Science Double Award Biology Notes - Edited

YOUR BGCSE BIOLOGY REVISION GUIDE

YOUR
1
BGCSE BIOLOGY REVISION GUIDE
YOUR
BGCSE
YOUR
YOUR
BIOLOGY
BGCSE BIOLOGY REVISION
BGCSE BIOLOGY REVISION
GUIDE
GUIDE
YOUR NOTES
YOUR BGCSE BIOLOGY REVISION
SCIENCE DOUBLE AWARD GUIDE
YOUR BGCSE BIOLOGY
BIOLOGYREVISION GUIDE
YOUR BGCSE BIOLOGY REVISION
2021
GUIDE
SM COMPILATION
BGCSE
BIOLOGY NOTES
GROUP: SCIENCE DOUBLE AWARD

BIOLOGY
SM COMPILATION
Compiled by S.Modongo
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Table of Content
Topic Pages
Cells and cell processes ……………………………………………….………………….…………………… 4-13

Nutrition………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………14
Plant Nutrition …………………………………………………...……………………………………...……..15-20
Enzymes …………………………………………………………………………………….………………..……..21-23
Food ………………………………………………………………………………………...………………..………24-26
Digestive system ………………………………………………..…………………………………….………..27-35
Respiration………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..……36-38
Transport in plants ……………………………………………………………………………………....…….39-42
Circulatory System ……………………………………………………………………….………….…………43-55
Homeostasis ……………………………………………………………………………….…………….……….56-59
Excretion ………………………………………………………………………………..….………………..…….60-63
Nervous system ………………………………………………………………………..………………....…….64-71
Endocrine system …………………………………………………………………….…….…………………..72-75
Use and abuse of drugs ………………………………………………………………………..……….…...76-78
Asexual reproduction in plants and animals …………………………………………….………...79-82
Sexual Reproduction in Plants ………………………………………………..……………………..….83-89

Sexual Reproduction in Human …………………………………………………………….…….…..90-100
Ecology …………………………………………………………………………………..…………………...…101-109
Biotechnology ………………………………………..……………………………………….…………..…110-113
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CELLS AND CELL PROCESSES
OBJECTIVE: Identify different parts of plant and animal cells
A cell is a basic unit of life. All living things are made of cells except viruses.
Animal cell:
Plant cell:
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OBJECTIVE: state the functions of the mitochondrion, nucleus and ribosomes of an animal cell
Cell surface membrane:
 Partially permeable membrane which controls movement of substances in and out of the cell.
Cytoplasm:
 Made up of water, other dissolved substances like amino acids and sugars.
 Metabolic reactions occur in the cytoplasm and organelles.
Nucleus:
 Controls all chemical reactions in a cell;
 It stores genetic information of the organism;
 Cell division starts in the nucleus.
Mitochondrion:
 Site for liberation of energy during aerobic respiration.
Ribosome:
 For assembling of amino acids to form proteins of the organism.
Parts found in plant cells only:

Cell wall:
 Freely permeable and made up of cellulose. Being freely permeable allows water and dissolved
substances to pass through it.
 Cell wall gives the plant cell its rigid shape (provides structural support).
 Protects against bursting due to pressure build up in the cell caused by osmotic intake of water.
Vacuole:
 Large and central in a plant cell.
 Animal cell may have tiny or temporary vacuoles.
 Its contents are called cell sap.
 Accumulation of water in the vacuole provides the cell with turgor pressure, making the cell to
be firm.
 Cell sap is made up of water and dissolved substances.
Chloroplasts:
 Plastids containing chlorophyll to trap light energy used in photosynthesis.
Specialised cells:
OBJECTIVE: Describe the relationship between cell structure and function using an animal cell and a
plant cell as examples
This means cells:
 Do one particular job;
 Developed a distinctive shape;
 Have special chemical changes taking place in their cytoplasm.
* These enable the cell to carry out its special function
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Examples of specialised cells
1. Root hair cell
Its function is to absorb water and mineral ions from the soil.
Adaptations to function:
 Has an extension which increases surface area, making absorption/diffusion of water and
mineral ions.
 Cell wall of the elongation is very thin, making it more permeable to water and mineral ions.
 Cell sap in the vacuole has lower water potential than the surrounding soil.`1/Vacuole is
relatively large for accumulation of water and mineral ions.
2. Palisade cell:
Its function is to photosynthesize.
Adaptations
 Numerous chloroplasts - with highest concentration of chlorophyll for maximum absorption of
light.
 Large vacuole - for accumulation of more water needed in photosynthesis/ vacuole with higher
concentration of solutes to attract more water molecules into the cell.
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Examples of specialised cells in animals:
1. Red blood cell
Its function is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the different cells of the body.
Adaptations
 Shape - flat biconcave disc; this shape creates a larger surface area for rapid absorption of
oxygen.
 Has no nucleus -this increases the oxygen carrying capacity of the cell.
 Has a pliable surface membrane to squeeze through narrow blood capillaries.
 Has haemoglobin, which has a higher affinity to oxygen, forming oxy-haemoglobin
2. Nerve cell
Its function is to conduct electrical impulses in the body.
Adaptations
 Has a long cytoplasm /nerve fibre stretching through the length of the body to carry the
electrical impulses.
 Has myelin (fatty) sheath which insulates the nerve fibre, preventing loss of impulses and
making transmission faster.
 Has many branches to link the neurone to many other neurones.
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Cell organisation
OBJECTIVE: Define tissue, organ, system, and organism
1. Tissue: A group of similar cells with the same function.
Examples of animal tissues:
Muscle tissue- Contracts to support and move the body.
Epithelium – Lines tubes such as the alimentary canal and covers surfaces such as the skin.
Nerve- Sets off nerve impulses and transmits them around.
Examples of plant tissues:

Epidermis-Protecting against water loss and may be involved in absorption of water and mineral ions.
Vascular tissue - Transports materials through the plant.
Xylem- Transports water and mineral ions up the plant
Phloem-Conducts soluble food molecules from the leaves to different parts of the plant.
2. Organ
Organ is a group of different tissues working together.

Examples of plant organs: leaves, flowers, roots, stems and fruits
Examples of animal organs: mouth, stomach, liver, heart, penis, eye, ear, etc
3. Organ system
Organ system is different organs working together.
This is found in complex organisms such as animals.
Examples of organs systems are: Digestive system, circulatory system, nervous system, endocrine
system, reproductive system, etc.
4. Organism
Organism is all organ system working together.
Examples : mophane plant, human being etc
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DIFFUSION
OBJECTIVE: Definition of diffusion
Diffusion: The movement of molecules or ions from a region where they are at a higher concentration to
a region where they are at a lower concentration (i.e. down a concentration gradient).
OBJECTIVE: * Describe how concentration gradient, particle size, thickness of membrane and
temperature affect diffusion rate.
Factors affecting rate of diffusion:

Concentration gradient( concentration difference)
 The steeper the concentration gradient the higher the rate of diffusion.
Size of molecules
 The smaller the size of the molecules the higher the rate of diffusion. Smaller molecules use
less kinetic energy to move, whilst larger ones need more kinetic energy.
Thickness of membrane/wall
 The thicker the membrane/ wall the lower the rate of diffusion.
 The thinner the membrane/wall the higher the rate of diffusion. However, cell membranes
generally have the same thickness, but thickness of cell walls may differ from cell to cell.
Temperature
 Increase of temperature increases kinetic energy of particles, and the rate of diffusion of
particles will increase.
 Decrease of temperature decreases kinetic energy of particles, and the rate of diffusion of
particles will decrease.
Some examples of diffusion in living organisms

In animals:
 Gaseous exchange in lungs.
 Movement of food molecules/mineral ions into cells or from alimentary canal into
bloodstream.
 Movement of water molecule from tissue fluid into blood stream or vice versa.
In plants:
 Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules into or out of the plant via stomata.
 Movement of water molecules into cells of the plant or out of the cells (special diffusion called
osmosis).
 Movement of mineral ions into or out of the cells.
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OSMOSIS
OBJECTIVE: Definition of osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from an area where they are highly concentrated to an
area where they are less concentrated through a selectively or partially permeable membrane.
Water molecules are highly concentrated outside the visking tubing compared to the inside of
the visking tubing.
Therefore water molecules moved into the visking tubing.
Volume of the solution in the visking tubing increased and solution level in the capillary tube
rose.
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OBJECTIVE: Describe the effect of concentration gradient in the uptake of water by plants
 Higher concentration gradient of water particles between the inside of the plant and the soil
makes absorption of water rapid.
 Lower concentration gradient of water particles between the inside of the plant and the soil
makes absorption of water slow.
OBJECTIVE: State how osmosis is a special form of diffusion

 Osmosis is specifically movement of water molecules from area of higher concentration to area
of lower concentration.
 The water molecules pass through a partially/selectively permeable membrane.
OBJECTIVE: Describe the effect of osmosis on plant cells, in terms of flaccid cells, turgid cells, wilting
and plasmolysis.
Water molecules move into cell; vacuole Water molecules move out of cell; cell
increases in size; cell becomes turgid. becomes flaccid; vacuole of cell shrinks; cell
becomes plasmolysed – plasma membrane
pulled away from cell wall towards vacuole.
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OBJECTIVE: Describe the effect of osmosis on animal cells, B [refer to bursting and shrinking].
Water molecules
move into cell; cell
swells; ultimately
bursts due to cell
membrane unable
to withstand
osmotic pressure.
Water molecules
move out of cell;
cell shrinks.
OBJECTIVE: Experiment, observation, on how solutions of varying concentration affect plant tissue
Effect of osmosis on plant tissue

Investigation:
Topic: Osmosis
Aim:
 To find out how different concentration of sugar solutions affect plant tissues.
Apparatus used:
 Potato cylinder ( diameter 5mm, length 40mm)
 Solutions 0.55%,55%,10%, sugar
 Distilled water
 Forceps
 4 Beakers
Procedures
Distilled water, 0.5% sugar solutions,5% sugar solution, 10% of sugar solution were each poured
into a beaker up to the 100ml mark of the beaker.
A potato cylinder (of known size) was weighed, the mass was recorded then placed in the
beaker of distilled water.
This was repeated using sugar solutions of the following concentrations: 0.5%, 5% and 10%
Each cylinder was then left in its medium for 60 minutes
The mass of each cylinder was measured again and recorded.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
OBJECTIVE: Define active transport
Active-transport is movement of molecules or ions from the region of lower concentration to the region
of higher concentration using energy generated by the cell.
Movement of molecules or ions from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration is movement against concentration gradient.
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OBJECTIVE: Define passive transport
Passive transport is a non- energy consuming process in which substances are transferred down their
concentration gradient.
OBJECTIVE: Distinguish active transport from osmosis and diffusion, which are passive processes
Differences between active transport and passive transport.
Active transport Passive transport

Molecules move from region of lower Molecules move from region of higher
concentration to region of higher concentration to region of lower
concentration/molecules more against the concentration/molecules move down the
concentration gradient. concentration gradient.
Energy from cell used /ATP from cell used. No energy from cell used /no ATP used from cell.
Living cell membrane needed/occurs only in living No living cell membrane needed/occurs both living
cells. and non living cells.
Movement of molecules /ions unidirectional. Movement of molecules/ions two directional.
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NUTRITION
TYPES OF NUTRITION
OBJECTIVE: Describe autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition
1. Autotrophic nutrition- When an organism makes organic food molecules from simple inorganic
molecules such as water and carbon dioxide.
Two forms of autotrophic nutrition:
 Photo – Autotrophic nutrition whereby an organism uses light energy to make organic food
molecules. Plants are examples of photo – autotrophs.
 Chemo – Autotrophic nutrition: Whereby an organism uses chemical energy to make food
molecules. Some bacteria are chemo – autotrophs
2. Heterotrophic nutrition: Whereby an organism feeds on ready -made food molecules. Below are
examples of heterotrophs.
 Holozoics: Feed on materials of other organisms and digest the material internally.
Herbivores
Omnivores
Carnivores.
 Parasites: Completely dependent on other organisms (host organism) to obtain food e.g. tick
and some fungi.
 Saprophites: Digest food externally and absorb simple food molecules e.g bacteria and fungi.
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PLANT NUTRITION
OBJECTIVE: Identify and label the cellular and tissue structure of a dicotyledonous leaf, as seen in cross
section under the microscope
OBJECTIVE: Describe the significance of the cellular and tissue structure of a dicotyledon leaf in terms
of:
 Destribution of chloroplasts - photosynthesis
 Stomata and mesophyll cells - gaseous exchange
 Vascular bundles - transport
Cuticle: Reduces water loss from the plant.
Epidermis: Closely fitting cells reducing evaporation of water and preventing micro-organisms from
entering the leaf.
Mesophyll: Found between the upper and lower epidermis. It consists of the palisade mesophyll and
the lower spongy mesophyll.
 Palisade mesophyll - Has the highest concentration of Chloroplasts, for maximal absorption of
light. This is the most photosynthetic tissue in the leaf.
 Spongy mesophyll – Cells vary in shape and fit loosely together, leaving many air spaces
between them. The inter-cellular spaces allow air to circulate in the leaf.
Vein: Water is supplied through the vascular bundles present in the leaf as veins. Ample water must be
conducted to photosynthesizing cells. Sugars formed from photosynthesis are conducted out of the leaf
to other parts of the plant by the phloems in the vascular bundles as sucrose.
Stoma: Consists of a pair of guard cells facing each other. Turgidity of the pair of guard cells results in
the stoma opening and flaccidity results in closing of the stoma.
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Adaptation of leaves for photosynthesis
 Their broad, flat shape offers a large surface area for absorption of sunlight and carbon dioxide.
 Most leaves are thin and the carbon dioxide has to diffuse across shorter distance to reach inner
cells.
 The large spaces between cells inside the leaf provide an easy passage through which carbon
dioxide can diffuse.
 There are many stomata in the lower surface of the leaf. These allow the exchange of carbon
dioxide and oxygen.
 There are more chloroplasts in the upper cells than in the lower cells for maximal absorption of
light.
 The branching network of veins provide a good supply of water to the photosynthesizing cells.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
OBJECTIVE: Describe trapping of light by chlorophyll , conversion of light energy into chemical energy,
the formation of carbohydrates, their subsequent storage, and the release of oxygen.
Process by which light energy is transformed into chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates
molecules.
Carbon dioxide and water react together using light energy absorbed by chlorophyll to produce glucose
and oxygen in a cell.
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast in two stages:
 Light reaction: A light – dependent stage which requires light energy. During the light reaction,
photolysis of water occurs, i.e photochemical splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and
oxygen. Using light energy trapped by chlorophyll present in chloroplasts. The light energy is
also converted to chemical energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine tri-phosphate).
 Dark reaction: Carbon dioxide is reduced by hydrogen(produced in the light stage) to form
glucose using ATP formed in the light stage. This is a temperature dependent stage which
involves use of enzymes.
Glucose made during photosynthesis is stored in photosynthesizing leave cells as starch.
Equations:
OBJECTIVE: State both word and symbol equation
Word equation:
Light
Carbon dioxide +Water glucose + Oxygen
Chlorophyll
Symbol equation:
Light
6CO2 + 6H2O C 6H12 O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll
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Intake of carbon dioxide by a plant:
OBJECTIVE: Describe intake of carbon dioxide

 Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere diffuses into the leaf through the stomata.
 In the leaf, carbon dioxide dissolves in the thin film of water surrounding the mesophyll cells;
 Carbon dioxide diffuses into the chloroplasts within the cells, where it is used for
photosynthesis.
How to test a plant for photosynthesis:
 A plant is tested for photosynthesis by testing for starch.
 Starch test:
Step 2 Turn off the Bunsen burner.
Step 1 Place a leaf in boiling water for about 1
 Place the leaf into a test tube half
minute To stop further metabolic reactions in
full of ethanol.
the leaf and to break open the cells.
 Place the test tube in hot water for
10 minutes
Boiling water
ethanol
Heat-proof mat Hot water
To remove chlorophyll
Step 4 Spread the leaf on a white tile and Step 3 Return the leaf to the hot water for
flood the leaf with iodine solution about a minute.
Pipet
Hot water
iodine
Heat- proof
mat
White tile for colour contrast when there is colour To soften the leaf
change.
Blue-black is the positive colour change for
starch test.
Yellow or brown is negative colour change
for starch test.
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Investigating necessity of chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide in photosynthesis:
OBJECTIVE: Discuss the necessity for chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide in photosynthesis
Experiments on Photosynthsis.
 All experiments carried out to investigate photosynthesis begin with destarching leaves of a
plant.
 Destarching is done by keeping the plant in a dark cupboard for 48 hours.
 In the absence of photosynthesis all starch is converted to sucrose and carried out of the leaves.
 Destarching ensures that any starch found in the leaves at the end of the experiment is starch
made during the period of the investigation.
EXPERIMENTS METHOD RESULTS

