wire. The diagrams below show how this field can be ‘seen’ using iron filings.

If a plotting compass is placed near the wire it always points in a certain direction as
shown below.

When a wire is pulled across a magnetic field, a small e.m.f. (voltage) is generated in
the wire as shown in diagrams below. The effect is called electromagnetic
induction. We say an e.m.f. is induced in the wire and if the wire forms part of a
complete circuit, the e.m.f. makes a current flow.

The induced e.m.f. (and current) can be increased by:

 Moving the wire faster
 Using a stronger magnet
 Increasing the length of wire in the magnetic field – for example by looping the
wire through the field several times as shown above right.
If the wire is not moving, or is moving parallel to the field lines, there is no induced
e.m.f. or current.

101
If the magnet is pushed into a coil, an e.m.f. is induced in the coil. In this case, it is
the magnetic field that is moving rather than the wire, but the result is the same: field
lines are being cut. As the coil is part of a complete circuit, he induced e.m.f. makes a
current flow.

The induced e.m.f. (and current) can be increased by

 Moving the magnet faster
 Using a stronger magnet
 Increasing the number of turns on the coil – this increases the length of wire
cutting through the magnetic field.
It is also worth noting that:
 If the magnet is pulled out of the coil, the direction of the induced e.m.f. (and
current) is reversed.
 If the magnet is held still, no filed lines are cut, so there is no induced e.m.f.
or current.

TURNING EFFECT ON A COIL

We can use a flat coil rotating in the magnetic field between the North Pole and South
Pole as a simple generator. The long side of the coil cut through the filed lines, and
the short sides do not. This induced e.m.f. s in the long sides drive a current round
the coil as shown.

102
ELECTRIC MOTORS
One of the important applications of electromagnetism is the electric motor. An electric
motor converts electrical energy into physical movement. If a coil is carrying a current
in a magnetic field, the forces on it produces a turning effect.

The diagram above shows a simple electric motor. It runs on direct current (d.c.) the
‘one way’ current that flows a battery.
The ends of the wire on the coil are fixed to a commutator, or slip rings and rotates
with the coil. The current leaves and enters by means of the slip rings placed on the
axle.
The brushes are two contacts which rub against the commutator and keep the coil
connected to the battery.
Most generators give out alternating current (a.c.) these a.c. generators are also called
alternators. When the oil is rotated, it cuts magnetic field lines, so an e.m.f. is
generated. This makes the current to flow.
Alternating current flows alternately backwards and forwards. Mains current is a.c.
The voltage and current for a.c. circuits is complicated by the fact that the fact that
they vary all the time.
The alternating current from the mains is available from two wires, live and neutral.
The voltage between these wires is not steady like that from a cell or battery. It varies
with time according of the graph shown below. This causes currents which vary in
similar way.

103
TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are used whenever an alternating current (a.c.) supply voltage needs to
be increased or decreased in order to work a particular device.
Energy from power stations to your home is transferred using a high voltage and a
low current with transformers along the system to change the voltage. This is the
main reason for using a.c. because transformers do not work with d.c.
Supplying energy from the power station using a high voltage and low current is
wasteful as high current heats up the power lines.
A transformer consists of two coils, the primary and the secondary, wound around
a ring of soft iron called the core.

In the transformer one coil (the primary coil) is used to magnetize the core.
Alternating current is passed through it. This causes the magnetic field in the core to
change to and fro, and this induces a voltage in the other coil (the secondary coil).
Thus a voltage applied to the primary coil produces an output voltage across the
secondary coil.
When alternating current flows through the primary (input) coil, it sets up an
alternating magnetic field in the core and therefore, in the secondary (output) coil.
If you measure the voltages you will find that there is a connection between these
voltages and the number of turns on each coil. The equation below applies:

Worked example
A step-down transformer is required to transform 240 V a.c. to 12 V a.c. If the primary
coil has 1 000 turns, how many turns should the secondary have?
Formula:

12 𝑁2
= 240N2 = 12000 ⸫ N2 = 50 turns
240 1000

104
If the secondary coil has more turns than the primary coil, then it is a step ˗ up
transformer, because the secondary voltage is bigger than the primary voltage.

If the secondary coil has fewer turns than the primary coil, then it is a step ˗ down
transformer.

POWER THROUGH A TRANSFORMER

If no energy is wasted in a transformer and the transformer is 100% efficient, then
the power delivered by the output coil will be same as the power supplied to the input
coil, so;
Power supplied to the primary coil = Power delivered in the secondary coil
Or
Input voltage × Input current = Output Voltage × Output Current
V1 × I1 = V1 × I1
This means that if the voltage is stepped up by a certain ratio, then the current in the
secondary is stepped down by the same ratio.
Worked example
A step-down transformer has input coil of 2000 turns and output coil of 100 turns. The
output voltage is 10 V and power delivered in the secondary coil is fund to be 40 W.
Calculate: (a) the supply voltage (b) the current in the input coil
(a)
10𝑉 100
= ⸫ supply voltage = 200 V
𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2000

Substituting values
(b) V1 × I1 = V1 × I1 200 V × input current = 40 W
Input current = 0.2 A

105
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figure below shows a permanent magnet with a single magnetic field drawn.

(a) Name the pole at X.

……………………………………………………….……………………………………………….. [1]
(b) On the figure, draw more field lines to show the magnetic field around a
magnet. [2]
(c) Describe the electrical method of making magnets.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………….……………………………………………….. [3]
2. The figure below shows two magnets.

(a) On the diagram below, draw the magnetic field around magnet XY.

[2]

106
 (b) On The figure below shows an electromagnet next to four cubes,
A aluminium, B lead, C nickel and D cobalt.

(i) Which two cubes will the magnet pick up when the switch is closed?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(ii) Suggest two changes that could be made to make the magnet stronger.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

3. The figure below shows a negatively charged, plastic strip suspended by a thin
thread and a charged strip R made of a different plastic material.
The diagram shows what happens when R is brought near end Y.

(a) Name the effect of bringing R near to Y.

……………………………………………………….……………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Explain how the strip R was charged.
……………………………………………………….……………………………………………….. [1]
(c) How can the negatively charged strip be discharged?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

107
4. The figure below shows the direction in which a compass needle points when it is
placed on a wooden table.

Two plotting compasses are then placed near a metal bar, AB and the compass
needles point as shown in the figure below.

(a) How do the plotting compasses show that bar AB is a magnet?

……………………………………………………….……………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Draw the magnetic field around metal bar AB.

(c) Describe an electrical method of demagnetizing a magnet?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………..……………………………………………….. [2]

5. Two neutral metal spheres, A and B are mounted on insulating stands as shown
below.

Describe and illustrate how a negatively charged rod may be used to charge he
spheres by induction so that A is negatively charged and B is positively charged.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………..…………………………………….. [4]

108
6. A copper rod and perspex rod are each rubbed with a cloth. The Perspex rod
becomes positively charged and the copper rod remains uncharged.

(a) Explain why copper cannot be charged by rubbing.

……………………………………………………….……………………………………………….. [1]
(b) What happens during the rubbing of the perspex that makes it to be charged?
……………………………………………………….……………………………………………….. [1]
(c) The figure below shows the charged perspex rod placed close to a suspended
polystyrene sphere.

State what will be observed.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Explain the observation stated above.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) The sphere touches the perspex rod and is then repelled by the rod.
Explain why the sphere is repelled.
……………………………………………………………………………….………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………..……………….. [2]
7. The figure below shows two houses which have lightning conductors. In house A,
the rod is attached to the roof while in house B the rod is attached to a metal plate
buried underground.

(a) Name a suitable metal which could be used to make the rod.
……………………………………………………….……………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Explain why A is more likely to be damaged by lightning.
……………………………………………………….……………………………………………….. [1]
(c) In a storm, the spikes have a positive charge as shown. Indicate on the diagram
the sign and location of the charge on the cloud above the spikes.

109
8. (a) The figure below shows the charge on a balloon after it has been rubbed with
a woolen cloth.

(ii) Explain why the balloon becomes negatively charged.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(iii) Explain why the balloon is attracted to the woollen cloth
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) The figure below shows a plastic rod brought near the metal cap of a positively
charged gold-leaf electroscope. The divergence of the leaf increases.

(ii) What is the charge on the plastic rod?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(iii) The plastic rod is taken away, and the cap of the electroscope is touched with
a finger.
What will be observed
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Explain your answer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………..…………………………………………………………………………………. [2]

110
9. A 60 W lamp is connected to a 240 V mains supply and is switched on for 8 hours
(a) Calculate
(i) The current in the lamp when it is switched on.

Current = ………………………………….. A [2]

(ii) The resistance of the lamp.

Resistance = ………………………………….. Ω [2]

(b) The cost of electrical energy is P0.80 per kWh.
Determine the cost of using the lamp for 8 hours.

Cost = P………………………………….. Ω [3]

10. The figure below shows an electromagnet.

(a) State two ways by which the strength of the electromagnet can be increased.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(b) State the voltage – time graph for two complete rotations of an a.c. generator
on the axes below.

(c) State three ways of increasing the size of induced electromotive force in an
a.c. generator.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..…………………………………………………………………………….. [3]

111
11. Street lamps are connected to a transformer which is supplied voltage from a
power station. The figure shows the type of transformer the lamps are connected
to.

(a) Name the type of transformer shown above.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Explain how the voltage output to the street lamps is produced.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….. [1]
(c) Name the type of transformer shown above.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(d) Name the type of transformer shown above.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]

The potential difference across lamp A is 240 V. Each lamp is marked 40 W; 240 V.
(i) State the value of potential difference across lamp B.

Potential difference ……………………………………. [1]

(ii) Draw a simple circuit diagram to show how the lamps are connected.

[2]
(iii) Suggest one advantage of having the lamps in parallel.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(iv) Calculate the energy, in joules, converted by each lamp in 12 hours.

Energy =………………………. [2]

112
(v) Calculate the resistance of each lamp. Use the equation

Resistance = ……………………. [2]

12. The figure below shows a hydroelectric power station which supplies a village with
electricity.

(a) (i) Name the type of transformer labelled transformer B.

………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(ii) Explain why the electricity is transmitted at 230 kV instead of 25 kV. (1 kV =
1000 V)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) On leaving the dam, the water falls through a height of 15 m. (g = 10 N/kg)
Calculate
(i) The decrease in the potential energy of 500 kg of water falling from the
dam to the turbine.

Decrease in potential energy = ……………………. [2]

(ii) The maximum possible velocity of the water when it reaches the turbine.

Velocity = ……………………. [2]

(iii) Explain why the actual velocity of the water when it reaches the turbine
is less than the velocity.
………………………………………..…………………………………………………………. [1]
(c) Suggest one environmental impact of a hydroelectric power station.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………….......………………………………………………… [1]

113
13. The figure below shows an electromagnet used to switch on a high voltage circuit.

(a) Explain why iron is used to make the core of the electromagnet.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Describe how the electromagnet switches the high voltage circuit on.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [4]
(c) What is the purpose of the spring?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

14. The figure below shows an electric iron.

(a) State the energy change that takes place when the iron is connected to a socket
and switched on.
……………………………………………. ………………………………………………
(b) Explain why
(i) The handle of the iron is made of plastic.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) The earth wire is connected to the metal sole
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

114
 (c) The iron transfers 3 kWh of energy when switched on for hours.
Calculate
(i) The input power of the iron.

Power = ……………………. [2]

(ii) The cost of using the iron for 2 hours. The cost of electricity is P0.65
per kWh.

Cost = ……………………. [2]

15. The figure below shows some information written on an old mobile phone charger.

Input 250 V
50 – 60 Hz/0.01A
Output 5.0 V/ 0. 0.35 A
(b) This charge contains a step – down transformer.
Explain the meaning of step – down transformer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Calculate the power output of the charger.

Power output = …………………………………… [2]

(d) The charger has 500 turns in the output coil.
Calculate the number of turns in the input coil.

Number of turns = …………………………………… [2]

16. The figure below shows an electromagnet used as a relay switch.

Explain what would happen when switch S is closed.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [4]

115
17. The figure below shows a transformer connected to a power supply and a
milliammeter.

(a) What type of transformer is this?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) Explain why the milliammeter deflects momentarily when the switch is closed.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(c) Explain why there is no deflection when the switch remains closed.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(d) A 240 V a.c. source replaces the supply shown in fig 4.1.
Calculate the output voltage.

Output = ………………………….. [2]

(e) State the advantage of transmitting power at a high voltage.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
18. The figure below shows a transformer.

(a) Name the type of transformer.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) The transformer is connected to a 240 V a.c. power supply. The bulb requires
12 V to operate normally. There are 100 turns in the secondary coil.
Calculate the number of turns in the primary coil.

Number of turns in primary coil = ………………………….. [3]

116
19. The figure below shows an electric heater.

(a) Name the three wires in the cord of the heater and state the colour of each
wire.
Name Colour
………………………………………….. ……………………………………
………………………………………….. ……………………………………
………………………………………….. ……………………………… [3]

(b) Which two wires are connected to the heating element of the heater?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) What is the function of the third wire?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) The heater is rated at 250 V, 1 000 W.
(i) Calculate the normal operating current of the heater.

Current = ………………………………… [2]

(ii) From the list of fuses below, choose by a tick the lowest fuse rating suitable
to be used to protect the heater.
1 A, 2 A, 10 A, 15 A [1]

(e) The figure below shows a mains plug

(i) Label the wires. [3]

(ii) Which wire could be connected to the metal body of an appliance?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Explain why.
………………………………………………………………………………....………………. [2]

117
20. The figure below shows an electric iron.

(a) On the diagram name each of the wires in the electrical cord connected to the
electric iron. [3]
(b) What is the function of the wire connected to the ironing plate
…………………………………………………………………………..…………………………….. [1]
21. The figure below shows magnet suspended in a coil by a string.

The thread is cut and the magnet falls through the coil.
(a) Describe what would happen to the pointer of the electrical meter.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) What causes the pointer to behave as in the answer above?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
22. The figure below shows an alternating current generator.

(a) Name the parts X and Y.

……………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]

118
 (b) State two ways of ways of increasing the output voltage.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [2]
(c) Draw an arrow on the diagram to show the direction of the induced
current on the coil when it is in the position shown in the diagram. [1]
(d) The alternating voltage forms one complete wave in 2 seconds. The
maximum voltage is 3 V .
Draw one complete cycle on the axis below.

[3]
23. The figure below shows some water being boiled by a 1.2 kW electric kettle
connected to 240 V mains supply.

(a) What is the current through the

(i) Live wire

Current = ………………………A [2]

(i) Earth wire

Current = ………………………A [1]

(i) Neutral wire

Current = ………………………A [1]

119
 (b) The kettle is switched on for 20 minutes every day.
Calculate the cost of using the kettle for 12 days if 1 unit cost 30t.

Cost = ……………………… [3]

(c) The plug that connects the kettle to the power point has a fuse and an earth
wire.

(i) Explain how the fuse protects the kettle.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(ii) Explain the purpose of the earth wire.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
24. The figure below shows some major stages in the generation of electricity at a
thermal power station.

(a) (i) What are the major energy changes at each stage in the power station?
Boiler: ………………………….……… ………………………………………………
Turbines: …………………….……… ………………………………………………
Generator: ………………….……… …………………..…….……………… [3]
(iii) What type of voltage does the generator produce? Tick one box

Alternating direct [1]

(b) The 240 V output from a generator is connected to a transformer with a primary
coil of 10 000 turns. The secondary coil of the transformer has 20 000 turns.
(i) Calculate the output voltage

Output voltage = ………………………V [2]

(ii) The power input to the transformer from the generator is 1200W.
Calculate the input current to the transformer.

Input Current = ………………………A [2]

120
25. An electric heater consists of a 2 kW element, a 30 W indicator lamp and a 20 W
fan, switched on for 10 hours.
Calculate
(a) The total electrical energy in kWh used by the heater.

Energy = ………………………kWh [3]

(b) The cost of using the heater if a unit of electricity is P0.50.

Cost = …………………… [2]

26. The figure shows a set up used to perform an experiment on electromagnetic
effect. When the North pole of a magnet is pushed into the coil, the galvanometer
deflects to the right and back to zero.

(a) State what will happen if

(i) The magnet is now pulled out of the coil.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(ii) The South pole of the magnet is pushed into the coil.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Write down three ways of increasing the size of deflection.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]

121
 ATOMIC PHYSICS
RADIOACTIVITY
Some materials contain atoms with unstable nuclei. In time, each unstable nucleus
disintegrates (breaks up). As it does so, it shoots out a tiny particle and, in some cases
a burst of wave energy as well. This spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nucleus
to form a more stable nucleus is referred to as radioactivity.
The particles and waves radiate from the nucleus, so they are sometimes called
nuclear radiation. Materials which emit nuclear radiation are known as radioactive
materials. Radioactive materials are widely used in industries, medicine,
agriculture and production of electricity. The disintegration of a nucleus is called
radioactive decay.

BACKGROUND RADIATION
We are exposed to a small amount of radiation all the time because of radioactive
materials in our surroundings. This is called background radiation. It mainly comes
from natural sources such as soil, rocks, air, building materials, food, drink – and even
space.
IONIZING EFFECT OF RADIATION
Ions are charged atoms or radicals (group of atoms). Atoms become ions when they
lose or gain electrons. Radioactivity or nuclear radiation can remove or strip electrons
from atoms in its path so it has an ionizing effect. An atom that has lost an electron
is said to be ionized. If a gas becomes ionized, it will conduct an electric current. In
living things, ionization can damage or destroy cells.

GEIGER – MÜLLER (GM) TUBE

This is an instrument used for the detection of ionizing radiation. The window at one
end is covered with a thin material such as mica through which low-penetrating
radiation can easily pass.

The G-M Tube can be used to detect alpha, beta and gamma radiation.

122
ALPHA (α), BETA (ß) AND GAMMA (γ) RADIATION
There are three (3) main types of nuclear radiation:
 Alpha particles (α)
 Beta particles (ß)
 Gamma rays (γ).
Gamma rays are the most penetrating and alpha the least as shown below:

Type of Radiation alpha particles (α) beta particles (ß) gamma rays (γ)

Nature each particle is 2 each particle is an electromagnetic

protons and 2 electron (created waves similar to X -
neutrons (similar when the nucleus rays
to helium – 4) decays)
Helium ions (+) electrons (−)

Ionizing effect Strong Weak Very weak

Penetrating effect Not very Penetrating, but Very penetrating;

penetrating; stopped by a few never completely
stopped by a thick millimeters of stopped; though
sheet of paper or aluminium or other lead and thick
by skin or by few metal concrete will reduce
centimeters of air. intensity.

DANGERS OF EXPOSURE TO RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS

Because of its ionising effect, nuclear radiation can;
 Damage or destroy living cells.
 Stop vital organs in the body working properly.
 cause cancer
The stronger the radiation, and the longer the exposure time, the greater the risk.

123
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Radiation produces ions. It can cause damages to living cells or even kill them. For
this reason, safety precautions are important when you handle radioactive substances.
 When they are not in use, you should always keep radioactive sources in led
containers in locked cupboards, marked with the radioactive safety symbol
below.

 Always handle radioactive sources with forceps or tongs.

 There should be no eating or drinking where work is being done with
radioactive substances.
 Thoroughly wash your hands after carrying out experiments with radioactive
materials.

DEFLECTION OF NUCLEAR RADIATION

Alpha particles are positively charged, beta particles are negatively charged, and
gamma radiation is electrically neutral. This means that alpha and beta radiation can
be deflected by electric fields, but gamma radiation cannot.
Remember that opposite charges attract. Beta particles are negatively charged so they
will be attracted towards a positively charged plate. And positive alpha particles will
be attracted towards a negatively charged plate.

124
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Explain what is meant by radioactivity?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

2. (a) Name an instrument used for detecting radioactive emissions.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) The instrument in (a) above is used to detect alpha particles emitted by
americium-241. Some radiations were detected before the americium-241 was
brought close to it.
(i) State one source of the radiations stated in (b) above.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Suggest a reason why the instrument named in (a) must have a very thin
mica window.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

3. What is background radiation?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

4. A radioactive source emits three different types of emission.

Name the three types of emission.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]

5. (a) The table below shows radioactive emissions, their nature and penetration
and ionising powers with some information missing. Complete the table.

Radiation Penetration power nature Ionising effect

Highest Electromagnetic
alpha Helium nucleus
moderate
[5]
6. A particle emitted by a radioactive substance has two protons and two neutrons.
(a) Name the particle emitted.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) What is the charge of the emitted particle?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

7. State two uses of radioactive substances.

……………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….……………… [2]

125
8. Radioactive iodine emits gamma radiation and is used to trace the flow of blood in
the body of a patient.
(a) What is the nature of gamma radiation?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) State two health hazards of radioactive emissions.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………….………………………………… [2]
(c) State one precaution that is taken when using radioactive sources.
……………………………………………………………………….………………………………… [2]

9. The figure below shows the effect of an electric field on the radioactive emissions
P and Q given out by a natural radioactive source.

(a) Identify emissions P and Q.

………………………………………………………………….……………………………………… [2]
(b) Suggest a reason why;
(iii) Both emissions are deflected by an electric field.
……………………………………………………………………………………………... [1]
(iv) Emission Q is deflected less than emission P
……………………………………………………………………………………………... [1]
(c) On the figure, draw electric field lines between the two plates. [2]

10. State the name of one naturally occurring radioactive material.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) State one danger of being exposed to radioactive emissions.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(c) A Geiger-Muller tube detects some radiation when placed in a classroom that
has no radioactive source nearby.
State the name of this radiation.
………………………….……………………………………………………………………………. [1]

126
CHEMISTRY

127
 MATTER
PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass - Everything you see around you
is matter.
All substances can be classified into three states of matter, namely solid, liquid and
gas.
The table below summarizes the arrangement and movement of particles in solids,
liquids and gases.
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Arrangement of particles Closely packed Loosely packed Far apart
Motion of particles Vibrate about a fixed Slide over each Move freely in random
position other direction
Diagram of particles

Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume

Shape Fixed shape No fixed Shape, No fixed Shape, takes
takes the shape of the shape of the
the container container

KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY

The three (3) states of matter can be explained using the kinetic particle theory –
a theory about how particles behave under different conditions. The kinetic (motion)
particle theory explains that:
 Matter is made up of very small particles (namely atoms, molecules or ions)
 The particles of matter are always moving (in motion) - they always have kinetic
energy. The higher the temperature, the faster the movement of particles.
 The state (form) of matter depends on temperature. The higher the temperature,
the faster the movement of particles. Increasing the temperature makes particles
gain kinetic energy and move further apart. When the temperature is low, particles
lose kinetic energy and move closer together.
 Heavier particles move / diffuse more slowly than lighter particles. – Gases with
higher molecular masses diffuse slower than gases with lower molecular masses.
The diagram below shows the changes of the e states of matter as the temperature
changes.

128
DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the process whereby particles move from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration until they are evenly distributed.

The idea that matter is made up of particles is evident through diffusion. This can be
done by some experiments demonstrating diffusion in both liquids and gases. The
following are examples show evidence of diffusion in gases:
 Detection of fragrance of an opened perfume
 Aroma of food from the kitchen
 Undesirable odour from a garbage

DEMONSTRATION OF DIFFUSION IN FLUIDS/LIQUIDS

Diffusion can also be demonstrated in liquids by using some water and potassium
permanganate as shown below. The molecules of potassium permanganate move
away from the crystal where they are highly concentrated until they fill the whole
beaker.

The rate of diffusion of gases depends on two factors:

 Temperature
When the temperature is high, rate of diffusion becomes faster. This is because
the particles at a higher temperature have more kinetic energy and hence are
able to move at greater speeds.

 Molecular mass
At a given temperature, lighter molecules diffuse faster than heavier molecules -
gases of different molecular masses diffuse at different rates to fill the space
available to them. Carbon dioxide, CO2 (molecular mass 44) will diffuse slower as
compared to O2 (molecular mass 32)

129
The reaction between hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas and ammonia (NH3) gas can be
used as evidence. (Molecular mass of HCl = 36.5 and molecular mass of NH3 = 17)
A piece of cotton wool is soaked in concentrated Hydrochloric acid; the gas given off
is hydrogen chloride (HCl).
Another piece of cotton wool is soaked is concentrated ammonia solution which gives
off ammonia gas (NH3).
Two gases diffuse towards each other in a sealed glass tube.

OBSERVATION
After a few minutes, a white ring of solid appears inside the glass tube. The white ring
is closer to the hydrochloric acid end rather than the ammonia solution end.
EXPLANATION
The HCl molecules have larger relative molecular mass compared to those of NH3
molecules. The ammonia molecules being lighter move much faster than the hydrogen
chloride molecules, the two molecules therefore meet nearer the hydrochloric acid end
and react with ammonium chloride forming a white solid.
CONCLUSION
The larger the molecular mass, the slower the rate of diffusion. The smaller the relative
mass, the faster the rate of diffusion.
Note: The rates of diffusion of two gases can also be compared by measuring the
time taken for each of the equal volumes of the two gases to diffuse through
a small hole.
It is very important to know how to interpret the results of such experiments.

130
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. Every atom consists of a nucleus and
some particles called electrons that whizz non-stop around the nucleus in the shells.
Some other particles, the protons and neutrons are found inside the nucleus and
are called nucleons.

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
The three basic particles; protons, neutrons and electrons found in an atom have
different properties as shown in table below.
Particle Relative mass Relative charge Position
Proton 1 +1 (positive) Nucleus
Neutron 1 0 (neutral) Nucleus
Electron 1
or 0.0005 −1 (negative) Shells / orbitals
1840

Note: The table above must be mastered because it is often tested in the BGCSE
examinations. Common error is that candidates tend to confuse relative masses
with relative charges.
A table of elements labelled The Periodic Table of the Elements is normally
provided during chemistry tests. On the bottom left of the Periodic Table is a key
(shown below) which acts as a guide to use the table.

The numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom can be determined from
its proton number (atomic number) and the nucleon number (mass
number).
 The proton (atomic) number is defined as the number of protons in an
atom.
 The nucleon (mass) number is defined as the total number of protons and
neutrons in an atom.

131
An atom is neutral, it has no overall charge. This is because the number of positive
(+) protons in the nucleus must be equal to the number of (−) electrons in the
shells.
Look at the symbol of an element Carbon (C) as shown in the periodic table.

The protons and neutrons of an atom are just embedded and clustered inside the
nucleus and this is the heavy part of an atom.
The electrons are always moving around the nucleus at different levels from it. The
different energy levels for the electrons are called electron shells. Each shell can
only hold a limited number of electrons.

ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT
The way in which electrons are arranged in an atom among the various shells is called
electron configuration.
Each energy level or shell can accommodate a definite number of electrons.
For the first 20 elements in the Periodic Table;
 the first shell can hold 2 electrons
 the second shell can hold 8 electrons
 the third shell can accommodate 8 electrons
Each shell or energy level must be completely filled up with electrons before the next
level is filled. Below are some examples of diagrams showing electron configuration of
four elements extracted from the Periodic Table.
Electrons are normally shown in the diagrams as cross (×) or dots (●)

132
The table below shows the electron arrangement of atoms of some of the elements
from the Periodic Table.

Element Proton Electron Atomic

number configuration Structure

1
Hydrogen H 1 1
1

16
Oxygen O 8 2,6
8

20
Neon Ne 10 2,8
10

27
Aluminum Al 13 2,8,3
13

40
Argon Ar 18 2,8,8
18

From the table above, electron arrangement of Neon and Argon are 2,8 and 2,8,8
respectfully. In these atoms, the valence/outer shells are full. The atoms are said to
be stable because of the fully filled outermost shells.

133
Except for helium that has 2 outermost electrons, all other group 8 elements (noble
gases) have their outermost shells filled with 8 electrons. A shell with 8 electrons is
called an octet structure.
When atoms take part in chemical reactions, they tend to combine in ways to attain
this noble gas electron configuration to be stable.

ISOTOPES
Isotopes of an element are atoms of the same element that have different nucleon
(mass) numbers or different number of neutrons.
Isotopes of the same element have similar chemical properties but different physical
properties.
The table below shows some isotopes of Hydrogen, Carbon, and Chlorine.

Element Name of isotope Proton Nucleon Number of Number of

number number neutrons electrons
Protium 1 1 0 1
Hydrogen Deuterium 1 2 1 1
Tritium 1 3 2 1
Carbon – 12 6 12 6 6
Carbon Carbon – 13 6 13 7 6
Carbon – 14 6 14 8 6
Chlorine – 35 17 35 18 17
Chlorine Chlorine – 35 17 37 20 17

Note
 Isotopes have the same number of protons (atomic) number
 The relative atomic mass of each element is an average mass of all isotopes in
existence according to their proportion in nature. As long as there appears a
decimal number on the relative atomic mass of an element in the Periodic
Table, that element must be made up of isotopes.

134
 THE PERIODIC TABLE
The Periodic Table is a table used to classify and arrange elements according to their
proton (atomic) numbers.
The table consists of a number of rows called periods and a number of columns called
groups.
The main classification in the Periodic Table is metals and non-metals as shown in
the table below.
Some of the groups have special names;
Group 1 is often called the alkali metals
Group 2 is the alkaline earth metals
Group 7 is the halogens
Group 0 is the noble gases.
Hydrogen (H) stands on its own in the periodic table. This is because the properties of
hydrogen are unique as it has one outer electron, like group 1 elements, but unlike
them it is a gas.

135
Study the diagrams showing electron configuration of some elements extracted from
the Periodic Table.

Beryllium (Be) has 2 shells and 2 electrons on the outer/valence shell. The atom is
found in Period 2 and group 2 of the periodic table.
Magnesium (Mg) has 3 shells and 2 electrons on the outer/valence shell. The atom
is found in Period 3 and group 2 of the periodic table.
Sulphur (S) has 3 shells and 6 electrons on the outer/valence shell. The atom is found
in Period 3 and group 6 of the periodic table.
The period number indicates the number of shells of electrons in an atom and the
group number indicates the number of outermost electrons in an atom.
For the first 20 elements of The Periodic Table, (except for Helium) the number of
shells corresponds with the period number and the number of valence electrons
corresponds with the group number.
Helium is rightfully placed in group 8 because it has one shell with full (2) electrons
making it stable and therefore is one of the noble gases.

PERIODIC TRENDS
 The number of outermost electrons increases across a period from left to right.
 Elements in the same group have the same number of outermost electrons,
which is also equal to the group number, with the exception of Group O. Group
O elements have either 2 or 8 outermost electrons.
 Elements in the same group form ions with the same charges and they also
from compounds with similar chemical formulae.
 Elements in the same group also have similar physical and chemical properties.
 The elements are less metallic in nature as they move from left to right of the
Periodic Table.
 There is a zig-zag line that divides metals from non-metals – elements close to
this dividing line have both metallic and non-metallic characters and are called
metalloids.
 Metallic elements tend to form basic oxides, while no-metallic elements form
acidic oxides. The metalloids form amphoteric oxides, with both acidic and
basic properties.

136
GROUP 1 ELEMENTS – THE ALKALI METALS
Group 1 consists of the five metals lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and caesium
and the radioactive element francium. The first three of these, lithium, sodium and
potassium are commonly available for use in school laboratories. They are all very
reactive metals and are normally stored under oil to prevent them coming into contact
with air or water.

 They burn in oxygen or air to form white solid oxides. For example, lithium
reacts with oxygen in air to form lithium oxide.
lithium + oxygen lithium oxide
4Li (s) + O2 (g) 2Li2O (s)

 These group 1 oxides all dissolve in water to form alkaline solution of the
metal hydroxide.
lithium oxide + water lithium hydroxide
Li2O (s) + H2O (l) 4LiOH (aq)

 They react very vigorously with water to give alkaline solution of the metal
hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

sodium + water sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

Group 2, the alkaline earth metals are less reactive than group 1 metals as they have
to give up two electrons than losing just one!

137
GROUP 7 ELEMENTS – THE HALOGENS
Group 7 consists of non-metals. Halogens exist in all three states of matter at room
temperature. All halogens have seven electrons in their outer shells. The elements are
diatomic – their molecules are made up of two atoms.

The table below shows some properties of halogens.

HALOGEN COLOUR PHYSICAL STATE
Fluorine Pale yellow Gas
Chlorine Yellow green Gas
Bromine Red - brown Liquid (The only liquid non-metal)
Iodine Purple - Black solid

Displacement Reactions
If chlorine is bubbled into a solution of potassium bromide, the less reactive halogen,
bromide, is displaced by the more reactive halogen, chlorine. This is called
displacement reaction.

potassium bromide + chlorine potassium chloride + bromine

2KBr (aq) + Cl2 (g) 2KCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)

138
GROUP O ELEMENTS – THE NOBLE GASES
The noble (or inert) gases comprise helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon as well
as the radioactive element radon. The group 8 elements are unreactive because they
have electron structures which are stable (full outer shell electrons)
They are important in providing an inert atmosphere for preventing oxidation and
combustion.

The table below outlines the uses of noble gases

Noble gas Use

Helium  Used for filling airships and balloons – because it is light.
 Used in gas mixtures used by deep-sea divers
 Used to fill tyres of airplanes as it is lighter and safer than air.
Neon  Gives out light when high voltage electricity is passed through it,
so it is used in glowing neon advertising signs and fluorescent
lights
Argon  Used to fill filament bulbs because the metal filament will not
burn in argon and it reduces evaporation of the metal filament.
 Used to produce an inert atmosphere in high temperature
metallurgical processes e.g. steel making

139
TRANSITION METALS
The elements in the block between groups II and III of the Periodic Table contains
metals. These are transition metals. They are all solids except mercury which is the
only liquid metal at room temperature. They include some common metals such as
iron, nickel and copper and some precious metals such as gold, platinum and silver
which are very rare, beautiful and costly. Transition metals are different from the
metals in groups 1 and 2 because they;
 Are harder and stronger
 Have high densities
 Have high melting and boiling points
 Are less reactive
 Can be used to make alloys
 Form a large range of brightly coloured compounds
 Transition metals and their compounds often acts as catalysts
 Are good conductors of heat and electricity
 They form more than one valency (simple ion.) For example Cu+, Cu2+ and Fe2+
and Fe3+.
Salts of transition metals can be identified by looking at their colours e.g. copper
salts are blue and iron salts are green

FORMATION OF IONS
Atoms other than those in group O are generally unstable in nature – these atoms will
therefore lose valence electrons to form positive ions or gain valence electrons to form
negative ions with stable structures.
An ion is a charged particle. When an atom loses or gains electrons, it become charged
because it contains an unequal number of protons (+) and electrons (-).
Elements in group I and II tend to give away electrons as less energy is required to
lose or 2 electrons than to gain 7 or 6 electrons respectively to attain stability.
Element Number Electron Number of Electron Formula of
of configuration electrons in configuration ion
electrons of atom Ion of ion
in atom
Lithium 3 2,1 2 2 Li+
Magnesium 12 2,8,2 10 2,8 Mg2+
Aluminium 13 2,8,3 10 2,8 Al3+
Likewise, elements in Group VI or VII tend to gain 2 or 1 valence electrons than to
lose 6 or 7 valence electrons to attain stability.
Element Number of Electron Number of Electron Formula of
electrons configuration electrons in configuration ion
in atom of atom Ion of ion
Nitrogen 7 2,5 10 2,8 N3-
Oxygen 8 2,6 10 2,8 O2-
Chlorine** 17 2,8,7 18 2,8,8 CI-
35
(** using the isotope 17
Cl as example)

140
 CHEMICAL BONDING
We leant that the elements in Group 0 of the Periodic Table such as Helium, Neon and
Argon are known as noble gases. They are also called inert gases because they are
very stable and do not take part in chemical reactions – they therefore do not form
compounds. They are said to be stable because of the fully filled outermost shells.
When elements react, atoms bond with each other in the process called chemical
bonding. Atoms other than those in group 0 do not have a full outer shell of electrons
so these elements tend to gain stability by reacting. During the reactions, atoms tend
to combine in ways to attain full outer shell electrons, similar to the electronic structure
of the noble gases.
The valence electrons are the number of electrons in an outer shell of an atom that
can take part in forming chemical bonds with other atoms.
Atoms with fewer electrons in outer shell will want to give up electrons while those
with more valence electrons will want to gain electrons to fill up the outer shell.

