Night Combat Tactics #8

SHOOTING WITH INDIVIDUAL

WEAPONS

It is less effective than daytime shooting. The difficulties of night shooting

can be alleviated, to a large extent, with the help of technical means and
adequate instruction. Whenever possible, shooting should be prepared
during the day. In weapons equipped with an aiming device with a reticle, it
must be able to be illuminated. Whatever the weapon that fires, it must be
taken into account that the flash reveals the shooter; this is especially
serious in the case of CSR. or grenade launcher.

Whenever possible, the shooter should change position immediately after

each shot in order to avoid being shot. Both the operations prior to the
shooting, as well as those of the shooting itself, must be carried out with the
utmost discretion and silence, putting into practice the operational rules to
maintain light and sound discipline. You have to know how to resolve all
incidents related to weapons in silence and without light.

GENERAL RULES
At night, the target always appears at close range and very fleetingly. This
objective can be a silhouette, a glow or a noise.
You can almost never take the line of sight or observe the shot to correct it.
It is common to make the mistake of shooting too high, as there is a
tendency to aim using the base of the crosshair. To take the line of sight,
face the weapon pointing towards a surface that is as clear as possible
(generally the sky); then, slowly and trying not to lose that line, bring the
weapon towards the target.

It is advisable to take a series of two shots, taking advantage of the glare of

the first to see the aiming elements and be able to correct when taking the
second. Never close the other eye. The characteristic noises produced in the
handling of the weapon must be avoided or muffled as much as possible, as
well as the shine produced by the parts of the weapon that have been
debuffed. Special attention will be paid to the first precaution when the
presence of a nearby enemy who can hear these noises and appreciate our
position is suspected. The second precaution will be taken into account in all
types of night operations even when knowing that the enemy is far away,
since the brightness can be appreciated from a distance, a fact that is
increased with the use by the enemy of technical means of detection.
observation.

We can locate the enemy position by taking a couple of men to one side to
fire some shots to encourage the enemy to fire. We must consider that the
enemy can also use this technique against us. Don't fall into that trap. In a
defensive situation, shoot when the enemy is discovered, whether or not he
fires. In an attack, shoot only when the enemy discovers us and shoots at
us, unless we receive orders to the contrary. In some cases, the use of
silencers can be very useful, as they also limit the flash, in addition to
suppressing the noise. It is advisable to use prepared shooting, instinctive
shooting and shooting with tracer bullets. This last procedure allows the
correction of the shot. The first two actually constitute reflexive aims.

In the training of shooters, make them aware that in principle they cannot
aim, due to its great difficulty, to aim at a specific point on the target, but
rather at the "area" or "zone" of the target. The opposite would produce large
dispersion errors. It is very important in training to have great fire discipline.
Shooting must be carefully prepared and safety regulations strictly adhered
to, since this environment is very conducive to accidents (a weapon not
reviewed or an individual remaining in the target line).

The progressiveness in the instruction must combine the following factors:

weapon to be used, procedure and degree of luminosity (of the target, area
and weapon), atmospheric and astronomical conditions, shooting distances,
type of exercises, etc. All types of acoustic and/or light stimuli should be
used.

SHOOTING WITH TECHNICAL AIMING

AID

In this case the shot has all the characteristics of a daytime shot, since the
target can be placed on the ground. There will even be times when the
deflection of the impact can be seen (depending on the nature of the
terrain).

SHOOTING WITHOUT AIM

TECHNIQUES FOR AIMING
Prepared Shot
The objective of preparing the shot is to keep the aiming elements fixed in
height and direction to avoid having to aim at night, which would be
impossible. You can use:

— Preparation on the weapon (use of graduation).

— Preparation on the ground (marking and elevation-reference for aiming at

height).

—The two previous procedures at the same time.

Instinctive Shot
It is done whenever there is no possibility of taking the line of sight:
— Good because there is no time and it is about gaining speed.

— Either because visibility is reduced (night, fog, etc.).

This shot can only be used at short distances, for this reason it fits perfectly
into night shooting. Instinctive shooting is carried out exclusively with
individual weapons and, whenever possible, in short bursts. For this way of
firing to be effective, it must achieve, at short distances, a position that can
be compared to that of the calculated shot. From this derives the need for
very careful instruction in all its details.

The methods must vary depending on the weapon used:

— With a weapon (such as, for example, the CETME rifle) the shot can be
fired while keeping the weapon on the hip.