Test for Test leaf :
importance of Parts exposed to
light light
light. light turned blue-
black
Parts not exposed to

light turned yellow
Leaf covered with Control leaf:

alluminium foel Whole leaf that
Control
leaf turned blue-black
Plant with
destarched *Note conclusion is
leaves not part of the
results but we use
results to conclude.
 The plant is exposed to light for 6 hours then starch Conclusion:

test is performed. Photosynthesis only
occurs where there
is light, therefore
light is important for
photosynthesis
Test for
importance of Test leaf :
carbon dioxide leaf in conical flask
with KOH solution
that turned yellow
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Control leaf: Leaf in
conical flask with
water that turned
blue-black
*Note Conclusion is
not part of the
results, but results
are used to
conclude.
Conclusion:
Photosynthesis only
occurs where there
is carbon dioxide
 The plant is exposed to light for 6 hours then starch therefore carbon
test is performed. dioxide is important
for photosynthesis.
Test for Test part :
importance of White part that
chlorophyll turned yellow
light
Control part:
light
Green part that
turned blue-black
*Note Conclusion is
not part of the
results, but results
are used to
Green part containing conclude.
chlorophyll
Conclusion:
White part with Plant with Photosynthesis only
no chlorophyll destarched occured where
variegated leaves
there is chlorophyll
 The plant is exposed to light for 6 hours then starch therefore
test is performed. chlorophyll is
important for
photosynthesis
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Investigating Rate of bubbling
effect of light Oxygen increases as
intensity on collected distance between
rate of light source and
photosynthesis water plant
Bubble
decreases.
Sodium hydrogen
carbonate solution
increases CO2
concentration
Water plant
e.g. Elodea
Plasticine
Distance of light source
ELEMEMTS NEEDED BY PLANTS
OBJECTIVE: explain importance of nitrogen containing ions for protein synthesis
1. Nitrogen
 Nitrogen is absorbed by plants as nitrates.
 Nitrogen is used to form protein or amino acids molecules in a plant.
 Lack of nitrates in the soil results in the stunted growth of plant and yellowing of leaves.
 Addition of nitrates to the soil is by addition of any compound containing nitrates such as:
potassium nitrate, ammonium nitrate.
OBJECTIVE: explain importance of magnesium containing ions for chlorophyll synthesis

2. Magnesium
 Magnesium is absorbed by plants as magnesium ions.
 Magnesium is used to form chlorophyll molecules.
 Lack of magnesium in the soil results in the following: yellow leaves.
 Addition of magnesium to the soil is by addition of any soluble compound containing
magnesium, such as magnesium sulphate.
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ENZYMES
 Enzymes are proteins which function as biological catalysts to speed up chemical reactions in
living organisms.
 Enzymes are produced in minute quantities by cells. A minute amount of enzyme is required to
produce a rapid change of chemical reaction.
Properties of enzymes
 Enzymes remain unchanged at the end of the reaction and can be used over and over again.
 An enzyme work on a specific substrate molecule. Each enzyme has a specific shape at its
active site and will only bind to a substrate that has a complementary shape.
 Enzyme are easily destroyed by heat, sensitive to pH and inactivated by poisons. The active site
of an enzyme can be altered by heat and pH.
Enzyme activity is inhibited as the substrate molecules will no longer fit into the active site of
the enzyme.
Grouping of enzymes
1. Catabolic and anabolic enzymes
 Enzymes act on catabolic reactions (reactions which involve breakdown of a larger molecule to
smaller molecules).
 Enzymes act on anabolic reactions (reactions which involve building of larger molecule by use of
smaller molecules).
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2. Intracellular and extracellular enzymes
 Intracellular enzymes are enzymes functioning inside the cell, where they are made. These
enzymes speed up reactions inside the cells.
 Extracellular enzymes are enzymes functioning outside the cells that made them. E.g. digestive
enzymes
3. Classification according substrate

 Enzymes can be classified according to the types of substrates they act on. Digestive enzymes
are grouped according to the food they digest.
(a) Amylase is a group of enzymes which break down starch to glucose.
(b) Lipase is a group of enzymes which break down fats and oils to their components, fatty acids
and glycerol.
(c) Protease is a group of enzymes which break down proteins to their components, amino
acids.
Effects of temperature on enzyme activity
 In general, increase in temperature from 5oC to around 40oC increases enzyme activity. At
temperature below 5oC enzymes are inactivated.
At temperature above 50oC enzymes become progressively denatured.
 Rise in temperature increases the rate of metabolic reactions as the frequency of collision
between substrate and enzyme molecules increases. But at temperature above 50oC enzymes
become chemically altered, denatured
 Enzymes function best at a temperature known as optimum temperature. For every enzyme
there is an optimum temperature, a temperature at which enzymes work fastest.
 Human enzymes have an optimum temperature of 37oC.
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Effects of pH on enzyme activity
 Enzymes are influenced by the acidity and alkalinity of the medium in which they function.
 Each enzyme requires a specific pH level for optimum efficiency. This is the optimum pH of the
enzyme.
 Optimum pH of pepsin in the stomach is pH 2, and that of trypsin in the duodenum is pH 8.
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FOOD
Food is required
 as a source of energy;
 for formation of new protoplasm during growth;
 for repair of body tissues;
 for metabolic reactions to keep the organism healthy and warm.
OBJECTIVE: Define a balanced diet

Balanced diet is a meal with all the nutrients needed by the body in right quantities and correct
proportions.
OBJECTIVE: List the chemical elements which make up: carbohydrates, proteins and fats
Classes of energy providing foods: carbohydrates, proteins and fats/oils.
CARBOHYDRATES PROTEINS FATS/OILS

ELEMENTS  Carbon, Hydrogen,  Carbon,  Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen with
Oxygen. Hydrogen, different proportions to
Oxygen, nitrogen carbohydrates
and sometimes
sulphur.
MAIN  Proteins, fruits,  Lean meat, fish,  Egg yolk, butter, cream, fatty
SOURCES cereals, grains, liver, milk, cheese, meat, cheese, vegetables.
rice, bread, sugar egg white,
cane and other legumes, soya
plant storage beans and cereal
organs. grains.
BASIC UNIT  Monosaccharide.  Amino acids.  One molecule of glycerol and
 Single sugar unit. three fatty acid molecules.
TYPE  Monosaccharide  Animal and plant  Fats from animals are solid at
e.g. glucose, proteins. room temperature and have a
fructose.  In which humans, high proportion of saturated
 Disaccharide e.g. amino acids are fatty acids.
maltose, sucrose, joined together in  Oils from plant sources are liquid
lactose. any number or at room temperature and have a
 Polysaccharide e.g. order to form high proportion of unsaturated
starch cellulose. different proteins fatty acids.
(may be folded,
twisted or
straight).
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FUNCTIONS  Main source of  A source of amino  Component of cell membranes,
energy in the diet. acids for growth myelin sheath surrounding
 Glucose is the main of new tissues and nerve fibres.
respiratory replacement of  Stored in adipose tissue
substrate cell components. beneath skin and around body
carbohydrate.  To build up body organs as insulator.
 Cellulose cannot be structures e.g  Fats around delicate organs
digested, provides hair, cell protect them from physical
bulk to food, and membranes and damage.
assists in peristaltic red blood cells.  Stores as an energy reserve.
movement along  Formation of
the alimentary muscles, tendons
canal. and ligaments.
 Formation of
enzymes and
antibodies.

ENERGY  1g of 1g of protein releases 17kJ 1g of fat releases 37kJ of energy.
SUPPLY carbohydrates of energy.
releases 17kJ of Only oxidized when
energy. carbohydrates, glycogen
 Immediate source and fats have been used
of energy. up.
OBJECTIVE: Explain why diet, especially energy intake, should be related to age, sex and physical
activity of an individual
Food Intake in human depends on the following factors: sex, age, occupation and lifestyle.
1. Sex
 Males need more carbohydrates and proteins than female:
 Carbohydrates provide energy for the formation of new cells;
 Proteins form more compacted cells of the muscles.
2. Occupation
 Labourer needs more proteins and carbohydrates than someone doing a white collar job:
 Carbohydrates provide energy for the formation of new cells;
 Proteins form many muscles cells wearing off during physical work.
3. Age
 Younger people need more carbohydrates and proteins than older people:
 Carbohydrates provide energy for formation of new cells, new cells are needed for growth of
younger person;
 Proteins form many cells needed in growth;
 Younger people are more active, carbohydrate generate energy for contraction and relaxation
of muscles; movements.
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4. Lifestyle
 Someone who exercises regularly needs more carbohydrates and proteins than someone who
never exercises:
o Carbohydrates provide energy for formation of new cells ;
o Proteins form many muscle cells wearing off during physical work.
OBJECTIVE: Describe tests for starch (iodine solution), reducing sugars (Benedict’s solution), protein
(biuret test) and fats (ethanol).
FOOD TESTS
TEST CHEMICAL PROCEDURE OBSERVATION
TEST
1)Carbohydrates: Benedict  To about 4ml of a food  If reducing sugar is
reducing test sample in a solution form, absent, mixture
a)sugars(e.g. add about 10 drops of remains blue.
glucose) Benedict’s solution.  If present the
Gently shake to mix. mixture turns from
 Place the test tube with blue to green, then
the mixture in a hot water to yellow then to
bath orange and finally
brick red
b)Starch Iodine test  add 1 to 4 drops of iodine  If starch is absent
solution to a food sample the mixture remains
in brown with iodine
powdered/solid/solution solution.
form  If starch is present
(depends on given the mixture turns
sample) blue-black
2.Proteins Biuret test  To about 2ml of a solution  If proteins are
of a food sample in a test absent the mixture
tube, add about 2ml of 1% remains blue, if
sodium hydroxide present the mixture
solution, gently shake turns purple or
then add about 2ml of 1% violet
of copper (II) Sulphate
solution, gently shake and
observe after adding each
drop.
3.Fats/oils Ethanol  To a test tube with a  If fats /oils are
emulsion crushed food sample, add absent the mixture
test about 5ml of ethanol. remains clear.
Shake thoroughly, then  If fats /oils are
transfer the liquid part of present a cloudy
the mixture into a test white emulsion is
tube with 3ml of distilled formed.
water.
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THE DIGESTIVE S YSTEM
Holozoic nutrition in human consists of five main stages:
1. Ingestion: when food is taken into the alimentary canal via the mouth.
2. Digestion: a process where by large food molecules are broken-down into smaller molecules which
are absorbed into the blood system.
 Digestion is achieved by both physical and chemical means. The physical action is achieved by
the teeth (mastication), stomach wall contractions (churning) and bile (emulsification).
 Chemical breakdown is achieved by digestive enzymes contained in saliva, gastric juices,
pancreatic juices and intestinal juices. The chemical bonds in the complex food substances are
broken-down by specific enzymes in the presence of water –a process called hydrolysis.
3. Absorption: Where by food molecules pass through the walls of the alimentary canal into the blood
stream.
4. Assimilation: This is the distribution and use of the simple food molecules as an energy source and
conversion of other substances required for growth.
5. Egestion: when undigested food and other alimentary canal contents are removed as faeces, via the
anus (also called defaecation).
OBJECTIVE: Using diagrams and models identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and the
associated organs: mouth, salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, pancreas, gall bladder,
liver, ileum, colon, rectum and anus
The human digestive system:
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OBJECTIVE: Describe the main functions of the identified parts of the alimentary canal in relation to
ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion of food, as appropriate.
PARTS OF THE SECRETIONS AND ENZYMES FUNCTIONS

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Mouth [ingestion and
digestion (physical OBJECTIVE:
OBJECTIVE:describe
describechewing
chewing
and chemical means)]  Cut and grind large pieces of food to smaller
a) Teeth  pieces – mastication/chewing.
Cut and This increases
grind large pieces of food to
surface area of food for enzymatic action.
smaller pieces – mastication/chewing.
This increases surface area of food for
b) Salivary glands Saliva secreted by salivary
glands, has: enzymatic action.
i) water  Used as a solvent and in the hydrolysis of
food.
ii) Mucus  Binds food particles and lubricates the food
to help in swallowing process.
iii) amylase amylase

Starch maltose
c) Tongue  Mixes food with saliva and rolls food into a
ball called bolus, which is easy to swallow.
Oesophagus(Peristalsi  Has muscular walls made up of circular and
s) longitudinal muscles under involuntary
control. Transports food to the stomach by
peristalsis.
 Aids in the passage of food into the stomach
Mucus by reducing friction between food bolus and
walls of oesophagus.
Stomach- pH 1(acidic)  Has muscular walls made up of circular and
digestion [physical longitudinal muscles which are under
and chemical means] involuntary control.
i.) Churns food and mixes it with gastric
juice to form chime.
ii.) Absorbs alcohol and glucose.
iii.) Stores food temporarily (chime is
held in the stomach for about four
hours).
Gastric glands secrete
gastric juice which has:
i.) Water  Used as a solvent and in the hydrolysis of
food
ii.) Mucus  Protects stomach wall from the action of
pepsin and acidic gastric juice. Acts as a
lubricant for movement of food within
stomach.
iii.) Hydrochloric  Provides the acidic medium (optimum pH) for
acid enzymatic action. Kills bacteria brought in
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with the food.
pepsin
iv.) Enzyme pepsin  Protein polypeptides
Duodenum pH 7-8
(Slightly alkaline)
Pancrease a) Secretes pancreatic
{digestion [physical juice which has:
and chemical means]} trypsin
i)trypsin  polypeptides peptides
amylase
ii)Amylase  Starch maltose
lipase
iii)Lipase  Fats Fatty acids + Glycerol
iv) Water  Used as a solvent and in the hydrolysis
v) sodium for increase of pH in duodenum to make

bicarbonate slightly alkali.
Gall bladder secretes bile which has:

i)bicarbonate ions  increase of pH of acidic chime from the
stomach to slightly alkali, for enzymatic
action in duodenum.
ii)bile salts  Bile salts breakdown large globule of fats and

oils to smaller droplets – a process called
emulsification.
bile
emulsification
 This increases the surface area for digestion
of fats.
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Ileum Walls of secrete intestinal
{digestion [chemical juices with enzymes:
means] and
absorption } maltase
i). maltase maltose glucose
sucrase
ii). sucrase sucrose glucose + fructose
lactase
iii).lactase lactose glucose + galactose
erepsin/peptidase
iv). erepsin/peptidase peptides amino acids
 The main function is absorption of soluble

food molecules.
 To aid in absorption, the surface area of the
small intestine is increased by villi
epithelium and microvilli in the epithelial
cells.
Colon (absorption)  Absorbs water from undigested residues.
 Absorbs mineral ions.
Rectum  Stores faeces prior to removal via anus
(egestion).
OBJECTIVE: describe peristalsis

Peristalsis:
Peristalsis is the contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles along the length of the
alimentary canal resulting in the movement of food.
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Absorption of digested food:
Soluble food molecules are absorbed in the ileum. The ileum is adapted to facilitate rapid absorption of
soluble food molecules in the following ways:
a) The folded internal surface of the ileum is covered with numerous finger like projections called
villi(singular:villus) to increase the surface area for absorption.
b) The surface area of each villus is further increased by microvilli which are tiny microscopic
projections from the epithelial cells of the villus.
c) The long length of the ileum also helps to increase surface area for absorption.
d) Each villus contains a dense capillary network close to the epithelium to carry away the
absorbed food substances as quickly as possible. This helps to maintain the concentration
gradient of soluble food molecules between the solution of nutrients in the ileum and the blood
plasma in the blood capillaries for their rapid diffusion.
e) The epithelium of the villus is one – cell thick allowing soluble food molecules to diffuse rapidly
over a short distance into the blood capillaries of the villus.
End product of digestion are soluble in water (e.g glucose, amino acids) enter the blood system by
diffusing into the capillary network of the villi.
Fate of the products of digestion:

OBJECTIVE: describe assimilation and how large molecules are synthesised from smaller basic units:
I. starch from simple sugars
II. proteins from amino acids
III. lipids from glycerol and fatty acids
The end-products of digestion are assimilated (utilized in the body in various ways) according to the
needs as shown in the table below.
END PRODUCT PATH TAKEN TO EACH BODY CELLS FATE OF THE END PRODUCTS
OF DIGESTION
Glucose Ileum hepatic portal vein liver 1. Utilized by all cells in
hepatic vein vena cava right heart respiration.
lungs left heart aorta all parts 2. Excess glucose is
of the body converted to glycogen by
liver cells in presence of
insulin and stored in liver
cells as glycogen.
3. Makes starch and
glycogen.
Amino acids 1. Used to make new