IONIC BONDING
One way of gaining a full shell of electrons is by completely transferring outer electrons
from one atom to another.
Atoms will lose valence electrons to form positive ions and gain valence electrons to
form negative stable structures.
All ions formed are stable with electron configuration similar to those of noble gases
in Group 0.
Below is an example of how magnesium forms bonds with Fluorine

Each magnesium atom loses two electrons to form magnesium ion, Mg2+
Each fluorine atom gains one electron to form fluoride ion, F−

141
Sodium (which has 11 electrons and 1 in the outer shell) and Chlorine (which has 17
electrons and seven in the outer shell) bond together to form Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

When ions are formed, the electrons are transferred from a metal to a non – metal.
The diagrams below show the bonding of other different metals and non-metals.

Lithium Oxide (Li2O) Aluminium Fluoride (AlF3)

Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)

142
COVALENT BONDING
In covalent bonding electrons are shared between atoms rather than donated in order
for atoms to gain full outer shells. Electrons are always shared in pairs.
Some examples of covalent bonding between different molecules are illustrated below.
In each case, the atoms share electrons such that each atom has a full outer shell.
HYDROGEN (H2)
Each hydrogen atom has one electron in its electron shell, the atoms share this valence
electrons and achieve the electron configuration of the noble gas, Helium. When atoms
share a pair of electrons, the bond formed is called a single bond. The single bond
between two hydrogen atoms can be shown as H – H.
Sometimes only the outer electrons are shown. The electrons from one atom may be
shown by a cross while that of the other atom may be shown by a dot.

H–H
OXYGEN (O2)
Each oxygen atom (O) needs two electrons to fill its outer shell and become oxygen
molecule (O2). This is done by sharing two electrons with another atom of oxygen.
When two pairs of electrons are shared as shown this we call a double bond.

NITROGEN (CI2)
Nitrogen has five valence electrons, so it needs three more electrons to complete its
octet. It can do this by sharing three electrons with another nitrogen, forming a triple
bond.

NΞN

143
CHLORINE (CI2)
Chlorine like all the other halogens (group 7 elements) needs only one electron to fill
their outer shells. This is done by sharing electrons as shown below.

Cl - Cl
WATER (H2O)
Atoms of different elements can combine in the same way. Oxygen has six electrons
in its outer shell. It needs two more to fill it. The diagram below shows how two atoms
of hydrogen combine with one atom of oxygen by sharing electrons to make a water
(H2O) molecule. All the three atoms end up with full outer shells.

H–O–H
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)
Another molecule containing different elements is that of carbon dioxide (CO2). In
this case. The carbon needs four extra electrons and can gain them by forming
double bonds with two oxygen atoms.

144
PROPERTIES OF IONIC AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS
IONIC COMPOUNDS
When a metal reacts with a non-metal, the opposite charges - the positive ions from
the metal and negative ions from the non-metal present in ionic compounds attract
each other. This strong attraction force between the oppositely charged ions is called
electrostatic force of attraction.
The ions cluster together so that each ion is surrounded by ions of opposite charge
forming a giant structure called crystal lattice. Because of this arrangement of ions,
ionic compounds are crystalline – they form regularly shaped crystals. Below is an
example of a lattice structure of Sodium Chloride (table salt).

The physical properties of ionic compounds are summarized in the table below.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (IONIC)
Crystalline solids at room
temperature
High melting and boiling points
Conduct electricity when molten
or aqueous
Soluble in water
EXPLANATION
Due to the regular arrangement of ions, resulting
from strong electrostatic force of attraction.
Strong electrostatic force of attraction between
oppositely charged ions
When molten or aqueous ions are set free to move
about in solutions.
Water molecules are polar and are attracted to the
charged ions pulling the crystalline structure apart.

COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Covalent compounds are formed between non – metals. The molecules are held
together by weak intramolecular forces (forces within a molecule) and
intermolecular forces (forces that exist between molecules).

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (C OVALENT) EXPLANATION

Low melting and boiling points
Cannot conduct electricity in any
state
Soluble in water in organic
compounds but not water
The inter-molecular force of attraction are
very weak.
There are mobile ions in covalent
compounds
Covalent molecules are not readily hydrated
by water molecules

145
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Draw a ‘dot and cross’ diagram to show he bonding in a water molecule (H2O)

[2]
2. Hydrochloric acid is formed by dissolving hydrogen chloride gas in water.
Use a ‘dot and cross’ diagram to draw the structure of the ions in hydrochloric acid.
Show all the shells in each of the ions.

[3]
3. The table below shows some properties of the elements in group IV of the Periodic
Table.
Element Density g/cm3 Melting point Type of oxide
Carbon 2.25 3700
Silicon 2.33 1683 Acidic
Germanium 5.35 937 Amphoteric
Tin 7.28 505 Amphoteric
Lead 11.35 601 Amphoteric

(a) Explain why these elements are placed in group lV.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Complete the table by stating the type of oxide formed by carbon.
(c) Describe the trends of the elements in terms of
(i) Density
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Melting point
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) Tin, (Sn) reacts with oxygen to form amphoteric oxide.
(i) Which two substances will be formed when the oxide of tin reacts with an
acid?
1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

(ii) All the elements above form compounds with hydrogen called hydrides.
The saturated hydrides of carbon are alkanes.
Predict the formula for the hydride of germanium, (Ge) which contains
three atoms of germanium.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

146
4. Hydrogen reacts with chlorine to form hydrogen chloride, HCl.
Draw a ‘dot and cross’ diagram to show the bonding in hydrogen chloride, HCl.

[2]
5. Sodium is an element in Group 1 of the Periodic Table.
It has the electron configuration of 2, 8, 1.
(a) State why sodium is in group 1.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) In which period is sodium found?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) State how the sodium atom reacts with atoms of non-metals.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]

6. (a) In an experiment, two jars are set up as shown below.

Nitrogen dioxide, NO2, is a brown gas.

(i) What observation will be made when the glass disc is removed?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
Explain your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Calculate the relative molecular mass if NO2.

Relative molecular mass = …………………………………. [1]

(b) The experiment is repeated using bromine gas, Br2, which has a relative
molecular mass of 160.
State and explain how the rate of change observed when the glass disc is
removed will differ from the change in the first experiment.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]

147
7. Draw a ‘dot and cross’ diagram to show the bonding in a molecule of methane,
CH4.

[2]
8. The table below shows physical properties of substances V, W, X, Y and Z.
Substances Melting Boiling Electrical conductivity
point/°C point/°C As solid As liquid
V 3720 4827 Conducts Does not
W -95 69 Does not Does not
X 327 1760 Conducts Conducts
Y 3550 4827 Does not Does not
Z 776 1500 Does not Conducts

(a) Which of the substances could be sodium chloride?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
Explain your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Which substance consists of small covalent molecules?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
Explain your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Use the kinetic theory of matter to describe the arrangement and movement
of particles in substance W at room temperature.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
9. The figure shows experimental set-up to investigate the rate of diffusion of
hydrogen chloride. HCl, and ammonia, NH3. Damp blue and red litmus papers were
both placed at position Y.

(a) Name the process by which the gases move from the cotton wool to meet at
position X.
….……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

148
 (b) Calculate the relative molecular mass of ammonia, NH3.

[1]
(c) The relative molecular mass of hydrogen chloride is 36.5
Explain why the position X where the gases meet is nearer to the hydrochloric
acid end of the tube.
….……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) What colour change will be observed in the litmus paper at position Y?
….……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(e) Why is the damp litmus paper used instead of dry litmus paper?
….……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
35
10. An element X has the symbol X.
16
(a) What is the atomic number of element X?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Write the electronic arrangement of element X.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Suggest a group and period for element X in the Periodic Table.
Group …………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Period ……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) Predict how the reactivity of element X would compare to that of oxygen.
Explain your answer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(e) Element X reacts with chlorine to form a compound. Use your answer to (b)
and he Periodic Table to predict the electronic structure of a molecule of this
compound.

[3]
(f) Suggest two properties of the compound of chlorine and element X.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
....……………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
12 13
11. Two isotopes of carbon are C and C.
6 6
(a) What is the difference between the two isotopes?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) State one reason why the isotopes react similarly.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Draw an atomic structure showing the arrangement of electrons in an atom of
13
C and the number and position of neutrons and protons.
6

[2]

149
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
ENERGY CHANGES
 All chemical substances store chemical energy; this chemical energy can be
converted into heat, light electrical or even sound energy.
 We obtain our energy from the combustion of fuels, or from combustion of
food and from many other chemical reactions.
 A reaction that gives out heat to the surrounding is exothermic while that
which takes in energy from the surrounding is endothermic.

EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS
Exothermic reactions give out heat!
Exothermic reaction involves a loss of heat energy to the surrounding, resulting
in temperature rise in surrounding.
In exothermic reaction, the total energy of the products is lower than the total energy
of the reactants as heat is lost to the surroundings during the process of reaction.

ΔH

H1

H2

This energy changes can be shown in the energy level diagrams like the one below.

ΔH = energy change = heat of reaction

The reaction of magnesium with hydrochloric acid is an example of exothermic

reaction. In the experiment shown in below, the test tube feels warm because the
reaction gives out heat energy which can be felt in your arm. When metals reacts with
water, the reaction also gives out heat and is therefore exothermic.

The energy released by the amounts of reactants is called the heat of reaction.

150
Chemical energy can be released as heat. In the first figure in the previous page, it is
shown that the reactants (magnesium and hydrochloric acid) have energy content, H1,
and the products have energy content, H2. During the reaction, some energy is given
out by the reactants as they react. So the energy content of the products, H2, is lower
than that of the reactants, H1. There is difference between the energies of the reactants
and products. It can be written as ΔH. ΔH means the change in energy content. It
must be given a sign to show whether the energy content has increased or decreased.
For an exothermic reaction, ΔH is negative. The reactants lose energy to give the
products.
All combustion reactions are exothermic. One other exothermic reaction is respiration.

COMBUSTION
When a natural gas (methane) burns in a plentiful supply of air, it produces a large
amount of energy.

Methane + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Heat energy

CH4 (g) + 2O2 CO2 + 2H20

During this complete combustion of methane, heat is given out. When heat is given
out, the reaction is said to be exothermic.
If only a limited supply of air is available then the reaction is not as exothermic and
the poisonous gas carbon monoxide is produced. This is incomplete combustion of
methane.

Methane + Oxygen Carbon monoxide + Water + Heat energy

The energy changes that take place during a chemical reaction can be shown by an
energy level diagram. The figure below shows the energy level diagram for the
complete combustion of methane.

151
When any chemical reaction occurs, the chemical bonds in the reactants have to be
broken – this requires energy. When the new bonds in the products are formed, energy
is given out.

ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
Endothermic reactions take in heat!
When heat is taken in from the surrounding in a reaction, resulting in a
temperature drop in the surrounding, the reaction is said to be endothermic.
Here, the temperature of the surrounding decreases and the reaction container
becomes colder. The total energy content of the products will be higher than that of
the reactants.

The energy level diagram below shows the energy changes.

Dissolving ammonium nitrate in water, as shown below, is endothermic. The tube feels
cold because the process takes in energy from the water and your hand.

In figure in the previous page, it is shown that the energy is taken in by the reactants,
so the energy content of the products H2, is greater than that of the reactants, H1. ΔH
is positive.
All vaporization and melting process are endothermic. One other endothermic
reaction is photosynthesis.
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 RATE OF REACTION
Chemical reactions take place at a variety of speeds. Explosion and fireworks reactions
are very fast and are complete in a fraction of a second. The rusting of iron and other
corrosion process are very slow and continue for years.
Chemical equations say nothing about how quickly the changes occur. The rate of
reaction is found by experiment.
The speed at which a chemical reaction takes place is also called the rate of a
chemical reaction. It tells us how fast or slow a reaction is taking place.

THEORIES ABOUT REACTION RATES

In chemical reactions, atoms are rearranged. Before any reaction can occur, the
molecules or atoms may come together and collide.
Bonds between the atoms must be broken before new molecules can be made. (See
the figure below). This needs energy.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF REACTION

Chemical reaction occurs when the particles of reactants collide together. Factors
affecting the rate of chemical reaction include;

 SURFACE AREA
When a solid is broken into smaller particles, the total surface area exposed to
the reacting particles is increased, and more reaction can take place. With a
greater surface area of solid, collisions are far more frequent. Because there
are more collisions, the reaction rate is greater.

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 CONCENTRATION
In solutions of higher concentration and in gases at higher pressure, the
particles are closer together. They have a greater chance of colliding. Because
there are more collisions, the reaction rate is greater.

 TEMPERATURE
At higher temperatures, particles have more kinetic energy and are moving
faster, so there are more collisions. Also (and more importantly), the collisions
are more energetic and greater, and hence, there will be more successful
collisions resulting in the formation the products.

 CATALYST
A catalyst is a substance which speeds up a reaction without being used up.
They are usually transition metals or compounds of transition metals.
A wide range of industries use catalysts. A catalyst speeds up a reaction by
providing an alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy.
An activation energy is the energy barrier which reactants must overcome,
when their particles collide to react successfully and form products.

 Light (although this applies to a limited number of reactions)

 Pressure (if the reactants are gases)

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ENZYMES
Enzymes are protein molecules produced in living cells. They are catalysts for biological
reactions. Enzymes;
− are substrate specific (catalyze only one specific reaction)
− becomes inactive at low temperatures
− are more active at their optimum temperatures and pH
− becomes denatured at high temperatures

USES OF ENZYMES
Enzymes are widely used in industries. They are used in baking, brewing and in making
dairy products as explained below;
 Making bread – yeast is a fungus consisting of millions of tiny living cells. These
feed on sugar, using an enzyme to break it down into ethanol and carbon
dioxide. The carbon dioxide produced makes the dough rise. This is called
fermentation.
 Making beer and wine – yeast is also used in making wine and beer. The
fermentation process is the same as for bread.
 Making yogurt – yogurt is made by adding bacteria to milk. The milk is first
sterilized or pasteurized by heating to kill harmful bacteria. The enzymes
produced convert the sugar in milk (lactose) into lactic acid and other
substances and make its proteins thicken.
 Making cheese – milk is initially heated to kill bacteria and then cooled. A starter
culture of some bacteria is then added, which coagulates the milk into curds
and whey. The curds are then put into steel or wooden drums and pressed and
allowed to dry.

SOME DAILY APPLICATIONS OF SPEEDS OF REACTIONS

 To slow down the process of decay, food is kept at temperature in refrigerators.
Meat can be kept frozen in refrigerators for a few weeks. If left at room
temperature, the meat will go bad in few hours.
 When cooking food, we use higher temperature to cook it faster. Since water
boils at 100ºC, we often use boiling oil to stir fry meat and vegetables to make
them cook much faster.
 Some medicines can be made to work faster; they are normally taken in powder
form with warm water.
Some other medicines are taken in capsules in order to release the drugs slowly
over a longer period of time.
Fine coal in coal mines and flour dust in flour mills can cause explosions when mixed
with air. Precautions must therefore be taken to avoid such explosions.

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The speed of a chemical reaction can be measured in the following ways;
 Measuring the time taken for a reaction to complete.
 Measuring the amount of product formed in unit time.
 Measuring the amount of reactants used up or remaining per unit time.
In most chemical reactions, the rate changes with time. The graph below shows the
formation of a product with time.

The graph is the steepest at the start of the experiment, showing that the rate of
reaction is greatest then. As the reaction continues, the graph becomes less steep
indicating that the rate decreases until it eventually becomes flat showing that the
reaction has stopped.

In another graph below, the two lines show the formation of a product under a
particular set of conditions and the time from the start of the reaction.
Line A shows a faster reaction while line B shows slower reaction.
Note that from the graph, different amounts of reactants were formed at time of 10s.

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 REDOX REACTIONS
Some chemical reactions such as rust (iron oxide) are often called redox reactions
because both the processes of reduction and oxidation occurred within it. To determine
if a redox reaction has occurred and to identify the element oxidized and the element
reduced, you have to be able to define oxidation in terms of:
1. GAIN OR LOSS OF O XYGEN
Whenever an element gains oxygen during a reaction, it is oxidized. An example is
that of magnesium burning in air or oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide

2Mg (s) + O2 (s) 2MgO (s)

In this reaction, the magnesium has gained oxygen. We say that magnesium has
been oxidized to magnesium oxide.
Thus, oxidation can be defined as the gain of oxygen.
Reduction is the opposite of oxidation.
In the blast furnace, iron oxide (Fe2O3) is reduced to iron (Fe) by carbon monoxide.
(CO).
Iron Oxide + Carbon monoxide Iron + Carbon dioxide
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2 (g)

The iron has lost oxygen. It has been reduced. The carbon monoxide has gained
oxygen. It has been oxidized.
Thus, reduction can be defined as the loss of oxygen.

2. GAIN OR LOSS OF ELECTRONS

When sodium reacts with chlorine, the sodium atoms turns into sodium ions. Each
sodium atom gives up one outer electron.

The electrons are taken by the chlorine. Each chlorine atom turns into chlorine ions
by gaining an electron.
Electrons have been transferred from sodium atoms to chlorine atoms. This is an
example of redox reaction, the sodium is oxidized by loss of electrons, and the
chlorine is reduced by gain of electrons. The words ‘OIL RIG’ may help you
remember this:
Oxidation Is Loss of electrons and Reduction Is Gain of electrons.

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OXIDIZING AND REDUCING AGENTS
You must be very careful when using these terms. An agent is something or someone
who gets things done!
In redox reactions, when an oxidizing agent reacts, it is reduced. When a reducing
agent reacts, it is oxidized.
This can be illustrated by the reaction of magnesium with oxygen.

Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide

Mg (s) + O2 (s) MgO2 (s)

The magnesium is oxidized by loss of electrons. It is oxidized by the oxygen. So oxygen
is the oxidizing agent – it caused magnesium to be oxidized by taking its electrons.
At the same time, the oxygen is reduced by the magnesium – magnesium caused the
oxygen to be reduced by giving it the two electrons. The magnesium is the reducing
agent.

TEST FOR REDUCING AND OXIDIZING AGENT

The table below show how some a solution of potassium iodide change colour when
oxidized. It can therefore be used to test for oxidizing agents.
TEST RESULTS
Add solution of potassium iodide Solution turns brown, and grey specks may be
seen

Similarly, a solution of acidified potassium manganate (VII) changes colour when

reduced and can therefore be used to test for reducing agents.
TEST RESULTS
Add solution of acidified potassium Purple colour is decolourised.
manganate (VII)

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 ELECTROLYSIS
It is the process of splitting up (decomposing) substances by passing an electric
current through them.
The electric current causes a chemical reaction that breaks down the ionic compound.
We say the compound decomposes.
 The substance which is decomposed is called the electrolyte. An electrolyte
is a substance that conducts electricity when in molten state or in solution.
Electrolyte can be melted (fused) or dissolved in water.
 Electrolytes can be molten salts or aqueous solutions of salts, or aqueous
solutions of acids or alkalis.
Electrolytes include: acids, salts, metal oxides and metal hydroxides.
 The electricity is carried through the electrolyte by ions. The ions are free to
move when the electrolyte is dissolved in water or molten.
 The electric current enters and leaves the electrolyte through electrodes,
which are usually made of unreactive metals such as platinum or of the non-
metal carbon (graphite). These substances are unreactive or inert, meaning
that they will not react with the electrolyte or the products of the electrolysis.
Cathode - the negative electrode which attracts positively charged ions (cations)
Anode – the positive electrode which attracts negatively charged ions (anions)
The figure below shows an electrolytic cell. It consists of two electrodes in a liquid
electrolyte. A direct current (d.c.) power source is connected to the electrodes. An
electric current flows through the electrolyte, decomposing it into simpler substances.

During electrolysis, ions migrate towards the electrodes. The migration can be seen
if the ions are coloured. The positive ions (cations) always migrate to the negative
electrode (the cathode) where they gain electrons and negative ions (anions) move to
the positive electrode (the anode) where they lose (discharge) electrons.

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All metals and hydrogen are formed at the cathode and non-metals are formed at the
anode. Basically chemical changes take place at the electrodes.

ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN COMPOUNDS

When an ionic compound is molten, the ionic structure breaks down and the positive
and negative ions separate and move apart.
The molten sodium chloride electrolyte contains positive sodium ions (Na+) and
negative chloride ions (Cl−). During electrolysis, the positive ions or cations are
attracted to the negative cathode. The negative ions or anions are attracted to the
positive anode.
At the cathode, the sodium ions take (gain) electrons from the electrode to
become sodium atoms. They are reduced.

Electrode reaction Na+ + e− Na

We say the sodium ions have been discharged. The sodium is found as molten drops
at the bottom of the crucible.
At the anode, the chloride ions lose (discharge) / give up electrons to the
electrode and become chlorine molecules. They are oxidized.

Electrode reaction 2Cl− Cl2 + 2e−

The chlorine ions have been discharged. The yellowish-green chlorine gas is seen
around the anode during electrolysis.
The electrolysis of other molten binary (two) ionic compounds will follow the same
pathways;
 The metal of the compound will be formed at the cathode
 The non-metal will be formed at the anode.

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ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
When an ionic compound is dissolved in water, the ions are separated and are free to
move about.
However, unlike molten compounds, water is present in the solution and it ionizes to
produce hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH−)

H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH−(aq)

These ions and that of the electrolyte migrate to the respective electrodes and compete
for discharge. To determine which ions win, we look at the following rules;

At the cathode
1. The more reactive metal remains in the solution as ions and the hydrogen
ions (H+) are discharged and hydrogen gas liberated.
2. If the ion is for a less reactive metal (Cu2+, Ag+, Au+) the metals in this very
order will be discharged, leaving H+ ions in solution.

At the anode
1. If ions of a halogen (halide ions) (Cl−, Br−, or I−) are present, they are
discharged and molecules of a halogen will be formed.
2. If there is no halide ion, OH− ions are discharged and oxygen gas liberated.

The electrode reactions for some electrolytes are summarized below.

Electrolyte Ions present At the cathode At the anode

Copper (II) chloride Cu2+ Cl−

solution, CuCl2 (aq) Cu2+ + 2e− Cu 2Cl− Cl2 + 2e−
H+ OH− (aq) (s) (aq) (g)

Sodium chloride Na+ Cl−

solution, NaCl (aq) 2H+ + 2e− H2 2Cl− Cl2 + 2e−
H+ OH− (aq) (g) (aq) (g)

Dilute sulphuric acid, H+ SO42−

H2SO4 (aq) 2H+ + 2e− H2 4OH− O2 + 2H20 + 4e−
H+ OH− (aq) (g) (aq) (g) (l)

During electrolysis of Sulphuric acid, only water decomposes. The amount of the acid remains
unchanged at the end of electrolysis but its concentration increases due to the removal of water
molecules. For this reason, the electrolysis of dilute Sulphuric acid can be called “the
electrolysis of water”

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ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER (II) SULPHATE (USING INERT ELECTRODES )
The electrodes used can be carbon (graphite) electrodes which does not take part in
the reaction, inert.
Ions present; From Copper (II) sulphate Cu2+ SO42−
From water H+ OH−
At the Anode
Both SO42− and OH− ions migrate to the anode. OH− ions are discharged to give
oxygen gas.

4OH−(aq) O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e−

At the Cathode
Both Cu2+ and H+ ions migrate to the cathode. Cu2+ ions are discharged and a salmon
pink solid (copper) is deposited at the cathode making it to increase in mass.

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− Cu (s)

Changes in the solution

The blue colour of the solution slowly fades until it becomes colourless as the
concentration of Cu2+ ions decreases.
The H+ and SO42− ions are not discharged and therefore the remaining solution
becomes Sulphuric Acid.

ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER (II) SULPHATE (USING ACTIVE ELECTRODES )

The electrodes used can be copper electrodes and take part in the reaction.
Ions present; From Copper (II) sulphate Cu2+ SO42−
From water H+ OH−

At the Anode
The copper anode affects what happens at the electrode. No ions are discharged at
the anode instead the copper anode dissolves into the solution to form Copper (ii)
ions. Copper atoms in the anode become copper ions in solution.

Cu (s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e−

At the Cathode
Both Cu2+ and H+ ions migrate to the cathode. Cu2+ ions are discharged and a salmon
pink solid (copper) is deposited at the cathode making it to increase in mass.
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− Cu (s)

Changes
The copper cathode gains Copper and becomes larger. The copper anode dissolves
and becomes thinner as it disintegrates in the electrolyte.
The colour of the solution does not change as the ions removed at the cathode are
replaced by the ions produced at the anode.

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USES AND APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolysis concept can be used for different industrial purposes such as;

1. Electroplating
Electroplating is the process involving electrolysis to plate, or coat, one metal
with another metal or a plastic with a metal. When plastic is electroplated, it is
first coated with a thin layer of an electric conductor such as graphite paste to
enable it to conduct electricity during electrolysis.
Metals that can be used to electroplate include gold, copper, silver, nickel, tin,
chromium and platinum. Electroplating helps to;
− Make the object attractive by enhancing its appearance.
− Give a protective coating to the metal beneath. For example, bath taps are
chromium plated to prevent corrosion.
When electroplating an object;
− Use the object to be electroplated as the cathode so that the metal ions
move to it when the current is switched on.
− The metal used to electroplate must be used as the anode
− The electrolyte must contain ions of the metal used for electroplating.

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2. Purification / refining of metals using electricity
When purifying metals e.g. copper using electricity, the following must be
observed;
− The anode must be made of impure metal
− The cathode must be made of a pure metal
− The electrolyte must contain ions of the metal which is purified
The atoms in the impure anode dissolves and the impurities fall to the bottom of
the container. Metal ions are reduced to atoms at the cathode and deposited on
the pure cathode. The example below shows how copper is purified.

3. Extracting metals
Reactive metals ‘like’ to exist as compounds, so it is difficult to extract them
from their compounds. Electrolysis is therefore used to extract these reactive
metals from their molten compounds.

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

THE PH SCALE
The pH is a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The pH scale
is a set of numbers which ranges from 0 to 14. The pH of a solution shows whether it
is acidic, neutral or alkaline. Acids have pH values less than 7. Alkalis have pH values
greater than 7. A neutral solution has a pH value of exactly 7.

Chemists use an indicator to measure the pH of a solution. An indicator is a

compound that has one colour in acidic solutions and another in alkaline solutions.

THE UNIVERSAL INDICATOR

The pH of a solution is usually measured using Universal Indicator which is a
mixture of dyes. It gives different colours in solutions of different pH.

pH 1-2 2-4 5-6 7 8 - 10 11 - 12 13 - 14

Colour Red OrangeThe Yellow

pH ScaleGreen Blue-green Blue Violet

Some other indicators are shown in the table below, along with their colours in acids
and alkalis.
COLOUR IN
INDICATOR ACID SOLUTION ALKALINE SOLUTION
Litmus Red Blue
Methyl orange Pink Yellow
Methyl red Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink

ACIDS
There are two types of acids being:
1. Mineral acids: - acids that are derived from one or more mineral elements or
inorganic matter and can normally be prepared in the laboratory. Examples
are, hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), carbonic
acid (H2CO3) and phosphoric acid (H2PO4)
2. Organic acids: -acids that are mainly naturally occurring organic compounds
obtained from plants and animals. They include ethanoic acid and citric acid.

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An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) as the only positive ions when
dissolved in water. For example, hydrogen chloride exists in the gaseous state as
covalent molecules. When the gas is bubbled into water, hydrochloric acid is obtained.
The hydrogen chloride molecules dissociates (split up) into hydrogen ions and
chloride ions in solution.

Note that all acids contain hydrogen but NOT all substances that contain hydrogen are
acids. For example, ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4) contain hydrogen, but they
are not acids. Below are some common acids, their formulae and the ions produced in
aqueous solution.
Name of acid Formula Ions/Radicals present
Hydrochloric acid HCl H +
Cl- - chloride
Nitric acid HNO3 H+ NO 3-
- nitrate
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH H+ CH3COO -
- ethanoate
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 2H+ SO4 2-
- sulphate
Phosphoric acid H2PO4 2H+ PO4 2-
- phosphate
Carbonic acid H2CO3 2H+ CO3 2-
- carbonate

RADICALS
As seen in the table above, sometimes groups of atoms can be charged. They are
called radicals. Radicals are a group of atoms that have a charge and do not exist by
themselves. In chemical reactions, they behave as if they were one atom.
Properties of Acids
Acids seem to have similar properties. Below are physical properties of acids;
 Have a sour taste
 Turns litmus paper red – due to presence of hydrogen ions
 Conduct electricity – due to mobile ions when dissociated in water.
Chemical properties of metals include the following reactions:
1. WITH METALS
When an acid reacts with a metal, a metal salt and hydrogen gas are formed. The
observation of the reaction would be effervescence or bubbling of a clolourless and
odourless gas.
The word equation for the reaction is:
Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen

Sulphuric acid + Magnesium Magnesium Sulphate + Hydrogen

H2SO4 (aq) + Mg (s) MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
All metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series react with acid to produce a salt
and hydrogen. In the example above, magnesium sulphate is a salt.
A salt is a compound formed when a metal or an ammonium group (NH4) replaces
hydrogen in an acid. The slat of sulphuric acids are called sulphates, those of nitric
acids are called nitrates and those of hydrochloric acids, chlorides.

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Testing for hydrogen gas
Put a lighted splint at the mounth of the test tube.
Positive Results
A ‘pop’ sound is heared.

2. WITH CARBONATES
When an acid reacts with a carbonate (CO32-) a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas
are formed. The word equation for the reaction is:

Acid +Metal carbonate Salt + Carbon dioxide + water

Nitric acid + Sodium Carbonate Sodium Nitrate + Carbon dioxide + water

HNO3 (aq) + Na2CO3 (s) NaNO3 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Hydrogencarbonates react in a similar way. For example:

Hydrochloric acid + Sodium Sodium chloride + Carbon dioxide + water

hydrogencarbonate

HCl (aq) + NaHCO3 (s) NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Testing for carbon dioxide gas

Bubble the gas through limewater
Positive Results
Limewater turns milky or cloudy

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3. WITH BASES
A base is any metal oxide or metal hydroxide. This means that a base contains
either oxide ions (O2-) or hydoxide ions (OH-)

ALKALIS: (A special class of bases)

There are two types of bases: those that are soluble in water and those that are not
soluble in water. Bases that are soluble in water are called alkalis. This means that;
All Alkalis Are Bases But Not All Bases Are Alkalis
The diagram below may help you to understand this.

When an acid and an alkali react together, they neutralise each other. The reaction is
called neutralisation reaction. The product of neutralisation reactions are salt and
water. The word equation for the reaction is:

Acid + Base Salt + Water

Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide Sodium chloride + Water

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Sulphuric acid + Copper oxide Copper sulphate + Water

H2SO4 (aq) + CuO (s) CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

The equations above can be written as ionic equations; Taking the second equation
above and separating it into ions then cancelling the spectator ions, we have:

This leaves us with a very simple ionic equation:

2H+ (aq) + O2- (aq) H2O (l)

All osides of group 1 elements are soluble while insoluble bases are mostly oxides of
transition metals.

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Properties of Bases
Bases have similar properties. Below are physical properties of bases;
 Have a bitter taste and soapy feel
 Turns litmus paper blue – due to presence of hydroxide ions
 Conduct electricity in aqueous solutions – due to mobile ions when dissociated
in water.
With the exception of ammonia, all alkalis produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in
water.
NaOH (aq) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
When ammonia dissolves in water, ammonium ions and hydroxide ions are formed.
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
In neutralization reactions, the hydrogen ion (H+) from the acid and the hydroxide ion
(OH-) from the alkali combine to form water (H2O)
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)

All alkalis (except ammonia) react with ammonium salts; when warmed with an alkali,
ammonium salts decompose to produce a metal salt, ammonia and water.
Alkali + ammonium salts ammonia + Salt + Water

E.g. when calcium hydroxide is heated with ammonium chloride, ammonia gas is
liberated
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + NH4Cl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + 2NH3
When alkalis react with ammonium salts, the hydroxide ions and the ammonium ions
combine together to produce ammonia gas.
OH- (aq) + NH4+ (aq) NH3 (g)+ H2O (l)

APPLICATIONS OF ACID-BASE REACTIONS

 Treatment of indigestion
Indigestion is caused by accumulation of dilute hydrochloric acid inside the
stomach. The acid is neutralized by taking anti-acid tablets (contain sodium
hydrogen carbonate) or drinking milk of magnesia (contains magnesium
hydroxide).
 Treatment of acidic soils
Lime is added to acidic soils to neutralize it.
 Brushing of teeth using toothpaste
The food particles trapped between the teeth calls for bacteria which feeds
on the food by secretion of digestive enzymes. The enzymes produce acidic
particles which can be neutralized by the action of toothpaste.
 Treatment of insect stings
Insects such as bees, injects an acidic liquid into the skin. This is neutralized
by rubbing some zinc carbonate containing cream.

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PROTONS AND ACIDITY
Acids contain hydrogen ions (H+). Remember that a hydrogen ion consists of a proton
only in the nucleus with just one electron moving around it. A hydrogen ion is therefore
just a proton because the electron has left it.
A neutralization reaction can be written as ionic equations as shown below;
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)

From the reaction above, the hydrogen ion (or proton) in the acid is joining the
hydroxide to form water. This is called a proton transfer reaction. The proton is
being transferred from an acid to the base to form water.
This idea give a better definition of an acid. The acid in the reaction donates protons
(hydrogen ion) to the alkali to form water. The alkali receive the protons to form water.
We can therefore define acids and alkalis thus:
An acid is an hydrogen ion, H+, donor
An alkali/base is an hydrogen ion, H+, acceptor
THE STRENGTH OF AN ACID
Hydrochloric, sulphuric and nitric acids are known as mineral acids. Acids such as
ethanoic and citric acids are called organic acids. Mineral acids are strong acids, but
organic acids are weak acids.
What is meant by the strength of an acid?
The strength of an acid refers to how well the acid molecules dissociates (ionizes)
when dissolved in water.
In a strong acid, all the acid molecule dissociates to form ions. Thus a strong acid
such as hydrochloric acid produce a lot of hydrogen ions in aqueous solution.
HCl (aq) H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Weak acids are only partially dissociated into ions. In weak acids, only some of the
acid molecules form ions. Thus, weak acids such as ethanoic acid produce very few
hydrogen ions in aqueous solution. Some acid molecules remain unseparated. This is
indicated by a reversible equation as shown by the double arrow.
CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
The double arrow denotes partial dissociation. Most ethanoic acid remains
undissociated when dissolved in water.