— With a lighter weapon (for example, the submachine gun) it will be carried
to shoulder height through a reflex movement, without even trying to aim. By
this procedure and with such a weapon nothing will be lost in speed and, on
the other hand, precision will be gained.

Whatever the case may be, the principle remains unchanged: aiming is done
with the whole body.

The position of the weapon relative to the body should be such that the
direction of gaze automatically brings the weapon in the direction of the
target. Aim at height is obtained automatically by skill acquired with
continuous instruction.

Shooting with tracer bullets

It has the advantage that the trajectory is seen for a large part of the route,
but it has the disadvantage of being located more easily than with normal
bullets. Path visibility can be used to:

— Designate a goal.

— Correct the shot.

— Materialize dangerous areas in case of fire in support of your own troops.

The danger of being located can be reduced by placing the tracer bullets on
the tape head or magazine.

RIFLE
When you are in a foxhole, you must have one or more positions that allow
approximate marking of the shot. Height marking can be done by placing two
tension wires. When this procedure cannot be used, the instinctive shot will
be made. Shooting is facilitated by sticking a white tape or tape along the
barrel, covering the aiming elements. Shooting with a tracer bullet is not
useful with this weapon, except at medium distances and on a moderately
illuminated target.

SUBMISSION
The submachine gun will be used especially for instinctive shooting.
Together with the hand grenade, it is the ideal weapon for night combat.

GUN
Only the instinctive shot will be made with it.

HAND GRENADE
The use of hand grenades is of particular interest for the following reasons:

—It has, apart from a material effect, a great moral effect.

— The dispersion of the shrapnel compensates for possible deviations in

direction and range. Their radius of action makes them effective against
undetermined targets.

—No flash reveals the position of the shooter. Its glow can be used to aim
other weapons.

RIFLE GRENADE
The one with the greatest use will be type II (Bivalent).
— In defense, a marking of circumstances may be executed in a dangerous
direction and at a determined range.

— It has, apart from a material effect, a great moral effect.

— The dispersion of the shrapnel compensates for possible deviations in

direction and range.

C-90 ROCKET
In certain cases, a marking of circumstances in a dangerous direction may
be carried out. However, on clear nights, it could be used at short distances
as it is equipped with an illuminating visor.

Night Combat Tactics No. 7

SURVEILLANCE PHASES
Once the sequence to follow in the surveillance process has been outlined,
the most characteristic surveillance phases will be discussed below.

THE DETECTION
It is the first act of the surveillance process, essential to be able to access
the following ones (recognition, identification, location, acquisition and
transmission). All senses and means must concur in detection.

Land marking

The study of the terrain makes it possible to determine the dangerous areas
and access routes to monitor and the points from which an advancing
enemy can be detected (fig. 2-4). This study facilitates surveillance and
location, either by hearing or sight. The study of the terrain should be
followed, as far as possible, by marking it, either during the day or at night.
This marking of the terrain is exploited by observers, listeners and shooters,
who thus have reference points. It also often allows you to determine the
distance to the target.

Dangerous points, itineraries and sectors can be named with a name or

code to facilitate their designation.

Organization of surveillance for detection

The organization of surveillance for detection requires from the Head of the
Unit:

— Distribute among his subordinate Units the surveillance sector that is his
responsibility.

— Distribute surveillance means depending on availability.

— Establish and determine listening and observation points.

— Place the electronic detection means available.

— Complete the set with improvised means responsible for giving the alert in
blind spots.

— Organize the transmission system.

— Test the device, preferably one during the day and one at night.

— Vary the device depending on the failures observed.

— Continually refine the device.

Detection and alarm systems (sensors)

With these systems, the aim is to detect the presence of something
(vehicles, people, etc.) through the appearance of a signal, usually acoustic
and/or light. The can with stones hanging from the wire fences may be its
predecessor.

Guys:
 — Hitch or drag.
- Depression.
—Seismic.
— Acoustic.
— Cable interruption.
— Electromagnetic detector.
— Thermal image.
— Passive infrared.
— Radiation switch (light, laser, infrared).
- Radar.

THE IDENTIFICATION

Identification of the objective is essential before firing, in order to distinguish

one's own Unit from the enemy and avoid mistakes; unless it is certain that
only the enemy can progress on a given terrain. This can be done visually,
by light or acoustic signal and by responder.