Ileum hepatic portal vein liver protoplasm, hormones
hepatic vein vena cava right heart and enzymes.
lungs left heart aorta all parts 2. Used in repair of worn
of the body out tissues.
3. Utilized by the cells in
respiration only when
glucose, glycogen and
fats are used up.
4. Make proteins.
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Fatty acids Ileum lacteal lymphatic vessel 1. Fatty acids and glycerol
vena cava right heart lungs left recombine in lacteal to
and glycerol heart aorta all parts of the body form fat globules.
2. Fats stored under skin
and around organs as an
energy store and for
heat insulation.
3. Utilized by the cells in
respiration only when
glucose and glycogen are
used up.
OBJECTIVE: State the function of the hepatic portal vein as the route taken by most of the food
absorbed from the small intestines
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Liver lies just below the diaphragm and partly overlaps the stomach. The blood vessels serving the liver
are:-
Hepatic portal vein:- Carries blood containing soluble food molecules absorbed from the ileum
and carried to the liver. Blood capillaries in the villi of ileum join to form the hepatic portal vein.
Hepatic artery:- Carries blood with oxygen to the liver.
Hepatic vein: - Carries blood containing waste products and substances produced by liver cells
away from the liver.
OBJECTIVE: Describe the role of the liver in the metabolism of glucose, as a storage organ,
deamination and detoxification
The main functions of the liver are:
Formation of bile
 bile has salts that are produced by the liver cells and has bile pigments from the breakdown of
old red blood cells in the liver.
 Bile is stored in gall bladder and used to emulsify fats before digestion by lipase in duodenum.
Storage of glucose
 Liver maintains concentration of glucose in blood by converting glucoses to glycogen in the
presence of hormone insulin. Insulin is secreted by the pancreas and carried to the liver by
blood. Glycogen is stored in the liver cells.
Deamination
 Formation of urea. Amino acids that are excess of the body’s needs cannot be stored. The amino
group (-NH2 part) of the amino acids is removed and converted to urea. The residue is converted
to glucose for metabolism or storage.
Detoxification
 Poisonous substances, used hormones and alcohol are converted to harmless substances by
liver cells.
Production of plasma proteins
 Blood clotting proteins such as fibrinogen and plasma proteins prothrombin are made by liver
cells.
Storage of iron
 Old red blood cells are destroyed in the liver, the iron from haemoglobin is stored in the liver for
synthesis of new red blood cells in the bone marrow. Fat soluble vitamins (A, B, D) taken in the
diet are stored in liver.
Liberation of heat energy
 The many chemical reactions taking place in the liver result in the release of heat.
 The heat generated is distributed throughout the body by the circulatory system and helps to
maintain a constant body temperature.
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OBJECTIVE: Investgate action of amylase on starch
Inv estigation :
Action of amylase on starch
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RESPIRATION
OBJECTIVE: Define respiration
Respiration is the release of energy from food substances in all living cells.
OBJECTIVE: Describe uses of energy in living organisms

Most of the energy is lost as heat energy and remaining energy is used up for the vital activities of the
cells such as:
 Cell division for growth and repair of tissues;
 Metabolic reactions e.g. synthesis of proteins, hormones, enzymes etc;
 Contraction of skeletal muscles, heart muscles etc;
 Transport of particles in and out of cells e.g. active transport;
 Conduction of nerve impulses;
 Maintenance of a constant body temperature.
OBJECTIVE: Describe respiration

ATP and energy transfer:
 The energy release when glucose is broken down is not used directly in the cell instead it is
transferred to the chemicals which act as a store of readily available energy.
 One of these chemicals is adenosine triphosphate (ATP).Adenosine combines with one, two or
three phosphate groups. Energy released when the glucose molecule breaks down is used to
combine a phosphate ion ( PO4 3- ) with a molecule of adenosine diphosphate.
 When there is need of energy in a cell, in the presence of an appropriate enzyme, ATP readily
breaks down to ADP, releasing energy and phosphate ion. The energy can be used to drive other
chemical reactions such as those producing muscle contraction.
ATP ADP +PO4 3-
muscle contraction
Aerobic and anaerobic respiration

OBJECTIVE: Define aerobic respiration
 Aerobic respiration is release of relatively large amount of energy by break down of food in the
presence of oxygen .
OBJECTIVE: State the equations of aerobic respiration
Word equation:
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + energy
Symbol equation:
C6 H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2+6H2O+Energy
OBJECTIVE: Define anaerobic respiration

 Anaerobic respiration is release of relatively small amount of energy by the breakdown of food
in the absence of oxygen.
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OBJECTIVE: Describe fermentation
 Fermentation is a form of anaerobic respiraton. Fermentation is also used more broadly to refer
to the bulk growth of microorganisms in a growth medium.
OBJECTIVE: State the equations of anaerobic respiration

1. Alcoholic (yeast) fermentation:
Word equation:
Glucose Alcohol + Carbon dioxide + energy
Symbol equation:
C6 H12O6 2C2H5OH+2CO2+2ATP ( G=-210kJ/mol)
2. Lactic fermentation:
Word equation:
Glucose lactic acid + energy
Symbol equation:
C6 H12O6 2C3H6O3+2ATP ( G=-150kJ/mol)
Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration;

AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Condition  Presence of oxygen  Absence of oxygen
Respiratory  Complete breakdown of glucose  Incomplete breakdown of
products to carbon dioxide and water glucose to ethanol and
carbon dioxide in alcoholic
fermentation; or to lactic
acid in lactic fermentation
Energy liberated  Release of relatively large  Release of relatively small
amount of energy within each amount of energy within
glucose molecule each glucose molecule.
Occurrence in  Occurs in mitochondrion  Occurs in cytoplasm.

cell
Organism  All organisms breathe in air  Yeasts, bacteria, organisms
(oxygen) living in stagnant water or
 yeast can also respire aerobically mud e.g. worms
 Muscles of human and other
mammals during strenuous
exercise
 Mammals which dive for a
long period of time in the
ocean e.g. seals and whales.
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OBJECTIVE: Describe the production of lactic acid in muscles during exercising
Anaerobic respiration in human skeletal muscles:

 Anaerobic respiration occurs during strenuous exercise or vigorous physical activity over a
period of time.
 Despite the increased heart rate, the oxygen cannot be transported to the muscles fast enough
for tissue respiration.
 Insufficient oxygen supply causes the muscles to respire anaerobically to release energy.
 Glucose is broken down to lactic acid instead of carbon dioxide.
 Lactic acid accumulates in the muscles and causes muscle cramps.
 Oxygen debt incurred during the period of anaerobic respiration.
 The oxygen debt is paid off by rapid breathing in the recovery period after the exercise; oxygen
is used to breakdown the lactic acid to carbon dioxide, water and (heat) energy; the heat energy
and water are lost from the body via sweating.
OBJECTIVE: Demonstrate release of energy through anaerobic respiration using yeast

Experiment (d) To Demonstrate Anaerobic Respiration by Living Organisms
 Boil water for 15 minutes to remove all the dissolved oxygen.

 Almost fill two test-tubes with the water, allow them to cool to 25°C in the sealed test-tubes -
sealed to prevent re-oxygenation.
 Dissolve glucose in each test-tube.
 Add live yeast to one - the experiment. No yeast in the other - the control.
 Place a thin layer of oil on the top of the water in each - the water remains deoxygenated by
preventing contact with air.
 Insert a thin glass tube from each stoppered test-tube into a test tube of limewater.
 Maintain the temperature at 25°C in a water bath or heating tray.
Lime water turns

milky.
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TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
Objective: Describe the structure and function of root hairs in relation to their surface area, and to
water and ions uptake.
*See notes for root hair cell
Objective:Describe absorption of water in terms of osmosis

Water: Absorption of water:
 root hair cells absorb water;
 absorption of water occurs by process osmosis;
 water molecules are highly concentrated in the soil than in root hair cells;
 water molecules diffuse into root hair cells; from root hair cells water molecules will diffuse
into other root cells; eventually to xylem.
*Objective: Describe absorption of mineral ions in terms of active transport

 Mineral ions: absorption of mineral ions can occur by active transport.
 If mineral ions are less concentrated in the soil than in root hair cells;
 mineral ions move by active transport from the area of lower concentration, outside
the root hair cells, to the area of higher concentration inside the root hair cells;
 from root hair cells the mineral ions will be actively transported to other root cells.
Objective: Describe the structure and functions of vascular tissues (xylem vessels and phloem tissues)
Xylem and Phloem:
Xylem tissue is for transport of water and mineral salts from the root, up the stem, to the leaves.
Phloem tissue is for translocation of organic soluble food molecules from the leaves to the rest of the
plant.
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Objective: Define translocation as movement of substances (water; mineral ions, and organic
materials) through vascular tissue
Translocation:
Translocation is the movement of organic soluble materials; through the phloem.
Transpiration
Objective: Define transpiration as loss of water vapour from the stomata
Transpiration is the process by which water vapour is lost from the aerial part of the plant via the
stomata.
*Objective: Discuss how transpiration is related to cell surfaces, stomata and intercellular air spaces.
Water is evaporated from the surface of the spongy mesophyll cells into the air spaces in the leaf and
finally diffuse through the stomata into the surrounding atmosphere.
Objective: Describe transpiration stream as a process of water movement through xylem vessels.
 Transpiration pull is a suction force generated by transpiration; which draws water from the soil
up the xylem vessels in the stem to the leaves of a plant.
 The thin and continuous column of water which flows up the plant from roots through the stem
to the leaves in the xylem vessels, is called the transpiration stream.
leaf
Osmotic gradient
Importance of transpiration:
 Water and mineral ions moved up the plant during transpiration pull or stream. Water will be
used in photosynthesis and in keeping cells turgid. Mineral are used to make new structures in
the plant.
 Evaporation of water from the plant has a cooling effect to the plant.
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Factors affecting rate of transpiration.
Objective: Discuss factors that affect transpiration
Objective: Discuss effect of temperature, humidity and wind on the rate of transpiration
1. Temperature
Increase of temperature increases the rate of transpiration; decrease of temperature decreases
the rate of transpiration.
Increase of temperature increases kinetic energy of water molecules in the mesophyll of the
leaf; therefore more random movement of water particles in the leaf and higher rate of
diffusion of the water particles from the leaf into the atmosphere. The converse is true for
decrease of temperature.
2. Humidity
Decrease of humidity in the atmosphere increases the rate of transpiration; increase of humidity
in the atmosphere decreases the rate of transpiration.
Increase of humidity in the atmosphere decreases the concentration gradient of water particles
between the inside of the leaf and the outside of the leaf; therefore reduced rate of diffusion of
water particles from the inside of the leaf to the outside of the leaf. The opposite applies for
lower humidity.
3. Speed of air
Higher speed of air increases the rate of transpiration; lower speed of air reduces the rate of
transpiration.
Higher speed of air increases sweeping away of water particles on the immediate surface of the
leaf; resulting in a higher concentration gradient of water particles between the inside of the
leaf and the outside of the leaf; this will increase the rate of diffusion of water particles from the
inside of the leaf to the outside. The opposite applies.
4. Light
Higher light intensity increases the rate of transpiration; lower light intensity decreases the rate
of transpiration.
Higher light intensity widens stomatal pores therefore increased rate of diffusion of the water
particles from the leaf into the atmosphere. The converse statement is true.
Objective: Investigate effect of temperature, humidity and wind on the rate of transpiration
Potometer:
A potometer is used to measure the rate of water uptake which can be an indirect measure of
the rate of transpiration.
One end of a shoot is inserted into a photometer, and then subjected to different conditions
such as:
1. lower speed of air and higher speed of air
2. lower temperature and higher temperature
3. lower humidity and higher humidity.
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CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The Human Transport System
OBJECTIVE: describe the circulatory system as consisting of tubes (blood vessels) with a pump (heart)
and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood.
 The transport system in the human body consists of the blood, the blood vessels and the
heart.
 It is made up of a continuous system of blood vessels with a muscular pump (the heart) and
valves which ensure that the blood flow is always in one direction.
 The transport medium of the body is the blood tissue which distributes essential substances to
body cells and collects their metabolic wastes.
 The blood is circulated by the muscular contraction of the heart.
The Double (Dual) Circulation System.

OBJECTIVE :Describe circulation as consisting of pulmonary and systemic circuits.
 The human transport system is an efficient and complete double circulatory system.
 It is made up of two main systems which are connected to the heart.
 Pulmonary circulation – blood circulation from the heart to the lungs and back to the
heart.
 System circulation - blood circulation from the heart to the body parts and back to the
heart.
 Therefore, in one complete circulation blood passes twice through the heart.
 The heart has two halves that are completely separated by a septum.
 Therefore, there is no mixing of deoxygenated blood from the body and oxygenated
blood from the lungs; also blood is supplied to the lungs and the body parts at the right
pressure.
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OBJECTIVE: Discuss the difference between the two circuits (pulmonary and systemic) in terms of
pressure, direction of blood flow and quality of blood:
Systemic Circuit Pulmonary Circuit

Blood is from the heart to the body parts then Blood is from the heart to the lungs then back to
back to the heart. the heart.
Oxygenated blood flows away from the heart Oxygenated blood flows towards the heart
/deoxygenated blood flows towards the heart. /deoxygenated blood flows away from the heart.
Oxygenated blood flows along arteries and Oxygenated blood flows along veins and
deoxygenated blood flows along veins. deoxygenated blood flows along arteries.
Blood covers a longer distance. Blood covers a shorter distance.
Blood is at relatively high pressure. Blood at relatively low pressure.
The Structure, Function, and Action Of The Heart.

OBJECTIVE: Describe the structure and function of the heart.
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Structure Position in the heart Function
Superior vena Main vein which comes from the Returns deoxygenated blood from the head and
cava upper part of the body. upper limbs to the heart.
Inferior vena Main vein which comes from the Returns deoxygenated blood from the organs and
cava lower part of the body. lower limbs to the heart.
Right atrium Upper right chambers from the Receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava.
heart.
Semi-lunar Found at the opening of the Prevents back flow of blood from the pulmonary
valves pulmonary artery. artery into the right ventricle when the right atrium
relaxes.
Tricuspid Between right atrium and right Prevents backflow of blood to the right atrium
valve ventricle consists of 3 flaps. when the right ventricle contracts.
Right ventricle Lower chamber of the heart (right). Pumps blood to the lungs via pulmonary artery.
Septum Muscular wall separating the left Prevents mixing of deoxygenated blood in the right
and right chambers. side of the heart with the oxygenated blood from
the left side of the heart.
Bicuspid valve Between left atrium and left Prevents back flow of blood to the left atrium
ventricle. Consists of two flaps. when the left ventricle contracts.
Chordae Elastic tendons which attach valve Tendons become taut and prevent the valve from
tendineae flaps to the capillary muscles. flapping back into the atrium under the blood
pressure generated during the contraction of the
ventricles.
Left ventricle Lower left chambers of the heart, Pumps blood to all parts of the body (except the
the most muscular part . lungs) via the aorta.
Left atrium Upper left chamber of the heart . Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via
pulmonary vein.
Pulmonary Arises from the top of the right Carries deoxygenated blood from the right
artery atrium , forms two branches one to ventricle to the lungs.
each lungs.
Pulmonary Empties oxygenated blood into the Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left
vein left atrium. atrium of the heart.
Aorta Largest artery of the body. Carries oxygenated blood to all parts of the body
except the lungs.
Semilunar Found at the opening of the aorta. Prevents backflow of oxygenated blood from the
valves aorta into the left ventricle when the left ventricle
relaxes.
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 The walls of the ventricles of the heart are more muscular than those of the atria because the
ventricles have to pump blood over a greater distance to the lungs and to the rest of the body,
whereas the atria only pump blood into the ventricles.
 The left ventricle has a much thicker wall than the right ventricle because a higher pressure is
required to pump the blood over a greater distance to the rest of the body.
The Heart Beat

 The heart contracts rhythmically with a period of relaxation and rest between each contraction.
 The contraction period is called systole and the relaxation period is called diastole.
 During rest, a healthy adult has a heart beat rate of about 72 beats per minute.
 The direction of blood flow in the major arteries and veins of the circulatory system as is shown
below.
Artial systole/ ventricular diastole/ artrial Ventricular systole/artrial diastole/ ventricular

contraction contraction
Both left and right atria contract and force Both left and right ventricles contract and force
blood into the ventricles. blood into the pulmonary vein and aorta
respectively.
Higher blood pressure in atria Lower blood pressure in atria

Both bicuspid valve of the left side of the Bicuspid valve and tricuspid valve close to prevent
heart and tricuspid valve of the right side of backflow of blood into the left and right atria
the heart open. respectively.
Semi – lunar valves of the pulmonary artery Semi-lunar valves of the pulmonary artery open
close to prevent backflow of blood into the
right and left ventricles.
Left and right ventricles relax. Left and right ventricles contract.
Lower blood pressure in ventricles. Higher blood pressure in ventricles.
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Blood pressure and pulse rate:
OBJECTIVE: Locate pulse points and count the pulse rate
 The high blood pressure exerted on the elastic and muscular walls of the aorta during
ventricular contraction causes a wave of contraction to pass along the main arteries of the body.
 This succession of waves can be felt as a pulse in many places where the arteries are sufficiently
superficial such as the wrist and the neck.
 The blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood on the walls of the blood vessels as a result
of the contraction and relaxation of the heart.
 Blood pressure varies with the distance of the blood vessels from the heart, the phase of the
heartbeat, the activity and physiological state of the body and age.
 Blood pressure is highest in the aorta and lowest in the veins.
 Blood pressure is higher during ventricular contraction and lower during relaxation.
 During vigorous physical activities e.g. exercise; hormone adrenaline secreted causes an
increase in the rate of heartbeat and a rise in blood pressure.
 Blood pressure increases with age.
OBJECTIVE: Investigate the effect of physical activity on pulse rate

Complete the short investigation by identifying pulse point on other fellow students.
Count each student pulse for two minute and repeat the counting after a vigorous exercise lasting 10
minutes.
Name of Number of pulse Pulse Rate before Number of pulse in 2 Pulse Rate after
Person in 2 minute before exercising minute after exercising
exercising exercising
(Pulse) (Pulse/min) (Pulse) (Pulse/min)
Blood flow in veins is maintained by:

 Flow of blood from the capillaries;
 Pressure from the surrounding organs, especially from the contraction and relaxation of skeletal
muscle;
 Pairs of valves along the length of the veins which prevent backflow.
Coronary Heart Disease:

OBJECTIVE: Describe coronary heart disease in terms of occlusion of coronary arteries
 A heart attack or heart failure is the sudden slowing or stoppage of the heart beat due to severe
damage or death of the heart (cardiac) muscles.
 A heart attack is caused by a blockage in either of the two coronary arteries which branch out of
the aorta to supply oxygen and soluble substances to the heart muscles.
 The blockage stops the flow of blood and deprives that part of the heart muscles of
oxygen and soluble food molecules.
 Less respiration will occur at the heart muscles and less energy will be liberated.
 This will cause failure of contraction of heart muscles at the affected part.
 Causes severe damage to the heart.
 Resulting in death.
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Two main conditions which cause a blockage in the coronary artery:
Atherosclerosis – The narrowing and hardening of artery due to fatty deposits (cholesterol) on the inner
walls of the artery.
Coronary thrombosis - The formation of a blood clot inside the artery. Thrombosis is more likely to
occur in narrow arteries with fatty deposits.
Occurrence of both atherosclerosis and coronary thrombosis in the human body:
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OBJECTIVE: Discuss possible causes of coronary heart diseases (diet, stress, smoking)
The main factors which contribute to increased risk of coronary heart disease are:
Smoking - Nicotine
 Increases heart rate by increasing secretion of hormone adrenalin;
 Constricts blood vessels increasing blood pressure;
 Causes blood to clot more easily;
 Carbon monoxide increases the rate of deposition of cholesterol and decreases oxygen supply to
heart nuscles.
Diet
 A diet rich in cholesterol and saturated fats results in high blood cholesterol level.
 This increases deposition of fat on inner surface of the artery.
Stress
 Hormone adrenaline secreted under stressful conditions increases heart rate and blood
pressure.
 Forceful thrust of blood makes fats to be deposited on the inner surface of the arteries, causing
narrowing of the artery.
Preventative Measures of Coronary Heart Disease:

OBJECTIVE: Discuss preventative measures of coronary heart diseases
Avoid smoking :
 no nicotine in the body; less narrowing of blood vessels.
 no carbon monoxide; less atherosclerosis.
Diet with less fat:
 less cholesterol; less saturated fats in high blood.
 less deposition of fat on inner surface of the artery.
Avoid Stress:
 less adrenaline secreted.
 normal heart rate and normal blood pressure.
 less fats deposited on the inner surface of the arteries.
 less narrowing of the arteries.
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The general circulatory system:
OBJECTIVE: Name and identify the main blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs , liver and kidneys
Hepatic artery
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OBJECTIVE: compare the structure and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries
A comparison of the structure and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries
Functional differences:
ARTERIES VEINS CAPILLARIES

 All arteries transport  All veins transport blood  Capillaries transport
blood away from the towards the heart blood from artery to vein
heart
 All arteries carry  All veins carry  Exchange of substances

oxygenated blood except deoxygenated blood down the concentration
the pulmonary artery except the pulmonary gradient.
vein  Repeatedly branched
fine capillaries provide a
large surface area for
exchange of substances
between the blood and
tissue cells.
 The rate of blood flow is
slow allowing maximum
time for diffusion of
substances
 Blood at relatively higher  Blood at relatively lower  They carry blood at
pressure pressure. intermediate pressure
 Pulse is strong  No pulse  No pulse
Structural differences:
ARTERIES VEINS CAPILLARIES

lumen
Endothelium-
one cell thick
lumen
Lumen -
very tiny
 Thick muscular, elastic walls.  Thinner, inelastic and less  Thin, one-cell thick walls,
muscular walls. no muscle and elastic
tissue.
 Walls are not permeable.  Walls are not permeable.  Walls are permeable to
tissue fluid and
phagocytes.
 Relatively small lumens.  Relatively large lumens.  Very tiny lumens
(smallest blood
vessels).
 Circular cross-section.  Oval cross – section.  Circular cross –section.
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OBJECTIVE: describe the transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid
Exchange of Materials Between Capillaries and Tissue fluid:
 Blood entering the capillary from the arteriole is at higher pressure.

 Fluids exude out through the capillary walls to bath cells, forming tissue fluid.
 Water, oxygen, glucose, phagocytes and other smaller molecules pass through the capillary
walls into tissue fluid.
 Carbon dioxide, urea and other wastes diffuse from the tissue fluid into the capillary.
 Water re-enters the capillary by osmosis.
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BLOOD
OBJECTIVE: list components of blood as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma
Blood consists of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma.
OBJECTIVE: Identify red and white blood cells as seen in diagrams and/ photomicrographs.
OBJECTIVE:Describe the function of:
I. red blood cells – haemoglobin and oxygen transport
II. white blood cells – phagocytosis, antibody formation and tissue rejection
III. platelets – fibrinogen to fibrin causing clotting
IV. plasma – transport of blood cells, ions, end products of digestion, hormones, carbon
dioxide, urea, vitamins, plasma proteins
Blood cells:
red blood cells;
white blood cells;
platelets.
Blood cells and their functions:
CELL STRUCTURE VOL/mm3 SITE OF FUNCTION OF CELL
FORMATION
1.Red blood cells 5 Red bone marrow Lungs
Haemoglobin
million (particularly in Oxyhaemoglobin
the ribs) + Oxygen
a) Haemoglobin is a pigment which

contains iron. It is capable of
combining reversibly with oxygen
b) Red blood cell has a short life
span of about 120 days. The dead
cells are broken down in the
spleen and liver. Iron is stored in
 Biconcave disc without
the liver and the rest of the
nucleus.
haemoglobin molecule forms bile
 Has elastic cell
pigments
membrane.
White blood cells 7000
 large than red blood

cell
 contains nucleus
1 Phagocyte Lymph Engulf, ingest and digest foreign particles.
2. Lymphocyte
Lymph Produces antibodies which destroy
invading bacteria/foreign particles and
neutralize toxins produced by bacteria
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Platelets 0.25 Red bone marrow Forms a temporary plug at wound or cut.
million Damaged tissues and platelets form
enzyme thrombokinase.
 A tiny fragment of cell
without nucleus Thrombokinase
Prothrombin thrombin
calcium ions
enzymes
thrombin
Fibrinogen Fibrin
Fibrin mesh traps blood cells and forms

blood clot to seal up wound
Plasma:
Straw-coloured liquid consists of
 water (90%);
 soluble food substances e.g. glucose, amino acids, oil droplets;
 mineral salts e.g. sodium ions, calcium ions, chloride ions and bicarbonate ions (HCO-3);
 plasma proteins e.g. fibrinogen and antibodies;
 waste e.g. carbon dioxide and urea;
 hormones in minute quantities e.g. adrenalin and insulin;
 enzymes;
 gases in small quantities e.g. oxygen and nitrogen.
Antibody
 Antibody is a protein molecule produced by the body in response to an antigen. Each antigen
stimulates the production of a specific antibody that will destroy that antigen.
 Once the lymphocytes have learnt to make the specific antibody in response to the antigen on
an infective organism, the body begins to recover as the organisms or pathogens are destroyed.
It takes a few days to produce antibodies, so the infected individual will show some symptoms
of the disease.
Lymphocytes
The types are:
B – lymphocytes – Produce antibodies
T – lymphocytes – either attack pathogens directly, or produce chemicals which coordinate the
activity of all cells in the immune system.
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HOMEOSTASIS
OBJECTIVE: Define homeostasis.
Homeostasis is the control and maintenance of a constant internal environment around the cells in the
body despite unfavorable fluctuations in the external environment.
OBJECTIVE: locate and name the main organs which maintain a constant internal environment,
namely pancreas and liver ( blood glocuse), kidneys (water content) and skin (temperature).
The composition of the tissue fluid that surrounds the cells is kept constant by the action of a number of
different organs which constantly regulate particular factors in the blood.
ORGANS BLOOD FACTORS REGULATED MECHANISM OF CONTROL

Lungs Carbon dioxide and Oxygen  Breathing rate and carbon dioxide
level in blood are regulated via the
respiratory centers in the brain.
Kidneys Water, Urea and Excess  Amount of water reabsorbed by
mineral salts kidney tubules is regulated by the
action of anti-diuretic hormone. Urea
and excess mineral salts are removed
from the blood and are excreted in
urine.
Liver and Pancreas Blood glucose  Glucose level is regulated by
hormones insulin and glucagon
Skin and Liver Temperature  A combination of involuntary actions
are controlled and coordinated by the
hypothalamus of the brain.
Skin and temperature regulations:

The functions of the skin
a) A continuous covering to protect body tissues from ultra violet radiation as well as
mechanical damage, entry of bacteria and excessive loss of water by evaporation.
b) A sense organ to detect pain, pressure changes and temperature changes.
c) For temperature regulation to maintain a constant body temperature.
d) Removes excess salts, water and urea from the body in the form of sweat as a homeostatic
organ and not an excretory one.
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The structure of skin and its functions are summarized below:
OBJECTIVE: Identify and label on the diagram of the skin: hairs, sweat, sweat glands receptors and
blood vessels
PARTS OF SKIN FUNCTIONS

Epidermis Protect layer
1. Cornified layer  Top most layer which consists of flat, dead cells that continually
wear off.
2. Granular layer  Contains living cells which are gradually pushed up to replace the
worn – out cells in the cornified layer.
3. Malpighian layer  Contains actively dividing cells to produce new epidermis. Has
pigment melanin that gives skin its colour and absorbs ultra
violet radiation.
Dermis  A layer of connective tissue with many collagen fibres and some
elastic fibres. It contains most of the important structures found
in skin.
Sebacious glands  Secrete oily sebum to lubricate skin.
Hair follicle and hair  A deep pit of granular and malpighian layer where cells multiply
to form a hair inside the follicle.
Erector muscle  Controls the erection of hair- contracts to raise the hair and
relaxes to make the hair lie down.
Sweat glands  Absorbs salts and water from blood capillaries to produce sweat
for temperature regulation and excretion.
Sensory nerve endings  Detect pain, changes in temperature and pressure on skin.
Blood capillaries  Exchange of substances between skin cells and blood stream.
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Hypothalamus:
OBJECTIVE: Discuss the coordinating role of the brain in maintaining a constant body temperature
 In the hypothalamus there is a thermoregulatory center.
 The thermoregulatory center monitors the temperature of the blood passing through it and also
receives sensory nerve impulses from temperature receptors in the skin.
 A rise in body temperature is detected by the thermoregulatory center of hypothalamus:
 It then sends nerve impulses to the skin which results in vasodilation and sweating
 A fall in body temperature is detected by the thermoregulatory center of hypothalamus:
 It then sends nerve impulses to the skin which results in vasoconstriction, minimal
sweating and decrease of exothermic reactions of the liver.
The role of the skin in temperature regulation:
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EXCRETION
OBJECTIVE: Define excretion as given below
 Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste products and toxic materials from organisms, to
maintain constant internal environment.
 The accumulation of these substances can interfere with the proper functioning of cells and
changes the concentration of tissue fluid around.
 A variety of excretory products are removed from the body by the excretory organs.
EXCRETORY ORGANS TYPES OF WASTE EXCRETED

Lungs Carbon dioxide
Kidneys Urea, excess water, and mineral salts
Liver Urea ( from the breakdown of amino acids),
pigment
Skin Heat, excess water, mineral salts and urea
 Used hormones, drugs and toxic substances such as alcohol are also excreted.
The human urinary system.

OBJECTIVE: Identify parts of the urinary system: kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder; urethra.
Sphincter muscle
urethra
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OBJECTIVE: Describe the functions of : kidneys, ureter, bladder; urethra.
STRUCTURE FUNCTIONS
Kidney  Filters blood and excretes nitrogenous wastes, excess salts and
water as urine.
Renal artery  Branching from the aorta, the renal artery carries oxygenated
blood to the kidney.
Renal vein  Carries deoxygenated blood away from the kidney to the vena
cava.
Ureter  Peristaltic contractions in the thin tube carries urine produced by
the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
Bladder  A distensible sac in which urine is temporarily stored.
Sphincter muscle  Voluntarily relaxes to release urine from the bladder.
Urethra  Passage of urine out of the body is through the urethra.
Structure and functions of the mammalian kidney.

The kidney contains about one million microscopic urine formation units called kidney tubules or
nephrons.
Structure of kidney
OBJECTIVE: Draw and label a cross section of a mammalian kidney
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The various regions in the internal structure of the mammalian kidney and their functions are
summarized in Table below:
REGION IN THE KIDNEY FUNCTION
Outer Cortex ( dark colour)  Contains the Bownman’s capsules and
glomeruli. Where ultra-filtration occurs.
 The dark colour is due to the millions of
coiled capillaries of the glomeruli.
Inner medulla( light clour)  Contains U – Shaped loop of Henle and
the collecting ducts.
Pyramids  Cone shaped areas in medulla where
urine produced by the kidney tubules
drain into the pelvis of the ureter.
Pelvis  Funnel – shaped spaces formed by the
top of the ureter collecting urine.
Ureter  Peristaltic contractions in the thin tube
carries urine produced by the kidneys to
the bladder.
Kidney failure and the dialysis machine:

*OBJECTIVE: Describe dialysis in kidney machines as the diffusion of waste products and salts (small
molecules) through a partially or selectively permeable membrane.
Kidney diseases can reduce the efficiency of the kidney and can cause kidney failure. A person with one
functional kidney can survive and live a more or less normal life but failure of both kidneys results in the
accumulation of nitrogenous waste and toxins leading to death.
The condition can be alleviated by the use of a kidney dialysis machine or an artificial kidney which
eliminates the excess salts and nitrogenous waste from the patient’s blood.
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 The patient’s blood is led from the radial artery in his arm through the coiled dialysis tube in the
dialysis machine and then returned to a vein in the same arm. The dialysis tubule is a partially
permeable membrane which allows small molecules of dissolved substances to diffuse through
and prevents the passage of blood cells and large proteins.
 The coiled dialysis tube is bathed in a sterile dialysis fluid which contains a carefully regulated
amount of dissolved salts and glucose with a composition similar to the blood plasma ( without
nitrogenous waste).
 A diffusion gradient is set up and nitrogenous waste, excess mineral salts and other toxins
diffuse from patient’s blood across the dialysis tube into the dialysis fluid.
 The dialysis fluid is changed regularly to remove the waste substances and to maintain the
diffusion gradient between the patient’s blood and the dialysis fluid. The temperature of the
dialysis fluid is maintained at body temperature.
 Patients with permanent kidney failure become totally dependent on the kidney machine. They
have to keep a strict diet (restricted salt, water and protein) and usually undergo 3 sessions of
dialysis per week for 4 – 5 hours per session.
 Patients suffer from tiredness, anemia, develop bone problems and risk being infected by
diseases transmitted by blood such as AIDS. The stress and difficulty in accepting and adjusting
to a rigid a restricted lifestyle and can cause psychological problems.
 An alternative treatment is a kidney transplant.
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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The main function of the nervous system is to transmit messages, in the form nerve impulses, carried
via nerves from one part of the body to another, and to coordinate the organism’s actions.
OBJECTIVE: Discuss the relationship of sensory (receptor) cells, sense organs and the effector organs.
The human body has sensory organs with receptor cells that generate electrical /nerve impulses when
stimulated by specific stimuli. The nerve impulses are sent to the effectors that change to make a
response.
The table below shows the relationship between sensory organs and the stimulus:
Sensory Organ Receptor cell Stimulus
Eye photo receptors light
ear sound receptors sound
nose chemo receptors chemicals
Skin pressure receptors pressure
pain receptors pain
thermo receptors temperature
tongue chemo receptors chemicals
Composition of the nervous system: Comprises of the central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system. Central nervous system comprises of the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral
nervous system comprises of the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves.
Nervous system
Central nervous system(CNS) Peripheral nervous system
Brain is protected by Spinal cord is protected Cranial nerves Spinal nerve

cranium by vertebral column that arise from the brain that arise from
the spinal
cord.
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OBJECTIVE: Discuss the principle of detecting change in the environment and responding to it.
Changes in the environment are called stimuli ( singular stimulus) and they are detected by receptors
with special types of nerves ends. Receptors transmit a message via a sensory nerve to the central
nervous system (CNS). The CNS, which consists of the brain and the spinal cord, relays impulses to the
effector via the motor nerve causing a response. An effector may be a gland or a muscle which
responds to the stimulus. The whole process is represented in the diagram below.
CNS
sensory nerve motor nerve
Effector (muscles or glands)

receptor cells
stimulus
NEURONES AND NERVOUS IMPULSES

A nerve is made up of hundreds of microscopic neurones/nerve cells bundled together.
A neurone is the basic unit of the nervous system. Neurones link the receptors, the CNS and the
effectors together. A neurone consists of 3 main parts:
Cell body –Contains the cell membrane, cytoplasm and the nucleus. They are grey in colour and make
up the grey matter of the brain and spinal cord.
Axon – A long fibre that extends from the cell body to the effector and carries impulses away from the
cell body.
The axon is surrounded by a fatty structure called a myelin sheath and has small constrictions along its
length called Nodes of Ranvier.
The myelin sheath acts as an electrical insulator and helps to speed up the transmission of impulses.
At the end of an axon there are terminals that release neurotransmitters which are chemicals that
cause the effectors to act.
Dendrons – Dendrons arise from the cell body and branch to smaller, finer fibres called the dendrites.
They receive messages from axons of other neurones and carry these impulses towards the cell body.
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There are three types of neurones in the human nervous system:
1. Sensory neurone.
OBJECTIVE: Describe the function of a sensory neurone.
 Transmits messages from the receptors to the CNS. Receptors are the ends of terminals of
sensory neurone.
 It has a long dendron and short axon. Its cell body a is found outside the CNS in the dorsal
root ganglion of the spinal cord.
OBJECTIVE: Draw a labelled diagram of a sensory neurone.
2. Motor neurone:
OBJECTIVE: Describe the function of a motor neurone
 Transmits messages from the CNS to effector ( muscles and glands). Motor neurones link
intermediate (relay) neurones in the CNS to effectors.
 It has long axon and no dendron. Its axon branches repeatedly into the muscle, with each
branch terminating into a motor end plate on a single muscle fibre.
OBJECTIVE: Draw a labelled diagram of a motor neurone.
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3. Intermediate ( relay) neurone(s)
OBJECTIVE: Describe the function of a relay neurone
They are found in the brain and spinal cord where they link the sensory neurons with the motor
neurones. They transmit messages directly from sensory to motor neurones in the CNS.
OBJECTIVE: Draw a labelled diagram of a relay neurone.
Nervous impulses are generated by a variety of different stimuli such as pressure, temperature,
chemicals, pain, light, etc. These stimuli will initiate nervous impulses to occur in the appropriate
receptors.
Neurones transmit messages in the form of electrical impulses. An electrical impulse is a wave of
electrical charges. It is known also known as a nervous impulses. Transmission of nervous impulse
requires energy from aerobic respiration.
Nervous impulses travel rapidly in one direction, starting at the dendrites and finishing at the axon of
each neurone.
The spinal cord:

 The spinal cord is the continuation of the brain. It is dorsal in position and occupies the neural
canal of the vertebral column, protected by the vertebrae. It is surrounded by protective
membranes and cerebrospinal fluid.
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OBJECTIVE: Demonstrate and describe a reflex action
Reflection action
This is an involuntary, rapid action that often lacks thinking, does not involve the brain, uncontrolled,
and protects the body from danger.
Examples of reflex actions: blinking, yawning, knee jerk, sneezing, coughing, secretion, withdrawing
hands from a hot object, pupils responding to light intensity changes, etc.
There are two types of reflex action:

Spinal reflex – Nervous impulses in these automatic responses pass through the spinal cord and do not
involve the brain.
Stimulus receptors sensory relay neurons motor effector
neurons in spinal cord neurons
Cranial reflex – Nervous impulses in these automatic responses pass through the brain. The brain
coordinates the reflex action.
Stimulus receptors sensory relay neurone motor effector
neurones in brain neurone
Examples of cranial reflexes are blinking, yawnings, secretion of saliva.
A reflex arc is the route or pathway along which nervous impulses travel to bringing about a reflex
action (pathway of impulses during a reflex action).
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OBJECTIVE: Describe, with the aid of a labelled diagram, a reflex arc.
1. A typical knee jerk reflex arc is shown below
2. Touching a hot object reflex arc
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OBJECTIVE: Measure and explain reaction time.
Reaction time: Time taken for a stimulus to cause a response. It is not very easy to measure the time.
Experiment 1. Reaction time
It is necessary to work in pairs for this experiment.
(a) Copy Table 1 into your notebook

(b) The subject marks a pencil line down the centre of his thumb-nail and sits sideways at a bench or
table with the forearm resting flat on the bench and the hand over the edge (Fig. 1).
(c) The experimenter holds a ruler vertically between the subject's first finger and thumb with the zero
opposite the line on the thumb but not quite touching either the thumb or fingers.
(d) The subject watches the zero mark and, as soon as the experimenter releases the ruler, the subject
grips it between finger and thumb to stop it falling any further. The distance on the ruler opposite the
mark on the thumb is recorded in column 2 of Table 1.
(e) This is repeated 4 times and the average distance calculated. This distance can be converted to a
time by consulting Table 3.
(f) The ruler is now used to measure the distance from the subject's eye to the base of the neck
and along the arm to the middle of the forearm. This distance is recorded in the table.
(g) The experiment is now repeated with the same subject but this time the subject lets the ruler rest
lightly against the thumb or fingers, with closed eyes, and grips the ruler as quickly as possible after he
or she feels it begin to fall. The experiment is repeated 4 times and the results recorded in column 4 of
Table 1.
(h) The total distance is measured from the finger-tips to the head, and the head to forearm, and
recorded in the table.
(i) Copy Table 2 into your notebook and collect the reaction times for your class and calculate the
average in both cases.
Table 1
Speed of response Speed of response
to sight to touch
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
Total Total
Average Average
Time Time
Distance Distance
(nerve (nerve
pathway) pathway)
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*OBJECTIVE: Describe the function of the pituitary gland and spinal cord.
The main parts of the human brain and their function are summarized in that follows:
PARTS OF THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
BRAIN
Spinal cord  The spinal cord receives and transmits messages to and the brain.
 It coordinates body reflex arcs which occur via the spinal cord.
 The spinal nerves carry sensory impulses to the brain or motor impulses from
the brain to the effector organs of the body.
Pituary gland  An endocrine gland which secrets a number of hormones directly into the
( the master bloodstream to control and regulate various body’s activities:
gland) 1. Growth hormone - which controls the rate of bone growth;
2. Thyroid stimulating hormone - which stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete
hormone thyroxine which influences growth (especially in childhood) by
controlling respiration and the rate of metabolic processes.
3. Gonad stimulating hormone - which stimulates the gonads (ovaries and testes) to
secrete sex hormones.
4. Anti – diuretic hormone: which promotes reabsorption of water in kidney
nephrons and reduces urine volume.
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HORMONES
OBJECTIVE: Define a hormone
A hormone is a chemical substance, produced directly into the blood stream by a ductless gland,
carried by blood, which alters the activity of one or more target organs.
Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands. Each endocrine gland produces a particular hormone or
hormones and each hormone affects the body in a different way.
Hormones are produced in minute concentrations and their effect lasts longer than nerve impulses.
Spent hormones are destroyed by the liver.

Both the endocrine and nervous system coordinate the body’s activities in different ways.
*OBJECTIVE: Compare the nervous system and the endocrine system

A comparison of nervous control and hormonal control in the body is shown below:
NERVOUS CONTROL HORMONAL CONTROL
Message: Electrical impulses. Chemical messenger - Hormone.
Rate of conduction: Rapid. Usually slower.

Conductor: Neurones. Blood plasma (blood stream).
Effectors: Specific effectors, mainly Specific target organ(s) or whole
muscles or glands. body.
Type of response: Responses are localized. Responses may be widespread
e.g. effect of adrenaline.
Duration of response: Rapid and Short term. Often slow and long lasting e.g.
growth, sexual development.
Type of control: Both voluntary and Involuntary control.
involuntary.
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OBJECTIVE: Identify and label on diagram the endocrine glands of the human body
Main endocrine glands and their functions

OBJECTIVE: Name the hormone produced by the endocrine glands in the human body.
ENDOCRINE GLAND HORMONE FUNCTION
Pituatary gland  Growth hormone  Controls the rate of bone growth.
( master gland)  Thyroid – stimulating  Stimulates the thyroid gland to
hormone secrete thyroxine.
 Gonad - stimulating  Stimulates the gonads (ovaries and
hormone testes) to secrete sex hormones.
 Anti - diuretic  Promotes reabsorption of water in
hormone kidney nephrons and reduces urine
volume.
Thyroid gland  Thyroxine  Influences growth (especially in
childhood) by controlling respiration
and rate of metabolic processes.
Pancreas  insulin  Regulates the amount of blood
glucose. Promoting the storage of
excess glucose as glycogen in liver
and muscles.
 Glucagon  Regulates the amount of blood
glucose by promoting conversion of
glycogen in liver and muscles to
glucose when concentration of
blood glucose is low.
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Adrenaline glands  Adrenaline  Prepares the body for action and
emergency.
Ovaries  Oestrogen  Controls ovulation and secondary
sexual characteristics.
 Progesterone  Responsible for thickening of uterus
lining after ovulation.
Testes  Testosterone  Controls sperm production and
secondary sexual characteristics.
Action of adrenaline
OBJECTIVE: Discuss the functions of adrenaline
 Adrenaline is secreted by the adrenal medulla (inner region) of the two glands, each of which is
located just above each of the kidneys.
Adrenaline is secreted during:
 emotional excitement, anger, stress or fear;
 situations that require sudden burst of physical activity.
The sensory receptors detect the stimuli and initiates nerve impulses that are sent to the
hypothalamus of the brain which sends nerve impulses to stimulate the adrenaline gland to
secrete adrenaline.
The effects of adrenaline on the body are:
 Increased heart rate and breathing rate so that oxygen and glucose are carried faster to the
muscles.
 Dilation of the pupils of eyes.
 Constriction of blood vessels carrying blood to the skin and digestive system, and dilation of
blood vessels carrying blood to the muscles and brain results and more blood directed to the
muscles and brain.
 Increasing blood glucose level due to conversion of glycogen stored in liver to glucose.
 Increased metabolic rate to release more energy to cope with the situation.
 Contraction of hair erector muscles producing “ goose bumps” on skin.
The overall effect is to prepare the body for fight or flight.
Control of blood glucose level by insulin and glucagon:

OBJECTIVE: Discuss the functions of insulin
 Insulin is secreted by the islets of Langerhans in the pancrease.
 Insulin controls blood sugar level by increasing the rate at which liver cells convert glucose to
glycogen and the utilization of glucose by cells. Insulin also increases the rate of uptake and
metabolisation of glucose by the muscles.
 Diabetis (Diabetis mellitus) is a disease caused by the failure of pancrease to secrete sufficient
insulin to regulate the blood glucose level. The signs and symptoms of the disease are:
 High blood glucose levels.
 Glucose excreted in urine.
 Persistent redness.
 Loss of weight.
 Increased thirst.
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Other complications include:
 Premature thickening and narrowing of arteries causing poor blood supply to vital organs
resulting in high blood pressure, heart attack, blindness and poor healing of wounds which may
develop in to gangrene which requires amputation of limb.
 Diabetes can be treated by regular injection of insulin and controlling the intake of
carbohydrates in the diet.
OBJECTIVE: Discuss the functions of glucagon
 Glucagon is release in response to a fall of blood glucose level.
 Glucagon makes liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose.
 It stimulates conversion of proteins and fats to carbohydrates/glucose.
 Action of glucagon is similar to that of adrenaline: adrenaline accelerates the conversion of
glycogen to glucose during emotional excitement and dangerous situations.
Summary of the homeostatic regulations of blood glucose level:
Pancrease secretes more insulin

which causes liver cells to convert excess
glucoses to glycogen. Insulin also
increases the metabolism of glucose
in cells:
increases Increases uptake of glucose in cells.
It promotes the convertion of glucose Returns to normal
to fats; slows down the conversion of
protein to glucose.
Normal glucose normal glucose

Concentration in blood Concentration in blood
decreases Pancrease secretes more glucagon which Retuns to normal

causes liver cells to convert glycogen to
glucose.
 It stimulates the breakdown of prot-
eins and oxidation of fats.
 Both glucagon and adrenalin activi
-vate enzyme which stimulate brea
-kdown of glycogen to glucose.
Beta-cells of the pancreas will detect high blood glucose (e.g. after a meal) and secrete insulin; whilst
the alpha-cells of the pancreas detect low blood glucose and secrete glucagon.
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USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS
OBJECTIVE: Define a drug
Definition of drugs:
An externally administered substance which modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body.
Administration of drugs:
Drugs are administered orally, by injection, application on the skin or inhalation.
Objective: Describe medicinal use of drugs including antibiotics, painkillers, antacids.

CLASSIFICATION EFFECTS EXAMPLES
Antacids Neutralises acids in the stomach. Sodium bicarbonate, Milk of
magnesia
Painkillers Block transmission of pain Aspirin, ibuprofen, paracetamol,
signals or suppress the part of morphine.
the brain responsible for the
sense of pain.
Antibiotics Cure bacterial diseases by Penicilin, Tetracyline.
destroying bacteria.
OBJECTIVE: Describe non-medicinal (abusive) drugs according to their effect on the central nervous
system: depressant, stimulant, hallucinogen
Classification of drugs (on the basis of their effects on the central nervous system):
CLASSIFICATION EFFECTS EXAMPLES
Stimulants Speed up transmission of nerve Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine,
impulses. amphetamines.
Depressants Slow down transmission of nerve Alcohol, barbiturates,
impulses. tranquilizers opiates.
Narcotics Produce a sense of euphoria or Heroin, morphine, codeine.
well being (sense of enhanced
energy, excitement and
alertness).
Hallucinogens Causes a pronounced alteration LSD, PCP, Marijuana, Harshis,
of perception. peyote, ganja.
OBJECTIVE: Distinguish between medicinal drugs and non-medicinal drugs

Medicinal drugs Non-medicinal drugs
Alleviate diseases, relieve symptoms, ease pain Taken for habitual satisfaction.
and provide other benefits to the body.
Prescribed by doctors. Not prescribed by doctors.
Administered at prescribed doses. Administered at any dose to the satisfaction of
user.
Legal drugs. Mostly illegal drugs.
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*OBJECTIVE : Discuss dependence (emotional/psychological and physical) and tolerance of medicinal
drugs
Objective: Discuss the dangers of drug abuse such as dependence and body tissues damage
Definitions:
 Drug abuse: this means intentional improper use of a drug.
 Drug addiction: this means intense habitual craving for a drug or physical and psychological
dependence on a drug.
 Drug dependence: compulsive use of drugs resulting in physical or psychological dependence
(condition where user cannot do without do the substance).
 Physical dependence: occurs when the body adapts to a drug and develops withdrawal
symptoms if the drug is not taken.
 Psychological dependence: intense mental craving for a drug if the drug is unavailable or
withdrawn.
 Drug tolerance: this occurs as a result of regular use of a drug. Eventually the body requires
higher doses of the drug to achieve the original effect.
 Withdrawal symptoms: illness - like symptoms / signs which occurs when one stops taking a
drug.
 Physical symptoms which are shown when the substance is withheld are: nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea, muscular pain, uncontrollable shaking, etc.
 Overall effect of drugs on the body is damage to tissues of organs such as the liver, lungs, brain,
and alimentary canal.
OBJECTIVE: Discuss allergic reactions to drugs and other substances.