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THE STRENGTH OF A BASE
Like acids, alkalis can also be strong or weak. Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide
and calcium hydroxide are examples of strong alkalis. Ammonia however is a weak
alkali.
A strong alkali is completely dissociated when dissolved in water. This means that
strong alkalis exist almost completely as ions in solution.
NaOH (aq) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
A weak alkali is only partially dissociated. Ammonia is a weak alkali because only some
ammonia molecules form ions in solution.
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

STRENGTH VS CONCENTRATION
Concentration refers to the amount of water present in the acid or alkali. A
concentrated acid has very little water in it. In dilute acid, the acid is mixed with a lot
of water. The concetration can be increased by adding more acid or more alkali to the
solution. It can be decreased or diluted by adding more water to the solution.
The term “Strength” refers to how much of the acid or alkali is dissocoated into ions.
An acid or alkali is said to be either weak or strong.
Unlike concentration, the strength of an acid or alkali cannot be changed. A strong
acid whether concentrated or dilute remains a strong acid.

TYPES OF OXIDES
An oxide is a compound of oxygen and another element. There are four types of oxides
as described below:
 Acidic Oxides
Oxides of non-metals are called acidic oxides. They are usually gases at room
temperature and dissolve in water to form acidic solutions with pH less than 7. One
example of an acidic oxide is sulphur dioxide which dissolves readily in water to
form sulphurous acid.
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO3 (aq)
Other examples of acidic oxides are shown in a table below.
Acidic Oxide Formula Acid produced in water
Carbon dioxide CO2 Carbonic acid - H2CO3
Sulphur trioxide SO3 Sulphuric acid - H2SO4
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Nitric acid - HNO3

 Basic Oxides (behave like a base)

Most metal oxides are basic oxides. Many basic oxides are formed by the direct
combination of a metal with oxygen. Basic oxides react with acids to form a salt
and water. For example: potassium oxide (K2O), sodium oxide (Na2O), calcium
oxide (CaO), iron (II) oxide (FeO) etc.

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 Neutral Oxides
Oxides of non-metals which shows neither acidic nor basic properties. They do not
react with acids or alkalis and are mostly monoxides. Examples are water, H2O,
carbon monoxide CO and dinitrogen oxide N2O.
 Amphoteric Oxides
The word amphoteric means ‘both of them’. Amphoteric oxides have both acidic
and basic properties. Examples are Al2O3 PbO and ZnO. These oxides form salts
and water when they react with acids. They also react with alkalis to form complex
salts and water.

PREPARATION OF SALTS
A salt is a substance formed when one or more hydrogen ions of an acid are replaced
by metallic ion or ammonium ion.
When making a salt, the solubility of the salt in water must be determined to allow us
to choose a suitable method for preparing the salt.
There are four ways of making salts:
1. Reacting a metal with an acid
Salts can be made by reacting acids with metals. This method is only suitable
for metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series.
It is however not a good idea to preapre salts of very reactive metals such as
sodium and potassium using this method. The reaction of these metals with the
acid is too violent – a titration method is more suitavle in these cases.
Salt Reagent Formula Chemical equation
Calcium nitrate Calcium and nitric acid Ca(NO3)2 Ca + HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + H2

2. Reacting an insoluble base with an acid

Salts can also be made by used to make salts that are low in the reactivity
series. reacting an acid with an insoluble base.
Salt Reagent Formula Chemical equation
Zinc chloride Zinc oxide + hydrochloric ZnCl2 Ca + HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + H2
acid

3. Neutralising an alkali with an acid (titration method)

Titration is a method used to make a soluble salt from a souluble base and
an acid. This method is used to make salts of group 1 metals and ammonium
salts.
Acid – alkali titration is used to find how much acid is needed to react exactly
with a solution of an alkali. We use an indicator to find when the acid just
reacted with all the alkali. We call this the end point of the titration. At the
end point, the indicator changes colour.
The indicator we choose depends on whether we use a strong or weak acid or
alkali.

172
  For a strong acid and alkali we can use any indicator.
 If we are making a salt from a weak alkali such as ammonia, we titrate with
strong acid. We use methyl orange indicator which changes from orange to
red.
 If we are making a salt from a weak acid such as ethanoic acid, we titrate
with strong base. We use phenolphalein indicator which changes from pink
to colourless.
To carry out the process of titration,
1. Measure a known volume of alkali into the titration falsk using a volumetric
pipette. First wash the pipette with a littele of the alkali you are using.
2. Add a few drops of indicator solution to the alkali in the flask.
3. Fil a clean burette with acid. First wash the burette with a little of the acid
tou are using.
4. Record the burette reading.
5. Open the burette tap and let the acid flow into the flask. Keep swirling the
falsk gently to make sure that the acid and alkali mix and react.
6. Keep adding the acid slowly until the indicator changes colour. This is the
end point.
7. Record the reading on the burette. The final reading minus the initial reading
is called the titre. The first time you do this gives you the rough titre.
8. Repeat this process at least three times. You can add the acid rapidly until
you are few cm3 from the end point. Then add the acid drop by drop so that
you can get an acurate titre.
9. If you are doing calculations to find the concetration of the alkali in the flask,
you take the average of the accurate titres.

4. Precipitation
A precipitate is made when solutions of two soluble compounds are mixed. To
make salts by precipitation, we have to know which compounds are soluble in
water and which are insoluble . This can be done by using the solubility rules below
to help us.

Salt Type Soluble Insoluble

All group 1 salts All -
All nitrates All -
All ammonium salts All -
Chlorides All others Silver, lead (ll) chloride
Hydoxides Group 1 hydroxides, ammonium All other
Carbonates Group 1 carbonates, ammonium All others
Iodides All others Silver, lead and iodine
Sulphates All others Barium, calcium, lead

173
To make an insoluble salt, for example lead (ll) chloride, we
 Identify the ions present in the insoluble salt – lead and chloride
 Use the solubility rules to choose soluble compounds containing these ions –
for example, lead nitrate for the lead and sodium chloride for the chloride.
 Add one solution to the other and filter off the precipitate, wash and dry the
solid.

COLLECTION OF SALTS
(a) Salts like CuSO4.5H2O, ZnSO4.7H20 have water of crystallisation. Hence most
salts are collected by means of crystallisation rather than by direct evaporation.
(b) Salts collected must be wiped with filter paper and cleaned with distilled water to
remove contaminants that stay on the surface of the crystals.

IDENTIFICATION OF IONS - CATIONS

Aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia are alkalis used to identify different
positive ions (cations) in compounds. Solids are first dissolved in a little water, then;
 Put a small amunt of the solution you want to identify into a test tube.
 Add few drops of aqueous of sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia.
 Observe colour of any prepicitate formed
 Add excess aqueous sodium hydroxide and shake the test tube
 Record whether the prepicitate dossolves or not and any colour changes.

The table shows the results if particular cations are present.

Metal Cation Results with aqueous sodium Results with aqueous
hydroxide ammonia
Aluminium, Al3+ White precipitate White precipitate
Soluble in excess (solourless Insoluble in excess
solution)
Calcium, Ca2+ White precipitate No precipitate or very slight
Insoluble in excess white prcipitate

Copper (ll), Cu2+ Light blue precipitate Light blue precipitate

Insoluble in excess
Iron (ll), Fe2+ Grey-green precipitate
Insoluble in excess
Iron (lll), Fe 3+
Redddish-brown precipitate
Insoluble in excess
Zinc, Zn2+ White precipitate
Soluble in excess (solourless
solution)
Insoluble in excess
Grey-green precipitate
Insoluble in excess
Redddish-brown precipitate
Insoluble in excess
White precipitate
Soluble in excess (solourless
solution)

174
IDENTIFICATION OF ANIONS
HALIDES
Group 7 ions such as chloride and iodide ions are called halides. These ions can be
identified using aqueous silver nitrate. The prcedure is as follows:
To a small volume of halide solution in a test tube:
 Add an equal volume of dilute nitric acid
 Add a few drops of aqueous silver nitrate
 Observe the colour of the precipitate
Chlorides (Cl-) give a white precipitate.
Iodides (l-) give a pale yellow precipitate.

CARBONATES (CO32-)
To test for carbonates, we add dilute acid to the unknown compound. If carbonate is
present, we will see effervescence (bubbles of a gas). The gas must be carbon dioxide
and can be tested using limewater.

NITRATES (NO3-)
The identification of nitrates make use of the test of ammonia. The procedure is:
 Put an aqueous solution of the unknown compound into a test tube.
 Add aqueous sodium hydroxide then aluminium foil and heat gently.
 Test the gas given off with a piece of damp red litmus paper placed at the
mouth of the test tube
 If ammonia is given off, the litmus paper will turn blue.

SULPHATES (SO42-)
Barium chloride or barium nitrate solution is used to test for sulphades.
 Put an aqueous solution of the unknown compound into a test tube.
 Add an equal amount of soluble barium salt (chloride or nitrate).
 If a white precipitate is formed, the compound is sulphate.

175
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figure below shows electrolysis of aqueous copper (ll) sulphate using carbon
electrodes.

(a) Write the equation for the reaction occurring at the anode.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) State two observations made during the electrolysis.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
2. The figure below shows a set-up in the electrolysis of concentrated aqueous
sodium chloride using inert electrodes.

(a) Suggest the name of the material used for the inert electrode.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) The equation for the production of chlorine gas at the anode is shown.
2Cl- (aq) Cl2 + 2e-

i. Explain why this is an oxidation reaction.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
ii. State two observations made at the anode.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(c) Hydrogen chloride dissolves in water to form hydrochloric acid.
Suggest the pH of hydrochloric acid and explain your answer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

176
3. The rate of reaction between a sample of solid sodium carbonate and excess dilute
sulphuric acid was investigated at 20°C. The total volume of carbon dioxide
produced was measured every minute and the results are shown in the table.
Time / min Volume / cm3
1 25
2 45
3 55
4 60
5 60
6 60

a. On the grid below, plot a graph of volume of carbon dioxide produced against
time.

[2]

b. On the same axes, sketch a graph that will be obtained when half of the original
mass of sodium carbonate was used at 20°C. Label this graph Y. [2]

177
4. Magnesium sulphate is soluble in water.
(a) Describe how crystals of magnesium sulphate are made using magnesium oxide
powder and sulphuric acid as reactants.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………..………………………………………………………………[4]
(b) Describe a chemical test to confirm the presence of the sulphate, SO42-, ions in
the sample.
Test ………………………………..……………………..………………………………………….
Results …………………………..……………………..…………………………………………. [3]
5. The burning of methane is an example of an exothermic reaction.
(i) What is an exothermic reaction?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) Give another example of an exothermic reaction other than burning in oxygen
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(iii) Explain why it is not safe to burn methane in a limited supply of oxygen.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
6. An iron ring can be electroplated with copper as shown below.

(a) What material is the anode made of?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) What change would be seen on the iron ring?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(c) Write the equation for the reaction at the cathode.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(d) Suggest a suitable electrolyte that could be used if the iron ring was to be
plated using silver.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(e) Give two other uses of copper.
……………………………………………………….………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………..……………………………………….. [2]

178
7. Four powdered metals P, Q, R and S were each placed in dilute hydrochloric acid
(HCl). The figure below shows what was observed.

(a) Use the information in the diagram to arrange the metals in order of increasing
reactivity.
Least reactive most reactive
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(b) The gas produced in the reaction between metals and dilute hydrochloric acid
is hydrogen.
Describe the test for hydrogen gas.
Test …………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Result ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(c) Which of the metals P, Q, R or S could be copper.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Explain your answer
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….… [2]
(d) Predict how the rate of reaction will compare with that shown in the figure
when lumps of metal Q are used.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Explain your answer
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….… [2]
8. The figure below shows hydrogen gas being passed over heated copper (ll) oxide
to produce copper.

(a) Name the type of reaction that takes place in the figure.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Explain your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(b) An incomplete equation representing the reaction taking place is shown
CuO (….) + H2 (….) Cu (….) + H2O (….)
(i) Complete the equation by writing the state symbols of the reactants and
the products. [1]
(c) Other than the method used in the figure, state another method of producing
copper
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]

179
9. The figure below shows the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride using
graphite electrodes.

(a) Explain why graphite is used as an electrode.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(b) (i) Write the formulae of two of the ions that are present in the electrolysis.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
ii. State whether the solution would be alkaline, neutral or acidic after the
experiment in complete.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
Explain your answer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..…………..…….. [1]
10. When chlorine is bubbled through aqueous iron (ll) chloride, iron (lll) chloride is
formed. The ionic equation for the reaction is:
2Fe2+ + Cl2 2Fe3+ + 2Cl-

The reaction is redox.

(a) Which substance is oxidized?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Give a reason for your answer
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………….………………… [2]
(b) Why is a fume cupboard needed?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]

180
11. Plastic articles can be electroplated with copper. The article is first coated with a
thin layer of graphite paste.
The figure below shows how the graphite – coated plastic is electroplated with
copper.

(a) What element is graphite a form of?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Name another form of this element.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(c) Suggest a reason why the article is first coated with graphite.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(d) Name the element from which the anode is made.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(e) Explain why copper (ll) sulphate must be dissolved in water for use in this
process.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….……….. [2]
(f) At the cathode, copper atoms are deposited on the plastic article.
Write an equation to show the formation of copper atoms.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]

12. Sodium chlorate (I) solution decomposes into sodium chloride and oxygen gas
when a few drops of cobalt (II) nitrate are added in excess. The cobalt (II) nitrate
is not changed by this process.
In an experiment 20 cm3 of sodium chloride (I) solution was used, and the volume
of oxygen gas produced was recorded at various intervals as shown.

Time / min 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Volume of oxygen / cm3 0 47 62 71 75 75 75

(a) Balance the equation for the formation of sodium chloride and oxygen.
……NaClO ……………..NaCl + ………….. O2

181
(b) On the grid below plot a graph of oxygen evolved against time.

[4]

(c) What term is used to describe the cobalt (II) nitrate?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(d) Describe a test that could be carried out to show that the solution at the end of
the experiment contained chloride ions.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………..…………………….. [3]

182
13. A copper (II) sulphate is electrolyzed using two copper electrodes.
(a) What happens during the electrolysis
(i) At the anode
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(ii) At the cathode
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(iii) To the solution
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Give two practical uses of this method of electrolysis.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) What would happen if the copper electrodes are replaced with platinum
electrodes
(iv) At the anode
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(v) At the cathode
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(vi) To the solution
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]

183
 STOCHIOMETRY
CHEMICAL SYMBOLS
Every element has its own chemical symbol. For example, Oxygen is O, Bromine is Br
and Lithium is Li. Many symbols such as Iron, Fe and Potassium, K are not as obvious.
This is because they come from Latin, Greek or Arabic words.
If you do not know the symbol for an element, you can look it up in the Periodic table.
Notice that the first letter in a symbol is always a capital letter. If there is a second
letter, it is always a small letter.

CHEMICAL FORMULAE
To find the formula of an ionic compound, the number of positive charges must be
balanced out by the number of negative charges. The charges of the ions must be
known in order to work out the formula for a compound.
Below are some examples of finding formulae of different compounds.

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Chemical reactions are shown by chemical equations. The simplest type of equation is
a word equation.
A symbol equation is a shorthand way of describing a chemical reaction. All chemical
equations must be balanced, care must be taken not to change the formula for
reactants or products.

USING STATE SYMBOLS

We use special symbols in equations to show if a substance is a solid, liquid, gas or
dissolved in water. These are called state symbols. They are:
(s) solid (l) liquid (g) gas
(aq) aqueous solution – dissolved in water

IONIC EQUATIONS
An ionic equation is a special form of symbol equation that shows only those ions that
react

2H+ (aq) + O2- (aq) H2O (l)

184
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS AND RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS
The relative atomic mass of an atom is the average mass of one atom of the element.
This is the total number of the protons and neutrons found in a nucleus of an atom
The relative molecular mass of a substance is the average mass of one molecule – it
is found by adding the relative atomic masses of all the constituents’ atoms of a
molecule.
The following atoms are used as examples to calculate atomic and molecular masses
of different atoms and compounds;

1 12 35.5 16 40 14
H C Cl O Ca N
1 6 17 8 20 7

Calculate the relative masses of the following:

 H2O (1 × 2) + 16 = 18
 CO2 12 + (16 × 2) = 44
 C 12
 CaCO3 40 + 12 + (16 × 3) = 100
 (NH4)2CO3 2(14 + 4) + 12 + (16 × 3) = 96

PERCENTAGE (%) MASS OF AN ELEMENT IN A COMPOUND

Calculate the percentage by mass of the following:
2
 H in H2O × 100 = 11.1%
18

12
 C in CO2 × 100 = 27.27%
44

48
 O in (NH4)2CO3 × 100 = 50%
96

185
 THE MOLE CONCEPT
The mass of 1 mole of a substance is always equal to its relative molecular mass in
grams and has 6.02 × 1023 (Avogadro’s number). Examples –
 1 mole of H has a mass 1 g
 1 mole of O2 has a mass of 16 × 2 = 32 g
The mass in g of 1 mole of substance is called its molar mass. The symbol for the
mole is mol.
We can therefore convert the mass in grams of an element into moles using the
following formula:
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒊𝒏 𝒈)
Moles =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔

Worked examples
 Calculate the number of moles in 24 g of carbon.

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒊𝒏 𝒈) 𝟐𝟒
Moles = = = 2 mol
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟐

 Calculate the number of moles in 16 g of oxygen.

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒊𝒏 𝒈) 𝟏𝟔
Moles = = = 0.5 mol
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟑𝟐

MOLAR VOLUME OF GASES

Equal volumes of all gases under the same temperature and pressure contains the
same number of molecules. One mole of any gas occupies 24 dm3 or 24 000 cm3 at
r.t.p. 24 dm3 is called the molar volume of a gas at r.t.p.
1 dm3 = 1 000 cm3
To calculate the moles of gas we use the equation:

Worked examples
 Calculate the number of moles in 6 dm3 of oxygen at r.t.p.

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝟔
Moles = = = 0.25 mol
𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟒

186
MOLES IN SOLUTIONS
The concentration of a solution indicates the amount of solute present in 1 dm3 of the
solution. Concentration of the solution can be calculated using the equation:

Concentration is given in g/ dm3.

Usually, the concentration of a solution is expressed in molarity (M), where M is mol/
dm3
To find the number of moles in solutions we use the following formula:
Moles = volume in dm3 × concentration in dm3

A molar solution is the one that that contains 1 mole of solute in 1 dm3 of solution.

CALCULATIONS BASED ON EQUATIONS

A balanced chemical equations can be used to calculate the amount of reactants
required or the amount of products formed as shown below.

Mg (aq) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

1 mole : 2 moles : 1 mole : 1 mole

The number of atoms or molecules taking place in a chemical reaction can be
converted directly into moles.
From the above equation, 1 mole of magnesium reacts with 2 moles of hydrochloric
acid to produce 1 mole of magnesium chloride and 1 mole of hydrogen gas.

Worked examples
 In the equation above, 1.2 g of magnesium ribbon was allowed to react with
excess hydrochloric acid.
− How many moles of magnesium have reacted?
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒊𝒏 𝒈) 𝟏.𝟐
Moles = = = 0.05 mol
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟐𝟒

− What mass of magnesium chloride was formed?

1 mol of Mg produces 1 mol MgCl2
So 0.05 mol of Mg produces 0.05 mol of MgCl2
Mass = Moles × Molar mass 0.05 × 95 = 4.75 g

− What is the volume of hydrogen at r.t.p. that would be produced?

1 mol of Mg produces 1 mol H2
So 0.05 mol of Mg produces 0.05 mol of H
Volume = 0.05 × 24 dm3 = 1.2 dm3

187
EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE
The empirical formula is the simplest formula. It shows the simplest ratio of the
elements present in a compound.
Some examples of empirical formulae are CH2, H2O and CO2.
The following are not empirical formulae: C3H6, C2H6 and C6H12O6 because they can be
reduced further to their simplest forms being CH2, CH3 and CH2O respectively.
The molecular formulae is the true formula of a compound. It shows all the atoms
present in a molecule. Most empirical formulae are also the molecular formulae. Some
examples of molecular formulae are CH2, H2O, CO2, and C2H4.
Ethane, C2H4 contains two carbon atoms and six hydrogen atoms, it would therefore
be incorrect to reduce it to the simplest form.

FINDING MOLECULAR FORMULAE

The molecular formula of a compound can be found if the empirical formula and the
relative molecular mass are known as shown below;
 A compound has the relative molecular mass of 42. The empirical formula of
this compound is CH2. Find the molecular formula.
Relative molecular of C = 12 and that of H = 1.
(CH2)n = 42
(12 + 1×2)n = 42
14n = 42

n = 3: - the molecular formula of the compound is therefore C3H6.

188
CALCULATING PERCENTAGE YIELD
A yield from a chemical process can be calculated. In industries, a high yield is more
useful and valuable than a chemical process with lower yield.
The percentage yield is given by the following:
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒃𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅
Percentage yield = × 100%
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒃𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅

An experiment was carried out to prepare copper (II) sulphate crystals by reacting
copper (II) oxide with dilute sulphuric acid.
It was found that 5 g of copper (II) oxide had completely reacted with the acid.
12.5 g of hydrated copper (II) sulphate crystals, CuSO4. The equation of the reaction
is: CuO + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O
Calculate the percentage yield of the copper (II) sulphate.
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒊𝒏 𝒈) 𝟓
Number of moles of copper(II)oxide = Moles = = = 0.0625 mol
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟖𝟎

From the equation, 1 mol of CuO produces 1 mol of CUSO4 .5H2O (with water of
crystallization) therefore, 0.0625 mol of CuO will produce 0.0625 mol of CUSO4 .5H2O
Mass of CUSO4 .5H2O produced = 0.0625 mol × 250 g/mol
= 15.6 g (theoretical mass)
Actual mass of CUSO4 .5H2O obtained = 12.5 g

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒃𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅

Percentage yield = × 100%
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒃𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅

𝟏𝟐.𝟓
Percentage yield = × 100%
𝟏𝟓.𝟔

= 80.1%

CALCULATING PERCENTAGE PURITY

Percentage purity is the percentage of a pure compound in an impure sample.
The percentage purity is given by the following equation:
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆
Percentage (%) purity = × 100%
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆

A 150.0 g sample of copper ore contains 90.2 g of pure copper. Calculate the
percentage purity.

𝟖𝟕.𝟑
Percentage (%) purity = × 100 = 58.2%
𝟏𝟓𝟎.𝟎

189
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Excess zinc metal is added to 200 cm3 of 0.500 mol/dm3 ethanoic acid to form zinc
ethanoate (CH3COO)2 Zn and hydrogen gas.
The equation of the reaction is:
Zn (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) (CH3COO)2 Zn (aq) + H2 (g)
(a) Calculate the number of moles in 200 cm3 of 0.500 mol/dm3 ethanoic acid.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(b) Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen gas, H2, that are produced from
the reaction.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(c) Use your answer above to calculate the volume of hydrogen produced from
the reaction at room temperature and pressure. [ volume of 1 mole of gas at
r.t.p. = 24 dm3]

Volume = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(d) A gas is produced when dilute ethanoic acid reacts with zinc.
State one observation that will be made.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(e) The experiment was repeated using dilute hydrochloric acid of the same
concentration.
State and explain the difference that will be made on the observation
between the two reactions.
Difference …………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
Explanation ………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………..………………. [2]

190
2. Excess copper (ll) carbonate is added to 25.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid.
The equation of the reaction is:
CuCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CuCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
(a) Explain why the carbonate should be in excess.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Calculate the number of moles in 25.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(c) Use your answer above to calculate the number of moles of copper (ll)
carbonate that will react with the acid.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(d) Calculate
(vii) The relative molecular mass of copper (ll) carbonate.

Mass = …………………………..…….……… [1]

(viii) The mass of copper (ll) carbonate that will react with the acid

Mass = …………………………..…….……… [1]

3. In an experiment, 100 cm3 of 0.1 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid was reacted with
excess zinc powder.
The equation of the reaction is:
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
(a) Calculate the number of moles in 100 cm3 of 0.1 mol/dm3 HCl.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(b) Use the equation and your answer above to calculate the number of moles of
zinc that reacted with the acid.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(c) Calculate the mass of zinc that reacted with the acid.

Mass = …………………………..…….……… [1]

(d) Calculate the volume of hydrogen measured at room temperature and pressure

Volume = …………………………..…….……… [2]

191
4. 21.2 g of sodium carbonate was dissolved in water and the solution was made up
to 500 cm3. The equation for the reaction of sodium carbonate with dilute sulphuric
acid is shown.
The equation of the reaction is:
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + CO2 + H2O
(a) Calculate the relative molecular mass of sodium carbonate.

Molecular mass = …………………………..…….……… [1]

(b) Calculate the number of moles in 21.2 g of sodium carbonate.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(c) Use your answer above to calculate the concentration of sodium carbonate
solution.

Concentration = ………………………….mol/dm3 [2]

(d) (i) Use your answer in (c) to determine the number of moles of carbon
dioxide produced when excess dilute sulphuric acid I added to the 500
cm3 of sodium carbonate solution.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [1]

ii. Use your answer above to calculate the volume of carbon dioxide
produced measure at room temperature and pressure. (1 mole of any
gas occupies 24 dm3 at r.t.p.)

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [1]

5. The iron (III) oxide Fe2O3, is reduced to iron, Fe, as shown by the equation.
Fe2O3 (s) + …….CO (g) ……..Fe (l) + ……CO2 (g)
(a) Balance the equation by writing numbers in the spaces provided. [1]
(b) Copper (I) oxide, Cu2O, can also be reduced using carbon monoxide as
shown by the equation.
Cu2O + CO 2Cu + CO2
In an experiment, 28.8 g of copper (I) oxide was completely reduced to copper.
i. Calculate the relative molecular mass of copper (I) oxide, Cu2O.

Relative molecular mass =…..…….…… [2]

192
 ii. Calculate the number of moles in 28.8 g of copper (I) oxide.

Moles =…..…….…… [2]

iii. Calculate the number of moles of copper produced.

Moles =…..…….…… [2]

iv. Calculate the mass of copper produced.

Mass =…..…….…… [2]

v. Calculate the volume of carbon monoxide, CO, measured at room
temperature and pressure (r.t.p) needed to completely reduce 28.8 g of
copper (I) oxide. [1 mole of gas occupies 24 dm3 at r.t.p]

Volume =…..…….…… [2]

6. The equation of the reaction of calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid is shown
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
(a) Write an ionic equation for the reaction.
……………………………………………………………….…………………………..…….……… [2]
(b) In an experiment, lumps of calcium carbonate were added in excess to
100 cm3 of 0.10 mol /dm3 hydrochloric acid.
(i) Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid in 100cm3 of 0.10
mol /dm3.

Number of moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(ii) Use your answer above and the equation to calculate the number of
moles of carbon dioxide produced.

Number of moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(iii) Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide produced at room temperature
and pressure. (rtp)

Volume = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(c) Suggest two ways of increasing the rate of this reaction.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]

193
7. In an experiment, 120 cm3 of methane, measured at room temperature and
pressure, was burnt in excess oxygen. The equation for the reaction is
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
(a) Calculate the number of moles in 120 cm3 of methane.
(1 mole of gas occupies 24 000cm3.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(b) Use your answer above and the equation to calculate the number of moles of
oxygen that reacted.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [1]

(c) Calculate the volume of oxygen, measured at room temperature and pressure
that reacted with 120 cm3 of methane.

Volume = …………………………..…….………cm3 [1]

8. During the electrolysis, 0.025 g of hydrogen gas was produced at the cathode.
(a) Calculate the number of moles in 0.025 g of hydrogen gas.

Moles of gas = ………………….……… [2]

(b) Use your answer above to calculate the volume of the hydrogen gas produced
at room temperature and pressure. 1 mole of gas = 24 dm3.

Volume of gas = ……………….……… [2]

(c) Calculate the volume of oxygen, measured at room temperature and pressure
that reacted with 120 cm3 of methane.

Volume = …………………………..…….………cm3 [1]

194
 METALS AND NON - METALS

METALS
The Periodic Table in page shows that there are about 90 naturally occurring elements;
these elements are arranged in groups such that all elements to the left of zigzag line
are metals and those to the right are non – metals. Metals are amongst our
important resources. They are obtained from rocks called ores. Metals and non –
metals have different properties.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

The physical properties of the metal depend on the way atoms are arranged together
in the crystals of the metal and on the size of the metal crystal.
Metal atoms are held strongly together by what are called metallic bonds. (See the
figure below) The outer electrons of each metal atom in the crystal can move freely
between atoms. This means that the metal is made of rows of positive ions surrounded
by a ‘sea’ of moving electrons. This ‘sea’ of (negative) electrons attracts positive ions
strongly together.

The metallic bond explains a number of properties of metals.

 Melting and Boiling Points
If a substance has a high melting point, it means a lot of energy is needed to
pull particles of the substance apart. Metal atoms are held strongly together
with electrostatic forces between the positive ions and the mobile sea of
electrons. This means that a lot of energy is needed to pull the ions apart and
so metals has high meting and boiling points.
 Electrical Conductivity
Electrons moving through the metal cause an electric current in a metal. This
happens because the outer electrons in the metal atoms easily become
detached from the atoms. These electrons can then move away from negative
terminal in a circuit and towards the positive terminal.
 Conductivity of Heat
Heat is quickly conducted through a solid when particles are close together.
This allows the kinetic energy in a vibrating particle to be passed on to the next
particle easily when the two hit each other. In a metal, the moving electrons
can transfer this energy and so metals are the best solid conductors of heat.

195
  Density
Because the metal atoms are held together very strongly, the atoms are packed
close together and so metals have high density.
 Malleability and Ductility
Metals and malleable and ductile; they can be hammered and rolled into shape
– malleable and they can be stretched into wire – ductile.
When a metal is hammered, I does not crush, it just deforms. The layers of
atoms do not move apart, they slide over each other as shown in the diagram
below. After they have moved, the closely packed structure still remains. This
is what happens when a metal is pulled into a wire.
It is much easier to hammer a metal when hot than when cold. When hot, the
particles have more kinetic energy and are vibrating faster and further away
from each other.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

The chemical properties of metals depend on the arrangement of the electrons in the
metal atoms.

REACTIONS OF METALS WITH AIR (O XYGEN)

As soon as group 1 metals such as Sodium are exposed to air, their shinny surfaces
start to dull. This is because the Sodium in this case reacts with oxygen in air forming
white sodium oxide.
Sodium + Oxygen Sodium oxide
2Na (s) + O2 (g) Na2O (s)
Other metals like aluminium react more slowly. A shiny aluminium pencil sharpener
may take several weeks before it goes dull with the formation of white aluminium
oxide.
Aluminium + Oxygen Aluminium oxide
4Al (s) + 3O2 (g) 2Al2O3 (s)

Unreactive metals, like copper, take months or even years before they become darker
with the formation of a thin layer of black copper oxide.
Copper + Oxygen Copper oxide
2Cu (s) + O2 (g) 2CuO (s)
We can summarize these reactions of metals with oxygen as:

Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide

196
Very unreactive metals, like gold, do not react with air or oxygen and they remain
permanently shiny.
From these observations and from experiments in which metals are heated in air or
pure oxygen, it is possible to put metals in an order of reactivity. This order of reactivity
is called the reactivity series. Metals at the bottom of the series, like silver and gold,
are the least reactive.
The reactivity series can be used to predict and summarise other reactions of metals
as well as their reaction with oxygen. As expected, reactive metals like sodium also
react vigorously with other non – metals such as chlorine and sulphur to from their
compounds. Unreactive metals like gold have a little desire to react with non metals
and tend to remain uncombined.

The reactivity series of a metal depend on the ease with which it forms metal ions.
The higher a metal is placed in the reactivity series, the more easily it forms metal ios
and the more reactive the metal is.

REACTIONS OF METALS WITH WATER OR STEAM

Some metals react chemically with water. When this occurs, a metal oxide or hydroxide
is formed and hydrogen gas is liberated.

Metal + Water Metal oxide / hydroxide

The equation below shows what happens when a small piece of metal (potassium) is
dropped in a beaker of water at room temperature.
Potassium + Water Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen
2K (s) + 2H2O (l) 2KOH (s) + H2 (g)

197
Zinc and iron do not react with water but they do react with steam. The figure below
shows the apparatus suitable for investigating the reaction of a metal with steam.
Copper does not react with steam.

Zinc + Water (steam) Zinc Oxide + Hydrogen

Zn (s) + H2O (l) ZnO (s) + H2 (g)

REACTIONS OF METALS WITH DILUTE ACIDS

The reactions of metals with acids is covered under the topic ‘Acids, Bases and Salts’
in page 165.
The general equation of metals and water is shown below;

Metal + dilute acid Metal salt + Hydrogen gas

Lithium + Sulphuric acid Lithium sulphate + Hydrogen

2Li (s) + H2SO4 (aq) Li2SO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS
Metals above copper in the reactivity series react with acids to form salt and hydrogen.
In each case, the metal displaces hydrogen from the acid.
When zinc is placed in copper sulphate solution, the zinc becomes coated with red-
brown copper. At the same time, the blue colour of the solution fades.
Zinc + Copper Sulphate Zinc sulphate + Copper
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
In this reaction, copper ions have been displaced from the solution as copper atoms.
The copper atoms have been deposited on the zinc ions from the zinc metal have
replaced the copper ions in solution.

ALUMINIUM AND THE REACTIVITY SERIES

The usefulness of the reactivity series lies in the fact that it can be used to predict the
chemical behavior of a metal if we know its position in the series. For example;
chromium occupies a position between zinc and iron in the series. This means that
chromium will react with dilute acids and steam to liberate hydrogen gas.

198
However, a few metals do not behave in the way we expect, for example, aluminium
does not appear to react with dilute acids even though it is above hydrogen in the
reactivity series.
The reason for the apparent unreactivity of aluminium is that the metal reacts readily
with oxygen in air to form aluminium oxide (Al2O3). As a result, the metal is always
covered with a thin layer of oxide which protects it from the attack of the acid. If the
layer is removed with sandpaper, aluminium will react with acids to produce hydrogen
gas.

THE EXTRACTION OF METALS

Only a small number of unreactive metals, such as silver, gold and platinum, occur
freely in nature as uncombined elements. Most metals react with other elements to
form ores. The extraction of the metal from is ore generally involves three major
stages;
 Mining and concentrating the ore
 Reducing the ore to the metal
 Purifying the metal

MINING AND CONCENTRATING THE O RE

An ore is a compound of the metal mixed with large amounts of impurities. The ore
is mixed with soil, rocks and other impurities from which it must be separated.

THE EXTRACTION OF IRON FROM IRON ORE (HAEMATITE)

The main ore of iron is Haematite. It contains iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) mixed with sand
and clay. Iron is extracted from Haematite in a tall reaction chamber called a blast
furnace shown below.

199
 1. Iron ore, coke (carbon) and limestone are added at the top of the furnace.
2. Blasts of hot air are blown in through small holes near the bottom.
3. Oxygen in the blasts of air reacts with coke to form carbon monoxide.

Carbon + Oxygen Carbon monoxide

2C + O2 2CO

This reaction is very exothermic and the temperature in the furnace increases.
4. As the carbon monoxide rises up the furnace, it reacts with iron ore (iron (iii)
oxide) and reduces it to iron.

Iron Oxide + Carbon monoxide Iron + Carbon dioxide

Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2

WHY IS LIMESTONE U SED IN THE FURNACE

Iron ore usually contains impurities such as sand (silicon dioxide, SiO2). Limestone
(calcium carbonate) is used in the reaction to get rid of these impurities. The limestone
decomposes at the high temperatures inside the furnace to form calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide.
Iron Oxide + Carbon monoxide Iron + Carbon dioxide
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2

The calcium oxide then reacts with sand and other substances in the impurities to form
slag (calcium silicate) by reacting with sand (silicon impurities) in the ore forming a
liquid slag.
Iron Oxide + Carbon monoxide Iron + Carbon dioxide
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2

Slag is less dense and it therefore floats on top of iron. The molten iron and slag form
two different layers at the bottom of the blast furnace. The molten iron can then flow
out of the furnace at bottom.

METALS AND ALLOYS

Pure metals have many useful properties but not widely used – this is because they
are often too soft and have low resistance to corrosion. Most metallic substances used
in everyday lives are alloys.

ALLOYS
An alloy is a mixture of metals or of metals and non-metals. For example; solder is an
alloy of tin and lead, and bronze is an alloy of copper and tin.
Some alloys contain carbon, a non-metal e.g. steel is an alloy of iron, carbon and other
metals.

200
Alloys are made by mixing the molten elements (metals or carbon) in the right
proportions and then allowing them to solidify. The alloys produced have some useful
physical properties than the pure metals. The main reasons for alloying are;
 To improve the strength and hardness of the metal e.g. brass (copper and
zinc) is harder and stronger than copper or zinc.
 To improve resistance of metals against corrosion e.g. stainless steel (iron,
chromium, nickel and carbon) is very resistant to rusting.
 To improve appearance of the metal.
 To lower the melting point of the metal e.g. solder (tin and lead) has a lower
melting point than pure tin and lead and can be used to join metals.

THE USES OF METALS

Metals are among the first elements to be used by humans. They are just as important
today in many aspects of our lives.
The choice and uses of metals depend on three main factors:
 Their physical properties (density, strength, electrical and conductivity, melting
point.
 Their chemical properties such as resistance to corrosion
 The cost of production.

THE USES OF IRON

The iron produced in blast furnace is called “pig iron” or cast iron. Cast iron contains
a number of impurities and is very brittle and hence has very limited uses. Most of the
cast iron produced is converted into steel.

What is Steel?
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Although there are many different types of steel,
it is convenient to group them under two categories; carbon steel and alloy steel.

How is Steel Made From Iron?

The chemistry of steel-making involves oxidation, followed by alloying. The impurities
are removed from the cast iron by blowing in pure oxygen (oxidation) Carbon and
small amounts of other metals are then added to produce steels with special
properties.

THE USES OF OTHER METALS

METAL USES SPECIAL PROPERTIES
Mild steel Car bodies Hard, strong and malleable
Stainless steel Chemical plant and cutlery Corrosion resistant
Aluminium Aircraft manufacture Strong and low density
food containers Resistant to corrosion
Zinc Galvanizing iron Protection from rusting
brass making (with copper) Does not corrode
Copper Electrical wiring Good electrical conductor

201
 NON – METALS
PROPERTIES OF NON - METALS
The following are general properties of non-metals. They:
 Are brittle
 Have low melting and boiling points
 Are poor conductors of heat and electricity
 Can be found in solids, liquids or gases at room temperature.

PREPARATION OF CHLORINE (Cl2)

Chlorine is produced from concentrated hydrochloric acid using a powerful oxidizing
agent. Two common oxidizing agents used are Manganese (IV) oxide (Manganese
dioxide) and Potassium manganate (VII), (KMnO4) these oxidizes the hydrochloric
acid.

2KMnO4(s) + 6HCl(aq) 5Cl(g) + 2KCl(aq) + 2MnCl2(aq) + 8H2O(l)

The gas is bubbled through water to remove (dissolve) hydrogen chloride gas. The
gas is then dried by bubbling through concentrated sulphuric acid, or passing
through a solid drying agent such as anhydrous calcium chloride or silica.
Chlorine is a dense, green gas, and it can be seen to fill the gas jar from the bottom,
displacing the air upwards. It is easy to see when the jar is full. A strong chocking
smell also be detected can be detected.

TEST FOR CHLORINE

Chlorine bleaches moist (damp/wet) litmus paper.
BLEACHING ACTION / POWER OF CHLORINE
Chlorine reacts with the water on the paper to form hydrochloric acid and
hypochlorous acid.
Cl2 (g) +H2O (l) HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)

The Hydrochloric acid turns blue litmus paper red.

The HClO(aq) bleaches the paper by decomposing to liberate (produce) oxygen,
which oxidizes the paper, thus bleaching it.
2HClO(aq) 2HCl(aq) + O2(g)

202
USES OF CHLORINE
 Sterilizing water - kills harmful bacteria
 Manufacture of plastics, e.g. PVC
 Making domestic bleaches - e.g. Jik, Dettol
 Manufacture of solvents - e.g. trichloroethane

PROPERTIES OF CHLORINE
 Chlorine is a pale-green gas with a choking smell.
 Chlorine is denser than air.
 Reaction with metals, - chlorine reacts with most metals to form chloride salts.
 Chlorine is a powerful oxidizing agent as it readily takes electrons to form
chloride ions.
 Chlorine bleaches coloured materials.

THE MANUFACTURE OF CHLORINE FROM SODIUM CHLORIDE

Chlorine is manufactured from concentrated sodium chloride (Brine) by electrolysis.
The sodium chloride is obtained from sea-water and salt pans (e.g. Sua pan,
Makgadikgadi salt pans). At Sua Pan in Botswana, the salt is obtained by evaporation
of salty water. Sodium chloride salt is a very important source for chlorine, sodium
hydroxide and hydrogen

CARBON AND CARBONATES

CARBONATES
USES OF SODIUM CARBONATE USES OF CALCIUM CARBONATE
Used in the manufacture of Uses of calcium carbonate are;
• Soaps • Manufacture of glass
• Detergents and textiles • Manufacture of cement
• Dyes • Manufacture of lime (calcium oxide
• Drugs and slaked lime (calcium hydroxide)
• Glass • Extraction of iron in the Blast furnace
• Brine treatment „
• Water purification • Removal of sulphur from exhaust
gases of coal-burning power stations
• Road building
• Manufacture of sodium carbonate

203
CARBON
The element carbon exists in two major different forms in solid state. These two forms
are called allotropes of carbon.
Allotropes are different forms of the same element in the same state.
The two allotropes of carbon are diamond and graphite. These tow allotropes of
carbon differ in their structures. The carbon atoms are bonded differently in diamond
and graphite as shown in the table below.

DIAMOND GRAPHITE
STRUCTURE

PROPERTIES  Very hard  Soft and brittle

 Good conductor of heat  Good conductor of heat
 Does not conduct electricity  Good conductor of electricity
 Transparent, colourless  Dark black opaque and shinny
crystal solid
USES  Makes jewellery  Pencil lead
 Makes drill bits  Batteries
 Saw blades  Brake linings
 Grinding wheels  Lubricants
 Electrical conductor

NITROGEN (N2)
Properties
 Colorless
 Odorless
 Slightly soluble in water
 Unreactive compared with oxygen
 Combine with oxygen at high temperature to form nitrogen oxides
Uses
 Solvent
 Manufacture of fertilizers
 Manufacture of nitric acid
 Used in bleaches and explosives
 To flush out food packaging and keep food fresh (since it is quite unreactive)
 To quick freeze food, freeze liquid in damaged pipes, and shrink-fit machine
parts (since liquid nitrogen is very cold)
 Used in Haber process to make ammonia. Nitrogen is obtained from air
(fractional distillation of liquid air) while hydrogen is obtained from reacting
methane (natural gas), CH4 with steam over catalyst.

204
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Over 50 million tonnes of chlorine are produced in the world each year. It is made
by the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride.
(a) Name two sources of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(b) Describe the test for chlorine gas.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..………………………………………………………………. [2]
(c) Chlorine has many industrial uses.
(i) Why is chlorine added to drinking water?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Name one organic product of the reaction between methane and
chlorine.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
2. Diamond is a form of a carbon.
a. Name another form of carbon.
……………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
b. What term is used to describe these forms of carbon?
………………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [1]
c. Sate one use of any two forms of carbon.
…………………………………………………….…………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………..…………………………………. [2]
3. When a damp blue litmus paper is placed in chlorine gas, it changes colour to red
and is then bleached.
Explain the colour changes observed.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….……………………………. [3]
4. Nitrogen is used for making ammonia in the Harber process.
(a) Suggest a reason why oxygen should be removed from nitrogen in air before
the nitrogen is used.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) (i) Name one acidic oxide of nitrogen formed in car engines.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) What is the purpose of a catalytic converter in a car exhaust system.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

205
5. The figure shows a blast furnace used in the extraction of iron.

a. (i) Name substance W.

………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
ii. At which position, X or Y, is molten iron removed?
……....………………………………………………………………………………....
Give a reason for your answer.
…..……………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
iii. Name the ore that contains the iron (lll) oxide.
……....……………………………………………………………………………….... [1]
iv. At which position, X or Y, is molten iron removed?
……....………………………………………………………………………………....
b. A sample of the oxide of iron in the iron ore was analyzed and found to
contain 8.4 g of the iron and 3.6 g of oxygen.
Show, by calculation, that the formula of the oxide contained in the ore is
Fe2O3.

[3]
c. In the blast furnace, there is complete combustion and incomplete
combustion of some substances.
Write a balanced equation for the incomplete combustion of one of the
substances in the blast furnace.
……………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
d. Write the name of one of the components of exhaust gases.
……………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
e. Why is limestone added into the furnace?
……………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]

206
 f. The iron produced from the blast furnace can be turned into alloys like
steel.
(i) What is an alloy?
…………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
(ii) Describe how iron from the blast furnace is turned into steel.
………………….…………………..………………………………..……………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(iii) Explain why pure iron is not used for making kitchen utensils.
………………….…………………..………………………………..……………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

6. The figure shows the laboratory preparation of chlorine.

a. (i) Name the solid labeled X.

………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
(ii) What is the purpose of the water in the test tube?
………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
b. What is the colour of chlorine gas?
………………………………………………………………..…………………………………. [1]
c. Chlorine reacts with water as shown by the equation.

(i) Name the two products for the reaction.

………………………………………… and ………………..………………………. [2]
(iii) One of the products is a bleaching agent. Write the formula of this
product.
………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
d. (i) What property of chlorine enables it to be collected as shown?
………………………………………………………..……………………………………. [1]
(ii) Explain why chlorine cannot be collected over water.
………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]

207
 e. Chlorine reacts with aqueous potassium bromine as shown by the equation.

(i) Balance the equation and write the state symbols. [2]
(ii) Chlorine is said to be more reactive than bromine.
Explain how this is confirmed by the reaction.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
7. The diagrams below show two different forms of carbon..

(a) Identify the two forms of carbon shown.

P ………………………………………… Q ……………………………………………… [2]
(b) What do the two forms have in common?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(c) Complete the table below relating the properties of the two forms of carbon and
their uses.
Property Use

Q Good conductor of
electricity
[3]

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8. The figure below shows apparatus used by Mpho to prepare a dry gas.

(a) Name gas Y.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Name a suitable solid used for drying gas Y.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) There is an error in Mpho’s method of collection.
(i) What is the error?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) How can the gas be collected?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) Name the salt formed in a conical flask.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(e) Name any other two substances that can be reacted together to produce Y.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(a) What is the other product of this reaction?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Write an equation for the reaction between nitrogen and gas Y.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

209
 CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT

WATER
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
 Boils at 100ºC and melts at 0ºC at sea level.
 Freezes at 0°C at sea level
 Density of 1 g/cm3
 Colourless, odourless and tasteless
 A good solvent especially of ionic compounds
 Neutral pH

TEST FOR WATER

Test 1: - Insert anhydrous blue cobalt chloride paper into the liquid under test.
Positive Results: - Hydrated cobalt Chloride paper turns pink if water is present

Test 2: - Add the liquid under test to white anhydrous copper sulphate (CuSO4)
Positive Results: - Hydrated copper sulphate (CuSO4) turns blue.

Note: these tests are for the presence of water. To test for purity of water, the boiling
points and the freezing points, and density are determined.

EXISTENCE OF WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION

Some salts contain water molecules chemically combined to them. Such salts are called
hydrated salts and the water they contain is called water of crystallization.
Examples of hydrated salts are CuSO4.5H2O and CaCI2.6H2O. When salts lose water of
crystallization they become anhydrous salts.

HARDNESS OF WATER
Hard water is water that contains dissolved hydrogen carbonates and sulphates of
mainly calcium and magnesium. Hard water does not form lather easily, instead it
forms scum.

FORMATION OF HARDNESS IN WATER

Water containing magnesium ions Mg2+, Calcium ions Ca2+ and sulphate ions SO42- is
said to be hard.
Rain water reacts with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to form carbonic acid.
Water + Carbon dioxide Carbonic acid
H2O + CO2 H2CO3

210
The carbonic acid formed then reacts with calcium carbonate (limestone) and
magnesium carbonate (dolomite) from rocks to form calcium hydrogen
carbonate and magnesium hydrogen carbonate.
CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2

MgCO3 + H2CO3 Mg(HCO3)2

Calcium hydrogen carbonate and magnesium hydrogen carbonate are soluble
in water and cause hardness in water.
Some other salts that cause hardness in water are calcium sulphate (CaSO4), and
magnesium sulphate (MgSO4)
Hardness in water can be temporary or permanent.
Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling. It is caused by the presence of
dissolved calcium hydrogen carbonate or magnesium hydrogen carbonate.
Permanent hardness cannot be removed by boiling. It is caused by the presence of
dissolved calcium sulphate or magnesium sulphate (or calcium chloride or magnesium
chloride.)
When water containing these dissolved substances is evaporated, a white solid deposit
is left behind. These deposits are calcium sulphate or magnesium sulphate or calcium
carbonate.
Calcium carbonate causes fur (white scales) in kettles and pots. This can be removed
by a dilute acid (nitric acid). Fur can cause blockages in hot-water pies.

MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS OF WATER (Effects of Soap)

Soap does not lather (form froth – lefulo) easily with hard water. Instead it forms a
white precipitate called scum.
 The thickness (amount) of layer of scum measures the degree of hardness in
water.
 Same amount of soap can also be added to equal volumes of samples of water
and shaken.
The amount of soap used to just produce lather can be used to estimate the
hardness in water.

SOFTENING HARD WATER

 Physical Process
Boiling: - temporary hardness of water is easily removed by boiling. When
water is heated, the hydrogen carbonate decompose, producing insoluble
calcium carbonate (or magnesium carbonate) that settles at the bottom as a
white deposit, to form fur or white oxide.
Boiling does not decompose permanent hard water. Permanent hard water
contains calcium sulphate and magnesium sulphate that are not affected by
heating.
Distillation: - water is heated to distill from dissolved substances. The water
vapour is cooled and condensed to give pure water.
This method works for both temporary and permanent hardness.

211
  Chemical Process
The processes below removes both permanent and temporary hardness.
Addition of Washing Soda
Washing soda and bath salts contain sodium carbonate. The calcium or
magnesium ions react with the carbonate ion to form a precipitate, and thus
no longer cause hardness. (Hardness is caused by dissolved substances)
Ion Exchange:
The water is passed through a container filled with a substance called an ion
exchange resin. The resin contains sodium ions that are exchanged for calcium
or magnesium ions as hard water passes through the column. Sodium ions do
not cause hardness of water, thus the water becomes ‘soft.’

HOW A DETERGENT WORKS

A detergent is a water-soluble cleansing agent which combines with impurities and dirt
to make them more soluble.
Soaps and detergents are used to remove grease from dishes or clothes.
A detergent or soap consists of two parts:
 A long hydrocarbon chain (tail), which is hydrophobic (water hating) – Organics
are insoluble in water.
 An ionic head, which is hydrophilic (water loving). Ionic compound dissolve in
water.

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WATER POLLUTION
The main causes of water pollution are wastes from;
 Industry
 Sewage
 Agriculture
 Oil
The water is polluted by dissolved substances and accumulation of toxic substances.
A serious form of pollution occurs when pollutants contain soluble impurities such as
nitrates, NO3- and phosphorous, PO43-. Many of these come from excess fertilizers.
These are plant and encourage the growth of small green plants called algae. The
algae eventually die and rot. When rotting, (decaying) take place, bacteria are involved
which uses up a lot of oxygen in water. The bacteria multiply and the increased
bacterial activity consumes much of the oxygen. The need of high oxygen is called
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD).
Dead plant materials have a high BOD. This means that low levels of oxygen will affect
all other forms of life in water e.g. fish may die.
This type of pollution by fertilizers and nutrients is called eutrophication.
Pollutants like pesticides enter water bodies at low amounts. With time, the pesticides
accumulate in water and its toxic levels increases.

Effects of Detergents
Some detergents that are used to clean clothes are non-biodegradable (do not rot).
This means they are not broken down by the action of oxygen and bacteria into
harmless substances. These detergents also pollute the water for many years. They
are harmful to plants and small animals.

AIR
Air is mixture of gases. The table below shows the composition of clean air by
percentage.
Component Percentage (%) composition
Nitrogen 78
Oxygen 21
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Other gases 0.97

SEPARATION OF GASES IN AIR

The gases that make up air are separated by fractional distillation. The air is first cooled
to remove water vapour and carbon dioxide as solids. If not removed, they can block
pipes as they solidify when air is further cooled in the process.
The remaining gases are then converted to the liquid state through compression and
cooling. Compression pushes the gas molecules closer together while cooling reduces
the kinetic energy of the particles thereby converting air to the liquid state.

213
The liquefied gases are then taken into the fractionating column where they are
fractionally distilled. The gases are separated according to their boiling points.

USES OF OXYGEN
 In life support machines in hospitals to help patients with breathing difficulties.
 Mixed with helium gas for divers under water.
 By astronauts in space.
 For burning fuel in rockets
 Mixed with acetylene to burn with hot flame for welding
 Used in manufacture of steel.

THE OZONE LAYER

Ozone (O3) is an allotrope of oxygen. It forms a layer surrounding the Earth and blocks
ultraviolent (UV) light coming from the sun from reaching the earth. This ultraviolent
radiation is harmful and can cause skin cancer in people and damage food crops. Thus
the ozone layer protects us and plants from this radiation.

CARBON DIOXIDE
Effects of increased carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere – The Green
House Effect
Air contains a small amount of carbon dioxide (0.03%). This atmospheric carbon
dioxide is important for photosynthesis. However, the amount of carbon dioxide in the
air is increasing drastically due to:
 Increased burning of fuels such as oils, gas and coal.
 Destruction of forests (deforestation) – vegetation helps to remove carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
The earth’s surface is heated by radiation from the sun. Carbon dioxide and water
vapour trap this heat radiation and prevent much of it from escaping back into space.
The greater the amount of heat that is trapped, and the hooter the Earth becomes.
That is, the Earth’s temperature goes up (Global warming) this is called the Green
House Effect.

RECYCLING
Some resources can be used more than once, this is called recycling. Recycling
ensures that all resources last longer and can also help reduce pollution.
Materials that can be recycled include water (sewage water), bottles, tins and paper.
The main reasons for recycling materials is to;
 conserve natural resources e.g. fossil fuels, water and trees
 reduce waste that must be disposed of
 reduce littering and pollution
 saves money reduce the amount of energy needed for manufacturing
Used paper can be recycled to make usable items such as egg tray and toilet paper.
This helps reduce tree cutting by paper making industries (paper is made from wood
pulp) recycling of paper also reduces soil erosion and maintains habitats for animals.

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COMMON POLLUTANTS OF THE AIR
The table below outlines the common pollutants and their sources in the air.
POLLUTANT SOURCE EFFECT CONTROL

Carbon 1. Car exhaust fumes Prevents blood from Fitting vehicles with
monoxide 2. Incomplete transporting oxygen catalytic converters
(CO) combustion of fuels around the body by to convert harmful
combining with gases to harmless
haemoglobin. gases.

Sulphur 1. Burning fossil fuels Cause acid rain which Desulphurization

dioxide (SO2) 2. Smelting sulphide damages limestone
ores buildings and kills
plants.

Oxides of Car exhaust fumes: Cause acid rain which Fitting vehicles with
Nitrogen oxygen and hydrogen damages limestone catalytic converters
combine under high buildings and kills
temperature and pressure plants.

Lead Car exhaust fumes: when Cause brain damage Use of unleaded
compounds leaded petrol burns especially children petrol

FOSSIL FUELS
Most of the energy used to cook, drive cars, and keep us warm comes from the fossil
fuels, oil, coal and natural gas.
Fossil fuels are formed from the remains of plants and animals that decayed millions
of years ago in the absence of air.
The vegetation that made the fossil fuels fell and died in the swampy area where there
was little oxygen. The lack of oxygen prevented the vegetation from decomposing
completely. Instead it was gradually compressed at the bottom of the swamps. Later,
more soils were deposited on top of the vegetation layer, and under the great
pressures of the layers above it gradually turned into coal.
Similarly, small fish died and their remains fell to the bottom. The same thing happens
to their remains but they changed into oil and gas and not coal.
Coal is mainly carbon but it also contains a lot of compounds of carbon. Crude oil
(petroleum) is a mixture of hydrocarbons – it contains the elements hydrogen and
carbon. Of the three fossil fuels, gas or natural gas means methane gas, CH4.

215
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Equal volumes of water samples W, X and distilled water are tested for hardness
before and after boiling using a soap solution of the same concentration. The
results are shown in a table below.
Number of drops of soap solution needed to form
Sample lather
Before boiling After boiling
W 15 15
X 45 10
Distilled water 10 10

(a) State two physical properties of pure water.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….….. [2]
(b) State the type of hardness found in sample X. Give a reason for your answer.
Type ………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Reason …………………………………………………………………………………………….[2]
(c) Suggest how hardness found in sample W can be removed.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) Describe how the presence of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere contributes
to the presence of harness in water.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
….……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
2. Describe a positive chemical test for water.
Test ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
result …………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
9. A sample of water containing magnesium is hard.
a. Name this type of hardness.
………………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [1]
b. State the observation made when soap is shaken with hard water.
………………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [1]
c. Give one method of removing this type of hardness of water
………………………………………………………………..…………………………………. [1]
3. Ozone, O3, is a form of oxygen. State the importance of the ozone layer in the
upper atmosphere.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…....………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

216
4. The major source of energy of the world’s energy supply is fossil fuels. The
chemical energy stored in these fuels is converted to other forms of energy such
as heat and electrical energy. There has been a considerable increase in demand
for electrical energy in the last 50 years, and other energy sources for generating
electrical energy are now being investigated urgently.
a. (i) What is a fossil fuel
…………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [1]
(ii) Name two fossil fuels in use at present.
…………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [2]
b. (i) Name two elements that are found in high proportions in fossil fuels.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(ii) Write an equation for the complete combustion of each of the elements
stated above.
…………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [1]
(iii) Name another element found in fossil fuels that leads to the formation
of acidic rain
…………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [2]
c. Give one reason why urgent efforts are being made to find other sources
of energy as alternative to fossil fuels.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
d. State one source of energy, other than direct solar energy, which may be
used as an alternative to fossil fuels.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

217
 CARBON CHEMISTRY
A lot of things around us are made by people. Many of these things could not have
been made without the fossil fuels;
 Coal
 Petroleum (oil)
 Natural gas.
These fuels provide us with energy to drive the machines we use to make things. The
fuels are also the raw materials for many industries, particularly the plastic industry.
All these fuels contain a very special element, carbon.
Carbon is a very special element; it forms a million compounds and is able to form
very long chains including the branched chains.
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds. Many of the substances
which it includes are obtained from living organisms. It also includes plastics and fibres.
- Many of our equipments such as footballs, golf balls and ropes are all made of
synthetic (man-made) organic chemicals.
- Many of the clothing we wear are composed of synthetic fibres such as nylon,
polyester and acrylic which are made by the chemical industry.
- Organic chemistry also includes all the foodstuffs, carbohydrates, fats and
proteins.
As we all know, crude oil is a complicated mixture of hydrocarbons. It must be refined
to make useful fuels and chemicals. The first step in refining is evaporating the crude
oil so that its vapours condense at different temperatures into the fractionating
column. This process is called fractional distillation.

218
The fractions with low boiling points are collected from the top of the fractionating
column and fractions with high boiling points are collected from the bottom of the
column. (See the figure on the previous page)
Carbon, like stated before, has so many compounds that it could be hopelessly
confusing to study them all separately. Fortunately, it is possible to group the
compounds into families, and to learn about families rather than about an individual
compound.

HYDROCARBON
Hydrocarbons are compounds containing the elements carbon and hydrogen only.
As stated above, hydrocarbons are grouped into several families which include the
Alkanes and Alkenes. These types of hydrocarbon form a homologous series.

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
A homologous series is a group (family) of compounds which share similar structure
and general formula.
Characteristics of Homologous Series
 They have the same general formula.
 They have similar chemical properties.
 They can be prepared by similar methods.
 They show gradual change in physical properties.

ALKANES
Alkanes are hydrocarbons, which have the general formula;

CnH2n+2
The fossil fuels, natural gas and petroleum are the main sources of alkanes.
 All the names of alkanes end with -ane.
 Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons; this is because they contain only single
bonds between carbon atoms.
 Alkanes are generally unreactive compounds. They are only reactive in terms
of;
a. Burning
b. Substitution by halogens
a. Burning
All alkanes will burn in a plentiful supply of air to form carbon dioxide and
water.
Methane + Oxygen Carbon dioxide +Water

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H20

Butane + Oxygen Carbon dioxide +Water

2C4H10 + 13O2 8CO2 + 10H20

219
 b. Substitution Reactions
The only reaction of alkanes of importance other than burning is the
reaction with halogens. In this reaction one of the hydrogens in an alkane
is replaced by a halogen.
Light energy is required to make the reaction happen. Any of the hydrogens
can be replaced and the reaction can continue until all the hydrogens have
been replaced by the halogen and so a mixture of products is often
obtained.

The table below shows the structure of the first four alkanes.
Name Methane Ethane
Formula CH4 C2H6

Structure

Name Propane Butane

Formula C3H8 C4H10

Structure

220
BRANCHED CHAINS – ISOMERIZATION
Look at the structures of the alkanes in the previous page, the carbon atoms are
arranged in a single chain. Many alkanes, however, are branched chain compounds. A
pentane C5H12 molecule can be drawn in different structures or precisely three
structures as shown below but the molecular formula remains the same i.e. C5H12 :

Structure

Name Pentane 2 - methylbutane 2,2 dimethylpropane

These molecules, which have the same molecular formula but different structures are
called isomers.
Structural isomerism is very common in organic chemistry. The three isomers above
all have different names and different properties. The third isomer in the right has the
lowest boiling point. This is because it has the most compact or compressed structure
of the other two and therefore needs least energy to make the molecules escape.

221
ALKENES
Another homologous series of compounds is the alkenes. Alkenes have a general
formula

CnH2n

 All the names of alkenes end with - ene.

 All alkenes contain double bond between two carbon atoms ( C = C )
 Compounds containing double covalent bonds are said to be
unsaturated hydrocarbons. (The table below shows the structure of
some members of alkenes.)
Name Formula Structure Model

Ethene C2H4

Propene C3H6

Butene C4H8

 Alkenes are not as readily available as alkanes and so can be manufactured by a

process called cracking. The figure below shows the process of preparation of an
alkene (ethane) through cracking. Other small hydrocarbon molecules are made
the same way from larger alkane molecules.

222
Cracking splits large molecules into smaller ones. The large molecule may be decane,
C10H22. In this case the decane is vaporized and passed through a bed of catalyst -
that is why the process at times is termed catalytic cracking.
The products of this process are ethane, which can be used to make polythene and an
alkane, in this case an octane.
decane octane + ethane

C10H22 + C8H18 + C2H4

Cracking is important because:
 Large hydrocarbon molecules are broken into smaller ones to produce fuel for
cars.
 It is also a means of producing alkenes e.g. ethane which is useful in the
manufacture of ethanol and plastics such as poly (ethane).
When an alkene is reacted with aqueous bromine or potassium permanganate, they
become decolourised because of the presence of the double bond. These reactions are
two simple reactions are used to test for the presence of a double bond in some organic
substances.
 Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes because of the double bond. Alkenes
undergo two types of chemical reactions; (You must know these reactions, they
are always tested in BGCSE exams!!)
a. Burning or combustion reactions
b. Addition reaction

a. Burning
Alkenes easily burn in a plentiful supply of air forming carbon dioxide and
water.
ethene + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O

b. Addition Reactions of Alkenes

Alkenes undergo addition reaction reactions with: Bromine (Br2), Hydrogen
(H2) and Steam (H2O).
Addition reaction is a reaction in which a molecule adds to unsaturated hydrocarbon
by breaking a double bond.

223
  Addition of bromine
The reason why potassium permanganate and bromine water are decolourised
when they are added to alkenes is that they react with the double bond. The
bromine breaks the double bond, forming two extra single bonds to bromine
atoms as shown in the figure below.

C2H4 + Br2 C2H4Br2

This kind of reaction, in which a reagent like bromine adds on to double bond, is called
an additional reaction to a double bond.
 Addition of hydrogen (Hydrogenation)
One important addition reaction of alkenes is the addition of hydrogen. If you
compare the structure of alkenes and alkanes that have the same number of
carbon atoms, the difference is in the number of hydrogen atoms. It is
therefore possible to change an alkene to an alkane by adding hydrogen as in
the figure below.
C2H4 + H2 C2H6

 Addition of Water (steam) - hydration

Another important addition reaction of alkenes is the reaction with steam. Like
the reaction with hydrogen, a catalyst is used to speed this reaction up. The
product has the group of atoms – OH attached to one of the carbons that was
part of the double bond. This group of atoms is called the hydroxyl group
and organic compounds that contain this group are called alcohols.
This process is used in industry as one way of making the common alcohol
called ethanol (C2H5OH.)

C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH

224
Ethanol is the scientific name for alcohol – the chemical in wines and beers that causes
drunkenness.

ALCOHOLS / ALKANOLS
Alcohols are a series of compounds with a hydroxyl group (– OH) joined to a carbon
atom in a hydrocarbon chain. Below is the general formula of alcohols, where – OH is
the functional group.
CnH2n+1OH

The table below shows the structure of the first four alcohols.
Name Methanol Ethanol
Formula CH3OH C2H5OH
Boiling point 64°C 78°C

Structure

Name Propanol Butanol

Formula C3H7OH C4H9OH
Boiling point 97°C 117°C

Structure

Take notice from the table that as the number of Carbon (C) atom increases the boiling
point also increases

PREPARATION OF ALCOHOL - ETHANOL

Ethanol is the most important alcohol in the homologous series. It is the only alcohol
that can be consumed, other alcohols especially methanol is poisonous. Ethanol is
obtained by:
 Fermentation
 Catalytic addition of steam to ethene

Fermentation
Fermentation is the process whereby an enzyme is used to break down glucose in
sugar or starch into ethanol and carbon iodide. Fermentation is catalyzed by the
enzymes present in yeast.

225
Fermentation is a natural process carried out by organisms called yeasts. The process
is used in brewing and baking.
An ethanol can be made in the laboratory by adding together sugar and yeast to water
in a flask. A small amount of alcohol can be collected by distilling the fermentation
liquid. Carbon dioxide gas will be also be produced.

Addition of Steam to Ethene

This process of obtaining alcohol is done in the present of phosphoric acid catalyst.
The reaction is an addition reaction as illustrated by an equation below.

C2H4 (g) + H2O (g) C2H5OH (l)

PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL
There are three (3) important reactions of alcohols, including ethanol, they are:
(a) Combustion/burning
(b) Oxidation
(c) Esterification

(a) Combustion
Similar to alkanes and alkenes, alcohols undergo combustion reactions with oxygen.
The complete reaction of alcohols produce carbon dioxide and water.
The reaction is highly exothermic, hence alcohols are also used as fuels.

C2H5OH (l) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O

(g)
(b) Oxidation to Carboxylic Acids
Ethanol is oxidized by hot acidified potassium dichromate (VI) solution into
ethanoic acid.
C2H5OH (l) + 2[O] (g) CH3COOH (l) + H2O (l)

During the reaction, potassium dichromate (VI) is reduced and the solution turns
from orange to green.

226
(c) Formation of Esters
Alcohol reacts with carboxylic acids in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid to
form organic compounds called esters.
For example, ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid to form an ester called ethyl
ethanoate.

C2H5OH (l) + CH3COOH (l) CH3COOC2H5 (l) + H2O (l)

Ethanol ethanoic acid ethyl ethanoate

Esters are sweet smelling liquids which can be used for making perfumes.

USES OF ALCOHOLS - ETHANOL

 As a constituent of alcoholic drinks such as wines and beers.
 As a solvent in paints, varnishes, liquid soap and other toiletries.
 As a fuel

CARBOXYLIC / ALKANOIC ACIDS

Carboxylic acids are organic compounds which contain the -COOH functional group.
This group of atoms is called the carboxyl functional group. Below is the general
formula of carboxylic acids;
CnH2n+1COOH

The first four carboxylic acids are shown in the table below.

Name Methanoic acid Ethanoic acid

Formula HCOOH CH3COOH

Structure

Name Propanoic acid Butanoic acid

Formula C2H5COOH C3H7COOH

Structure

PROPERTIES OF ETHANOIC ACID

 It is a colourless liquid with a strong sour smell.
 It mixes well in water and its aqueous solution is called vinegar.
 It reacts with alcohols to form sweet smelling compounds called esters.

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 MACROMOLECULES

Macromolecules are giant molecules that are formed when thousands of smaller units
of identical molecules are joined together.
This process of joining together smaller identical units into a large macromolecule
(polymer) is called polymerisation.

POLYMERISATION
In polymerization, small molecules containing double bonds join up to form a long
chain. During polymerization, small simple molecules called monomers link together
to form larger molecule called polymer.

SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
Synthetic means man-made, – the polymers are made by man and not natural.
Polythene, Terylene and nylon are synthetic polymers.
There are two types of polymerization:
 Addition polymerisation
 Condensation polymerisation

ADDITION POLYMERISATION
Addition polymerisation is a process of adding one monomer to another to form a long
chain polymer. The monomers are unsaturated – they have C = C double bonds.
During the polymerisation reaction, the double bonds open up and form links with
adjacent molecules to form large molecule, a polymer.
When ethene is heated under high pressure, the double bonds break and the ethene
molecules join up to make a very long molecule with thousands of carbon atoms. The
results in the formation of poly (ethene) or polythene.

A poly (ethene) molecule can be represented by:

Poly (ethene) or polythene is the most widely used in making plastic objects or
materials such as plastic containers, buckets, plastic films, plastic bags and plastic
drinking bottles.

228
Other examples of addition polymers are shown in the table below.
Monomer Polymer Repeat Unit Uses
To make plastic bags
and plates.

To make water
pipes, waterproof
sheets, electric
insulators.

To make plastic
ropes.

PROBLEMS CAUSED BY PLASTICS

Plastics are widely used because they are cheap and easy to make. They however
cause a huge pollution problem as they are non-biodegradable.
Biodegradable materials can be decomposed by bacteria while non-biodegradable
materials are not composed by air and bacteria.

CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION
In condensation polymerisation, every two monomers link together and a simple
molecule such as water is eliminated. The two monomers join alternately in the
polymer by a condensation reaction. Condensation polymers are made from monomers
containing alcohol, acid or amino functional group.
The polymers formed by condensation are called condensation polymers.

POLYAMIDES
One example of condensation polymerisation is the formation of nylon from its two
monomers – carboxylic acids and amines. For simplicity the two monomers are
represented by a rectangle and triangle with the functional groups attached to them.

229
To write the equation of the polymerisation, we place the two monomers side by side
and then take away a water molecule from each pair of monomers as shown below.

Notice that the two monomers are joined to each other by a group of atoms:

These atoms form the amide linkage and nylon is therefore classified as a
polyamide. The nylon polymer chain may also be written as:

POLYESTERS
Terylene is another example of condensation polymer. It is made from two monomers
–carboxylic acids and an alcohol. The reaction is actually the formation of an ester,
hence Terylene is classified as a polyester.