Allergy is simply defined as hypersensitivity to various substances which would normally be harmless to
the average person. It is a result of the immune system not being able to distinguish between a
pathogen and a relatively harmful substance. An allergen is a substance that triggers an allergic reaction.
Allergen Symptoms Treatment

Food allergens: Dairy  Swelling of lips or  Antihistamines;
products(eggs and cow milk) nuts, mouth, Stomach  Avoiding exposure to allergens.
fish, strawberries, beef, food upsets, itchy rash
additives, etc.
Respiratory allergens:  Sneezing, running  Adrenaline;
Pollen, dust mites, pet fur, nose, asthma  Avoiding exposure to allergens.
inhalants, etc
Contact allergens:  Eczema, rash,  Antihistamines;
Rubber, chemicals ( irritants) itchiness  Avoiding exposure to allergens.
nickel, copper, certain plants,
certain animals, lanolin, etc.
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Effects of excessive consumption of alcohol:
OBJECTIVE: Describe the effects of excessive consumption of alcohol: reduced self-control, depressant,
effects on reaction time, damage to liver, social implication.
Alcohol (ethanol) is a CNS depressant. It reduces anxiety and tensions. It dilates small blood vessels,
particularly those in skin, leading to flushing.
Immediate effects:
i. Speech is slurred;
ii. Double vision;
iii. Loss of balance;
iv. Poor coordination of muscles ( causing staggering and unsteadiness);
v. Nausea and vomiting;
vi. Impaired concentration and judgment;
vii. It slows down transmission of nerve impulses involved in reacting to an emergency situations,
increases reaction time;
viii. Violent or aggressive behavior;
ix. Loss of consciousness.
Social effects:
i. Fatal road accidents;
ii. Lack of productivity leading to jobs loss;
iii. Accidents in the work place;
iv. Abuse, vandalism and delinquency;
v. Suicides;
vi. Sexual assaults;
vii. Huge economic impact on public health (due to medical bills in treating diseases caused
directly or indirectly related to alcohol consumption e.g AIDS, Cancers).
Long term effects and health hazards:

i. Malnutrition and nutritional deficiency diseases;
ii. Liver diseases: hepatitis, fatty liver and liver cirrhosis;
iii. Blood disease, enlarged RBC’s, reduction in clotting factors, low WBC ‘s count ( weak immune
system);
iv. Diseases on the nervous system : damage to the CNS (brain atrophy), paralysis of the
extremities;
v. Cardiovascular disease: Fatty heart, hypertension;
vi. Pancreatitis and sugar diabetes;
vii. Cancers: Cancer of esophagus, pharynx, liver and larynx;
viii. Babies born to abnormalities of the heart, face and the skull structure (foetal alcohol syndrome);
ix. Ulcers and internal bleeding;
x. Testicular atrophy and impotence;
xi. Enlargement of mammary glands in men;
xii. Amenorrhea (absence of menstruation).
Withdrawal symptoms:
i. Nausea and vomiting;
ii. Trembling (shaking);
iii. Abdominal pains and cramps;
iv. Restlessness;
v. Sweating;
vi. Severe craving for alcohol.
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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
OBJECTIVE: Describe asexual reproduction as the process resulting in the production of genetically
identically offspring from one parent
Asexual reproduction
It is the process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring(s) from one parent.
Asexual reproduction plants

OBJECTIVE: Give examples of asexual reproduction in plants and animals
There are two main methods of asexual reproduction in flowering plants:
a) Vegetative propagation
b) Artificial propagation
(a) Vegetatative propagation
Plants which reproduce this way have special food storage organs which enable them to grow year after
year. Examples of this plant are: tubers, corms, Bulbs and rhizomes.
Perennating Food storage Features
organ
Tubers Mainly starch, vitamin C Young shoot from terminal bud
(Underground and water in swollen stem.
stem).
E.g Irish potatoes,
Jicama,
sunchokes.
Scale leaf Lateral bud at the node

‘eye’
Rhizomes Mainly starch.
(Underground
stem)
E.g ginger,
bamboo, bearded
Iris.
Adventitious roots
Vegetative reproduction takes place when the
lateral bud on the node develops into a new shoot
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Bulbs
(Underground Mainly water and sugar
shoot) (glucose) stored in fleshy
White, fleshy storage scale leaves Thin, dry. brown
E.g onion, garlic, leaves scale leaves
shallot, tulip. Young shoot
root
Condensed stem
Lateral bud which
will grow into a
new bulb
Terminal bud which
will grow into new
shoot.
Corm Mainly water and sugar flower bud Aerial shoot

(Underground stored in the short and
shoot) swollen stem.
E.g gladiolus,
crocus, crocosmia.
Node
Internode Adventitious
roots
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OBJECTIVE: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of reproducing asexually
Advantages of vegetative propagation are:
 It reproduces daughter plants identical to parent. This ensures that desirable characteristics of
the parent plant such as hardness and high fruit yield will persist.
 Parent plant supplies food to offspring until they are independent. Stored food from parent
organ can be used for rapid growth of aerial shoot and so avoids competition with other species.
 Plants are independent of pollinating agents and formation of gametes is not necessary.
Therefore shorter life cycle of the plant and reproduction is faster.
 There are no hazards of seed dispersal and germination.
Disadvantages of vegetative reproduction are:

 Overcrowding which arises from the dense growth of daughter plants near to the parent plant.
This results in competition between plants for mineral salts, water and sunlight.
 Since daughter plants are identical to parent, there is no genetic variation for natural selection.
Species are unlikely to colonise new habitats and may die out if environmental conditions
change.
OBJECTIVE: Describe one commercially important application of asexual reproduction in plants and
animals
(b) Artificial propagation:

 Artificial Propagation is a form of vegetative propagation used by man to propagate and to
preserve useful characteristics of plants such as good fruits or flowers.
 By using artificial propagation, gardeners can produce any number of plants with identical
genetic composition and characteristics. Two important methods of artificial propagation
include cutting and grafting.
Cuttings:
 A cutting is any portion of a root or shoot removed from the parent plant.
 The cutting is usually treated with plant growth hormone to promote root growth.
 It is placed in most soil or dipped in water until adventitious roots appear to support the plant
and absorb water.
 The cutting may also be covered with a transparent plastic to reduce water loss by transpiration.
Grafting:
 Grafting is a popular method used to maintain or build up certain desirable characteristics in
plants.
 It is used to propagate fruits (e.g. apple, pear) which are difficult to grow from seed.
 The scion of the desired variety is inserted into a T-shaped cut made on the stock.
 The scion is tied into position onto the stock with its cambium layer in contact with the vascular
bundles of the stock.
 The stock is obtained by growing a plant from a seed and then cutting away the shoot. The scion
is a branch of a bud cut from a cultivated variety with the desired fruit or flower characteristics.
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A bud graft:
A bud graft with desired characteristics is cut.
A T-shaped slit is made in the stock to expose cambium tissue.
The scion is slipped inside the T-shaped slit of the stock. The cambium of the scion is in contact
with the cambium of the stock.
The scion is held in place with tape and wax to exclude fungi and reduce evaporation.
Stem grafting Bud grafting
Commercial application of Asexual Reproduction in Animals
Dolly
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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
OBJECTIVE: Describe sexual reproduction as the process involving the fusion of nuclei from two
different gametes to form a zygote
Sexual reproduction: the process involving the fusion of nuclei from two different gametes to form a
zygote.
OBJECTIVE: Identify the sepals, petals, stamens and carpels of one locally available insect pollinated
flower
OBJECTIVE: Observe using a hand lens the sepals, petals, stamens and carpels of one locally available
insect pollinated flower and draw the parts
OBJECTIVE: Use a hand lens to identify stamens and carpels of one locally available wind pollinated
flower.
Flowers are reproductive structures which contain the reproductive parts of the plant.
OBJECTIVE: describe the functions of the sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
Functions of parts of a flower:
Calyx
 A ring of sepals (small, green leaf – like) outside the petals.
 Protects the petals of the flower when it is in the bud stage.
Corolla
 Consists of 4 – 10 petals, may be separated or joined together.
 Encloses reproductive parts. Usually large, brightly coloured and scented to attract insects to
pollinate the flower.
 Small and leaf – like structures in wind pollinated flowers.
Androecium
 Consists of stamens, each of which has an anther borne on a stalk called the filament .
 Male consists of four pollen sacks in which the pollen grains are produced by cell division.
 When the pollen is fully formed, the anthers split and release the matured pollen grains.
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Gynoecium (pistil)
 Female reproductive parts.
 Consists of carpels.
 Each carpel has an ovary containing one or more ovules and bears a style which terminates in a
sticky surface, the stigma.
 Development of egg cells proceeds in the ovary, ovules containing the female gamete arise
from the inner wall of the carpel.
 The style holds up the stigma on which pollen lands during pollination.
Receptacle
 Expanded end of a flower stalk.
 For attachment of all other flower parts.
 In some cases, after fertilization it becomes, fleshy and edible such as apple, pear, straw-berry.
Pollination:
OBJECTIVE: Discuss pollination in terms of types, agents and methods

 Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of a flower.
The two types of pollination are:
Cross pollination and Self pollination.
Cross pollination is transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of one flower to the stigma of
another flower on another plant of the same species.
o There is cross fertilization, therefore out breeding.
 The anther of a flower which cross pollinate mature before the ovary and the stigma;
and may be self incompatible i.e. pollen grains from the same flower will not germinate
on the stigma of the same flower.
Self pollination is transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of one flower to the stigma of the
same flower or another flower on the same plant.
 This leads to self – fertilization therefore inbreeding.
Cross pollination
--------------------- Self pollination
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Agents of Pollination
 Insects and wind are the main two agents of natural pollination.
 The general modifications which adapt flowers to their methods of pollination are summarised
below.
OBJECTIVE: Compare wind pollinated and insect pollinated flower using fresh specimens
OBJECTIVE: Prepare a slide of the pollen grains from the stamens of a wind and insect pollinated
flower and examine them under a microscope
PARTS OF FLOWER INSECT POLLINATION WIND POLLINATION

Size of a flower  Large flowers  Small, inconspicuous flower.
Corolla  Coloured and scented to attract a  Without scent or sepals
variety of insects. usually small, green petals.
 Has honey guides( dark lines) on petals
that help to direct the insects to the
nectarines.
Nectary  With nectarines at the base of the  Without nectarines.
stamens.
Stamens  Has short filaments; stamens are  Large, pendulous stamens
arranged within the flower. which projects outside the
flower.
Pollen grains  Heavy, sticky and rough surfaced,  Smaller in size, lighter and
adhere easily to insects body. smooth surfaced.
 Produced in smaller quantities.  Produced in larger quantities.
Stigma  Stigma is small and sticky and is found  Stigma is large and feathery.
inside the flower.  Projecting outside the flower
to act as a net ( large surface
area) to trap passing pollen
grains.
Pollination by an insect.
 When an insect visits a mature flower to collect nectar, pollen grains released by the ripe
mature anthers are likely to adhere to its long tube - like mouth [ parts (e.g. butterfly)] or hairy
body (e.g. bee).
 These pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of another flower by the body of the insect
when the insect visits another flower for more nectar.
 As the insect pushes its way into the flower to reach the nectarines at the base of the filaments,
its body brushes onto the sticky surface of the stigma and picks up the pollen grains.
 Pollination is complete when the pollen grain land on a stigma.
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Fertilisation:
OBJECTIVE: Describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule followed by
fertilization.
 When a pollen grain lands on the stigma, it absorbs liquid from the stigma and germinates to
from a pollen tube.
 The pollen tube grows through the tissues of the style towards the ovary. As the pollen tube
grows, its nucleus divides to form two male gametes.
 The pollen tube enters the ovule at the micropyle and releases two male gametes.
 One of male gametes fuses with the ovum to form the zygote ( fertilization) and the other fuses
with the secondary nucleus in the embryo sac to form the endosperm nucleus.
 The zygote now has the normal diploid number of chromosomes for the plant cell.
Dispersal of Fruits:
 Fruits and seeds may be dispersed by external agents such as humans, animals, wind or by
self-dispersal explosion mechanism.
Advantages of fruit and seed dispersal

OBJECTIVE: State the advantages of seed dispersal
 Dispersal of fruits and seeds some distance away from the parent plant reduces
overcrowding which reduces competition for light, mineral salts and water between plants.
 It also enhances the survival of the plant species by introducing the plants to new habitats.
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The main adaptations of fruits and seeds to the various dispersal methods are summarised below:
OBJECTIVE: Describe modes of seed dispersal
Dispersal Main adaptation features Examples

method
Wind dispersal  Small in size and light in weight to easily

carried by the wind.
 Parachute or tuft of hairs projecting

from fruit or seed. Allowing suspension
in air, promoting horizontal movement of
fruit or seed. Examples: Tridex and
dandelion.
 Wing-like outgrowths extending from

ovary wall or fruit. Creating a larger surface Dandelion Shorea
for air resistance. Example: winged fruits of
shorea and angsana.
 Open seed case shaken by wind. Example:

small, light seeds of poppy fruit.
Angsana
Animal dispersal  Hooked and hairy fruits: hooks caught in

the fur of passing animals and the
seeds fall out as the mammals move
about. Examples: Urena fruit, burdock
and spear grass.
stalk
 Succulent with water and nutrients to be
edible; brightly coloured and scented
fruits to attract passing animals; tough
testa undigestible to digestive enzymes
when eaten by animals, therefore if
not crushed seeds pass out with
faeces unharmed. Examples: Papaya,
mango and berries.
stalk
sepal
Seed
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Dispersal Main adaptation features Examples
method
Explosive  Pericarp dries in the
mechanism/ sun and shrinks. The
tension generated
Self dispersal splits the fruit
longitudinally into two
halves; and suddenly
ejects the seeds in a
circular pattern as fibre
under the seed become
tighter due to twisting
of the open pod.
Example: pods of
Garden pea pod
leguminous plants.
Germination of dicotyledonous seed

OBJECTIVE: Examine the structure of a seed (both endospermic and non-endospermic)
Non-endospermic seed
OBJECTIVE: Describe the structure and function of parts of a seed in terms of embryo, (radical and
plumule) cotyledons and testa
Parts of the seed:
 Embryo: grows to form a root and a shoot. The plumule forms the shoot and the radicle forms
the root.
 Cotyledon: stores food to be used by the embryo to grow.
 Testa: a tough coat which protects the seed from mechanical damage; reduces loss of water
from the seed; and reduces entry of micro-organisms into the seed.
 Micropyle : a small hole in the testa and an important route for entry of water into the seed.
Germination
 Germination is when the embryo part of seed begins to grow.
Conditions for germination are:
A supply of water;
Temperature suitable for enzymes involved in germination;
Oxygen for aerobic respiration.
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 The requirements are explained fully in the diagram below:
OBJECTIVE: Investigate the environmental conditions which affect germination of seeds
OBJECTIVE: Describe the role of enzymes in seed germination
Water enters through micropyle and:

 activates enzymes in the seed;
Dormant seed: minimal water in  dissolves soluble food molecules and provides
medium for movement of the soluble molecules;
seed, seed enzymes inactive.
 it is for hydrolysis of the food molecules;
Minimal metabolic reaction in seed.
 makes tissue to swell and testa soften, resulting
in rupturing of the testa.
Suitable temperature provides optimum

temperature for enzymes:
 Amylase in seed activated to digest
starch to maltose;
 Maltase in seed activated to digest
maltose to glucose, a soluble
carbohydrate;
 Proteases in seed activated to digest
proteins to amino acids;
 Lipase in seed activated to digest oils to
fatty acids and glycerol; other
metabolic enzymes in seed activates
e.g. enzymes for respiration
Oxygen enters the seed through the micropyle and gaps of ruptured testa.
Oxygen and glucose enable aerobic respiration which releases energy for:
 cell division at plumule and radical (growth of embryo part of seed);
 active-transport of the raw materials used in formation of new cell.
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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN MAN
Male Reproductive System:

Objective: Use a diagram of the male reproductive system to identify testes, scrotum, sperm ducts,
prostate gland, seminal vesicle, urethra and penis.
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Objective: describe the functions of the testes, scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate gland, seminal vesicle,
urethra and penis.
The main parts of the human male reproductive system and their functions are summarized below.
Part Structure and function
Testis Two ball like structures with numerous tubules whose cells are ever actively dividing
to form sperm cells.
Scrotum Pouch of skin containing testis; keeps temperature of testis slightly lower than body
temperature by loosening away from the body when it is hot and shriveling towards
the body when it is cold.
Epididymis Coiled tube formed by combining seminiferous tubules and connecting with the vas
deferens. Temporarily stores sperm cells before ejaculation.
Vas deferens Tube connecting epididymis with urethra; conducts sperm cells to the urethra during
ejaculation.
Prostate gland Surrounds the top portion of the urethra. It produces the fluid that nourishes and
transports sperm cells(seminal fluid).
Cowper’s gland Produces a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra. The fluid serves
to lubricate the urethra and to neutralize any acidity that may be present due to
residual drops of urine in the urethra.
Seminal Paired; have fructose that provides sperm with energy; have mineral ions which
vesicles activate sperm cells; and have hormones that suppress the female’s immune
response to semen.
Urethra Tube stretching through the length of the penis, conducting semen out of the male’s
body during copulation; and conducts urine out of the body at different times.
Erectile tissue Spongy tissue containing blood spaces and blood vessels. Causes erection during
sexual intercourse.
Penis Organ with a sensitive head; inserted into the vagina and stimulated by vaginal walls
for delivery of semen into the vagina.
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Female Reproductive System:
Objective: Use a diagram of the female reproductive system to identify ovaries, oviducts, uterus,
cervix, bladder and vagina.
The main parts of the human female reproductive system and their functions are summarized below:
Oviduct
Objective: describe the function of the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, bladder and vagina.
Part Structure and function
Ovaries Two structures; with Graafian follicles that develop into ova. An ovary produces an ovum,
also produces oestrogen and progesterone.
Oviduct Lined with ciliated and mucus producing epithelial cells; the ciliated cells and contraction of
walls of oviduct move the fertilized ovum to the uterus. Fertilisation occurs in the oviduct
Uterus Muscular sac; which receives, accommodates, nourishes and protects the embryo and
foetus during pregnancy. Powerful muscular contractions expel the baby during birth.
Cervix Narrow region where uterus meets the vagina.
Vagina Canal with muscular wall and inner lining of mucus secreting epithelial cells; Stimulates the
penis to ejaculate during sexual intercourse. Functions as a birth canal during delivery.
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Objective: Discuss the menstrual cycle in terms of LH, FSH, oestrogen and progestron
The Menstrual Cycle:
The first sign of puberty in girl is the monthly discharge of blood from the uterus via the vagina. This is
called menstruation and it occurs in a cycle called the menstrual cycle. The cycle is controlled by
hormones progesterone, oestrogen, FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) and LH (Lutenising hormone).
The menstrual cycle:
on average takes about 28 days;
controls the development of mature ova;
prepares the uterus to receive a fertilized egg.
The menstrual cycle occurs in four stages/phases:
Menstruation: The uterus lining is shed off, blood and fragments of tissues leave the body through
the vagina. Menstruation triggers a decrease in the progesterone levels. On average menstruation
takes about 4-6 days.
Repair phase/safe period phase: FSH stimulates primary follicles to mature and become Graafian
follicle. Increase in size of Graafian follicle increases oestrogen level in blood which in turn increases
thickening of uterus lining. At some point the mature Graafian follicle ruptures and releases an
ovum into the oviduct and this marks ovulation. Ovulation is triggered by the release of a hormone
secreted from the anterior pituitary gland, the LH (Lutenising Hormone), this hormone also helps in
the development of Corpus luteum from the remains of the follicle.
Receptive Phase: At this point any unprotected sexual activity will lead to pregnancy. Increase in
size of corpus luteum increases progesterone level in the body; the uterus lining remains thicker,
and more blood vessels grow in the lining of the uterus. The lining of the uterus and its blood vessels
are now well developed, if fertilization occurred, the embryo can be implanted in its lining.
Premenstrual phase: The lining of the uterus degenerates as the progesterone levels drop due to
the degeneration of the Corpus luteum.
Repair phase/safe period phase
Menstruation Receptive Phase
Premenstrual phase
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Objective: Describe the effects of diet and emotional state on the menstrual cycle
Factors affecting the menstrual Cycle:
Stress, over excitement, mental fatigue and illness may alter hormonal levels which will in turn
affect the menstrual cycle.
Diet - An unbalanced diet or malnutrition may also cause the period to be very irregular or stop
completely.
Change of environment, metabolic changes which will affect hormonal changes of the
menstrual cycle.
Objective: Discuss the functions of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation to exchange of dissolved
nutrients, gases and wastes.
Fertilisation and development of zygote:
Fertilisation is the fusion of nucleus of the sperm and nucleus of the ovum to form a zygote.
Fertilisation occurs in the oviduct in human.
After fertilization, the zygote under goes several mitotic divisions to form a ball of cells.
The ball of cells is moved along the oviduct by the sweeping action of cilia and peristaltic
contractions of the walls of the oviduct until it reaches the uterus.
The journey of the ball of cells along oviduct to the uterus may take 4 to 7 days.
By the time the ball of cells reaches the uterus it has developed finger like projections, villi, for
implantation in the uterus wall.
The placenta and the umbilical cord:

The implanted embryo undergoes mitosis and forms embryonic tissues, extra-embryonic
membranes and the placenta.
The placenta develops partly from the embryo’s tissues and partly from the uterus wall. It is a
large, thick mass of uterus lining containing blood spaces filled with the mother’s blood and
numerous finger-like projections called villi which grow into the uterus wall.
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The foetus is attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord, which carries 2 umbilical arteries
and an umbilical vein from the embryo’s circulatory system.
The main blood vessels of the placenta lead to an immense network of capillaries in the villi.
The embryo’s blood system and the maternal blood system are separated by the capillary walls
and the membrane covering each villus.
Substances which diffuse from mother’s blood system to embryo’s blood system are:
Soluble food molecules such as glucose and amino acids;oxygen; mineral ions
such as iron, calcium, phosphates; antibodies ; water etc.
Substances which diffuse from embryo’s blood system to mother’s blood system are:
Urea; Carbon dioxide; Other nitrogenous wastes.
The placenta functions like the digestive system, respiratory system and the excretory system of
the embryo.
The rate of diffusion at the placenta is increased by:
 The close proximity between mothers blood system and the embryo’s blood system
reducing distance for movement of substances ;
 The large surface area provided by the numerous villi increasing surface area for
diffusion of substances;
 and the network of capillaries in the villi with flowing blood maintaining a
concentration gradient of substances.
The embryo and maternal bloodstreams are not mixed. The reasons are:
 The delicate embryo’s blood vessels could be easily damaged by the high blood
pressure of the mother’s blood system.
 Agglutination could occur due to the mixing of different blood groups from mother
and embryo.
 To reduces chances of transmission of diseases from mother to embryo.
Umbilical cord: transports substance to and from the baby to the placenta in an artery and vein.
The umbilical artery takes deoxygenated blood with waste substances from the
foetus to the mother.
The umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood with the nutrients and antibodies to
the foetus’ heart.
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Objective: Discuss the following methods of birth control: Natural Hormonal/chemical,
Physical/mechanical and Surgical methods
Methods of birth control/contraceptives:
Contraceptives: An agent or device intended to prevent conception. Contraception is the birth
control by the use of devices (diaphragm or intrauterine device or condom) or drugs or surgery.
Contraceptives can be divided into four groups:
1. Natural
2. Hormonal/chemical
3. Physical/mechanical
4. Surgical methods
1. Natural methods
Method advantages Disadvantages

Abstinence: no sexual  100% effective against  No disadvantage
intercourse at all. pregnancy and STDs
Withdraw (Coitus interruptus);  Purely natural and does not  Highly unreliable as there is a
penis withdrawn from the depend on artificial devices. pre-ejaculation fluid which can
vagina before ejaculation be secreted and contains
sperms and it is not easy for
the man to withdraw his penis
as he will be at the peak of
pleasure.
 STDs are spread with this
method.
Rhythm (safe period): sexual  Acceptable in most religions.  It is unreliable because

intercourse done only during  Can be effective against keeping track of ovulation can
the safe periods and avoided pregnancy if the dates are be difficult as it can change
during fertile periods (when noted well. any time and it is difficult t be
certain about the safe period
fertilization is likely to lead to
length.
pregnancy). Uses the mucus,  Encourages the spread of STDs
calendar and temperature
method.
Prolonged breastfeeding  Very effective against  Not effective against STDs
(cultural method) pregnancy.
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2. Hormonal/chemical methods
Pill e.g. RU486: two kinds mini-  Easy to use.  Does to prevent STDs.
pill (contains progesterone  Reversible  Must be taken daily.
which causes changes in the  Does not interfere with  Have side effects to women’s
uterus lining preventing sexual activity. health; breast swelling, cervical
implantation) and combined  99% safe at preventing cancer, nausea, diarrhea and
ovulation and pregnancy. weight gain.
pill (contains oestrogen and
 Can be administered by
progesterone and this prevents individuals
ovulation)
Implant contraceptives:  Long term protection against  Needs trained personnel to
chemicals that contain pregnancy 99% effective (just insert and remove it.
synthetic oestrogen and like the pill)  Encourages the spread of STDs.
progesterone and placed under  No need to frequentily visit  Has some side effects e.g.
the skin to prevent ovulation. It the health centres. prolonged periods and irregular
lasts for 5 years.  Reversible. menstrual bleeding during the
first month of use.
Spermicides: kills sperms, must  Kill sperms.  Must be applied before every
be applied inside the vagina as  Effective when used with the sexual activity.
far up as possible ten minutes diaphragm  It is messy.
before sexual intercourse.  Serves as a lubricant for the  Unreliable when used alone.
vagina.  Does not prevent STDs.
 Easy to be used/applied.  Has to be used with the
diaphragm.
Injection (Depo-Provera):  Reversible.  Can lead to sterility.
injected into the body every 3  99% effective against  Administered by a doctor.
months. Stops ovulation by pregnancy.  Causes abnormalities in the period.
preventing formation of ova in  Can lead to heavy menstrual
the ovaries. bleeding.
 Have side effects like; dizziness,
weight gain.
 Does not protect against STDs.
Morning-after pill: Used after  Effective against pregnancy if  Only prescribed by a doctor in case
intercourse has taken place. taken before 3 days of sexual of risk it is not for regular use.
Contains hormones which act.  Therefore not easily accessible.
cause lining of the uterus to be
shed. It is to be taken 48-72
hours after sexual intercourse
especially if pregnancy poses a
risk.
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3. Physical/mechanical/barrier Methods
Condom sheath (male: thin rubber  99 % effective in  Allergy of the lubricant or latex.
covering fitted on an erect penis. preventing pregnancy and  Improper use can result leading to
Has a bulb to collect sperms after STDs the spread of STDs.
ejaculation. Femidom/female  Easily available, accessible  There is a possibility of bursting in
condom: thin sheath which lines  No need for medical case of too mush friction during
the vagina prevents entry of assistance needed. sexual act.
sperms.  Can be used with
Spermicides
Diaphragm/cap: it is a dome  Fairly effective (98%) in  High risk of infections.

shaped piece of rubber with a blocking the sperms.  Has to be used with other
piece of metal worn by women  Does not have any side methods e.g. Spermicides.
fitted on the cervix opening to effects.  Possibility of discomfort if not
prevent sperms from reaching the inserted properly.
uterus.  In rare cases may lead to irritation
to the penis or vagina.
 Has to inserted by a physician.
 Correct size must be fitted.
Intra-Uterine Device (IUD)/Loop:  Reliable for women who  Has to be inserted by a qualified
small objects (spiral, loop, ring) already has children and doctor.
made of steel or plastic which is those who do not live far  There is need for pelvic
inserted by a physician into the from the health facilities examination to determine the size
uterus. Fitted by a tube like  Stops implantation. of the cervix.
instrument, pushing it through the  Reversible.  Can cause excessive bleeding.
cervix then pushing the IUD out at  Long term contraception  Do not protect against STDs.
the tube’s end. The IUD interferes
with implantation of the embryo).
4. Surgical methods
Vasectomy and Laparatomy
(tubal ligation):  Permanent and 100 % effective.  Does not prevent STDs.
Vasectomy in men sperm duct  Safe and simple out patient  Irreversible.
is cut and tied to prevent operation.  Has to be done at a hospital.
sperms from passing to the  Sexual characteristics are not  Pains can be experienced after
urethra. affected as the individual can surgery.
In women (laparatomy) still ejaculate (men).  Not suitable for young people
oviduct cut and tied to prevent but for people who already
the sperms from reaching the have children.
egg in the oviduct.
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Objective: Describe the causes, transmission, symptoms/signs, effects and treatment of gonorrhea,
syphilis and AIDS.
Objective: Discuss the control of the spread of sexually transmitted diseases.
Objective: Interpret data to establish prevalence rate of sexually transmitted diseases.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASAES

• Passed from one person to another during sexual intercourse.
• The diseases are spread by direct physical contact of sexual organs.
1. AIDS- Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

AIDS is caused by a virus known as Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). HIV decreases the CD4 /helper
cell / T cell / lymphocytes in the body, rendering the body susceptible to opportunistic infections within
1-5 years. AIDS results in break down of the body’s immune system leading to fatal infections.
HIV is transmitted through blood, semen, or vaginal fluids and can spread as follows:
 Unprotected sexual intercourse with infected person;
 Sharing of piercing needles, razors, tooth brushes and any other sharp instrument likely to break
the skin, with infected person;
 Receiving blood transfusion from an infected person;
 From infected mother to the foetus via the placenta during pregnancy, delivery or through
breast feeding.
Signs/symptoms of AIDS:
 Severe weight loss;
 Tiredness for no apparent reason;
 Chronic debilitating diarrhea;
 Non-itchy spots on the skin, cancer of blood vessels, Kaposi’s sarcoma;
 Chronic cough, breathlessness and pneumonia;
 Shingles- herpes zoster;
 Tb - tuberculosis .
HIV is not spread through :

 Hugging or hand shake;
 Sharing of swimming pool;
 Sharing of toilet, sink and bathroom;
 Coughing, spitting or sneezing;
 Sharing cookery utensils or food;
 Insects that bite, example mosquitoes.
HIV/AIDS can be prevented and treated by:
 Abstaining from sex;
 Use of condoms when engaging in sex;
 Avoiding multiple sexual partners;
 No cure for HIV/AIDS, however viral load can be decreased by anti-retroviral drugs.
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2. Syphilis.
Caused by a cock- screw shaped bacterium called Treponema pallidum.
Transmission: direct contact of sexual organs.
Signs/symptoms of syphilis:
• Stage 1 – develop within 1 to 3 weeks after infection.
• Painless open sores on genitals areas and other parts of the body such as lips, eyelids, throat
and fingers.
• Sores disappear within a few weeks if there is no treatment (75% of infected people do not
show the above signs).
• Stage 2 - develops 2 to 6 months after infection:
• Non-itchy skin rushes appear on different parts of the body.
• Temporary bald patches on the head and eyebrows.
• Fever and swollen lymph nodes.
Late stage effects – develop 3-25 years if the disease is untreated:
• Blindness
• Mental illness
• Bone deformity
• Heart diseases
Other effects:
 Can be passed on from mother to baby during pregnancy via placenta, a condition known as
congenital syphilis.
Treatment and Prevention:
• Treatment is by use of anti-biotics such as penicillin.
• Prevention is avoidance of sexual contact with infected person and use of condoms.
3. Gonorrhoea.
Caused by a bean shaped bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
Transmission: direct sexual contact.
Signs/symptoms of gonorrhoea:
• Develop within 1 to 14 days after infection.
• Thick pus like discharge from penis (20% do not show the sign).
• Vaginal discharge (80% of women do not show the sign).
• Painful burning sensation in men, but mild in females.
Late stage effects – if the disease is untreated
• Sterility.
• Arthritis –painful swollen joints.
Other effects:
• Can infect the baby’s eyes during birth as the baby passes via the infected vagina. Causes pus like
discharge from baby’s eyes, if untreated blindness results due to damage of eye tissues.
Treatment and Prevention:
• Treatment is by use of anti-biotics such as penicillin.
• Prevention is avoidance of sexual contact with infected person and use of condoms.
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ECOLOGY
Ecosystem: is the living and non-living components of a region which interact to produce a stable
system. Examples of ecosystem are a pond, seashore.
Components of the ecosystem are:

 Biotic component: living organisms such as the producers, preys, predators and parasites.
 Abiotic component: Non-living components of the environment which influence the living
organisms such as climate, soil conditions, water, temperature, etc.
Abiotic factors influence the distribution of organisms within an ecosystem while biotic factors affect
the population of organisms within an ecosystem.
An ecosystem consists of a network of a number of different habitats with their communities of
organisms interlinked by the flow of energy and nutrients.
Habitat : is a place where an organism lives.

Population: is the number of individuals of one species found in a habitat.
Community: refers to all organisms that interact in an ecosystem.
Objective: Describe energy transfer through an ecosystem

Food Chains and Energy Flow along Food chains:
The living organisms in the ecosystem interact with each other via a chain of energy transfers called
food chains.
A food chain is a group of organisms linked or related by their feeding habitats.
Producer Primary consumer Secondary Consumer

Green plants which Herbivores Feed on green Carnivores(predators) prey
Absorbs the sun’s energy plants as their sources of energy upon herbivores as their
And produce food by phot- for growth, metabolic activities source of energy for growth,
osynthesis. and reproduction. metabolic activities and
reproduction.
Food chains end with decomposers: bacteria and fungi which promote the breakdown and decay of
dead plants and animals and thus help return vital mineral salts to the soil. This improves soil fertility
which in turn promotes healthy growth of more producers.
Some examples of food chains:
 Wheat grasshopper sparrow hawk
 Grass rabbit fox
 algae water fleas stickleback fish perch fish pike fish
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Food Webs:
Food webs are made up of several interconnected food chains. Ecosystems with complex food webs are
more stable than those with simple ones. Within food webs, organisms obtain their food from different
sources as shown below:
Tree(wood, leaves, fruits)
Woodlouse slug Caterpillar worm Blackbird
Ground beetle
Spider Bluetit
Frog
Shrew Grass snake Hawk
Fox
Objective: Describe the importance of the sun as the principal source of energy for biological systems.
Objective: Describe the non cyclic nature of energy flow
1. Non-cyclical Nature of Energy Flow in Biological System:
 Energy from the sun enters the ecosystem through organic compounds (carbohydrates)
produced by photosynthesis in green plants. However, only about 1% of sunlight striking a leaf
is absorbed by chlorophyll and used in photosynthesis. Most of the light striking a leaf is
reflected, or transmitted or converted to heat energy and lost by radiation.
 Energy from the sun passes along a food chain. The energy is progressively lost at each trophic
level as heat energy in respiration. Successive members of a food chain incorporate into their
biomass (as a new tissues) only about 10% of the energy available in the organism they
consume. The remainder 90% is lost as heat energy in respiration and a small amount lost
through excretion.
When a herbivore consumes a plant, only a small fraction of the sun’s energy (about 10%)
stored in the plant is used by the herbivore for growth and formation of new tissues. The bulk of
the energy is lost in respiration, in urine and in faeces. This repeats at other trophic levels, till no
further energy transfer is possible.
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 The energy flow in the food chain is non-cyclical. Energy flows in one direction and it is either
utilized or lost into the surrounding but cannot be recycled.
See diagram below:
Producer Primary consumer Secondary consumer Tertiary consumer

sun
100%
Pasture area(1m2)
20 000kJ 2 000kJ 200 kJ 20kJ
1% of energy 10% of 10% of 10% of
incorporated energy energy energy
in incorporated incorporated incorporated
photosynthe in new tissues in new in new tissues
sis of herbivore tissues of of herbivore
herbivore new tissues
2 90% lost of herbivore
.some material may not be eaten is
99% lost by .some material not digestible
. being transmitted through .some used in excretion & a lot used in respiration
. being reflected back 90% lost
. not being correct .much of plant body e.g
wavelength. lignin and cellulose may not be digestible,
consumers rarely eat the whole plant,
a lot of energy used in 90% lost
respiration. .some material may not be eaten
.some material not digestible
. some used in excretion
. a lot used in respiration.
 Energy loss at each trophic level results in insufficient energy to support higher trophic levels.
Thus, the length of the food chain is limited. The longer the food chain the more energy will be
lost, the shorter the chain, the more energy will be available for higher consumers.
 Worldwide people feed mainly on plant foods. There is greater efficiency in supplying green
plants as food because plant crops produced on a given area of land will provide more energy
than the number of animals that could be raised on that area.
2. Accumulation of Substances along a Food Chain:

 Non-biodegradable substances, poisons and toxic substances can accumulate along a food chain
reaching significant amounts in the bodies of consumers in the higher trophic levels.
 This is because small amount of such substances persist in the tissue of organisms, builds up in
their bodies and passes onto the organism that feeds on it.
 DDT is an insecticide used to control mosquitoes, it is non-biodegradable.
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3. Relationship Between Prey and Predator:
Predator starve and

die as population of
prey decreases
population
Prey number decreases due to fewer predators; allow prey

Increased predator population to increase in number
Time(yrs)
 The population size of prey and predator fluctuates together, with the fluctuation in the
predator population usually lagging behind those of the prey. This is because the predator
depends on the prey for food.
Poor Agricultural Practices Resulting in Destruction of the Ecosystem.