The monomers are joined together by a group of atoms:

The group of atoms forms an ester linkage.

NATURAL POLYMERS
Natural polymers are not man-made, they occur naturally. They are natural
condensation polymers and many have the polyester or polyamide structures like
Terylene and nylon.

230
POLYMERS IN FOOD
The main constituents of food are proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
Proteins are natural polymers with a polyamide structures. They are made of about
twenty different monomers (called amino acids). These monomers are arranged in
different orders in different proteins and it is difference in this order that determines
the different properties of the protein.
The figure below shows the way in which amino acids are joined together in a protein;
the different shapes represent different amino acids. You will notice that the structure
of proteins possess the same linkage (amide) as nylon but with different units.

HYDROLYSIS OF PROTEINS
Proteins can be broken down into amino acids from which they are made. This process
is called hydrolysis.
Hydrolysis is the reverse of condensation. Condensation is the process in which two
compounds join together and water is produced as the only by-product.
Hydrolysis is the process in which a substance is broken down by heating it with water.

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are substances that are made by plants. They contain the elements
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Examples of carbohydrates are sugars, starch and
cellulose. All these three substances have a similar structure.
During photosynthesis, plants make glucose – the glucose is then used by the plant to
make the starch and cellulose. Starch and cellulose are both condensation polymers
of glucose.
Saliva can be used in hydrolysis of starch. In the saliva, the salivary amylase (ptyalin)
catalyses the hydrolysis of starch to glucose. The amount of starch in the solution will
decrease until all the starch is hydrolysed and the iodine test will be negative.

HYDROLYSIS OF FATS AND OILS

A fat or an oil is hydrolysed by heating it with an alkali, it is then hydrolysed to glycerol
and the acid. The alkali will react with the acid forming a salt. These salts are soaps.

231
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figure below shows a fractionating column used to separate the fractions of
crude oil.

(e) At which point, P, Q and R, is the column at the lowest temperature?

…………..………………………….. [1]
(f) Which fraction on the diagram contains the largest hydrocarbon molecules?
……………………………………….. [1]
(g) Crude oil is a mixture of alkanes which is are saturated hydrocarbons.
What type of reactions do alkanes undergo?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
2. Ethanol and propanol are members of the same homologous series.
(a) What is a macromolecule?
………..………………………………..……………………………………………………………. [2]
(b) Draw the structural formula of ethanol, showing all atoms and bonds.

[2]
3. The flow chart shows some of the stages involved in the production of ethane from
crude oil.

(a) What is process X?

………….………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) Why is it possible to obtain petroleum by process X?
………….………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(c) Name one other product from crude oil treated by process X?
…………..………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

232
4. Complete the table on organic compounds. The first one has been done for you.
Molecular formula Molecular structure Homologous series

CH4 Alkane

C3H6 Alkene

C4H10

[4]
(b) Ethene polymerises to form poly(ethene)
Explain why careless disposal of poly (ethene) causes pollution problems.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) An incomplete equation for the reaction of the compound C2H5OH and
oxygen is
…….C2H5OH….. + O2….. ….CO2…. +…. H2O…..
(i) Balance the equation and include the state symbols. [2]
(ii) State two uses of the compound C2H5OH.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………..……………………………………………………………………. [2]
(d) Draw the other structural isomer of C4H10.

[1]
5. Ethane, C2H6, and ethene, C2H4, are hydrocarbons.
(a) State the name of a homologous series to which ethene belongs.
………..………………………………..……………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) Name a compound with four carbon atoms which belong to the same
homologous series as ethene.
………..………………………………..……………………………………………………………. [1]

233
 (c) Draw the structural formula of ethane.

[1]
(d) Describe a test that can be used to distinguish between ethane and ethene and
state the observation made.
Test ………………………………...........................................................................
Observation with ethane ……………………………………………………………………………
Observation with ethene ……………………………………………………………………… [3]
(e) Ethane can be produced from ethene in the presence of a catalyst at 180°C.
(i) State the name of the reaction that produces ethane from ethene.
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Suggest a catalyst that can be used for the reaction.
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(f) Ethene reacts with hydrogen by an addition reaction.
(i) Explain why ethene undergoes an addition reaction instead of a
substitution.
………..………………………………..……………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) State two conditions for this reaction and suggest a reason for each
condition.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….……..[2]
(g) Alkenes polymerise through addition reactions.
Complete the table below by using an example of a polymer of your choice.
Name of Structure of polymer chain Structure of monomer
polymer showing three monomer units

6. Ethanol and pentanol are members of the same homologous series.

a. State the name of a homologous series to which ethanol and pentanol belong.
………..………………………………..……………………………………………………………. [1]
b. State two characteristics of the homologous series to which ethanol and
pentanol belong.
………..………………………………..…………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
c. Draw the structural formula of butanol.

[1]

234
14. (a) Ethanol can be produced from the addition reaction of steam with ethene.
(i) Write the equation for the reaction of ethene with steam. Include state
symbols.
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(ii) State two conditions for the reaction above.
………..………………………………..…………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(iii) Name another method that can be used to prepare ethanol.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Ethanol can also be made from glucose. Glucose is made by the hydrolysis
of a naturally occurring polymer.
(i) Give an example of a naturally polymer that can be hydrolysed of a
naturally occurring polymer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Describe how the polymer in (c) (i) is hydrolysed to glucose.
………..………………………………..…………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(iii) Describe how glucose can be converted into ethanol.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………….……………………….. [1]
15. The structure of nylon, a synthetic macromolecule, is shown below.

a. What is a macromolecule?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
b. What name is given to the linkage found in nylon?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
c. One of the monomers in the nylon molecule is an alkanoic acid.
i. Using symbols from the figure above, draw the structure of the
other monomer.

ii. What makes synthetic macromolecules harmful to the

environment?
…………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
d. An alkanoic acid has the formula CH3COOH.
i. Name the acid. ……………………………………………………………. [1]

235
 ii. Draw the structural formula of CH3COOH showing all bonds.

[2]
e. Complete the equation for the reaction between CH3COOH and
magnesium metal. Include state symbols.

……. CH3COOH (aq) + Mg (s) ………………. + …….. [2]

f. Write one similarity and one difference between the structures of nylon
and the protein.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………...……………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
g. Name the type of compounds produced by the hydrolysis of proteins.
………...……………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
h. What are the products of the hydrolysis of fats?
………...……………………………… and ……………………………………………. [2]

16. Bio-petrol is an ester compound made from vegetable oil by the following reaction.

Suggest one advantage of using bio-fuel petrol as a fuel, compared with using
fuels made from crude oil.
………...………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
a. To which homologous series does glycerol belong?
………...………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
b. Deduce the empirical formula of glycerol.
………...………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
c. (i) Draw the structural formula of methanol.

ii. Methanol is burned in oxygen in a closed furnace to produce energy.

Write a word equation for the reaction
………...……………………………………………………………………………………. [2]

236
 d. Ethyl ethanoate is also an ester compound. It is made by the reaction of two
organic compounds.
Name the two compounds.
………...………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
17. Octane, C8H18, can be broken down to butane and butane as shown by the
equation.
C8H18 C4H10 + C4H8
a. (i) Name the process represented by the equation.
………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) Name the catalyst used in this process.
………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
b. Draw the structural formulae of two isomers of butane, C4H10.

[2]
c. Figures A and B below show set-ups used to perform an experiment to
distinguish between butane and butene gases.

(i) State the observations made in figure A and Figure B.

………...…………………………………………………………………..……………………
…………………………………………………………………………………..…………. [2]
(ii) Explain the observations stated above in terms of structural differences
between the two gases.
………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

18. The structure of an organic compound X is

a. What is the molecular formula of compound X?

………...………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
b. What is the empirical formula of compound X?
………...………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

237
 c. (i) To which homologous series does X belong?
………...…………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

(ii) Name another compound that belongs to the same homologous series as
compound X.
………...…………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
d. (i) Name two products formed when compound X burns completely in air.
………...…………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(ii) What other type of reaction can compound X undergo?
………...…………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
19. The figure shows how hydrocarbons can be cracked.

a. (i) Name the catalyst used in this process.

………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) State a suitable temperature for the process to occur.
………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
b. Ethane, C2H6, can be converted to give ethene C2H4, and hydrogen, H2.
(i) Draw the molecular structure of ethane and ethene.
Show all the bonds between atoms.

[2]
(ii) What is the effect of bubbling ethane and ethene gases through bromine
solution?
Ethane ………...…………………..………………………………………………………………. [1]
Ethene ………...…………………..………………………………………………………………. [1]
c. Ethene can be polymerised to form poly(ethene)
State two uses of poly (ethene).
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]

238
20. Study the flow chart shown.

(a) (i) What must be added to glucose to enable fermentation to take place?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(ii) State two conditions necessary for fermentation to occur.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(b) Write the names of substances R, S and gas Q
R ………………………………. S ……………………………… Q ………………………… [3]
(c) The equation shows the reaction between ethanol and ethanoic acid.

(i) Name the organic product for this reaction.

………………....………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) State one physical property of the organic product named above.
………………....………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(iii) Draw the structural formula of the organic product of the reaction.

[1]
(d) Equations S and R represent the preparation of ethanol, C2H5OH, from butane.

(i) Write the chemical formula of M.

………………....………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) Name the type of reaction S.
………………....………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(iii) Name a homologous series to which CH3CH3 belongs
………………....………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
21. Dudu preared some alcohol by mixing yeast. Malt, sugar and warm water. The
mixture was left for 2 – 3 days.
(a) Name the substance added to speed up the reaction.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Name the process used to prepare the alcohol
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Write an equation to represent the reaction that took place.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

239
BIOLOGY

240
 LIVING THINGS

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

A cell is the basic unit of life in plants and animals. It is the building block of living
matter. Some examples of animal cells include sperm cells, muscle cells, red blood
cells and white blood cells while examples of plant cells include root hair cells, palisade
cells and guard cells.

STRUCTURE OF A CELL
There are two main types of cells. These are animal and plant cells. The basic
structures of the two cells are the same, except for the slight differences. Below are
the basic structures of animal and plant cells:

FUNCTION OF PARTS OF A CELL

PART OF A CELL FUNCTIONS
Cell wall Keeps the cell in a rigid shape and protect the cell from damage.
Cell membrane Control what enters or leaves the cell and keep its contents of
the cell together.
Cytoplasm This is where all chemical reactions involved in the cell take
place.
Chloroplasts Store chlorophyll needed for photosynthesis
Nucleus Control activities of a cell. It also contains chromosomes which
carry all information that make the cell work properly.
Vacuole Stores dissolved substances such as cell sap, food and waste
material.
Mitochondria It generates the energy needed by the cells to carry out other
functions.
Ribosome Makes proteins.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
Have a cell wall Do not have a cell wall
Have chloroplasts Do not have chloroplasts
Have a big vacuole Have small or no vacuole

241
CELL SPECIALIZATION
Cell specialization refers to different cells carrying out different functions. A cell that
has developed certain features to help it carry out a specific function is called a
specialized cell.
The diagrams below show how the structure of each specialized cell relates to its
function.
Red blood cells transports oxygen around the
 Red blood cell body.
The absence of nucleus helps increase the
surface area for oxygen transportation around
the body.
The spongy cytoplasm enables them to
squeeze in the capillaries smaller in diameter.
The biconcave shape assures a large surface
area for oxygen absorption

 Nerve cell

A nerve cell conducts electrical impulses to and

from the brain.

Nerve cell is thin and long and can carry electrical

signals (messages) as quickly as possible over long
distances.

 Root hair cell

The root hairs take up water and mineral

salts from the soil.
Root hair cells have thin long extensions
that squeeze between soil particles and
help increase the surface area for water
absorption.

 Sperm cell

Sperm cell has a tail.

The tail helps the sperm cell to swim

242
 Xylem cell

The xylem cells transport water and some soluble nutrients

and minerals upwards from the roots to the rest of the plant.
A xylem vessel is made of a series of long cells joined end to
end.
At a time, the cell walls are thickened and impregnated with a
substance called lignin, which makes the cells wall very strong
and impermeable.
Xylem also contains many elongated, lignified supporting cells
called fibres.

 Ovum Cell

The ovum cell has a larger cytoplasm

The larger cytoplasm helps to store enough

food for the zygote.

 White blood Cell (Phagocytes)

The nucleus of phagocytes cell changes shape

The ability to change shape helps phagocytes to

engulf and ingest bacteria

 Palisade cell

Palisade cells are packed with lots of chloroplasts

Many chloroplasts in a palisade cell help in

sunlight absorption.

243
MULTI-CELLULAR ORGANISMS
These are organisms that are made up of more than one cell. The cells are usually of
different types. The cells may form groups and work together. Examples include birds,
plants and fish. A multi-cellular organism is made up when all the cells tissues,
organs and systems come together. The diagram figure below summarizes the
relationship between tissues, organs and systems:

TISSUES
Tissues are groups of cells with similar structure and function. Some animal tissues
include epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, bone, tendons and nerve tissue whereas plant
tissues include xylem, phloem and collenchymas.

ORGANS
Organs are groups of tissues working together to carry out a specific function.
Examples of organs in animals include the heart, lungs and kidneys whereas in plants
they include flowers, the stem, leaves and roots.

SYSTEMS
Systems are a group of organs working together to carry out a specific function. The
table in the next page shows some systems in plants and animals:

HOW SUBSTANCES GET IN AND OUT OF CELLS

Cells need food materials which they can oxidize for energy or which they can use to
build up their cell structures. They also need salts and water which play a part in
chemical reactions in the cell. On the other hand they need to get rid of substances,
such as carbon dioxide, which, if they accumulated in the cell, would upset some of
the chemical reactions and even poison the cell.

DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the process whereby particles move from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration until they are evenly distributed i.e. down a concentration
gradient.
The process happens simply because of the free (passive) movement of particles and
the difference in concentration. The difference in concentration creates a
concentration gradient from high to low and the rate of diffusion increases if:
 the concentration gradient increases
 the temperature rises

244
OSMOSIS
Osmosis can be regarded as special form of diffusion. If a dilute solution is separated
from a concentrated solution by a partially permeable membrane, water diffuses
across the membrane from the dilute to the concentrated solution. This is known as
osmosis. A partially permeable membrane is porous but allows water to pass through
it more rapidly than dissolved substances.

Since a dilute solution contains, in effect, more water molecules than a concentrated
solution, there is a diffusion gradient which favours the passage of water from the
dilute to the concentrated solution.
In living cells, the cell membrane is partially permeable and the cytoplasm and vacuole
(in plant cells) contain dissolved substances. As a consequence water tends to diffuse
into cells by osmosis if they are surrounded by a weak solution, e.g. fresh water.
If the cells are surrounded by a stronger solution, e.g. sea water, the cells may lose
water by osmosis.
The uptake of water from the soil through plants roots depend largely on osmosis.
Water moves from cell to cell by osmosis down a concentration gradient. This means
that each cell has a lower water concentration than the one before it.
Suppose some cells, such as red blood cells are placed in salt solutions of different
concentrations as shown below.

245
Cell cytoplasm contains a solution of various substances (salt, sugars, proteins, e.t.c)
in water. When the red blood cells are placed in water or a very dilute salt solution,
water flows through the cell membrane and into the cell. The cell swells and can even
burst.
The opposite process happens in concentrated salt solution and the cell shrinks.
From this you will appreciate how important it is to have the right concentration of
solutes in the liquid around the cells.
If a plant cell is surrounded by water or a solution more dilute than its contents, water
will pass into the vacuole by osmosis. The vacuole will expand and press outwards on
the cytoplasm and the cell wall. The cell wall of a mature plant cell cannot be stretched,
so there comes a time when the inflow of water is resisted by the unstretchable cell
wall (Fig 1)
This has a similar effect to inflating a soft bicycle tyre. The tyre represents the firm
cell wall; the floppy inner tube is like the cytoplasm and the air inside correspond to
the vacuole. If enough air is pumped in, it pushes the inner tube against the tyre and
makes the tyre hard.
A plant cell with the vacuole pushing out on the cell wall is said to be turgid and the
vacuole is exerting turgor pressure on the cell wall.
If all cells in a leaf and stem are turgid, the stem will be firm and upright and leaves
held out straight.

If the vacuoles lose water for any reason, the cells will lose their turgor and become
flaccid. (Fig 3)
A leaf with flaccid cells will be limp and stem will drop. A plant which loses water to
this extent is said to be ‘wilting’.
Plasmolysis is when plant cells lose water after being placed in a solution that has a
higher concentration – this causes the water to diffuse out of the vacuole and as it
does, the vacuole shrinks and pulls the cytoplasm from the cell wall leaving the cell
flaccid (Fig 4). Cells in the same concentration stay the same. (Fig 2)

246
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figure below shows a plant cell.

(a) State two labelled structures using letters A, B, C or D that are also found in
animal cells.
1 …………………………..
2 ………………………….. [2]
(b) State one function of structure D.
Structure D …………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(c) The cell is exposed to light. Name one substance whose concentration would
increase inside the chloroplast and explain why this would happen.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) Below are three structures found in living organisms.

Identify structures P, Q and R as a cell, tissue, organ or system

P ………………………………………..………..
Q ………………………………………..………..
R ………………………………………..……….. [3]

247
2. The figures below show a plant cell and an animal cell.

(a) Name the parts labelled P and Q.

P ………………………………………..………..
R ………………………………………..……….. [2]
(b) A red blood cell is an example of a cell in the mammalian circulatory system
i. State one way in which a red blood cell is different from other animal
cells.
……………………….……………………………………………………………………… [1]
ii. Give an example of one tissue and one organ in the mammalian
circulatory system.
Tissue …………………………………………………………………………………………
Organ …………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]

3. The figures below shows three identical strips K, L and M, cut from the stem of a
balsam plant. The outer layer contains cells with stiff cell walls.

The three strips were placed into solutions A, B and C, which had different
concentrations. The figure below shows the shape of the strips after they had been
in the solutions for 15 minutes.

(a) Name the process that caused the changes observed.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) Explain why strip K bends outwards.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….……………………………………………………………………………………. [3]

248
 (c) The concentrations of the three solutions are 0.01 mol per dm3, 0.5 mol per
dm3 and 2.0 mol per dm3.
Identify the concentrations of the solutions A, B and C.
Concentration of A ……………………………………………………………………………………
Concentration of B ……………………………………………………………………………………
Concentration of C ……………………………………………………………………………… [2]

4. The table below shows names of some parts present in cells P, Q, R and S.
P Q R S
Nucleus × √ √ √
Chloroplast × × √ ×
Cell wall × √ √ ×
Cell membrane √ √ √ √

(a) (i) Use the letters P, Q, R or S to identify two cells which are animal
cells.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Give a reason for the answer above.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Suggest the name for cell P.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..…………. [1]
(c) (i) State one part of cell R which makes it different from the other cells
in the table.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Explain how the feature above enables cell R to perform its function.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
5. The figure below shows an animal cell.

(a) Identify W and X

W …………………………………… X ……………………………………
(b) State the functions of structures Y and Z.
Function of Y: ………………………………………………………………………………………
Function of Z: …………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) Define the term tissue.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]

249
 OBTAINING ESSENTIALS OF LIFE

NUTRITION
All living things need food. An important difference between plants and animals is that
green plants can make their own food in their leaves but animals have to take it ‘ready-
made’ by eating plants or other animals and their products.

TYPES OF NUTRITION
There are two principle methods of obtaining food; these are autotrophic and
heterotrophic nutrition.
(a) Autotrophic organisms (autotrophs) or green plants make their own food in
their leaves through the process of photosynthesis.
(b) Heterotrophic organisms (heterotrophs) use ready-made organic compounds
as their food source.
Green plants make their own food in their leaves through a process called
photosynthesis. The chlorophyll in the leaves is able to trap sunlight. The chlorophyll
combines with carbon dioxide gas (CO2) and water (H2O) to make carbohydrates
(glucose and starch) and Oxygen (O2) gas. Below is the word equation for the process:

Chemical symbol equation;

THE LEAF STRUCTURE

A detailed general structure of the leaf which enables it to perform its photosynthetic
function is described below.
 Most leaves are thin thus carbon dioxide can easily diffuse across the short
distances to reach the inner cells.
 Intercellular air spaces provide an easy passage for diffusion of gases.
 There are many stomata on the lower epidermis to allow for gaseous exchange
(CO2 and O2) and minimize loss of water by transpiration.
 There are more chloroplasts on the upper cells (palisade) than on the lower
cells (spongy)
 The branching network of veins (xylem and phloem) provides transport system
for good supply of water to the cells and carrying away of nutrients from the
cells.

The specified structure of the leaf is explained in detail below:

250
  The cuticle is a waxy transparent layer on the upper surface of the leaf. It
helps reduce water loss by transpiration. It is transparent to allow sunlight to
pass through.
 The epidermis is found on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf. It helps
to keep the leaf in shape and protects the inner parts of the leaf form micro-
organisms. Also reduces transpiration.
 The mesophyll is the tissue between the epithelium tissues.
− The palisade mesophyll is near the upper surface of the leaf has a
layer of palisade cells. Palisade cells contain a large number of
chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain a green substance called
chlorophyll which helps to trap sunlight for photosynthesis.
− The spongy mesophyll is made up of cells with spaces between them.
The spaces allow for the movement of gases within the leaf.
 The vascular bundle contains the mains transport tissues
− The xylem vessels transport water and mineral salts from the roots
to the leaves through the transpiration pull.
− The phloem vessels transport manufactured food to growing parts of
the part.
 The guard cells exist in pairs and are found underneath of a leaf. They change
shape to open and close the stomata to allow for gaseous exchange by
diffusion.
 The stomata are holes or opening found at the lower surface of the leaf not
facing the sun.

PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
There are two main products of photosynthesis. These are oxygen and glucose. The
glucose is stored as starch. Glucose and starch are some examples of a group of sugars
called carbohydrates.
The experiments in the next page are carried out to find out if starch and oxygen are
produced during photosynthesis.

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IS STARCH A PRODUCT FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS ?
To do this a plant is provided all the conditions necessary for photosynthesis. The plant
is then tested for starch using the iodine solution. The iodine solution turns blue-
black colour indicating the presence of starch.
We will see later that leaves from plants with any one of the conditions missing test
negative for starch, thus showing that photosynthesis did not take place.
Those from plants with all conditions necessary for photosynthesis test positive for
starch, indicating that photosynthesis took place. This confirms that starch is actual a
product of photosynthesis.
STEPS FOLLOWED WHEN TESTING A LEAF FOR STARCH?
1. Boil the leaf in hot water. This kills the leaf and breaks open the cells
2. Boil the leaf in alcohol in a water bath. Alcohol removes chlorophyll whereas a
water bath prevents alcohol from catching fire.
3. Put the leaf in hot water again. This softens the leaf.
4. Test the leaf for starch by placing it in the petri dish and putting few drops of
iodine solution on it.
RESULTS
A blue black colour indicate a positive test for starch, that is starch is present whereas
no colour change indicate negative results for starch, that is starch is not present.
IS OXYGEN PRODUCED DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS ?
To find this a pondweed is put under a funnel, exposed to all conditions necessary for
photosynthesis and the gas produced collected and tested. Below is the set-up for the
experiment:

OBSERVATIONS
Bubbles of a gas collect into the test-tube and the water level goes down. When a
glowing splint is brought to the gas it relights.
CONCLUSION
Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis. Oxygen is the only gas that relights a glowing
splint.
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
For photosynthesis to occur, all of the following conditions should be present:
 Sunlight
 Water
 Carbon dioxide
 Chlorophyll

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INVESTIGATING THE CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
This is done by providing a plant with all the conditions necessary for photosynthesis
stated above except for the one being investigated. The leaves from the variable being
investigated are then tested for starch. Testing a leaf for starch is the same as testing
if photosynthesis took place. A blue-black colour indicates photosynthesis took place
whereas no colour change means photosynthesis did not take place.

IS SUNLIGHT NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS ?

Two identical plants are destarched for 24 hours. One is then placed in light for another
24 hours while the other is placed in the dark for the same duration. Leaves from both
plants will then be tested for starch to see if photosynthesis took place. Below is the
set-up for the experiment:

OBSERVATIONS
When tested for starch, the leave from the plant the dark cupboard did not change
colour whereas the one from a plant in sunlight turned blue-black.
CONCLUSION
Sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.

IS CHLOROPHYLL NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS ?

A variegated leaf is used. This leaf has some green areas and pale or yellow areas.
Green areas have chlorophyll whereas yellow areas do not have chlorophyll. The leaf
is also tested for starch. Below is the diagram of a variegated leaf:

OBSERVATIONS
Areas with chlorophyll turned blue-black whereas those without did not show any
colour change. That is positive results for areas with chlorophyll and negative results
for areas without chlorophyll.
CONCLUSION
Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

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IS CARBON DIOXIDE NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS ?
Two potted plants are each covered with a polythene bag. One has soda lime while
the other has sodium hydrogen carbonate. Soda lime absorbs or removes carbon
dioxide from the bag whereas sodium hydrogen carbonate produces or releases carbon
dioxide into the polythene bag. The set-up is left for some days as shown below and
then tested for starch.

OBSERVATIONS
The plant with carbon dioxide turned blue-black whereas the one without carbon
dioxide did not show any colour change.
CONCLUSIONS
Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.

MINERAL REQUIREMENT
Plants also need some mineral ions in order to manufacture other important
substances needed. Mineral ions are absorbed through active transport.
Examples of ions needed by plants;
 Nitrogen – It is absorbed from ammonium compounds. Nitrogen is used to
make plant protein and when in shortage, it leads to stunted growth and pale
yellow of leaves.
 Magnesium – absorbed from magnesium ions and it is used in the
manufacturing of chlorophyll. Lack of magnesium results in yellowing of
leaves and weak stems.

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BALANCED DIET
A balanced diet is a meal that contains all the necessary nutrients in correct
proportions, i.e. carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals, water and fibre.

HOW DIET RELATES TO ENERGY INTAKE

GENDER
Men should be given more food than women because they have a large body.

AGE
Young children require more energy for their size than adults do. This is because
children are still growing and are more active. Also, extra proteins are required for
making new tissues as the child grows. In addition, more calcium, iron and vitamin A
are needed for bone formation, red blood cells and disease resistance respectively.

OCCUPATION
The amount of energy people use in physical activity varies according to how active
they are;
 Sedentary work (office workers, clerical services) needs less amount of work
 Moderately active – light industry workers need more energy than sedentary
workers.
 Very active (mine, builders, steel workers) need more energy.

PREGNANCY
Energy requirements are increased during pregnancy to allow for the growth of the
baby and the adjustment of the mother’s body to pregnancy. Pregnant women require
more supply of calcium, proteins, iron and vitamin D.

LACTATION
Lactation means the production of breast milk for feeding the baby. Extra energy is
required for the production of milk. Fats are laid down during pregnancy as an energy
store. A lactating mother’s diet should contain protein, calcium and vitamin A and D.

CLASSES OF FOOD
There are three (3) main classes of food:
 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Fats / Oils

CARBOHYDRATES
 They are the major energy sources for the body.
 These are simple, soluble sugars or complex materials like starch and cellulose.
 Consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only.
 Carbohydrates exist in two types;
− Sugars
Appears mainly in our diet as sucrose (table sugar) e.g. in jams,
biscuits and cakes. A commonly occurring simple sugar is glucose
(C6H12O6)

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 Glucose and fructose are sugars which occur naturally in many fruits
and some vegetables.
− Starch
Complex form of carbohydrates found in potatoes, bread, maize, rice
and other cereals.
The cellulose in the cell walls of all plant tissues is a carbohydrate and is important in
the diet as fibre or roughage which helps to maintain a healthy digestive system.
Although all foods provide us with energy, carbohydrates are the cheapest and most
readily available source of energy. If we eat more carbohydrates than we need for our
energy requirements, the excess is converted in the liver to either glycogen or fat. The
glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles, the fat is stored in fat deports e.g.
abdomen, round the kidneys or under the skin.

PROTEINS
 They are needed to replace and repair worn out tissues in the body.
 Essential in the manufacture of hormones, antibodies and enzymes
 Contain the elements Carbon, Hydrogen Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulphur.
Some examples of important sources of animal proteins include meat, eggs, milk and
cheese. All plants contain some proteins but beans or peanut (legumes) are the best
sources. Proteins when digested provide the chemical substances needed to build cells
and tissues. Neither carbohydrates nor fats can do this so it is important to include
some proteins in the diet.

FATS
Fats and oils are sometimes collectively called lipids. Fats are formed from Carbon,
Hydrogen and Oxygen only.
A molecule of fat is made up of three molecules of an organic acid called fatty acids,
combined with a glycerol molecule.

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FOOD TESTS
FOOD NUTRIENTS METHODOLOGY POSITIVE
RESULTS
Starch  Place food sample on white tile Blue-black
 Add three (3) drops of iodine solution colour
Glucose  Put food solution in a test tube Brick red colour
(Reducing sugars)  Add 5 drops of Benedict’s solution
and place the mixture in a warm water
bath for 2 minutes
Protein  Put food solution in a test tube Purple colour
(Biuret test)  Add 5 drops of Copper sulphate and
shake.
 Add 5 drops of Sodium hydroxide and
shake.
Fats
(a) Emulsion test Place a food sample in test tube and add Milky white
ethanol and shake. colour
Allow the mixture to settle and then decant
the top layer into another tube with water

(b) Using Filter Place a food solution on a filter paper and

paper leave it to dry Greasy opaque
mark on paper.

ENZYMES
Enzymes are proteins which function as biological catalysts.
A catalyst is a chemical substance which speeds up a reaction but does not get used
up during the reaction. One enzyme can be used many times over.

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES – HOW ENZYMES WORK

The rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction depends on temperature and pH. The pH
or temperature at which an enzyme works best is called its optimum pH or
temperature.

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 ENZYMES AND TEMPERATURE
A rise in temperature speeds up the activity of an enzyme, therefore increasing
the rate of reaction. The enzymes become active.
A fall in temperature makes the enzymes inactive which results in very low
rates of chemical reactions.
When the temperature rises above 50ºC the enzymes become denatured and
stops working, some enzymes however can be denatured at temperature below
50ºC depending on their nature.

 ENZYMES AND PH
Acidic or alkaline conditions alter chemical properties of proteins, including
enzymes. Most enzymes work best at a particular level of acidity or alkalinity
(pH).

 ENZYMES ARE SUBSTRATE SPECIFIC

Substances which are acted upon by enzymes are called substrates and they
have specific shapes. Enzymes catalyze reactions by binding at their active site.
The shape of the active site corresponds to the shape the molecules of the
substrate
The substrate molecule will only fit perfectly to a specific enzyme if their shape
corresponds like a lock and key. After the product is released, the enzyme is
then free to catalyze the next reaction

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HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Feeding involves taking food into mouth, chewing it and swallowing it into the
stomach. This satisfies our hunger, but for food to be of any use to the whole body it
needs to be digested. This means that the solid food is dissolved and absorbed into
the bloodstream and carried by blood al around the body. In this way, the blood
delivers dissolved food to the living cells in all parts of the body.
The alimentary canal is a tube running through the body where the process of digestion
takes place. In this tube, the soluble products are absorbed and the indigestible
residues egested. The alimentary canal has many blood vessels in its walls, close to
the lining. These absorb the digested food from the alimentary canal. They also bring
oxygen needed by the cells and take away carbon dioxide they produce. Below is the
diagram of the digestive system:

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FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
PART FUNCTIONS
Teeth Grind the food up into small pieces, which increase the surface
area for digestion.
Salivary It produces saliva, which contains enzymes that start the
glands digestion of starch.
Oesophagus Passes food to the stomach through the process of peristalsis
Stomach Produce hydrochloric acid and enzymes that start the digestion of
proteins. It also churns food.
Duodenum It is where most digestion takes place. Digestion of fats starts
here.
Gall bladder It produces bile, which helps emulsify (break) fats.
Pancreas It releases pancreatic juice, which, contain enzymes that digest
starch, proteins and fats.
Ileum It is where digestion is completed and absorption of digested
food takes place.
Colon Water is absorbed here.
Rectum Undigested food is stored here.
Anus Where faeces passes out of the body

1. INGESTION
The act of taking food into the mouth is called ingestion. In the mouth the food
is chewed and mixed with saliva. The chewing physically digests food by breaking
it into pieces which can be swallowed and it also increases the surface area for the
enzymes to work on. Saliva is a digestive juice produced by some glands whose
ducts lead into the mouth. It contains an enzyme salivary amylase (sometimes
called ptyalin) which acts on starch to break it down to maltose.
From the mouth, the food swallowed and this is voluntary, but once the food
reaches the back of the month, swallowing becomes a reflex action. It is forced into
the oesophagus or gullet by peristalsis.
Peristalsis is a wave of contraction in some of the regions of the alimentary canal
along which food passes. The food then goes into the stomach. See the figure
below.

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2. DIGESTION
Digestion is mainly a chemical process and consists of breaking down of large
molecules to small molecules. The small molecules can then pass through the
epithelium of the alimentary canal, through the walls of the blood vessels and into
the blood. The food is dissolved by enzymes.
The Stomach
The stomach has elastic walls which stretch as the food collects in it. The pyloric
sphincter is a circular band of muscle at the lower end of the stomach which stops
solid food from passing through.
The main function of the stomach is to store the food from a meal, turn it into a
liquid and release it in small quantities at a time to the rest of the alimentary canal.
Glands in the stomach lining produce gastric juice containing enzyme pepsin
which acts on proteins to form soluble compounds called peptides.
The stomach lining also produces hydrochloric acid which makes a weak solution in
the gastric juice. This acid provides optimum acidity for pepsin to work in and also
kills the bacteria taken in with food.
The regular peristaltic movements of the stomach mix up the food and gastric juice
into a creamy liquid. How long food remains in the stomach depends on its nature.
Porridge may pass in few minutes as compared to a meal containing proteins and
fats.
The Small Intestines
From the stomach, the pyloric sphincter lets the liquid products of digestion
pass, a little at a time into the first part of the small intestines called duodenum.
It is in the duodenum where the digestive juice from the pancreas (pancreatic
juice) and bile from the liver are poured to act on food there.
The pancreas makes a number of enzymes, which acts on all classes of food. There
are several proteases which break down proteins to peptides and amino acids.
Pancreatic amylase convents starch to maltose while lipase digests fats (lipids)
to fatty acids and glycerol.
Pancreatic juice contains sodium hydrogencarbonate which partly neutralizes the
acid liquid from the stomach. The enzymes of the pancreas do not work well in acid
conditions.
Bile is a green, watery fluid made in the liver, stored in the gall bladder and
delivered to the duodenum by the bile duct. Bile contains no enzymes; it contains
some bile salts which emulsify the fats.
Emulsification is the physical break down of fats into small droplets which are more
easily digested by lipase.

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All in all;
 The starch in food such as bread and potatoes is digested to glucose.
 The solid protein is digested to soluble substances called amino acids.
 Fats are digested to two soluble products called fatty acids and glycerol.
The chemical breakdown (digestion) usually takes place in stages and involves
different enzymes as shown below;

Any enzyme that converts proteins to peptides is called a protease. Some examples
are trypsin and pepsin.
3. ABSORPTION
Nearly all the absorption of the digested food takes place in the ileum which is
sufficient because;
 It fairly long and presents a large absorbing surface area to the digested
food.
 The lining of the epithelium is very thin and the fluids can easily pass
through it.
 It has a dense network of blood capillaries.
 Its internal surface is greatly increased by circular folds with some
absorbing projections called villi or villius (singular) shown below.

The small molecules of the digested food or the end products of digestion such as
glucose and amino acids pass into the epithelium cell and through the wall of the
capillaries in the villius and into the bloodstream. They are carried away in the
capillaries which join up to form veins. The veins unite to form one large vein, the
hepatic portal vein.
This vein carries all blood from the intestine to the liver, which may store or alter any
of the digestion products. When these products are released from the liver, they enter
the general blood circulation.

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THE LARGE INTESTINES (Colon and rectum)
The materials passing into the large intestines consists of water with undigested
matter, largely cellulose and vegetable fibres (roughage), mucus and dead cells from
the lining of the alimentary canal. The large intestines secrets no enzymes but the
bacteria in the colon digest part of the fibre to form fatty acids which the colon can
absorb. Bile salts are absorbed and returned to the liver by the blood circulation. The
colon also absorbs much of the water from the undigested residues. The semi-solid
waste, the faeces or ‘stool’ is passed into the rectum by peristalsis and expelled at
intervals through the anus. The act of expelling faeces is called egestion.
USE OF DIGESTED FOOD
The products of digestion are carried out around the body in the blood. From the
blood, cells absorb and use glucose, amino acids and fatty acids.
This uptake and use of food is called assimilation.
 Glucose
Glucose is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water during respiration. This
reaction provides energy to drive many chemical processes in the cells.
 Amino Acids
Amino acids are absorbed by the cells and built up, with the help of enzymes
into proteins. Some of the proteins will become plasma proteins in the food.
Others form structures such as cell membrane or become enzymes.
 Fatty Acids
They form an important source of energy for all cell metabolisms. Fatty acids
are oxidized in the cells to carbon dioxide and water to release energy for body
processes.
THE LIVER
The liver is a large, reddish brown organ which lies just beneath the diaphragm and partly
overlaps the stomach. All the blood vessels of the alimentary canal pass through the liver,
which adjust the composition of the blood before releasing it.
 Metabolism of Glucose
After a meal, the liver removes excess glucose from the blood and stores it as
glycogen. In the periods between meals, when the concentration of the blood starts
to fall, the liver converts some of its stored glucose and releases it into the blood
stream. In this way, the concentration of sugar in the blood is kept at fairly steady
level.
 Deamination
Deamination is the removal of amino group from a molecule. The amino acids not
needed for making proteins are converted to glycogen in the liver. During this
process, the nitrogen containing amino part (NH2) of amino acid is removed and
changed to urea, which is later excreted by the kidneys.
 Detoxication
Detoxification or Detoxication is the removal of toxic substances from a living
organism, including the human body. Poisonous compounds can enter the blood, but
on reaching the liver are converted to harmless substances, later excreted in the urine.
Many other chemical substances normally present in the body or introduced as drugs
are modified by the liver before being excreted by the kidneys.

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 RESPIRATION
Respiration is a process by which energy is produced from food. Most of the processes
taking place in cells need energy to make them happen.
Some examples of processes that need energy include:
 Building up proteins from amino acids
 Making starch from glucose
 Contraction of muscles
 Conduction of electrical impulses by nerve cells
 Cell divisions e.t.c
This energy comes from the food which cells take in. The food mainly used for energy
in cells is glucose.
Respiration is a chemical process and it takes place in cells. The two types of
respiration are
 Aerobic respiration
 Anaerobic respiration
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Aerobic respiration is the release of a relatively large amount of energy by the
breakdown of carbohydrates in the presence of oxygen.
In aerobic respiration, oxygen is needed to combine with carbohydrates to release
relatively large amount of energy.
The food molecules are combined with oxygen, the process is called oxidation and
the food is said to be oxidized. In aerobic respiration, glucose is combined with
oxygen and the products of the reaction are carbon dioxide, water and energy which
the cell can use to drive other reactions.
Aerobic respiration is the release can be shown in an equation as follows;

In the cells, the energy is not released all at once. The oxidation takes place in a series
of small steps and not in one jump as the equation suggests. Each small step needs
its own enzyme and at each stage a little energy is released. The chemistry of aerobic
respiration takes place in the mitochondria.
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Anaerobic respiration is the release of relatively small amount of energy by the
breakdown of carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen.
Anaerobic means ‘in the absence of oxygen.’ In this process, energy is still released
from food by breaking it down chemically but the reactions do not use oxygen though
they do often produce carbon dioxide. A common example is the reaction of yeast on
sugar solution to produce alcohol. The sugar is not completely oxidized to carbon
dioxide and alcohol. This process is called fermentation and can be shown by the
following equation.

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Fermentation can also be defined as the release of fairly small amounts of energy from
breaking down of carbohydrates by enzymes in the absence of oxygen.
Alcoholic drinks are made using yeast to ferment the sugar in fruit juice. Beer is also
made by yeast which ferments malt obtained from barley seeds.
Fermentation is also used for baking. It takes place when yeast and sugar are added
to dough. It produces carbon dioxide gas which fills the dough with bubbles and makes
it rise. The yeast is killed in by heat during cooking.
Both the word and symbol equation of fermentation are similar to that of anaerobic
respiration in plants.

ANAEROBIC IN ANIMALS
Animals, including humans can also respire anaerobically. However, the process of
anaerobic respiration in animals is different from that in yeast. Instead of producing
carbon dioxide and ethanol during anaerobic respiration, animals produce a substance
called lactic acid. The process happens when oxygen cannot reach the muscles fast
enough to supply their needs. The muscles then switch from aerobic respiration to
anaerobic respiration, which does not use oxygen. Lactic acid is then produced and
collects in the muscles. The reactions are;

HOW LACTIC ACID IS PRODUCED IN MUSCLES DURING EXERCISE

During exercise, the Oxygen supply may be insufficient to meet the energy demand.
When this happens, the cells produce energy by anaerobic respiration and lactic acid
is produced as a by-product.
The accumulation of lactic acid causes muscle fatigue but is eventually reduced as
oxygen intake returns to normal after the period of exercise. The shortage of oxygen
is called oxygen debt and can be repaired by increased oxygen intake. A person
increase the oxygen intake by continuing to breathe fast and deep after the exercise
in order to draw more oxygen into the lungs. This oxygen will then be used to oxidize
lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water.

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION IN YEAST

Anaerobic respiration is economically important - many of our foods are produced by
microorganisms respiring anaerobically.
Yeast is used to make alcoholic drinks. Yeast is a single-cell organism which needs
food, warmth and moisture to live. It converts its food (sugar and starch) through
fermentation, into carbon dioxide and alcohol.
When yeast cells are reproducing rapidly during beer or wine production, the oxygen
is used up. The yeast has to switch to anaerobic respiration to ensure it can survive.
Ethanol and carbon dioxide are produced.
Yeast can also be used to produce bread. Yeast respires using glucose in the sugar
that was added to the dough. Bubbles of carbon dioxide make the dough rise and the
alcohol produced evaporates as bread is baked.

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 TRANSPORT AND CIRCULATION
TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration refers to the process through which plants lose water through stomata
in the leaves. Transpiration is important because of the following reasons:
 Water and minerals transport –helps to move water and minerals up the xylem of
the plant to the leaves.
 Temperature control – As water escapes from the leaves, it cools the plant

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

More transpiration takes place during the day than at night, this is because the stomata
are open during the day and close at night. Light triggers the opening of the stomata
pores and more water is lost into the atmosphere during the day. Factors affecting the
rate of transpiration include:
 Temperature
When temperature is high there will be more energy to evaporate water from
the leaf cells. High temperature increases the rate of transpiration whilst low
temperature reduces it.
 Humidity
Humidity means the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. Transpiration
is faster when the air is dry and has less amount of water vapour. At high
humidity the rate of transpiration is slow because air is saturated with water
vapour.
 Wind
When air moves faster it washes off more water vapour from a leaf surface per
given time, therefore transpiration occurs faster in windy conditions than in
cool still air.

TRANSPORT OF FOOD, WATER AND NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS

Transport of food (glucose) in plants occurs in tubes called vascular bundles.
Vascular bundles are made up of two types of tubes. These are phloem tubes and
xylem tubes. Below is the diagram showing phloem and xylem tube from a stem of a
plant:

The phloem tubes or vessels transport food made in the leaves to all other parts of a
plant. They are made of living cells that are long and arranged end to end.

266
The xylem tubes or vessels transport water and mineral salts from the roots upward
the plant. They run from the roots of the plant, right up through the stem and branch
out into branches and every leaf. They are made up of dead cells that are joined
together to form a thin tube known as a vessel.

TRANSPORT OF WATER
Plants get water from the soil by the root hair cells through osmosis. From the root
hair water travels across the cortex cells towards the xylem vessels in the centre of
the root. As the water moves towards the centre of the root some of it goes into the
cytoplasm of the cortex cells and then out again moving from cell to cell.
The water then travels up the plant through the xylem vessels which take it to the
leaves. The water vapour diffuses out of the leaves through the stomata into the air
through a process called transpiration.

As water is lost through transpiration a suction force called transpiration pull causes
more water to be absorbed from the soil, resulting in a flow of water from the soil to
the roots, stems, leaves and into the air. The movement of water along this pathway
is called the transpiration stream.

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TRANSPORT MINERAL IONS
Active transport is a process that is required to move molecules against
concentration gradient. The process requires energy from respiration.
Mineral ions such as nitrates are selectively absorbed by active transport and moved
into root hairs, where they are at a higher concentration than in the dilute solutions in
the soil. Mineral salts are then carried up to the leaves with water in the xylem vessels.
The ions and salts such as nitrates are needed for plant growth and to make proteins.

TRANSPORT OF FOOD
Green plants make their own food in the leaves by photosynthesis. The soluble
products of photosynthesis are sugars, amino acids and fatty acids. The carbohydrates
made in the leaf during photosynthesis are converted to sucrose and carried out of the
leaf to the stem and other parts of the plant which cannot photosynthesize including
roots.
This movement of food in a plant is called translocation. It takes place in the phloem
vessels. These substances are able to move upwards and downwards at the same time
the phloem.
Translocation can simply be defined as the movement of organic substances such as
sucrose (sugars in plants) through the phloem vessels after the process of
photosynthesis.

TRANSPORTING SUBSTANCES IN THE HUMAN BODY

The end products of digestion are absorbed into the blood system, the blood then
transport the digested food as well as other substances around the body. It transports:
 Oxygen from the lungs to body cells and carbon dioxide from the body cells to
the lungs.
 Dissolved end products of digestion from the small intestines to all parts of the
body.
 Waste products from where they are produced.
 Hormones from endocrine glands to tissues that need them.

BLOOD
Blood is a reddish liquid found in the human body. We cannot survive without blood
this because it carries out many important functions in our body. Below are some
general functions of blood:
1. It protects the body against diseases.
2. It regulates or control body temperature.
3. It transports dissolved substances to and away from body cells.

COMPONENTS OF BLOOD
Blood is made up of different cells and other substances. It made up of white blood
cells, red blood cells, plasma and platelets. These help it to carry out its functions.

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The diagram below shows components of blood:

Plasma – this is the yellowish liquid component of the blood in which transports
dissolved substances around the body. These substances are blood cells, ions,
vitamins, end products of digestion, carbon dioxide, urea, hormones and plasma
proteins.
 Platelets – they stop the bleeding from wounds by causing blood clot. When
tissue damage results in bleeding, fibrinogen – a soluble protein in the plasma
is converted to fibrin by a clotting enzyme. Fibrin molecules then group
together and to form clumps, or a plug in the hole of a vessel to stop bleeding.
 Red blood cell – transport oxygen from the lungs to body tissues and carbon
dioxide as a waste product, away from the tissues back to the lungs.
Haemoglobin is an important protein in the red blood cells that carries oxygen
from the lungs to all parts of our body. Haemoglobin contains a red coloured
component that gives the blood a red colour.
 White blood cell – fight infections by engulfing and digesting disease-causing
microbes (phagocytes) and produce antibodies that attack harmful

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system consists of the heart, the arteries and veins that convey blood
throughout the body. Blood must always circulate to sustain life. It carries oxygen from
the air that we breathe to cells throughout the body. The pumping of the heart drives
blood flow through the arteries, capillaries and veins. There are two types of
circulation:
 Pulmonary circulation
 Systemic circulation
THE PULMONARY CIRCULATION
Pulmonary circulation moves blood between the heart and the lungs. It transports
deoxygenated blood to the lungs to absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide. The
oxygenated blood then flows back to the heart.
THE SYSTEMIC C IRCULATION
Pulmonary circulation moves blood between the heart and the rest of the body. It
sends oxygenated blood out to cells and returns deoxygenated blood to the heart.

269
THE HEART
The heart is an organ consisting mainly muscle tissues. It is an organ that pumps or
pushes blood around the body. It is made up of four chambers. These are the right
and left atria (plural for atrium) and the right and left ventricles.
The diagrams of the heart show the heart from the front. The right side of the heart
is on the left side of the heart pictures and drawn as if you are facing a person.
The heart pumps oxygenated blood out of the left ventricle and into the aorta to
begin systemic circulation. After the blood has supplied cells throughout the body with
oxygen and nutrients, it returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart
through the vena cava.
The deoxygenated blood shoots down from the right atrium to the right ventricle.
The heart then contract and pumps it out of the right ventricle and into the
pulmonary arteries to begin the pulmonary circulation. The blood moves to the
lungs, exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen, and returns to the left atrium through
the pulmonary vein. The oxygenated blood then shoots from the left atrium to the
left ventricle to start the systemic circulation.
The atria are separated from the ventricles by valves. The valves stop the blood from
flowing backwards into the atria when the ventricles contract.
The left side of the heart have thicker muscular wall than the right side - that is because
the left ventricle pumps the blood to the entire body and therefore needs a greater
force and pressure, the right side only pumps the blood to the lungs.

270
The diagram below shows the structure of the heart:

BLOOD VESSELS
Blood vessels are tubes through which blood is transported. These are;
 Arteries
 Veins
 Capillaries.
ARTERY VEIN CAPILLARY

Has thick elastic muscle Thin muscle walls No muscles, just one cell
walls to pump and thick
accommodate blood.
Have no valves Have valves No valves
Transport blood away Transport blood towards Joins arteries and veins
from the heart the heart
Carries blood under high Carries blood under low They are permeable
pressure pressure
Carry oxygenated blood, Carry deoxygenated
except pulmonary artery. blood, except pulmonary
vein.
The channel in the blood Have a wide lumen
vessel that carries blood
– the lumen is narrow.
Blood is carried away from the heart in arteries called aorta and pulmonary artery. It
is carried into the heart in veins; they are pulmonary vein and vena cava.

271
The capillaries connect the two types of blood vessel – arteries and veins. This is where
molecules are exchanged between the blood and the cells across their walls.
The walls of capillaries are just one cell thick. Capillaries therefore allow molecules to
diffuse across the capillary walls. This exchange of molecules is not possible across the
walls of other types of blood vessels because the walls are too thick.
Oxygen diffuses through the capillary wall, into the tissue fluid and the cells.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells into the tissue fluid, then across the capillary
walls into the blood plasma.
Glucose diffuses from the blood plasma, across the capillary walls to the tissue fluid
and then to the cells.
The waste product urea diffuses from the cells of the liver to the tissue fluid, then
across the capillary walls into the blood plasma.

PULSE
Pulse is the rhythmic expansion of the arteries resulting from passage of successive
surges of blood, produced by continuing contractions of the heart.
(Or simply the expansion and contraction of the arterial walls that can be felt in all the
arteries near the surface of the skin).
The pulse may be felt wherever an artery passes over a solid structure, such as a bone
or cartilage.
Pulse rate is the number of heart beats in a minute. The rate of the pulse varies from
150 beats per minute in the embryo to about 60 in the aged; however the average
pulse rate measures 72 beats per minute in a mature healthy person.
Physical activity such as taking an exercise increases the pulse rate. This is because
the rate at which the heart pumps blood is increased to provide the body with enough
oxygenated blood to cope with activity undertaken as well as to remove the carbon
dioxide that may be accumulating in body cells.

CORONARY HEART DISEASE

Coronary heart disease is a disease caused by the occlusion or blockage of coronary
arteries (Coronary artery is an artery branching from the aorta and supplies the heart
muscles with food and oxygen).

272
CAUSES OF CORONARY HEART DISEASE
 Blood clot
If the blood clots it blocks the coronary artery and starves the heart muscle of
oxygen and nutrients as a result the heart may stop beating. Due to this the
brain is deprived of oxygen resulting in stroke or death.
 Diet
Too much fatty foods taken result in excess fat accumulating in the lining of
the arteries, narrowing their lumen and eventually blocking them. This
blockage of the artery results in no oxygen and nutrient supply to the heart
muscles.
 Stress
Emotional stress (or when a person is immobilized for long time) often leads to
a raised blood pressure. High blood pressure may increase the rate at which
thrombus (blood clot) is formed in the arteries.
 Smoking
Carbon monoxide and other chemicals in cigarette smoke may change the
lining of the arteries. These harden up the arteries resulting in breaking down
of platelets as they pass along the rough surfaces of the arteries. The platelets
release enzymes which aid in blood clotting & consequently lead to occlusion
of the arteries.
 Lack of exercise
A sluggish blood flow resulting from lack of exercise may allow atheroma to
form in the lining of the arteries. Regular, vigorous exercise reduces the
chances of a heart attack due to an improved coronary blood flow.
Atheroma (also called atherosclerosis) is a disease caused by deposits of fatty
substances in the lining of the arteries.

PREVENTING CORONARY HEART DISEASE

 Avoid being immobile or isolated, communicate your stressful situations to
relief yourself.
 Avoid smoking
 Avoid fatty foods especially animal fat.
 Take regular body exercises.

273
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figure below shows the relationship between humidity and transpiration rate.

(a) (i) At what time of the day is the rate of transpiration highest?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Explain how humidity affects the rate of transpiration.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………...………………… [3]

(b) Give two other environmental factors that can affect the rate of
transpiration.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
2. The figure below shows a visking tube containing a mixture of two solutions and
a beaker containing water.

Contents of the visking tube and beaker were tested using iodine solution and
Benedict’s solution. The results are shown in a table below.
Iodine test Benedict’s test
Water in beaker Yellow Blue
Contents of visking tube Blue – black Brick red

274
The visking tube is immersed in a beaker of water for 30 minutes as shown below.

The contents of the beaker and visking tube were again were tested using iodine
solution and Benedict’s solution. The results are shown in a table below.
Iodine test Benedict’s test
Water in beaker Yellow Brick red
Contents of visking tube Blue – black Brick red

(a) Identify the two solutions in the visking tube.

1 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
2 …………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Explain why the water in the beaker turned brick-red when tested
with Benedict’s solution after 30 minutes.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(c) The mixture in the visking tube was replaced by a mixture of starch
and amylase and left for 30 minutes in a water bath at a temperature
of 35°C.
(i) Predict the result for iodine test in the tube after 30 minutes. Give
a reason for your answer.
Prediction:.………………………………………..……………………………… [1]
Reason: …………………………………………………………….……………… [1]
(ii) Where in the alimentary canal does a similar reaction occur?
………………………………………………………………………….…………….. [1]

3. (a) What are the uses of nitrogen and magnesium in plants?

Nitrogen
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Magnesium
……………………………………………….………..………………………………………… [2]
(b) Describe how plants absorb nitrates from the soil.
…………………..……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……..………………….……………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..……………………… [4]

275
4. Thabiso suck pieces of blue cobalt chloride paper on the upper and lower parts of
a leaf. Each piece of paper was completely covered by a transparent sticky tape
to prevent any air reaching it as shown below. Cobalt chloride paper is blue when
dry and turns pink when wet.

The paper on the lower surface turned pink before the paper on the upper surface.
(a) Which process caused the colour change of the cobalt chloride paper?
……………………..………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Explain why I was important for Thabiso to make sure that no air could reach
the cobalt chloride paper.
……………………..………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Suggest a reason why the paper on the upper surface took longer to turn
pink.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(d) The figure below shows the leaves of the plan in the morning and in the
afternoon.

Explain why the leaves of the plant are upright in the morning.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [3]

276
5. The figure below represents stages in which an enzyme controlled chemical
reaction may occur.

(a) Define the term enzyme.

……………………..………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Suggest what Q and R represent.
Q ……………………..…………………………………………………………………………
R ……………………..…………………………………………………………………………
(c) State one property of enzymes illustrated above.
……………………..………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) The enzyme has an optimum temperature of 30° C.
Describe how enzyme activity changes as temperature increases from 20°C to
60°C.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..…………………………. [3]
6. The figure below shows the liver, a section of the ileum and related blood
vessels.

(a) Identify the blood vessels P and Q.

P ……………………..…………………………………………………………………………
Q ……………………..…………………………………………………………………………
(b) State two functions of the liver.
1 ……………………..………………………………………………………………………………
2 ……………………..……………………………………………………………………………… [2]
277
(c) A man got lost and walked for two days without eating any food
Describe how the cells of the man’s body obtained energy during his two-day
period.
……………………..…………………………………………………………………….…………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [4]

7. The figure below shows lactic acid and oxygen levels for an athlete before,
during and after an exercise.

(a) How long did he exercise take?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Explain why the lactic acid level rises during the exercise.
…………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) Adrenaline is produced at point L.
Describe how this prepares the athlete for the exercise.
…………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

278
8. The figure below shows parts of the human digestive system and some blood
vessels. The arrows show the direction of blood flow.

(a) This person has recently eaten a meal containing protein.

Which blood vessel, W, X or Y carries blood with the highest concentration of
amino acids?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) (i) Name the enzyme that digests fats.
…………………………………………………………………..………………………… [1]
(ii) Describe how fats are digested in the duodenum.
…………………………………………………..…………………………..…………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
(c) The pancreatic duct can become blocked.
Explain why this would not affect blood sugar regulation.
…………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
9. The figure below shows a closed aquarium containing a green water plant. The
aquarium is in a dark room.

279
(a) Name the mineral ion which must be present for the formation of the green
pigment in the plants.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Explain why bubbles are produced by the plant when the lamp is switched on.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) Some fish were added to the aquarium.
Explain how the fish benefit from the presence of the plant when the lamp is
switched on.
…………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) After the fish were added, the plant produced more bubbles than before.
Suggest why.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
10. The figure below shows part of the human digestive system.

(a) State the function of the part labelled X.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Below is a diagrammatic representation of the digestion of starch.

(i) State the name of enzyme U.

………………………………………………………………………………..……………. [1]
(ii) What property of enzyme is illustrated in the diagram above?
………………………………………………………………………………..……………. [1]
(iii) On the figure above, identify a region where the process of digestion
by the above enzyme occurs and label it V.
………………………………………………………………………………..……………. [1]
(c) State one function of the stomach.
…………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

280
(d) Pectinase is an enzyme used to extract juice from fruits.
The graph below shows the rate of reaction against temperature for pectinase.

Table below shows the volume of juice extracted at different temperature from equal
amounts of fruit.
Volume of juice extracted / cm3 Temperature / °C
10
30
50
60
(i) Use the temperatures M, N, O and P from the graph, to complete the table.
(ii) Explain why the volume of juice extracted from the fruits was different for the
four temperature M, N, O and P.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]

11. Two identical plots, F and L, had equal numbers of similar leafy vegetables.
A fertilizer was added to plot F. No fertilizer was added to plot L.
The plants in both plots were watered with equal amounts of water.
The plants in plot F started to wilt, but the plants in plot L did not.
(a) (i) Name the process by which the plants lose water.
…………………………………………………………………..………………………… [1]
(ii) Explain why the plants in plot F started to wilt but the plants in plot L
did not.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [4]
(b) When the fertilizer was added, a strong smell from the fertilizer reached the
farmer.
Name and describe the process by which the fumes from the fertilizer reached
the farmer.
Name …………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Description …………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

281
12. The figure below shows the structure of a leaf.

Name the structures Q, R and S. For each structure, explain how it makes
the leaf an ideal site for photosynthesis.
Name of Q ……………………………………………………………………………………………
Explanation …………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Name of R ……………………………………………………………………………………………
Explanation …………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Name of S ……………………………………………………………………………………………
Explanation …………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [6]
13. The figure below shows the different stages of development of two plants
from two similar seeds. After germination plant M was left to grow in a dark
place while plant N was left to grow in light.

(a) How long did it take for the seeds to germinate?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Explain why the mass increases for the first two days.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) (i) Explain the change in mass for plant N between day 4 and day 8.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(ii) Explain why the mass of plant M did not change between day 4 and
day 8.

282
14. (a) A boy eats a sandwich made from bread and fish for breakfast.
The figure below shows the sandwich bolus as it moves along the
oesophagus to the stomach.

(i) Name the process that causes the movement shown in the figure
above.
………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Explain how the process shown above is brought about.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Name one chemical element which is present in carbohydrates.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(c) Explain how the chemical composition of fish and bread in the sandwich
compares to that of the sandwich bolus.
Fish ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Explanation …………………………………………………………………………………………….
bread …………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Explanation ……………………………………………………………………………………… [4]

(d) Which region of the alimentary canal contains fibre in the highest
proportion?
Region …………………………………………………………………………………………………
Explanation ……………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

15. The figure below shows the oxygen released and taken up by a tree during a
24 hour period.

(a) With reference to fig 11.1, name the process that produces oxygen from 0600
hours to 1800 hours.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

283
(b) State the length of time in the 24 hour period during which the tree took up
oxygen.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Explain why the value of oxygen taken up or released is 0 at point X.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) The data in the figure was collected on a day when the environmental
temperature was 28°C at midday. Suggest how an increase to 42°C in
environmental temperature at midday would affect the release of oxygen by
the tree.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
16. The figure below shows white blood cells P and Q which destroy bacteria in
the human body.

(a) Identify the cells P and Q.

(i) P …………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) P …………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Describe how each cell destroys bacteria.
P …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q ………………………..…………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) Describe how blood clotting occurs.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
(d) Name two substances other than oxygen and carbon dioxide which are
transported by blood.
1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2 ………………………………………….………………………………………………………… [2]

17. Ketso prepared some alcohol by mixing yeast, malt, sugar and warm water.
The mixture was left for 2 -3 days.
(a) Name the substance added to speed up the reaction.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Name the process used to prepare the alcohol.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Write an equation to represent the reaction that took place.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

284
18. The figure below shows the passage of a meal through the human digestive
system.

(a) (i) Describe what happens to the food in the mouth.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
From the small intestine, some of the substances pass into the blood,
some into the lymph and some into the rectum.
On the figure, write the letters B for blood, L for lymph and R for
Rectum, on the lines beneath the substances in the last box, to show
which of these it will pass into. [5]
(b) Gastric juice has pH 2.
Describe how one would test whether the extracted enzyme from gastric
juice would work at pH 8.5.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..[3]
19. Match the following terms with their correct descriptions. [6]
drug enzyme excretion
fertilisation photosynthesis respiration
Description Term
(i) Biological catalyst which is protein in nature
(ii) Production of food by plants
(iii) Removal of metabolic waste products from the body
(iv) The fusion of male and female sex cells
(v) Release of energy from food by living organisms
(vi) Externally administered substance that affects
chemical reactions in the body

285
20. The figure below shows energy requirements of three people of the same sex.

(a) Which individual is most likely to be

(i) A manual worker doing 8 hours’ work per day?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) A tailor doing 8 hours’ work per day?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(iii) A six years old student
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) State the simplest form of food that is used by body cells to provide energy.
…….……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) State what happens when the energy intake of an individual is greater than
the daily energy requirements.
…….……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
21. The figure below shows the energy needs for people of different age groups.

(a) (i) State two factors which affect energy needs in human beings.
1 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
2 …………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(ii) Explain why 14 year olds have higher energy needs than 65 year olds
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

286
 (b) A 65 year old man eats a protein rich meal. Suggest how his body may use
the large quantities of amino acids absorbed.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
22. Naledi likes serobe (tripe) and she eats it quite often. Masego advices her to
exercise every day.
(a) (i) State one problem Naledi is likely to face is she eats too much serobe.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Explain how the problem above occurs.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
(b) Explain how Masego’s advice is sensible.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….…………[2]
(c) Masego also suggests that Naledi should eat her serobe/tripe with plenty
of fresh vegetables.
Give one reason why this is good advice.
………………………………………………………………………………………….……… [1]
23. The figure below shows the percentage of undigested food taken in through
the mouth until it leaves the alimentary canal.

(a) Name section B.

…………………………………………………………………………………….……… [1]
(b) Why does the digestion of carbohydrates stop in section C?
…………………………………………………………………………………….……… [1]
(c) In which section does most digestion occur?
…………………………………………………………………………………….……… [1]
(d) State one function of section F.
…………………………………………………………………………………….……… [1]
(e) State what happens to undigested material at G.
…………………………………………………………………………………….……… [1]

287
24. The table below shows the results of an experiment to investigate the effect
of temperature on a protein digesting enzyme.

(a) Plot the results on the grid below.

(b) (i) State the optimum temperature for the reaction.

…………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) Give a reason for your answer above.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………….…………………………………………… [2]
25. An experiment was carried to investigate the activity of the enzyme amylase.
Two test tubes, P and Q, were set up, each containing equal volumes of
amylase, its substrate and either an acidic or alkaline solution as shown
below.

288
 Samples from the test tubes were tested for starch at the start of the
experiment. The tubes were then placed in a water bath kept at 35°C for one
hour. The contents were tested for starch again. The results are shown in the
table below.
Tube Start of experiment End of experiment
P Blue - black Blue - black
Q Blue - black Brown
(a) Name the reagent that was used to test for starch.
………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
(b) (i) In which test tube would the contents test positive for
reducing sugar at the end of the experiment?
…………………………………………………………………..……….……… [1]
(ii) Explain your answer above.
…………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) What factor was being investigated in the experiment?
………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
(d) Name a part of the alimentary canal where amylase act.
……………………………………………………………………………..……….……… [1]
26. Ludo made dough using yeast. She took two equal masses of dough and
placed them in two identical dishes at different temperatures as shown below

After one hour the dough in the two dishes is as shown in Fig. 2.1B

(a) (i) Using the above information, describe any changes that had taken place
in each batch of dough in dishes X and Y, after one hour.
X…………………………………………….………………………..……………………………
Y ………………………………………………….………………….……………………………[2]
(ii) Explain the differences in the results for the two batches of dough.
……………………………………………………………………………………..…………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..…………[4]
(b) This experiment was carried out at pH 5, which is close to optimum for this
enzyme.
Explain what will happen at the times taken for digestion to complete if the pH is
changed to 9.
…………………………………….………………………………………………………………………… [2]

289
27. The diagram shows the apparatus used to investigate a process taking place
in yeast cells.

(a) Name the process under investigation.

………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
(b) State the word equation for this process.
………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
(c) Explain why a layer of oil was put on the yeast-sugar mixture.
………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
(d) (i) State what would be observed in the test tube with limewater
if a different containing a boiled yeast-sugar mixture is used.
…………………………………………………………………..……….……… [1]
(ii) Explain your answer above.
…………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(e) What factor was being investigated in the experiment?
………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
(f) Name a part of the alimentary canal where amylase act.
……………………………………………………………………………..……….……… [1]
28. The word equation below represents a certain form of respiration.
glucose carbon dioxide + ethanol + small amounts of energy

(a) State the form of respiration represented by the equation.

………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
(b) Explain why the energy released is small.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..……
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) The reaction in the equation is controlled by enzymes. Suggest the
Microorganism from which the enzyme are obtained when producing
traditional beer (chibuku).
………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
(d) Describe how abuse of chibuku could affect the human body over a
long period of time.
……………………………………………………………………………………………...……
……………………………………………………………………………………...……… [2]

290
29. The figure below shows apparatus used to measure the rate at which a
certain gas is used.

(a) Name the process under investigation.

………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
(b) What is the purpose of soda lime in the test-tube?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) After twenty minutes, would the coloured liquid move towards or
Away from the test –tube?
………………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [1]
Explain your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………...……
……………………………………………………………………………………...……… [2]
30. The figure below shows a longitudinal section of the heart.

(a) On the diagram, label the following parts;

Pulmonary vein right atrium left ventricle [3]
(b) Figure (a) below shows a cross-section of a blood vessel taken from a
healthy person of a human being, figure (b) shows a cross-section of
the blood vessel taken from an unhealthy heart of a human being.

(a) (b)

(i) State the name of the blood vessel in figure (a) above
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) Name the name of substance W in figure (b) above
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(iii) State the name of the disease that is caused by the condition shown above.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

291
 (iv) Describe the effect of the condition shown in figure (b)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………. [3]
31. The figure below shows the human blood circulation.

(a) Identify the blood vessels labelled W, X, Y and Z.

W …………………………………………………………………………………………
X …………………………………………………………………………………………
Y …………………………………………………………………………………………
Z …………………………………………………………………………………… [4]
(b) Draw arrows in the blood vessels to show the direction of blood flow.
(c) State two differences in the structure between blood vessel X and Y.
1. …………………………………………………………………………..…….………
2. …………………………………………………………………………..…….……… [2]
(d) State the function of the heart in blood circulation.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
32. The figure below shows part of the digestive system and its blood supply.

(a) Which blood vessels X, Y or Z carries blood at high pressure?

……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

292
 (b) On the diagram, show the direction of blood flow in vessel X. [1]
(c) Name a gas found in low concentration in the hepatic artery.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) State one structural difference between Y and Z.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
33. The figure below shows some stages which a white blood cell goes through
when carrying out its function.

(a) Name the type of white blood cell shown.

……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Describe what is happening in stage B.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Suggest why the bacteria have disappeared in stage C?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) Platelets, like white blood cells, protect the body against infection.
Describe how platelets carry out this function.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………..……………………………………………………… [2]
34. The figure below shows the exchange of materials between cells and blood.

(a) Name the component of blood that transports dissolved substances

around the body.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) (i) Name the fluid through which waste materials pass from the
body cells into the blood.
…………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(i) Explain how waste products move through this fluid from the
cell into the blood.
…………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) How does the structure of blood vessel C help in the removal of waste
materials?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

293
35. The figure below shows some parts of the digestive system.

(a) Identify blood vessel G.

……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Why is there a lesser amount of amino acids in the hepatic vein than
in vessel G?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Bile is an excretory product. State two advantages of releasing bile
into the duodenum.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
36. The figure below shows the liver, a section of the ileum and related blood
vessels.

(a) Identify the blood vessels P and Q.

P ………………………………………………………………………………………...
Q …………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) A man got lost and walked for two days without eating any food.
Describe how the cells of the man’s body obtained energy during his
two-day period.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [4]

294
37. To demonstrate uptake of water in plants Leon sucked water from a glass
using a straw as shown below.

(a) Explain why water moves up the straw when Leon sucks at the end.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) (i) Name the part of the vascular bundles represented by the
straw.
…………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Name the process occurring through the structure named
above.
…………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
38. The figure below shows changes in Lesley’s pulse rate immediately after
dancing.

(a) Describe the changes in pulse rate between 0 to 4 minutes.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………..…………….…………… [2]
(b) Explain why the pulse rate is high immediately after Lesley has
stopped dancing.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………..…………….…………… [2]

295
39. The figure below shows a set-up used to investigate the necessity of carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis.

(a) State the purpose of soda lime.

…………………………………………………………………..…………….…………… [1]
(b) Write a word equation for photosynthesis.
…………………………………………………………………..…………….…………… [1]
(c) State one factor, other than carbon dioxide, that is required for
photosynthesis to take place.
…………………………………………………………………..…………….…………… [1]
(d) The figure below is a graph showing the amount of oxygen released
by the plant.