Objective: discuss how poor agricultural practices result in destruction of the ecosystem e.g.
monoculture, excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, overstocking, deforestation.
Impact of Agriculture on the Ecosystem:
1. Deforestation – removal of natural vegetation such as forest from the land. One reason for
deforestation is to provide more land for agriculture.
The harmful effects of deforestation are:
(a) Destruction of natural habitats for plants and animals
Food chains and food webs are affected causing an imbalance in ecosystem. With the
removal of producers from ecosystem, herbivores may not be able to find alternative
sources of food. Eventually they die and carnivores which feed on herbivores will also die
out.
(b) Extinction of many plants and animal
Plants and animals die out more rapidly than they can reproduce. Their population decrease
to such a point that they become endangered species and may die out completely.
(c) Soil erosion
The roots of plant and trees, hold and bind soil particles together. When they are removed
the soil is exposed to direct rainfall and wind that gradually remove the fertile top soil,
leaving the land infertile and uncultivable.
(d) Reduction of rainfall.
With the removal of plants and trees, the amount of transpiration decreases drastically.
This decreases water vapour content in the water cycle leading to reduction in rainfall.
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(e) Loss of robust species that can be used in artificial breeding to improve crops.
Wild species of plant are able to withstand changes in the environment. It is possible to
develop stronger crop varieties with increased resistance to diseases and adverse conditions
by cross-breeding with related species.
(f) Increase in carbon dioxide level and temperature.
The carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere increases due to the drastic decreases in
photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide, being a greenhouse gas, will trap sunlight and heat in the
atmosphere causing a rise in temperature. Increase in temperature is also due to removal of
shade provided by the leaves of the trees.
(g) Decrease in gene pool.
The gene pool refers to the total number of genes present in a population of plants and
animals species in the ecosystem. Deforestation decreases the gene pools of the different
plant species.
2. Excessive use of fertilizer
 Excessive use of fertilizers in agriculture results in nitrates and phosphates being carried away by
water into ponds, lakes and rivers. The water become enriched with nutrients and this causes
rapid and excessive growth of algae on the water surface, eutrophication.
 Excessive growth of algae on the water surface results in overcrowding and preventing
penetration of light into water. The weeds and the aquatic plants die and aerobic bacteria that
decompose them increase in number and deplete oxygen in water. Since there is a reduction of
photosynthesis and a decrease in dissolved oxygen available for consumers, both the producer
and consumer populations in the aquatic ecosystem fall greatly.
 Eutrophication can also be caused by the discharge of untreated sewage, detergents (containing
a lot phosphates) and animal waste into waterways. The organic waste pollutants are also
decomposed by aerobic bacteria that deplete oxygen dissolved in water.
3. Pest Control
 Insecticides used in concentrations which seem harmless to man can be poisonous for other
organisms like fish and birds.
 DDT is a stable, non-biodegradable insecticides that is effective in killing pests and mosquitoes.
However, DDT accumulates in the fat deposits of the bodies of consumers in higher trophic
levels causing death.
(a) Birds consuming worms and insects contaminated with DDT from sprayed leave can
accumulate lethal doses of DDT.
(b) Insecticide may also destroy other harmless insects and soil organisms.
(c) Insecticides washed off into the rivers and lakes can accumulate to significant
amounts to poison fish and other aquatic life.
4. Monoculture: growing of a single species of crop on the same piece of land, year after year.
 Involves destruction organisms which feed on, compete with or infect the crop plant. These
might result in extinction of other animal and plant species.
 The balanced life of natural plants and animals is displaced from the farmland.
5. Overstocking: keeping of livestock whose number exceeds the carrying capacity of a piece of land.
 Overstocking leads to over grazing which makes grass not to have time to complete its
reproductive cycle. Therefore, resulting in some grass species becoming extinct.
 Trampling of soil by some hoofed animals results in the soil erosion.
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Famine
Objective: Discuss the problem which contribute to famine such as unequal distribution of food,
natural disasters (such as floods and droughts) and increase in population.
Famine: Lack of food over large geographical areas sufficiently long and severe to cause widespread
disease and death from starvation.
Problems which contribute to famine:
1. Unequal distribution of food
 Some geographic feature of areas make food production difficult, therefore such areas may
remain with minimal food production.
 Wars have also led to minimal food production in some regions of the continent.
2. Increase in population
 Increase in population lead to increase in demand for food, and usage of land for food
production. The rate of population growth often exceeds the rate of food production causing
food shortage in a population.
3. Natural disasters
 Droughts – persistent shortage of rainfall over years leads to minimal food production and
insufficient food supplies.
 Flooding – frequent floods can disturb food production in fields/farms, leading to minimal food
production and starvation.
Pollution
Objective: Describe a cause, effect and control of each of the following types of pollution: air, water
and land.
Pollution is contamination of air, water, or soil by substances that are harmful to living organisms.
A pollutant is a harmful substance which contaminates the environment and causes harm to living
organisms in the environment.
The consequences of pollution are observed in the effects on living organisms and in possible long term
effects on climate.
1. Air Pollution:
Type of Source of pollution Effects of pollution Control
pollutants
a) Sulphur  Burning of fossil  Causes acid rain (sulphuric acid  Coal and
dioxide fuel. formed) which: Petroleum are
 Car exhausts. o changes pH of soil and water treated to
 Natural ways; remove sulphur.
disasters such as o damages plants leaves;
volcano o corrodes metal structures and
eruptions erodes limestone in buildings and
sculptures.
 Irritates eyes and lungs when
breathed in.
 Aggravates diseases such as asthma
and bronchitis.
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2. Water Pollution:
Type of Sources of Pollution Effect of Pollution Control
pollution
Raw sewage  Human and  Encourages eutrophication.  Proper sewage
domestic waste. Increases population of bacteria disposal and
 Detergents rich and decreases oxygen content in sewage treatment
in phosphates. water. systems.
 Farmyard waste.  Use of
 Kills fish and aquatic organisms.
 Industrial waste  Bacteria present in sewage can
biodegradable
from food washing detergents
cause disease such as cholera and
processing
typhoid in man when the polluted
industries. water is consumed.
Artificial  Excessive use of  Encourage eutrophication.  Use of natural
Fertilisers fertilizer in Increases population of bacteria fertilizers.
farming. and decreases oxygen content in
 Soil erosion water.
causes mineral
salts to leach
away into
waterways.
Inorganic Pesticides Non-biodegradable.  Banned
waste(Toxic containing chlorine Accumulates in fat tissues of animals  Use of
Chemical) used in crop along food chains, reaching toxic levels biodegradable
protection and in the consumers of higher trophic pesticides.
DDT control of disease levels.  Use of biological
vector such as controls instead of
mosquito pesticides.
Mercury  Industrial  Affects nervous system, causes  Proper disposal of
wastes paralysis. waste containing
mercury.
Lead  Industrial waste  Minute concentrations may cause  Proper disposal of
cyanide paralysis. waste containing
lead cyanide and
other toxic
chemicals.
Petroleum  Tanker  Clogs respiratory systems of  Effective accident
accidents and animals. Kills marine creatures and prevention and
oil spillage. sea birds. legislation.
 Ruins beaches and destroys marine  Efficient removal of
life. oil slicks by special
detergents.
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3. Land Pollution:
Type of Source of Pollution Effect of pollution Control
Pollution
Refuse/  Used plastic bags.  Plastic is not digestible in  Proper
litter e.g.  Used papers alimentary canal of animals; disposal of
plastic,  Used cans and bottles blocks the alimentary canal of litter.
used mammals; causes death of  Recycling of
mammals. used plastic,
paper,
 Litter makes environment to be paper, bottle,
unattractive. can and metal
 Creates breeding place for scraps.
disease vectors.
Conservation
Conservation is protection and preservation of natural resources and the environment.
Conservation is a dynamic process requiring active intervention and management on a global scale.
Objective: Discuss reasons for conservation of species with reference to local plants and species
Reasons for conservation of wild life species and forests:
(a) Economic reasons: Many species of plants are useful sources of oil, fibre, rubber, food (Mowana
and Mosukujane),chemicals(pyrethrum) and medicinal drugs(Sengaparile). Pyrethrum I s a
natural insecticide obtained from the flower of the pyrethrum plant.
(b) Ecological reasons: (i) Forests provide many different habitats for living organisms and support
a large number and variety of living organisms.
(ii) A large gene pool is important in the process of artificial selection of
new crops and cattle e.g. crossing a wild grass with a strain of wheat
produces an improved variety.
(iii) Conserve species for scientific studies and prevent extinction of
species.
(c) Climatic reasons: Prevent global warming and prevent disruption of the water cycle.
Objective: Find out from the local community which plant and animal have become scarce and why?
Use the table below to identify scarce plants in your community and give a reason why they are scarce
Plant identified as Reason(s) for being scarce
scarce
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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Use the table below to identify scarce animals in your community and give a reason why they are
scarce
Animal identified Reason(s) for being scarce
as scarce
1.
2.
3.
4.
Objective: Investigate threatened species (plants and animals) and the need to conserve them
(emphasise examples from Botswana).
The table below identifies some of the threatened plants species. Give a reason why they have to be
conserved.
Plant threatened Reason(s) for being conserved
1. Mosukujane
2. Sengaparile
3. Monepenepe
The table below identifies some of the threatened animals species. Give a reason why they have to be
conserved.
Reason(s) for being conserved
1-+Animal
threatened
1. Rhino
2. Wild dog
3. Cheetah
Recycling
Objective: discuss reasons for recycling of materials including sewage water, paper, bottles and tins.
Reasons for recycling materials:
(a) Reduce the usage of the natural resources which can be conserved.
For example: recycling paper (which is made from wood pulp) will reduce the amount of timber
used, therefore slows down the rate of deforestation.
Water from treated sewage can be used as industrial water and for watering plants.
The solid waste from treated sewage can be used as a fertilizer for plants.
(b) Reduce the amount of waste materials (paper, plastic, metals etc) disposed.
(c) Conserve fossil fuels.
Recycling of materials uses less energy and lower production cost than making new products. It
takes far less energy to melt down scrap metal(iron, aluminium) and use it again than to
produce it from its metal ore.
Project:
Objective: Carryout a project to identify natural resources conserved in Botswana
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BIOTECHNOLOGY
Objective: Difine biotechnology as the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to
manufacturing and service industries
Biotechnology can be defined as the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to

manufacturing and service industries.
Use of micro-organisms in biotechnology

Objective: Explain why micro-organisms are used in biotechnology
Micro – organisms are used in biotechnology because:
 They can be grown in large quantities in small vessels;
 Reproduce very fast and products are obtained faster;
 Micro-organism and their production can be produced in small scale trials in laboratories;
 Micro-organisms can be easily manipulated genetically to achieve the desired products;
 Pure products can be cheaply and safely produced by use of simple inorganic products;
 Most bacteria produce extra cellular enzymes and other chemicals, making it easy to extract the
products.
Role of micro-organisms in food production

*Objective: Investigate the role of micro-organisms in food production e.g. bread, madila , chibuku,
single cell protein
1. Bread (yeast used)
 Wheat flour, a little sugar and salt, and yeast are mixed with water to form dough;
 Addition of water and suitable temperature activate amylase present in flour to digest starch to
simple sugars, glucose;
 Within the dough the yeast respires the simple sugars anaerobically for an hour at 350C;
 Alcohol and carbon dioxide are produced;
 The carbon dioxide makes the dough to rise or expand with bubbles;
 The risen dough is kneaded and cooked;
 During baking (200oC), yeast is killed, the small amount of ethanol produced evaporates;
 Bubbles of carbon dioxide trap heat in the dough making it to expand and improving its cooking.
2. Madila(bacteria used)
 At commercial level, a specific species of bacteria is used and the conditions are carefully
controlled to assure the quality of the product.
 First, milk is pasteurized (heated at 72oC for 15 minutes). This process kills most potential
pathogenic micro-organisms and those that may interfere with the product quality.
 A starter culture of bacteria (Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgarius) is used in
fermentation of milk.
 The bacteria use the milk as a food source.
 Bacteria turn lactose in milk to lactic acid, lowering pH of milk.
 The milk proteins coagulates at pH 4.4 forming a thick cream of sour milk .
 Fermentation is stopped by reducing temperature of sour milk from 46OC to 5OC.
 Amount of whey in sour milk can be reduced.
 The product is then sealed in sterilized containers.
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Raw Madila
Raw
milk B below pH 4.4
milk + +
Madila
Bacteria
pasturised Milk Proteins whey
coagulates due
due to lactic acid Whey
removed
from milk
3. Beer Making (chibuku):
 Yeast fermentation is used to produce alcohol.
 A number of cereals are used to provide the sugars needed by yeast in fermentation.
 During the germination of barley/sorghum grains, enzymes are activated and start the
digestion of starch to maltose then to glucose.
Barley grains germinate for 4 days. Enzymes in the barley digest starch to maltose;
maltose is digested to glucose. The barley is now called malt.
Grains are dried at a temperature which kills seeds but do not denature enzymes.
The dried grains are crushed (milled)
Water is added to the milled malt to form marsh; digestion of starch

and maltose continues and sugars dissolve in the water.
Marsh is boiled for 2½ hours to kill bacteria and wild yeast.
Mixture is cooled and there is straining of some solids. The liquid filtrate is called wort.
Yeast is added to the wort and left to ferment for 2-4days. Glucose is converted to ethanol,
carbon dioxide and energy is released for the yeast
Mature Chibuku is put in containers
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Role of micro-organisms in the production of medicine such as:
Objective: Discuss the role of micro-organisms in the production of medicine such as antibiotics and
vaccines
1. Anti-biotics
 Penicillin is produced by fungus Penicillium notatum. Penicillin destroys cell walls of a wide
range of pathogenic bacteria.
 As the fungus (Penicillium sp) grows aerobically in the fermenter it uses up nutrients. Only when
the nutrient level falls greatly does the fungus produce penicillin. Production of the antibiotic
begins after about 40 hours in the fermenter and reaches its maximum after about 7 days.
Fermenter
Penicillium
sp.
Glucose
Nitrates and sulphates
Dry fungus
sold as
animal feed
Air Filtering
Purify and
modify
penicillin
2. Vaccine:
 Vaccines have been made for many viral diseases.
 Vaccines can be made in several ways:
Dead pathogens – e.g. whooping cough vaccine;
Weakened pathogens – oral polio vaccine;
Genetically engineered fragments – proteins from the pathogen’s surface which are recognized
by lymphocytes, e.g. hepatitis B viral coat protein.
 The products are then made in solution form and are injected into bodies of animals.
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How Industries in Botswana can Benefit from Biotechnology
*Objective: Discuss how industries in Botswana can benefit from Biotechnology
Benefit from Biotechnology:
 Can increase growth of the industries.
 Can reduce cost in the industries, such as labour costs.
 Can increase production in industries.
 Less space used, dependence on large spaces of land is reduced.
 Speed at which micro-organisms reproduce offer opportunities for researches with faster
results, bringing faster improvements in the industries.
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YOUR BGCSE BIOLOGY REVISION GUIDE

YOUR BGCSE BIOLOGY REVISION GUIDE

GROUP: SCIENCE DOUBLE AWARD

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Cells and cell processes ……………………………………………….………………….…………………… 4-13

Sexual Reproduction in Plants ………………………………………………..……………………..….83-89

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Parts found in plant cells only:

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Examples of plant tissues:

Organ is a group of different tissues working together.

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Factors affecting rate of diffusion:

Some examples of diffusion in living organisms

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OBJECTIVE: State how osmosis is a special form of diffusion

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Effect of osmosis on plant tissue

OBJECTIVE: Define active transport

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Differences between active transport and passive transport.

Active transport Passive transport

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OBJECTIVE: Describe autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition

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Glucose made during photosynthesis is stored in photosynthesizing leave cells as starch.

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OBJECTIVE: Describe intake of carbon dioxide

Heat-proof mat Hot water

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EXPERIMENTS METHOD RESULTS

Parts not exposed to

Leaf covered with Control leaf:

 The plant is exposed to light for 6 hours then starch Conclusion:

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Distance of light source

ELEMEMTS NEEDED BY PLANTS

OBJECTIVE: explain importance of nitrogen containing ions for protein synthesis

OBJECTIVE: explain importance of magnesium containing ions for chlorophyll synthesis

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3. Classification according substrate

Effects of temperature on enzyme activity

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OBJECTIVE: Define a balanced diet

CARBOHYDRATES PROTEINS FATS/OILS

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CARBOHYDRATES PROTEINS FATS/OILS

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