Explain the shape of the graph from 0800 to 1200 hours.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………..…………….…………… [4]

296
 CONTROL OF THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
Cells in your body are bathed in tissue fluid. This is their environment. To allow the
cells to work efficiently, this environment must be kept constant. Glucose level,
temperature and water levels in the tissue fluid are carefully controlled. This is called
homeostasis.
Homeostasis means ‘staying similar’. It refers to the fact that the tissue fluid in the
body is kept within narrow limits. The concentration, acidity and temperature of this
fluid are being adjusted all the time to prevent any big changes.
If this internal environment, as it is called, were not constant, the chemical changes
that maintain life would become erratic and unpredictable.
The tissue fluid supplies cells with food and oxygen for their living chemistry. It also
removes unwanted substances produced by the cell’s metabolism.
Metabolism means the chemical changes taking place inside a cell or a living
organism.
Maintaining the internal environments ensures that the cells soaked in a liquid of
almost unvarying composition which provides them with the environment they need
and enables them to live in the most favourable conditions.
In all living cells, chemical reactions are controlled by enzymes. The enzymes are very
sensitive to the conditions in which they work. A slight fall in temperature or a rise in
acidity may stop an enzyme from working and thus prevent an important reaction from
taking place in the cell.
The skin regulates the temperature of the blood. If the cells were to get too cold, the
chemical reactions would become too slow to maintain life. If they become too hot,
the enzymes would be destroyed. Below is the structure of the skin.

297
SKIN FUNCTION
 Protection
The outermost layer of dead cells of the epidermis helps to reduce water loss
and provides a barrier against bacteria. The pigment cells protect the skin from
damage by the ultraviolet rays in sunlight. In coloured people, more melanin is
produced in response to exposure to sunlight, giving rise to a tan.
 Sensitivity
Scattered throughout the skin are a large numbers of tiny sense organ, which
give rise to sensational of touch, pressure, heat, cold and pain. These make us
aware of changes in our surroundings and enable us to take action.
 Temperature Regulation
The skin helps to keep the body temperature more or less constant. This is
done by adjusting the flow of blood near the skin surface and by sweating.
These processes are described more fully below:
Normal human body temperature varies between 35.8°C and 37.7°C. Temperature
below 34°C or above 40°C, if maintained for long, are considered dangerous. Different
body regions, e.g. the hands, feet, head or internal organs, will vary by only 1 or 2
degrees.
Heat is lost from the body surface by conduction, convection, radiation and
evaporation. Heat is gained, internally, from the process of respiration in the tissues
and, externally from the surroundings or from the sun.
In this ways, the body temperature remains at about 37°C. We also control our
temperature by adding or removing clothing or deliberately taking exercise. Whether
we feel hot or cold depends on the sensory nerve endings in the skin, which respond
to heat loss or gain.
OVERHEATING
If the blood’s temperature rises above normal, the thermoregulatory centre of the
hypothalamus detects this, impulses are sent to the skin to cool the blood. The skin
responds by;
 Vaso-dilation
The widening of the blood vessels in the dermis allows more warm blood to
flow near the skin surface and so lose more heat.
 Sweating
The sweat glands secrete sweat on to the skin surface. When this layer of liquid
evaporates, it takes heat (latent heat) from the body and cools it down.
 Skin hair
Hairs lie flat and allow heat to be lost from the skin.

298
OVERCOOLING
If the temperature of blood falls below normal, the hypothalamus in the brain detects
this, impulses are sent to the skin for the blood’s temperature to be increased. The
skin will respond by;
 Vaso-constriction
Narrowing (constriction) of the blood vessels in the skin reduces the amount
of warm blood flowing near the surface.
 Sweat production stops
Thus the heat loss by evaporation is reduced.
 Skin hair
Hair becomes erected therefore trapping a layer of air that insulates the skin.
 Shivering
Uncontrollable bursts of rapid muscular contraction in the limbs release heat
as a result of respiration in the muscles.

THE BRAIN
A part of the brain, called the hypothalamus, constantly monitors the temperature
of the blood which flows through it. If you have been doing a lot of exercise, the heat
released by your muscles will raise the temperature of your blood. If it is a very cold
day, loss of heat by radiation from your skin will lower the temperature of your blood.
If the hypothalamus detects an increase or decrease in blood temperature, it sends
impulses along nerves to various parts of your body, one of these parts is the skin and
muscles. If you are too cold, they will contract and relax very quickly (shivering). This
generates heat.
Water content is also monitored by the hypothalamus. The water content of the tissue
fluid is very important.
If there is not enough water in your blood, the hypothalamus sends messages to the
pituitary gland. The pituitary gland releases a hormone, called ADH (anti-diuretic
hormone) into the blood. The target organ for ADH is the kidneys. The kidneys
make urine by filtering out water and waste substances from the blood. ADH makes
the kidneys keep back most of the water. So they do not make as much urine as usual.
The water will stay in the blood, instead of being lost in urine.
If there is too much water, the hypothalamus detects this and stops signaling the
pituitary gland to secrete ADH. No ADH arrives at the kidneys, so they do not keep
back the water. The water is allowed to flow out of the kidneys, into the bladder. So
a lot of urine is produced.

299
 EXCRETION

Excretion is the removal of waste products of metabolism and/or toxic material from
organisms. The table below shows some excretory organs and products.

EXCRETORY O RGAN EXCRETORY PRODUCT

Lungs Carbon dioxide
Kidneys Nitrogenous waste, water toxins, used drugs, hormones
and excess salts.
Liver Bile pigments

THE URINARY SYSTEM

The kidneys are part of the human urinary system. The kidneys are fairly solid, oval
structures. They are red-brown, enclosed in a transparent membrane and attached to
the abdominal cavity. They filter the blood and remove any waste to form a substance
called urine.
The renal artery branches off from the aorta and brings oxygenated blood to the
kidneys. This blood is rich in food materials, oxygen and waste substances such as
urea.
The renal vein takes deoxygenated blood away from the kidneys to the vena cava. A
tube, called the ureter, runs from each kidney to the bladder in the lower part of the
abdomen.

Ureter
This is a tube that emerges from of the two kidneys and serves to transport urine
from kidneys to the bladder.
Bladder
It is a muscular organ that stores urine. It is kept closed by a ring of muscles called
sphincter muscles, which relax at certain times to let urine out of the bladder.
Urethra
It is a tube that carries urine to the outside of the body. In females it carries urine
only, whilst in males it transports both urine & semen but at different times.

300
STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY AND NEPHRON
The kidney tissue consists of many capillaries and tubes, called renal tubules, held
together with connective tissue. If the kidney is cut down its length, (sectioned), it is
seen to have an outer region called the cortex and an inner zone, the medulla.
Where the ureter joins the kidney there is a space called pelvis.

Blood is brought to the kidney in the renal artery. It contains a lot of waste chemicals
including urea. The renal artery branches many times, each branch ends in a bunch of
capillaries called a glomerulus.
The glomerulus is inside a part of the nephron called the Bowman’s capsule.
Filtration takes place in the glomerulus – as the blood passes through each glomerulus
under high pressure, it is filtered (ultrafiltration). Large molecules, like blood proteins,
are too big to pass through the filter. Wastes and some useful molecules such as
glucose, salts and water are filtered out of the glomerulus and into the nephron.
All the glucose, some salts and water are needed by the body, they therefore have to
be selectively reabsorbed back into the blood from the nephron.
What is left is urea and waste salts dissolved in water - this is now urine which flows
down the ureter to the bladder. The ‘cleaned’ blood leaves the kidney in the renal vein.

301
THE DIALYSIS MACHINE (‘ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY’)
A person’s kidneys sometimes stop working, perhaps because of an infection, disease or from
an accident involving a drop in blood pressure. If only one kidney is affected, then the person
can manage well with just one. But if both kidneys fail, then urgent treatment is needed.
The best long-term solution to kidney failure is a transplant. If both kidneys fail, the patient’s
blood composition has to be regulated by a dialysis machine. Similarly, the accident victim
can be kept alive on a dialysis machine until his or her blood pressure is restored. A dialysis
machine, or kidney machine, filters a person’s blood in a similar way to a real kidney.
In principle, a dialysis machine consists of a long cellulose tube coiled up in a water bath. The
patient’s blood is lead from a vein in the arm and pumped through the cellulose (dialysis)
tubing.

The small pores in the dialysis tubing allow small molecules, such as those of salts, glucose
and urea, to leak out into the water bath. Blood cells and protein molecules are too large to
get through the pores. This is similar to the filtration process in the glomerulus.
As blood flows along the tubes, small molecules and ions such as glucose, urea, water, sodium
and chloride are able to pass through. Because there is no urea in the dialysis fluid, all of the
urea moves out of the blood and into the fluid, down the concentration gradient.
To prevent a loss of glucose and essential salts from the blood, the liquid in the water bath
consists of a solution of salts and sugar of the correct composition, so that only the substances
above this concentration can diffuse out of the blood into the bathing solution. Thus, urea,
uric acid and excess salts are removed. The dialysis fluid contains glucose; there is no
concentration gradient for glucose, so the blood does not lose its glucose as it passes through
the machine.
The bathing solution is also kept at body temperature and is constantly changed as the
unwanted blood solutes accumulate in it. The blood is then returned to the patient’s arm vein.
With this treatment, and carefully controlled diet, the patient can lead a fairly normal life. A
kidney transplant however, is a better solution because the patient is not obliged to return to
the dialysis machine.

302
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figure below shows the human urinary system.

(a) On the figure, label structure Y.

(b) State the function of structure Z.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Structure X forms part of the endocrine system.
State the effect of the hormone released by structure X on the heart.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) Name the hormone that is released in large quantities when someone has
eaten a meal rich in carbohydrates.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

2. The figure below shows a section of the human skin.

(a) Identify the parts labelled R and S.

R …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
S ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

303
 (b) Describe how S and T help in temperature regulation in hot conditions.
S …………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………….…………………………….……………. [2]
T …………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………….…………………………….……………. [2]
(c) Suggest the function of R in mammals like dogs.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(d) Explain how the human body benefits from sweating during hot and dry days.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]

3. The figure below shows a diagram of a kidney dialysis machine.

Blood from a patient with kidney failure is passed through the kidney dialysis machine.
(a) (i) Name one substance other than water that should be present in the dialysis
fluid.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………... [1]
(ii) Explain why the substance named in (a)(i) should be in the dialysis fluid.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………... [1]
(b) Explain why
(i) Blood proteins will not diffuse through dialysis tubing.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) The dialysis tubing is coiled in the dialysis machine.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Suggest the dietary advice that should be given to the patient in between treatments.
………....………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
4. The table below shows the amount of some substances in the blood that flows through
the renal artery and renal vein.

Substance Amount in blood in renal Amount in blood in renal

artery vein
Oxygen 100.0 35.0
Glucose 10.0 9.5
Sodium salts 32.0 31.0
Urea 3.0 0.5
Water 180.0 178.0

304
 (a) (i) Describe and explain the changes in the amount of glucose between the renal
artery and renal vein.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………... [3]
(ii) Suggest a reason for the difference in the amount of urea in the renal artery
and renal vein.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………... [2]
(b) A person with kidney failure receives regular dialysis treatment.
Explain how
(i) The loss of plasma proteins and red blood cells is prevented.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(ii) The normal blood glucose concentration is maintained.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
5. The human skin is involved in the process of maintaining a constant body temperature.
(a) (i) What is the name given to the processes that maintain a constant internal
environment within the body?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) The flow chart shows how impulses are transmitted from skin receptors to
effectors when the temperature is above normal body temperature.
Complete the flow chart to show how two effectors in the skin respond to those
impulses.
Effector 1 ………………….
High temperature Brain receives impulses Response ………………….
detected by and sends impulses to
temperature receptors effectors in skin Effector 2 ………………….
Response ………………….
[4]
(b) The figure below is a graph showing how a person’s body temperature changes over
a period of time.

305
 Explain the changes that are taking place in the body between P and Q.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………….……………………………….……………. [3]
6. The figure below shows the urinary system of a human.

(a) Name the structure A, B, E and F.

A …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
B …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
E …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
F ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [4]
(b) What is the function of C?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) How does the function of structure D in a woman differ from that in a man?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(d) Suggest the medical assistance given to a person who has structure A failure.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
7. The figure below shows a longitudinal section of a kidney.

(a) Name the parts labelled N and O.

N …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
O …………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Two hours after a heavy meal, fluid samples were taken from tubes K, L, M,
and analyzed for concentration of water and urea.

306
 Using the words high, low or absent, complete the table to show how the
concentration of water and urea compare in the tubes. Water has been done
for you.
Substance K L M
Water High Low High
Urea
(c) State two ways in which the kidneys contributes to homeostasis.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]

8. The figure below shows blood vessels in the skin.

When a person carries out vigorous exercise, there is a change in the capillary in the skin.
(a) (i) On the figure, show how the capillary would change if vigorous exercise is
carried out. [1]
(ii) Explain how the change you have shown helps in regulating body
temperature.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….…………. [2]
(b) Describe the role of the following skin structures in cooling the body.
(i) Hair: …………………………………………………………………………………………………
……….………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(iii) Sweat glands: ……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(iii) Receptors: …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(c) What causes shivering?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(d) Describe how temperature is regulated by the arterioles in a hot day.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………............. [3]

307
 RESPONSE AND CO - ORDINATION
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord and a network of nerves that covers
all parts of the body. It helps the different parts of the body to communicate and allows the
brain control what is going on in the outside world.

RESPONSE AND COORDINATION

Coordination is a process by which an organism’s activities are organized to increase its
chances of survival. Coordination is enhanced by the nervous system and the endocrine
system. The nervous system has three primary functions;
 To collect information about conditions outside and inside the body
 To process and analyze this information
 To coordinate an appropriate response
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The brain and spinal cord make up what is called the central nervous system.
A nerve impulse is an electrical charge passing through a nerve. Nerve cells are also called
neurons. The impulse begins at a sense organ, and then it travels through neurones to the
CNS, rather like a current passing from a battery around a circuit.
The main types of nerves are;
 Sensory neurone – This is a nerve cell which receive stimulus and changes it to an
impulse and conveys the impulse to the Central Nervous System, (CNS)
 Motor neurone – This is a nerve cell which takes impulses from the CNS to the
effector organs, e.g. muscles and glands
 Relay neurone – connects the sensory neurone and the motor neurone together.

FIVE (5) KEY EVENTS IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

(i) Receptor cells in sense organ detect a stimulus.
(ii) Nerve impulse travel through a sensory neurone to the CNS
(iii) Nerve impulse travel through a relay neurone inside the CNS
(iv) Nerve impulse travel through a motor neurone to reach an effector organ
(v) The effector organ responds, e.g. muscle contracts

308
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SENSORY AND MOTOR NEURONES
Feature Sensory Neurone Motor Neurone
Cell body  It is located to the side of the  It is terminal with dendrites
nerve fibre projections from its surface
 It has a smooth surface without
dendrites
Nerve fibre  It has both the Axon and  It only has the Axon
Dendron

Nerve  Its nerve endings are attached to  Its nerve endings are attached
endings sensory organs to the effector organ.

There are two types of nerve pathways;

 Voluntary – using the brain and the body to take conscious action.
 Reflexes (involuntary) – quick automatic response to a stimulus which requires
no thinking. i.e. the spinal cord (and not the brain) is involved in sorting out the
best response

309
The nervous pathway of a reflex action is known as a reflex arc, and it allows for a rapid
response to a stimulus.
Example; Knee jerk

1. The stimulus is a tap on the knee

2. Receptor cells in the muscle detect the stimulus.
3. An impulse is conveyed along the sensory neurone to the spinal cord
4. In the spinal cord the impulse is on to the motor neurone
5. The motor neurone then conveys the impulse from the spinal cord to the effector
organ; muscles of the leg.
6. The muscles respond by contracting and so the lower leg jerks up
Reflex Action Voluntary action
The response is very rapid The response may be slow
Nerve impulses take the shortest route Nerve impulses take a long route
Spinal cord is involved Brain is involved
Effectors are muscles & glands Effectors are muscles only

FUNCTIONS OF THE SPINAL CORD

 It conducts sensory impulses from the muscles to the brain
 It carries motor impulses from the brain to the trunk limbs
 It is responsible for reflex actions involving body structures below the neck

The Pituitary gland

The gland produces many hormones, some of which act on the endocrine glands stimulating
them to produce their own hormones. Examples;
 Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) – acts on the kidney to regulate the amount of water
reabsorbed in the kidney tubules
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) – which makes the follicle in the ovary to become
mature and produce oestrogen
 Thyroid Stimulating hormone (TSH) – acts on the thyroid gland and makes it produce
thyroxine

310
 HORMONAL CO-ORDINATION
A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland, carried in the blood, which alters
the activity of one or more specific target organs.
The glands are found in different areas of the endocrine system of the human body as shown
below.

The table below shows some examples of different endocrine glands and the hormones they
produce.
GLAND HORMONE
Thyroid Thyroxin
Adrenal Adrenaline
Pancreas Insulin, glucagon
Testis Testosterone
Ovaries Oestrogen, Progesterone
Pituitary ADH - Antidiuretic Hormone
FSH - Follicle Stimulating Hormone
TSH - Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

FUNCTION OF INSULIN
Insulin regulates the amount of glucose level in the blood – when the blood glucose level is
high it stimulates the liver cells to take up glucose from the blood and convert it glycogen and
stored.
FUNCTION OF GLUCAGON
It raises the blood glucose level when it is low by stimulating the liver cells to convert the
stored glycogen to glucose.

311
FUNCTIONS OF ADRENALINE
This is commonly known as Flight or Fight hormone because it prepares the body for action.
It has the following affects;
- It increases the rate and depth of breathing.
- It increases the rate of heart beat
- Constricts the blood vessels carrying the blood to the gut and skin hence diverting
more blood to the muscles
- It also promotes the conversion of the stored glycogen to glucose to raise blood sugar
level. (therefore functions like glucagon)
The above mentioned effects help to provide more glucose & more oxygen to the working
muscles.
FUNCTION OF TESTOSTERONE
- It controls the production and development of sperms
- Regulates the development of the male secondary sexual characteristics e.g.
enlargement of sex organs, growth of facial hair (beard), muscle enlargement,
deepening of the voice etc.

FUNCTIONS OF OESTROGEN
- It is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females,
e.g. armpit and pubic hair, development of breasts, broadening of hips, enlargement
of vagina etc.
- It prepares the uterus for implantation by making its lining thicker and rich in blood
vessels

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE NERVOUS AND THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS

NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Information passes as electrical impulses Information passes as a chemical substances
(hormone)
Transmission is through the nerves Transmission is through the blood

Rapid Transmission & immediate Slow transmission & usually slow response
responses e.g. blinking of the eye e.g. growth
The response is short lived The response is long lasting

The response is exact since impulses are The response is usually widespread because
sent directly to target organs hormones are dispersed throughout the body

312
 THE USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS

DRUGS
A drug is any substance taken in from an external source to affect or modify chemical reactions
in the body.
It is a chemical substance that alters / changes the normal function of the body by creating
physical, mental, emotional or behavioral change in the user.

REASONS FOR USING DRUGS

Drugs are used mainly for the following reasons:
 Relief pain
 Give excessive energy
 To get pleasure / euphoria (ecstasy)
 To improve performances
 To cure diseases
The use of drugs can be categorized into two;
1. Non –medicinal purpose
2. Medicinal purpose
Non – Medicinal Drugs
 Tobacco
 Nicotine
 Cocaine
 Mandrax
 Heroine
 Marijuana
Medicinal Drugs
 Antibiotics – drugs that cure bacterial diseases. These are obtained from other
organisms e.g. penicillin
 Anti-acids – these are drugs taken to neutralize excess stomach acid.
 Painkillers – these are drugs taken to alleviate pain or suppress the parts of the
brain that sense pain; e.g. aspirin, morphine.
 Sedatives – these are drugs used to calm down a person, or suppress their
emotions (tranquilizers)

DRUG DEPENDENCE
Frequent use of a drug causes the body to develop resistance to the effect of the drug. This
leads to the use of increased dosages of the drug to get the same effect. Eventually this leads
to drug dependence – inability of the body systems to function normally without the drug.
 Emotional Dependence
The user is emotionally attached to the drug and develops a craving for the drug
whenever it is taken. Withdrawal symptoms are not physical but normally emotional.
Examples - loss of temper, headaches and nausea.
Drugs that cause emotional dependence include nicotine.

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  Physical Dependence
The user develops physical withdrawal symptoms when the drug is withdrawn. This
form of dependence is called addiction and the withdrawal symptoms include; violent
shaking, hallucinations, nausea, headaches.
Drugs that leads to this condition include; cocaine, heroine etc
DRUG TOLERANCE
Frequent use of a drug causes the body to develop resistance to the effect of the drug. This
leads to the use of increased dosages of the drug to get the same effect and eventually
culminate in drug dependence. Drug dependence builds up to drug tolerance.
DRUG ABUSE
Mostly this is done with drugs that affect the nervous system, mainly the brain.
STIMULANTS
These are drugs that speed up the reactions of the nervous system and make the user more
alert, e.g. nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines.
DEPRESSANTS / SEDATIVE
They slow down the reactions of the nervous system and the brain and cause one to become
sleepy. They suppress the brain and cause relief from emotional tension and anxiety e.g.
alcohol, valium etc.
HALLUCINOGENS
These are drugs that make one to hear, feel or see things that do not really exist e.g. cannabis
(marijuana) and inhalants like glue.
ALCOHOL
Alcohol is one of the most abused drugs. It a depressant, i.e. it slows down brain activity and
lowers blood pressure. It also slows down transmission of nerve impulses thereby;
 Increasing reaction time.
 Reduced self control
 Affects coordination of all senses e.g. sight (double vision), feeling (false sensation of
warmth due to dilation of arteries below skin).
 Inability to perform activities requiring skill, e.g. writing
Alcohol destroys the liver on a long term basis and result in a disease called Liver Cirrhosis.
Then the liver will no longer detoxify, deaminate and balance blood glucose. This leads to
death. It also affects the kidneys.
Social Implications
 Impoverish families because a lot of money is used to buy alcohol.
 Loss of social dignity

ALLERGIC REACTIONS
An allergic reaction is an unusual reaction to any substance. A substance that causes an
allergic reaction is called an allergen. Example allergens are drugs, food, dust particles, pollen
grains.
Symptoms of Allergic Reactions
 Running nose
 Breathing difficulties
 Rash
 Oedema (unexplained swellings)

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 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figure below shows the effect of alcohol on human reaction time.

(a) To which type of drugs does alcohol belong?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) From the figure above, state the reaction time of the person without alcohol
in the blood.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) What conclusion can be drawn from the figure?
…………………………………………………………….……………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) State one long term effect of excessive intake of alcohol.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

2. The figure below shows a relationship of receptor, neurone and effector organ.

Central nervous system

Neurone A Neurone B

Receptor Effector

(a) Name the neurone in the central nervous system that links neurones A and
B.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) A person touches a hot plate and quickly removes his hand.
Name the receptor and effector in this action.
Receptor: ………………………………………………………………………………………………
Effector: ……………..…………………………………………………….……………………… [2]
(c) How is the mode of transmission of messages above different from hormonal
transmission?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

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3. Diabetic people often experience low blood sugar, a condition known as hypoglycaemia.
They can experience this if they are injected with too much insulin, they have a late meal
or they exercise too much.

(a) Name the gland that secretes insulin in the body.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Explain why there can be too little sugar in the blood if the person exercises
too much.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….………………………….. [3]
(c) Suggest why insulin can only be injected into the patient but cannot be taken
orally.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………..…………………. [2]
(d) Explain why too much insulin results in the low blood sugar (hypoglycaemia)
…………………….……………………………………………………………………………..…………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
4. The figure below shows some endocrine glands in the body.

(a) On the figure, label:

 An ovary
 The pituitary gland
(b) Explain how the hormone from gland X may affect blood glucose level.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………….………………………….. [3]
(c) Explain how the body responds to a meal rich in carbohydrates after digested
food is absorbed into the blood.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………..………………………………………….………………………….. [4]

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5. The figure below shows the position of some endocrine glands in the body.

(a) Complete the table below to identify the gland and the hormones they
secrete.
Gland Hormone
A
B
D
[3]
(b) Describe the effect of a named hormone from gland C on blood sugar level.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
6. The figure below shows a simple reflex arc.

(a) Name the neurons labelled X, Y and Z.

X ……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Y ……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Z ……………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
(b) On the neurons X, Y and Z show by arrows, the direction of movement of
nervous impulses. [1]
(c) Define reflex action.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

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7. Kenanao visited a doctor complaining of stomach upset. After diagnosis the doctor said he
suspected a bacterial infection and production of too much acid in the stomach. The doctor
prescribed two types of drugs.
(a) Which types of drug would the doctor prescribe for each problem?
(i) For the bacterial infection …………………………………………………………………………....
(ii) For the excess acid …………………………………………………………………………....[2]
(b) The doctor advised that the treatment for the bacterial infection should be taken as
prescribed until it finished.
Suggest two reasons for this.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
8. The figure below shows the pathway taken by an impulse in a reflex action.

(a) Identify structure Y.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) On the neurons draw arrows to show the direction in which impulses travel at
X and Z.
(c) What is the role of the effector?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

9. (a) Define hormone.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(b) Complete the table below to show hormones, their sources and their functions.
Hormone Source Function in the body

(i) ………………………………… Pancrease (ii) …….…………………………………

(iii) ………………………………… Adrenal Prepares body for action

gland
[3]
10. Adrenaline prepares the body for action.
(a) (i) Name the gland that produces adrenaline.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) State one condition under which adrenaline would be produced.

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 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Describe how adrenaline prepares the body for action.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
(c) State a target organ that is common to both adrenaline and insulin.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) Suggest why people who do not produce enough insulin need to eat
frequently?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
11. The figure below shows how two hormones A and B control the levels of glucose in
the blood.

(a) Identify hormone A and B.

A ……………………………………………………………………………………..……………………
B …………………………….……………………………………………………….……………… [2]
(b) Name the gland that produces hormones A and B.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) How does the presence of hormones A lead to the drop in glucose level?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

12. The figure below shows a motor neurone.

(a) Identify structure A and C.

A …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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 B ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) How does the myelin sheath help the motor neurone to carry out its functions?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Suggest how lack of oxygen could affect the operation of the cell membrane of the
motor neurone. Explain your answer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]

13. The figure below shows pathways, A and B, of two systems of coordination in the
body.

(a) Which pathway represents the nervous system?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Complete the table below to show the differences between pathways A and B.
A B

Nature of message …….…………………….……… ………….….……………………………

Speed of message
transmission …….…………………….……… ………….….……………………………

Duration of response …….…………………….……… ………….….……………………………

[3]

(c) Kago was excited and his blood glucose level started to rise.
Explain why there was a rise in the blood glucose level.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [4]
14. (a) Define a drug.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(b) The figure shows a bottle containing whisky.

(i) Identify the drug contained in the whisky.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) State two effects of this drug in the body.
1. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) A person continues taking a drug until he can no longer do without it. Which term
describes this conditions?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
15. State two functions of the spinal cord.
10. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
11. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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16. The figure below illustrates the changes in adrenaline concentration in blood before,
during and after a 100 metres race.

(a) (i) Describe what happens to the adrenaline concentration between 4

and 12 seconds.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Suggest three effects of the change above on the muscles.
1. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. ………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
(b) (i) Name a hormone which has a similar effect to adrenaline, but is usually acts
for a longer period of time.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(iii) When is the hormone named above secreted in larger amounts?
………………………………….…………………………………………………………………… [1]

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 REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the process by which new individual organisms are produced from their
‘parents’ organisms. There are two types of reproduction;
 Asexual Reproduction
 Sexual reproduction

Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is the process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring
from one parent.
It can also be defined as the reproduction in which new organisms are formed from a single
parent without a gamete reproduction. This is reproduction without fertilization i.e. no fusion
of gametes. The offspring from asexual reproduction are genetically identical to each other
and to the parent organism and are referred to as clones.

EXAMPLES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

1. Budding – it is form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism is produced as
an outgrowth. The outgrowth is later released as a self-supporting, identical copy of
the parent. Most roses are propagated by budding on suitable wood stock. Another
example is hydra, a simple of animal.

2. Fragmentation / Regeneration – It is the breaking of an organism into two or

more parts, each of which grows to form a new individual. This form of asexual
reproduction is common among less differentiated animals. Less differentiated animals
retain strong powers of regeneration from undifferentiated cells. Some animals
undergo accidental fragmentation. E.g. starfish and flatworms.

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3. Vegetative propagation – It is a form of asexual reproduction in which relatively
large, usually differentiated part of a plant body becomes and develops into an
independent plant. Specialized structures often develop for this purpose, including
bulbs (modified shoot), corms (a shoot swollen vertically underground stem),
rhizomes, stolons and tubers.

4. Cutting – the cutting of about 20cm is trimmed at the base just below a joint and
inserted firmly in good moist soil or water. Most plant e.g. roses are propagated
through cutting

5. Grafting – a bid / shoot from the plant is inserted under the bark on the stem of
another closely related variety. The bud then grows using water and nutrients supplied
by the other plant, mostly suitable for propagation of apple trees, pear trees, rubber
trees etc.

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 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction is the process involving the fusion of nuclei from two different gametes
to form a zygote.

REPRODUCTIVE PARTS OF A FLOWER

A flower is the reproductive organ for flowering plants. It is made up of two main parts. The
male part called stamen and the female part called the pistil or carpel.
The stamen is made up of the filament and the anther while the pistil is made up of the
stigma, style, ovary and ovules. Below is the structure of a flower:

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF A FLOWER

Parts Functions
Anther Produces the male sex cells (pollen grains)
Filament Supports the anther
Stigma Receives pollen grains
Style Directs and guide pollen towards ovules
Ovary Produces female sex cells (ovules)
Petals Encloses parts of the flower and also attracts insects
Sepals Protect the flower while in the bud stage
Stalk Attaches and holds the flower to the rest of the plant

POLLINATION
Pollination is the transference of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. There are two
types of pollination:
 Self – pollination – the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma in the
same flower, or the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma of another
flower on the same plant.
 Cross – pollination - the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
another flower of the same species.

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 Self-pollination Cross-pollination
Happens within the same plant Happens in different plants of the same species

AGENTS OF POLLINATION
Agents of pollination are things that helps carry pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
There are two agents of pollination being wind and insects.
Flowers that are insect pollinated differ from those that are wind pollinated. The table below
shows some differences between insect and wind pollinated flowers:
Parts of a flower Wind pollinated Insect pollinated
Small Big
Petals Dull coloured Brightly coloured
No nectar or scent Have a scent and nectar
Long and feathery Are straight and stiff
Stigma Hangs out the flower Inside petals
Hang loosely outside the Stiff, firmly attached and closed
Anther and filament petals. in petals.

FERTILISATION
Fertilisation refers to the process through which the male sex cells fuses with the female sex
cells. This happens after a successful pollination.
The diagrams below shows the steps involved in fertilization:

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After fertilization, a zygote is produced which grows into an embryo. The embryo is contained
in a seed. This seed is formed from ovules. The seed is also contained in a fruit that formed
from the ovary. After fertilization the petals dry up and fall off leaving the ovary to develop
into the fruit and ovules into the seeds.
Below is a diagram of a seed.

The fertilized egg (ovule) develops into an embryo. The embryo has plumule (which develops
into shoot) and a radicle (which develops into roots). The embryo is found enclosed in seeds.

Functions of Parts
1. Testa {seed coat} – this is the tough outer cover in seeds. It protects the embryo from
physical damage.
2. Cotyledon - this is where food is stored for the embryo. Non Endospermic seeds
(dicots) have two cotyledons. Endospermic seeds have one cotyledon
3. Micropyle – it is an opening left by the pollen tube on the testa. It allows water and
Oxygen (O2) needed for germination to enter the seed.
4. Embryo is made of the;
 Plumule – which develops into the shoot during germination
 Radicle – which grows in the root system

Environmental Conditions For Germination

The following conditions must be present in order for seeds to germinate;
 Water
Adequate water is needed for germination to start & continue. Excess water prevents
germination by probably excluding oxygen. The forces exerted by the accumulation of
water into the seed may eventually rapture the testa. Water is also required to activate
the biochemical reactions associated with germination because these take place in
solution.
 Oxygen
It is required for aerobic respiration. The energy released is used to run chemical
reactions within the cells of the embryo during its period of growth.
 Suitable Temperature
This will make enzymes to be activated thus chemical reactions will occur at the highest
rate to make new cells. Each species of seeds have an optimum temperature for
germination; (50C – 400C) is the temperature range suitable for seed germination.

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THE ROLE OF ENZYMES IN SEED GERMINATION
In the early stages of germination, the food reserves in the cotyledons mostly starch and
proteins are acted upon by enzymes and converted to soluble products which pass to, and
are used by the actively growing regions where protoplasms are being made. Glucose is
formed from the stored starch and being used in various ways; e.g. In the synthesis of
cellulose and incorporated into cell walls and in the process of respiration to generate energy
needed in the growing regions.

SEED DISPERSAL
Seed dispersal is the process through which seeds are scattered away from their parent plant.
Seed dispersal is important because it prevents competition from water, sunlight and mineral
salts. Seeds are dispersed through;

 Water  Wind
 Animals  Self.

ANIMAL DISPERSAL
Seed that are animal dispersed often have the following characteristics to help them to be
carried away by animals.
 The look fleshy, taste and are edible.
 Usually have hooks.

WIND DISPERSAL
Seed that are dispersed by wind often have the following characteristics which make them to
be easily carried away by wind.
 They are very light in weight.
 Have wing-like structures
 Have parachute-like shape

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SELF - DISPERSAL
Seed that are usually self-dispersed have the following characteristics so that they can shoot
away seeds.
 Contained in pods
 The pods have a spring-like mechanism through which they throw away seeds.

WATER - DISPERSAL
Water dispersal seeds have the following characteristics:
 Have water-proof shells
 Have light weight shell that trap air and enable it to float in water.

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 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS
Reproduction is the process by which organisms produce new ones. In humans, a male and
female are required for reproduction to occur. The parts of the male and female body which
are involved in producing new babies are called the reproductive systems.
The male and female reproductive systems produce special cells that join and form a new
organism. The cells are known as the sex cells or gametes.

SEX CELLS/GAMETES
The sex cells are produced by the male and female reproductive systems. The ovaries produce
ovum (ova) which is the female sex cell/gamete and the testes (testis) produce sperm which
is the male sex cell.
The ovum and the sperm have to fuse for reproduction to take place.
The table below outlines the difference between an ovum and a sperm.

Ovum Sperm

Ovum is the female sex cell
One (1) ovum released at a time
Large round cells
Cannot move on its own
Bigger than the sperm cells
Sperm is the male sex cell
Millions of sperms released every ejaculation
Has a head and a tail (like tadpole)
Can move on its own
Are very smaller than the ova

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THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Part Function
Scrotum A special sac outside the abdominal cavity containing or holding testes.
At this position testes are kept at a temperature slightly below the body
temperature. This is the best temperature for sperm production.
Testes They produce sperms and the hormone testosterone
Epididymis Store sperms
Sperm duct carry sperms from the testes to the urethra
Prostate gland It secretes a fluid that activates and feed sperms (seminal fluids.)
Urethra It carries urine and semen (fluid containing sperms) out of the male’s
body at different times.
Penis It is used to deposit sperms into the female’s vagina during sexual
intercourse.

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THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Part Function
Ovaries It produces the ova, and the hormones oestrogen and progesterone.
Oviduct The tube through which the ova pass when released from the ovary and guides
the ova to the uterus. It is also a region where fertilisation takes place. It is also
called fallopian tube.
Uterus The region where the embryo is implanted after fertilization in the oviduct. It is
where the embryo attaches and develops. It is also called womb.
Cervix A ring of muscle closing the lower end of the uterus where it joins the vagina.
It closes the womb. It dilates / widens during child birth.
Vagina It accommodates (receives) the penis during sexual intercourse. It is where
sperms are deposited from the male and also serves as a birth canal (the
passage through which the baby leaves the womb.)

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THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
The menstrual cycle is made up of up to five main stages. These are ovulation, fertile period,
premenstrual period, menstruation and post menstruation.
The diagram below shows the menstrual cycle:

 OVULATION
This is the period when an ovum is released from an ovary. It usually happens around
the 14th day after menstruation.
When ovulation is about to take place, the uterus (womb) prepares to receive the
ovum in case it gets fertilized.
Fertilisation happens when a sperm and an ovum meet and fuse together to form a
new person. It takes place in an oviduct/fallopian tube.
 FERTILE PERIOD
This is between day 13 and 16 after menstruation. At this period a woman would most
likely get pregnant when she has unprotected sexual intercourse hence, called fertile
period.
 PREMENSTRUAL PHASE
This is between day 17 and 27 after menstruation. At this stage the thickness of the
uterus lining is maintained but the ovum will unlikely to be fertilized. This is a safe
period.
 MENSTRUATION
Menstruation or ‘having a period’ is often accompanied by period pains, because the
muscles of the uterus contract. This is a period when the lining of the uterus breaks
and blood flows out of the vagina together with the unfertilized ovum. It last for around
5 days from day 1 and only happens every after 28 days when the ovum is unfertilized.
 REPAIR OR POST MENSTRUAL PHASE
This is between day 6 and 12. It is the period when the lining of the uterus is being
repaired and the ovum is still developing in the uterus. It is also a safe period as
fertilization is unlikely.

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EFFECT OF DIET ON MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Females are advised to eat food rich in iron as they loose a lot of blood during menstruation.
Females lacking iron miss periods during certain months and some may eventually become
anaemic. These kind of people are normally given iron supplements in the form of tablets and
advised to eat lots of green vegetables to gain iron.

EFFECT OF EMOTIONAL STATE ON MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Anxiety, stress and excitement may result in a female having her menstrual periods earlier
than normal.

FERTILIZATION
Fertilization refers to the process by which the male sex cell (sperms) fuses with the female
sex cells (ova).
The fertilized egg is called a zygote. The zygote cell then moves down the fallopian tube and
as it moves, it divides to form two cells, then four cells, then eight cells and so on until a solid
ball of cells called morula is formed.
The morula reaches the uterus and keeps dividing to form a hollow ball of cells called a
blastula or blastocyst which then develops into an embryo. The embryo will continue to
grow and develop to become the foetus for the rest of the pregnancy.
Below are diagrams showing the developmental stages of an embryo:

EXTRA- EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES

Immediately after fertilisation the zygote moves to the uterus where it attaches itself in walls
of the uterus. This is called implantation.

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Once implantation is complete, the embryo develops within the walls of the uterus. The
developments include the development of:
 Placenta
 Umbilical cord
 Amniotic sac
 The amniotic fluid

Placenta

PART FUNCTIONS
Placenta It allows for the exchange of substances between the baby and the
mother. Also attaches the baby to the mother.
Umbilical cord It connects the embryo to the placenta. It also transports substances
between the baby and the placenta.
Amniotic sac It surrounds and holds the baby in place. It also produces amniotic fluid.
Amniotic fluid It acts like a cushion that protects the embryo from external shocks.

MULTIPLE BIRTHS
This refers to the process whereby two or more babies who have been developing in the same
womb at the same time are born.
This happens when two or more ova are released from the ovary at the same time and both
fertilized leading to fraternal twins.
It can also happen when one ovum is released, fertilized and then break into two separate
cells which grow and develop into identical twins.
The diagrams below shows how fraternal and identical twins are formed:

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METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL
A couple that is not ready to have children have to use methods of preventing pregnancy.
These are, called contraceptives or methods of birth control. Below are some
contraceptives and their advantages and disadvantages:

METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Abstinence  No chance of  It is not easy for people to
pregnancy abstain from sex.
 Protect against  May cause tension in
STIs relationships.

NATURAL
METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Withdrawal  Unreliable
 Does not protect against
STIs
Rhythm (safe period)  Unreliable
 Does not protect against
STIs
MECHANICAL/PHYSICAL
METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
IUD or Loop  Can last longer  Must be inserted by doctor.
 Highly effective  Does not protect against
STIs

Condom  Protect against  Must be put on before each

STIs sex act.
 Have no side  May reduce sensitivity
effects

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Diaphragm  Can protect cervix  Does not protect against
against infection STIs
 Has no side effects  Best when used with
spermicidal creams

CHEMICAL/ HORMONAL
METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Pill  Reliable  Does not protect against
 Easy to use STIs
 Possible side effect

Spermicides  Increase the  May cause allergic to

effectiveness of women.
condom and  Does not protect against
diaphragm. STIs
 Easy to use

Injection  Highly effective  May cause side effects

 Helps relieve  Does not protect against
women from period STIs
pains

SURGICAL
METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Sterilization  Very effective  Does not protect against
STIs
 Cannot be reversed
(permanent)

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SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) are diseases that are transmitted (passed) from one
infected person to another through unprotected sexual intercourse. The infections are caused
by micro-organisms or microbes. These include, Bacteria, viruses and Fungi
Note that some STIs can also be transmitted through other means such as blood transfusion
and sharing dirty or infected needles.
The table below shows some STIs, their signs, transmission, and treatment:

INFECTION CAUSE SIGN TRANSMISSION TREATMENT

Syphilis Bacteria  Painless sores Sexual contact Antibiotics
called chancres and through
 Body rush blood
Gonorrhoea Bacteria  Painful urination Sexual contact Antibiotics
 Discharge from
penis or vagina
Thrush Fungi  Swollen, painful or Sexual contact, Fungal cream
itching genitals water and air
 White patches on
the mouth and
tongue
Genital Virus  Painful blister-like Sexual contact No cure
herpes sores on genitals and contact with
and mouth sores.
 Burning sensation
during urination.

AIDS
Cause
It is caused by a virus called Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
Transmission
 Unprotected sexual contact
 Mixing of infected blood with a non-infected one, e.g. by blood transfusion, sharing
unsterilized sharp instruments like needles and blades.
 Mother to child during pregnancy or breast feeding
Treatment
AIDS has no treatment; however, its unpleasant effects can be alleviated through the use of
antiretroviral therapy.
Prevention & Control
 Abstinence
 Using a condom during sexual contact
 Avoid sharing needles & blades
 Screening of blood before transfusion

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 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figure below shows the male reproductive system.

(a) Name structure Q.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) State the function of structure P.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Which part P, Q or R is usually irritated during early stages of gonorrhea?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) Syphilis is another sexually transmitted disease.
Give two signs or symptoms of syphilis.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(e) State how syphilis is treated.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

2. (a) Complete the table below showing features of parts of a flower and types of
pollination.

Part Feature Type of pollination

Petals Insect pollination
Stigma Feathery stigma
[2]
(b) Explain why some flowers have feathery stigma.
……………………………………………………………………….……………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

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3. The figure below shows a developing mammalian foetus.

(a) On the figure above, label structure X. [1]

(b) State the function of structure Y.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Below is a figure showing a cross section through structure X.

(i) Which blood vessel is a vein?

…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(ii) Give a reason for your answer above.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(iii) Name two substances transported in high concentration in blood
vessel Q.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………... [2]

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4. The figure below shows the female part of a flower after pollination.

(a) On the figure above, label structures P and Q. [2]

(b) Mark with an X the position where the female gamete is found. [1]
(c) Describe the process that occurs after pollination and finishes when
fertilization takes place.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [3]
(d) What does part Q become after fertilization?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

5. The figure below shows the development of a zygote into a foetus.

(a) (i) Name the process that results in the formation of a zygote.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) In which part of the female reproductive system is structure F found?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) (i) State the name of structure labelled J.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) A pregnant woman was found to have her foetus not growing well and
the foetus moving less than expected.
Suggest how the malfunctioning of structure J may have led to this.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]

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6. The figure below shows a longitudinal section of a bean seed.

(a) Name the structures P, Q and R.

P …………………………………………………..
Q …………………………………………………..
R ………………………………………………….. [3]
(b) On the figure, label the part that stores food as X. [1]
(c) Name the part of the flower from which the seed was formed.
……...……………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(d) Explain how low temperature may affect the germination of seeds.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………..………………………………. [3]
(e) During germination, starch stored in cotyledons is broken down.
Describe how the breaking down of starch occurs.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………..………………. [3]
(f) Water is one of the factors necessary for germination.
Give a reason why water is needed.
……………………………………………………………………………………….……………….. [1]
(g) Describe how you would show that the cotyledons contain protein.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………..………………. [3]
(h) Describe how structures P and Q are able to use the starch stored in the
cotyledons.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….[3]
(i) The seed above formed inside the ovary of a flower. As the seed develops in
the flower, water is withdrawn from it so that it becomes almost dry.
Suggest why this is important.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]

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7. The figure below shows part of the female reproductive system.

(a) (i) Name the parts labelled P and Q.

P ……………………………………………………………………………………….
Q ………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(ii) Name the process occurring at region R.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(iii) Which hormone, secreted by structure S, influence the occurrence of
the process in (ii) above?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Birth control methods can be classified as either; natural, chemical,
mechanical or surgical.
Complete the boxes below by stating the appropriate class of the methods.

8. Match the phrases below with the following words: testis, oviduct, uterus, penis, semen,
scrotum and ureter.
(a) Where a fetus develops ……………………………………………………………………………...
(b) The liquid that contain sperms …………………………………………………………………...
(c) Produces sperms ……………………………………………………………………………...
(d) Where fertilization takes place ……………………………………………………………………
(e) Passes sperms into female during sexual intercourse …………………………………...

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9. The figure below shows a foetus in the uterus.

(a) The placenta is often described as the ‘lung and kidney’ of the foetus.
Suggest the meaning of this description.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(b) Suggest one feature of the placenta that helps it to carry out its function.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Suggest two ways by which the structure of the umbilical artery differs from
that of umbilical vein.
1 ……...………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) Explain why it is important that there is no direct contact of the foetal blood
and the mother’s blood
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………..………………………………. [2]
10. The figure below shows a map of the positions of some plants and their seedlings in a
large sampled area.

(a) Suggest the mode of dispersal for the seeds of plant K and plant L.
Plant K ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Plant L ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
(b) Explain the above answers.
Explanation of plant K
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Explanation of plant L
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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11. The figure below shows a half of a flower.

(a) Describe how this flower is pollinated.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [3]
(b) Give two features of a flower that is pollinated in this way.
1. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….…. [2]
(c) Pollination can lead to fertilisation and the development of fruits and seeds.
Describe the functions of the following parts of a seed.
(i) Cotyledon ………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) Testa ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
(d) Explain how the dispersal of fruits like tomatoes by animals is possible even
though there are digestive juices in the gut.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [3]

12. The figure below shows a cross-section of a Devi’s thorn flower.

(a) Draw a line and label it letter Y to show the part of the flower where
fertilisation occurs. [1]

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 (b) Sugest how this flower is pollinated.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Explain your answer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…. [2]
13. The figure below shows some parts of a flower.

(a) (i) Name the agent of pollination for this flower.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) Give two reasons for your answer above.
1. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) (i) Mark on the diagram with letter X where ovules are produced.
(ii) What does the ovule develop into after fertilisation?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
14. The figure below shows a flower.

(a) Name the strucure P and Q.

P ………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Q ………………………………………………………………………………………………….
(b) Name process O.
…………..……………………………………………………………………………………………….
(c) State two ways by which W may attract insects.
1. …………..………………………………………………………………………………………
2. …………..………………………………………………………………………………………

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15. The figure below shows the male reproductive system.

(a) On the diagram, label the structures R, S and T. [3]

(b) State the functions of the bladder and testis.
Baldder …………..…………………………………………………………………………………….
Testis …………..…………………………………………………………………………………….
(c) Structure T becomes infected with gonorrhoea bacteria.
State two signs or symptoms of gonorrhoea.
1. …………..………………………………………………………………………………………
2. …………..………………………………………………………………………………………
(d) State how gonorrhoea is treated.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………[1]

16. (a) After fertilization and implantation in a mammal, the placenta and the
umbilical cord develop.
(i) What is the advantage of having a dense network of blood capillaries in the
placenta?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) State the function of the umbilical cord.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Describe a permanent method that can be used by a woman to prevent
pregnancy.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….…………… [1]
(c) Explain why this method cannot prevent HIV infection.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….…………… [1]
(d) Give one way by which HIV/AIDS can be transmitted other than by sexual
contact.
………………………………………………………………………………………….…………… [1]

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17. The figure below shows parts of the flower.

(a) State how this flower is pollinated.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Describe the path taken by the pollen grain nucleus from the stigma to the
region where fertilisation takes place.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….…………. [3]
18. (a) State two disadvantages of asexual reproduction.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….……….…. [2]
(b) Complete the table below by filling in two named methods of asexual
reproduction and examples of plants where they can be applied.
Method Example
1.
2.
[4]
19. The figure below shows a commercial application of asexual reproduction.

(a) Name the asexual reproduction.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Why is this method regarded as asexual reproduction?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Give two reasons why the bark around the cut surfaces is covered with
grease.
1. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………[2]
(d) Why is it important for the woody parts of the scion and stock to be in
contact before tying the two together?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

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20. The figure below shows three cuttings from one plant placed in a tray of moist soil.
The tray and cuttings were covered with a polythene bag. The cuttings developed into
individual plants.

(a) What form of reproduction is represented in the diagram?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) The clear polythene bag reduces water loss by evaporation.
(i) Describe how the polythene bag helps to reduce water loss through leaves
of stem cuttings.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(ii) Why is it better to use a clear plastic bag rather than a dark coloured one?
…………………………….………………………………………………………………………………
……………………….……………………………………………………………………………… [2]
21. The figure below shows the relationship between the circulations of the mother and
Fetus.

(a) Name two substances that are at a higher concentration in the umbilical
artery than in umbilical vein.
1. ……………..………………………………………………………………………………………
2. ……………..…………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Describe how oxygen is transferred from the mother’s blood to the fetus’
blood.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…..………………………………………………………………………………………….………… [2]

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(c) State three structural differences between the umbilical artery and umbilical
vein.
umbilical artery umbilical vein
1.
2.
3.

[3]
(d) Suggest what would happen to blood vessels in the fetus if the mother’s
blood flowed directly into them.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

350
 LIVING THINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
ECOLOGY
Ecology is the study of the interactions between living organisms and their environment. All
living organisms (plants and animals) depend upon their environment for;
 Supply of food
 Supply of shelter from undesirable physical conditions
 A breeding site
Any area in which organisms interact with each other and their environment is called an
ecosystem. An ecosystem can also be defined as a community of living organisms and the
habitat in which they live.
An example of an ecosystem is a forest, consisting of trees, shrubs, birds, animals and soil
organisms together with non-living components of the soil.
Another example of an ecosystem is a pond composing of animals, plants, water and dissolved
air.
Within an ecosystem, there is a range of habitats - these are places where specific organisms
live.
All the organisms of the same species (plants, animals, decomposers) found in a particular
ecosystem form the community.
Ecosystems are sustained by the input of energy from the sun. The sun is the principal source
of energy for biological systems. This energy is supplied directly or indirectly, and usually
enters the ecosystem through the process of photosynthesis carried out by green plants.
Energy is passed from organism to organism in the form of food during feeding.
Light energy from the sun is converted to chemical energy during the process of
photosynthesis hence allowing energy to flow from the plants (producers) to the herbivores
then to the carnivores then to the scavengers and decomposers. However the energy
transferred between the organisms decreases with each feeding level.
Feeding relationships always start with a self-feeding organism or autotrophic organism called
the producer. Producers convert a small fraction of the sun’s energy into a stored chemical
form. Some of this energy is transferred to herbivores in food and may later be transferred to
one or more carnivores. The herbivores are primary consumers and subsequent organisms
in the food chain make up secondary and tertiary consumers. These feeding levels are
known as trophic levels. It is rare to encounter a food chain of more than six organisms
because the energy initially stored by autotrophs is progressively used up and reduced as it
passes through the trophic levels. Energy flow is not cyclic. Below is an example of a food
chain:

351
A food web is a complex network of inter-related food chains (existing within an ecosystem).
In a food web, different food chains are connected.

THE IMPACT OF MAN ON THE ENVIRONMENT

For some years, the world population has been increasing. An increasing population has some
effects on the environment such as;
1. Intensification of Agriculture (food production)
(a) Monoculture
This is the use of fields to grow one type of crop. The growth of one crop plant
encourages the spread of pests so large quantities of pesticides may be used.
Herbicides are also used to destroy weeds that may compete with the crop
plant.
(b) Excessive use of fertilisers
Fertilisers are used on land to increase the fertility of the soil. Chemical
fertilisers often get leached from the soil into lakes, rivers, dams or other water
bodies. In the water, they encourage the growth of plant life. Algae will bloom
and other plants will grow very rapidly.
Because of this rapid growth, the nutrient supply in the water is soon depleted
causing plants to die and fall at the bottom of the lake where they are
decomposed.
The decomposers use oxygen that is in the water and soon the conditions in
the lake become anaerobic. Anaerobic decomposers cause the production of
foul-smelling gases. Fish and other plant and animal life cannot survive in the
anaerobic conditions. This process is called eutrophication.

352
 (c) Excessive use of pesticides
Pesticides are used to kill pests. They are not biodegradable so they remain in
the environment for long periods of time. A field of maize may be sprayed with
a pesticide and mice may feed on the maize. They also feed on the pesticides
which accumulate in their tissues. The mice may be eaten by eagles or other
birds of prey and the pesticides will be passed into the body of the eagle. All
the time the concentration of the pesticides in the tissues of the organism is
increasing and it is the eagle population that will be affected by the toxin. This
is known as bioaccumulation.
(d) Overstocking
Overstocking causes excessive trampling of the land so that vegetation cannot
grow and develop to support the grazing animals. Overstocking also leads to
overgrazing and soil erosion. It also encourages the rapid spread of diseases
among animals.
(e) Deforestation
Deforestation is the removal of trees on a large scale. The trees may be used
for timber to construct buildings and furniture. It may be used as a fuel or for
medicines. Deforestation causes the destruction of habitats. It causes
increased soil erosion and can contribute to global warming.
FAMINE
Despite the intense agricultural methods practiced in most parts of the world today, there are
still some problems that contribute to famine (widespread hunger due to food shortage) in
some parts of the world. The causes of famine include:
 War
 Natural disasters such as floods and drought
 Increasing size of the population
 Unequal distribution of food as in some areas of the world. Other parts of the world
have “Food Mountains” while in other parts of the world there is famine.
POLLUTION
Pollution refers to bringing about changes that are destructive to both living and non-living
things in an environment. It can also be described as the presence of harmful substances in
an environment
These harmful substances are called pollutants.
TYPES OF POLLUTION
 Air Pollution
The presence of pollutants in the atmosphere causes air pollution. E.g. poisonous
gases from industries results in the pollution of air. One of the most common gases
released from industries is sulphur dioxide. When this gas combines with the
moisture in the atmosphere, it falls down as acid, which corrodes buildings and
destroys vegetation. The acid rain also leads to leaching, inhibits tree growth and
reduces the activity of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can also bring about some problems. An
increase in carbon dioxide may be due to burning fuels; e.g. fire wood, fossil fuels etc.

353
 at a higher rate and also due to the cutting down of trees which could otherwise help
in reducing the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide has
the ability to trap a lot of heat energy and allow little to escape the atmosphere. If the
concentration of carbon dioxide is very high it means more heat will be trapped leading
to a rise in the earth’s temperature. This is known as Global Warming. This rise in
temperature may result in the melting of ice in the arctic areas raising the sea levels,
which may even lead to floods.
Some oxides such as lead oxide released from car exhausts may also pollute the air
and are harmful to people when inhaled.
 Water Pollution
Sewage Disposal
Some waste materials from toilets and kitchens when drained into rivers will cause
water pollution. This waste contains disease causing micro-organisms which may result
in people catching diseases if they use this untreated water, e.g. cholera, bilharzia,
typhoid etc.
Inorganic wastes
These are usually the waste materials from industries/factories and pesticides which
when discharged into rivers, pollute the water. This waste may contain poisonous
chemical substances such as mercury, lead etc. If they enter the food chain e.g. from
small fish up to human beings, they may cause serious health problems such as
cancers or even death.
Excessive Use of Fertilizers
Eutrophication: excessive growth of algae caused by high concentration of nitrates and
phosphates in rivers. This results in oxygen shortage. Therefore, fish and other aquatic
animals die of suffocation. (Decomposing bacteria use most of oxygen)
 Land Pollution
The land may be polluted by non – biodegradable wastes such as tins, plastics, glasses
and paper, which may end up acting as breeding places for disease causing micro-
organisms. The land may also be polluted by disposed chemicals, which may destroy
beneficial organisms.
Biodegradable substances or objects are capable of being decomposed by bacteria or
other living organisms.
RECYCLING
Some resources can be used more than once, this is called recycling. Recycling ensures that
all resources last longer and can also help reduce pollution.
Materials that can be recycled include water (sewage water), bottles, tins and paper. The
main reasons for recycling materials is to;
 conserve natural resources e.g. fossil fuels, water and trees
 reduce waste that must be disposed of
 reduce littering and pollution
 saves money reduce the amount of energy needed for manufacturing
Used paper can be recycled to make usable items such as egg tray and toilet paper. This
helps reduce tree cutting by paper making industries (paper is made from wood pulp)
recycling of paper also reduces soil erosion and maintains habitats for animals.

354
 CONSERVATION

It is the protection, preservation and careful management of natural resources.

Nature and environment suffers as a fast growing human population demands more food,
energy and raw materials. The results are the destruction and pollution of the natural
environment.
Examples of natural resources in our environment are water, soil, air, fuel, minerals and
wildlife (plants and animals).
Advantages
1. it ensures biodiversity (the variety of plant and animal life in a particular habitat)
2. it ensures the protection and keeping of species with survival value
Reasons for Conserving Organisms
1. Conservation of species for human benefit.
a. Drugs for medicine e.g. opiates, quinine, sengaparile (devil’s claw) and
monepenepe
b. Timber for furniture, construction and paper
c. Oils e.g. sunflower oil
d. Fibres e.g. sisal to make ropes
e. Chemicals e.g. pyrethrum flowers for insecticide
f. Rubber from latex of rubber plants
g. Food e.g. Mowana & Mosukujane
h. Tourist attraction - Wildlife is a major tourist attraction and a source of income
for Botswana. Both plants and animals need to be protected to ensure
continued existence.
2. Conservation of species for the benefit of the natural environment
a. Ecosystems are balanced. Biological pest control can only continue if
population of wild plants and animals are maintained.
b. To prevent the extinct of the species such as rhinos for horn and elephants
for ivory and dolphin and other fish due to overfishing.
Wildlife is endangered (in danger of extinction) due to;
 Unplanned cutting down of trees for domestic and industrial use.
 Uncontrolled hunting and poaching
Ways of conserving wildlife include;
 Replanting trees as old ones are cut.
 Using alternative sources of energy like biogas, coal and solar energy.
 Endangered plants species such as mukwa and morukuru (used for timber) should be
protected.
 Setting up game reserves and natural parks, where hunting is prohibited.
 Not allowing endangered animals to be hunted.
 Controlled killing of animals (culling)

355
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figure below shows areas X, Y and Z around a lake.

(a) Name a gas that is released at area Z which can cause air pollution.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Explain how the agricultural practice at area X could affect life in the lake.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………..……………………………………………………………………………………………. [3]
(c) Suggest two consequences of carrying out the activity shown at area W on a
large scale.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………..……………………………………………………………………………………………. [3]

2. The figure below shows a food web for a lake.

(a) (i) What is the major source of energy for the food web?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Use the food web above to construct a food chain with four trophic levels.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

356
 (b) The figure below shows changes in population size of some organisms in the
lake.

(i) A liquid was split into the lake at time A.

Suggest what might have been contained in this liquid to cause in
population size.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Explain the shape of the graphs for the organisms from point A.
……………………………………………………………………..…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [4]

3. The figure below shows an example of an aquatic system.

(a) Use the figure above to construct a food chain with four trophic levels.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Name the principal source of energy for the food chain you have drawn.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) All the small fish were killed by a disease.
Describe and explain how this may affect the population of
(i) Pike
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(ii) Green grass
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) The pond is surrounded by farmland. Large numbers of green algae suddenly appear
on the surface of the pond.
Suggest the most likely cause of this algal growth.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………[1]

357
4. A pond contains water plants, tadpoles and fish.
The graph shows the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the pond during a day.

(a) Name the main process occurring in the plants at:

1200 ……………………..…………………………………………………………………………………….
0000 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Explain the shape of the oxygen graph between 0600 hrs and 12 00 hrs.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
(c) Water plants are removed from the pond.
Explain how this will affect life in the pond.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
5. A figure below is a bar graph for the percentages of different types of household waste
from surveys in 2001 and 2007.

358
 (a) Which material formed the largest percentage of waste in 2001?
……………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) (i) Describe how the percentage of plastic waste changed between 2001 and 2007.
……………...…………..………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Suggest a reason for the change.
……………...…………..………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(iii) State one disadvantage of plastic waste.
……………...…………..………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Describe how recycling paper can benefit the environment.
……………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………… [1]
6. The figure below shows the effect of untreated sewage on the amount of oxygen dissolved
in a river.

(a) (i) State the part of the graph at which sewage was discharged into the river.
……………...………….………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Explain your answer in (i) above.
………………...…………..………………………………………………………………………………….
..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..……………………………… [3]
7. Conservation of both plant and animal species is of great importance to mankind.
(a) Give two reasons why conservation of some species is of importance to Botswana.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………….…..…………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Describe how recycling of paper contributes to conservation.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
8. Conservation involves preserving habitats and protecting individual species of plants and
animals to get maximum advantage without degrading it.
(a) What is meant by habitat?
........................................................................................................................[1]
(b) Explain why conservation of habitats is important for
(i) Medicine, ...................................................................................................
(ii) employment, .........................................................................................[2]

(c) Suggest the importance of recycling paper.

........................................................................................................................[1]

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(d) Describe how overstocking can contribute to destruction of a local environment.
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................[3]
9. The figure below shows a food web in a pond near an arable farm.

(a) (i) Which organism would multiply rapidly as a result of application of fertilisers?
....................................................................................................[1]
(ii) What is this rapid growth called?
.....................................................................................................[1]
(b) A farmer sprayed a pesticide onto the crop in the farm, to kill insects which were
damaging the crop.
(i) Explain how this pesticide could enter the pond.
.................................................................................................................[2]
(ii) After several months, some fish eagles had died from the effects of the pesticide.
Explain how this could have happened.
............................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................[2]
10. The figure below shows variation in oxygen concentration, number of bacteria and fish in
a river distance of 50 km from point P, which is up steam from a source of pollution.

(a) At what distance from P did the river become polluted?

.......................................................................................................[1]
(b) With reference to the three curves on the figure, state the effect of the pollution on
the following:
Concentration of dissolved oxygen ....................................................................
Number of fish ................................................................................................
Number of bacteria ..........................................................................................
(c) Explain why the numbers of bacteria started decreasing after a distance of 20 km
from point P.
............................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................[2]

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11. The figure below shows the changes in numbers of three organisms, X, Y and Z in a pond
between January and August.

(a) Which organism has the largest numbers in June?

.......................................................................................................................[1]
(b) A pesticide was sprayed to kill organisms X.
(ii) Suggest in which month organism X was sprayed.
...................................................................................................................[1]
(ii) Give a reason for your answer.
.................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................[1]
(c) Suggest why the population of organism Y remained constant.
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................[3]
12. The figure below shows a pond within an agricultural area.

(a) State two poor agricultural practices that are illustrated in the figure?
1. .............................................................................................................
2. .............................................................................................................

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(b) The farmer uses fertilisers on his fields. After the rainy season, many fish in the pond
died. Suggest how the fertilisers could have caused this to happen.
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................[4]
(c) Suggest one substance, other than fertilisers, that could pollute the pond water from
the farmer’s fields.
……..................................................................................................................[1]
13. The figure below shows the carbon cycle.

(a) Name the process Y.

........................................................................................................................[1]
(b) Name one other process that adds carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
........................................................................................................................[1]
(c) Identify organism P.
........................................................................................................................[1]
(d) How do human beings benefit from process X?
............................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................[2]
14. An area with mophane trees has a seasonal presence of mophane worms. During the
mophane season, people harvest the worms for food. They also harvest the trees for
fire wood.
(a) (i) Use the information from the statement to construct a food chain with three
trophic levels.
........................................................................................................................[1]
(ii) Suggest the impact of cutting down mophane trees on the food chain.
.......................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................[2]
(b) The community living in the area was given the responsibility of managing the area
to conserve the mophane worms and trees
Suggest two methods of conservation that they can use.
..................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................[2]

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15. Selibe Phikwe is a mining town experiencing an air pollution problem from sulphur
dioxide.
(a) (i) Name the harmful substance that sulphur dioxide forms when it dissolves in
rain water.
…………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………
(ii) Describe the effect of this substance on plants.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) The table shows the mass of sulphur dioxide produced in Selibe Phikwe and
released into the atmosphere over a period of twenty years.

Year Mass of SO2

(arbitrary units)
1975 2.8
1980 3.1
1985 3.5
1990 3.9
1995 3.3

Give two possible reasons why there was an increase in the mass of sulphur dioxide up to
1990.
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................[2]

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 BIOTECHNOLOGY

It is the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to manufacturing and service

industries. It deals with the use of living things, i.e. plants, animals and micro-organisms to
produce useful materials.
Microbes, plant and animal cells are used to make substances that are useful to human beings.
These substances include consumables such as alcohol, yoghurt, madila and cheese and non-
consumables such as chemicals and plastics.

WHY MICRO-ORGANISMS ARE USED IN BIOTECHNOLOGY

 Savings on fuel because they carry out reactions at moderate temperatures.
 They are very efficient because they produce purer products and less waste.
 They can be genetically engineered to produce compounds needed for humans.
 They reproduce quickly
 Cheap to obtain

THE ROLE MICRO-ORGANISMS IN FOOD PRODUCTION

(a) MAKING BREAD
The enzymes in yeast act on the sugar added to the flour and ferment it to alcohol
and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide makes the dough to rise and this improves the
texture and taste of the bread. As dough rises it is a process called leavening.
Yeast is a micro-organism (a fungus) which is utilised in the fermentation industry.
The yeast cells are using the carbohydrates during respiration producing energy,
carbon dioxide and water.

(b) SOUR MILK (MADILA)

The milk is put into a large container and bacteria (lacto bacillus) are added to ferment
the milk. The bacterium converts the milk sugar (lactose) to lactic acid. This process
is called fermentation. The lactic acid will coagulate (solidify) the milk protein. Water
will then remain at the bottom of the container and coagulated protein floats on top.
The mixture is sieved to remove the waste water (whey) from the curd or sour milk.
At this stage the milk is sometimes stirred to obtain evenly thick and smooth sour milk.
Then the sour milk will be ready for packaging and distribution.

(c) CHIBUKU ( TRADITIONAL BREW)

Mealie meal, water and malt are mixed and left to ferment and this mixture is called
wort. This is the first fermentation process; the enzymes found in the malt break
down starch (mealie meal) to maltose and glucose and then ferment these sugars
to alcohol. After this fermentation, the mixture is cooked at 970C for about one
hour. Yeast and lactic acid are added. Lactic acid gives chibuku its sour taste. The
second fermentation process will then occur. The yeast cells will then ferment
maltose and glucose (sugars from the first fermentation) to produce alcohol. After
the second fermentation process, the mixture is then served. Chibuku is
pasteurized, before packaging to kill both yeast cells and any other micro-organisms

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(d) SINGLE CELL PROTEIN
The aim here is to produce food in bulk using micro-organisms or the organism being
the food itself. It can be used to feed humans and animals. Filamentous fungus which
is very rich in proteins can be produced in large amounts and be used as a meat
substitute. It contains a lot of dietary fibre and very little amount of fat. Unicellular
algae, fungi and bacteria have been used.

(e) WINE
It is made from grapes and these are crushed to release sugar. The yeast found on
the grape skin ferments the sugar to make wine.

(f) YOGHURT AND CHEESE

Bacteria are used to ferment milk to form yoghurt and cheese. The bacteria act on the
milk sugar (lactose) and convert it to lactic acid, which in turn coagulates the milk
protein, casein to produce a thick creamy substance (yoghurt). The lactic acid gives
the yoghurt its slightly sour taste. In cheese making, the mould can also be involved
e.g. adding spores of penicillium at the fermentation stage to give varieties of cheese.

THE ROLE OF MICRO-ORGANISMS IN FUELS AND OTHER CHEMICALS

 FUEL
In some countries e.g. Brazil, yeast is used to ferment sugar from sugarcane to alcohol
(ethanol). The ethanol is distilled and then concentrated to about 96% alcohol. Pure
alcohol will burn in the same way as petrol. It is used in car engines that are specially
adapted. Unlike petrol, it does not pollute the atmosphere.
Micro-organism can also be used for production of bio-gas, e.g. methane gas. This gas
can be produced from decomposing cow dung using bacteria. This gas can be used as a
substitute to the gas used for cooking, which is fossil fuel.

 BIOLOGICAL ENZYME WASHING POWDERS

When washing powders are prepared, some biological enzymes are added to help in
removing stains from clothes, e.g.
− The enzyme lipase will act on fat stains and make easy to wash the clothes.
− The proteases would act on protein stains and remove it much faster and
easier, e.t.c

THE ROLE OF MICRO-ORGANISMS IN GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering is the transfer of genes from one organism to another of a different
species. Genetic engineering has been found to solve most problems, e.g.
 Making insulin for people who are unable to produce it.
 Replacing faulty alleles with normal alleles (Gene therapy)
 Producing plants that are often resistant to diseases e.t.c
Bacteria are simple organisms and are often used in genetic engineering because they are
easy to manipulate, since their DNA called plasmids are not enclosed in a nuclear membrane.

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THE ROLE OF MICRO - ORGANISM IN THE PRODUCTION OF MEDICINE
Vaccines
They are prepared from dead or inactivated (harmless) micro-organisms (germs) and given
to people to immunize them against diseases, e.g. measles, polio, small pox etc. these germs
still have antigens which will provoke the human body to produce antibodies just like active
germs do. These antibodies will be ready to fight germs the moment they invade the body.

Antibodies
These are chemicals that are used to kill germs for example, penicillin which is used to cure
bacterial diseases such as syphilis and gonorrhea.

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 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. (a) Define the term biotechnology.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Describe how commercial breweries benefit from biotechnology.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) State the micro – organisms used in the production of
Chibuku ………………………..……………………………………………………………………
madila ………………………..………………..…………………………………………… [2]
(d) Biotechnology is used in the manufacturing of drugs such as antibiotics.
State two differences between antibiotics and non-medical drugs.
1. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

2. The figure below shows steps followed in the industrial production of sour milk (madila).

(a) What is the purpose of heating the milk?

............................................................................................................ [1]
(b) Identify microorganism W.
............................................................................................................ [1]
(c) Suggest two reasons for refrigerating madila after packaging.
1................................................................................................................
2.......................................................................................................... [2]

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(d) Explain why low fat madila is recommended as part of a healthy diet.
.................................................................................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(e) Suggest why it is convinent to use microorganisms in biotechnology?
……………………………………………………….………………………………………………… [1]

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