Identification by sight
a) Without lighting: In general it has a very limited range.

b) With lighting: Depending on the media used and the atmospheric

conditions, it can reach daytime values.

Identification by light or acoustic signal

The identification of own elements (vehicles, patrols, etc.) can be carried out
by a light procedure, according to a previously established code, derived, for
example, from the recognition signals of the sentries.

These calls and responses, necessarily simple and discreet, can be made:

— With IR., provided that the projector headlamp is provided with a shutter
shutter, since without the shutter the persistence of the IR. makes it
impossible to distinguish the short ones from the long ones.

— With the help of a flashlight provided with a red filter and a tube that
channels the light in a certain direction.

Identification by light signals must be doubled by a radio link between the

two elements.

As for the acoustic signals, of reduced range, their use will depend on this
(arrivals at meeting points, as the last recognition signal, etc.). These must
be previously planned and generally consist of sounds that are not easily
identifiable with human presence.

Identification by responder
The transponder, linked to a radar, emits a coded signal, simultaneously
allowing its identification and location as long as it is in direct view of the
radar. Given the relative autonomy that can be given to a Platoon or Section
at night, the responder must be adapted to this Echelon. The radar,
sweeping an area, can then, by discriminating the echoes, distinguish its
own Unit from the enemy and locate it.

Furthermore, it is necessary that:

— If there is only one responder, the deployment of the Unit is relatively
grouped and known by the radar.

— The terrain is clear or, at least, that the Platoon or Section Leader does
not remain in the low areas or behind radar screens.

THE TRANSFERENCE

After the acquisition of one or more objectives by an observer, listener or

operator of technical means, the aim is to transmit the information obtained
to another.

Transfer after acquisition by sight

a) Without initial lighting.

An observer, upon acquiring an objective, transfers it to the person directly in

charge of hitting it or to whoever has the authority to give the orders for this
to be done. The target designation cannot be precise if there are no clear
references in its vicinity.

It may also be that the observer can beat it, as happens in cars. In this case
it may be that:

— If the Tank Leader acquires the objective, the transfer is elementary; It

can position the turret in direction when the engine is running or guide its
shooter, giving him instructions regarding the target and the sight to use.

— If the Leader of a Tank Unit acquires the objective, he must transfer it to a

Tank Leader; which will transmit it to your shooter. You can designate it by
reference to a terrain marker or a previously set dangerous direction, or
designate it in range and in the direction to be placed on the azimuth
indicator in relation to a previously defined surveillance direction (which
requires an orientation of the tanks).

b) With lighting.

The Head of Unit uses the lighting means available to him. The use of
devices in a general direction given by an observer allows the designation of
objectives under normal conditions. Lighting, in the case of armored units, is
used:

— For shooting when the information transmitted to the shooter has allowed
him to position the barrel in direction, without visibility allowing him to acquire
the target.

— To transfer a target detected by an observer to the tank in charge of

shooting. In this case, the acquisition is simultaneous by the Chief and the
shooter.

c) Case of several objectives.

When a single target has been detected, the transfer can be made directly to
the weapon in charge of firing, without intervention from other controls, in
order to save time. Exceptionally, the shooter can acquire a target single-
handedly. From the Chief you will only receive the order to open fire.

The Head of Unit intervenes, however, when several objectives have been
acquired. It proceeds to the transfer in an identical manner after dividing the
objectives between its weapons. To avoid any confusion and facilitate
acquisition, you will often be forced to shoot on a target yourself or turn on
the lighting initially.

TRANSFER OF INFORMATION OBTAINED BY ONE OBSERVER (WITH

OR WITHOUT TECHNICAL AID) TO ANOTHER.

The means available are very varied and so are their benefits. Depending on
what you want to obtain from them, the choice of one or the other will
depend.

Integrating several systems, so that they complement each other, will offer
advantages and also the inconvenience derived from the transmission from
one to another, unless they are mounted on a single device, which is the
current trend. The most frequent cases of device families are:

— Light enhancers + passive infrared.

— TV. Low level + passive infrared.

— TV. low level + radar.

— Light increaser + laser.

— Light booster + radar.

These sets considerably reduce the deadlines, since the transfer is

practically immediate.

TRANSFER OF INFORMATION OBTAINED BY AN OBSERVER (WITH OR

WITHOUT TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE) TO A SHOOTER.

If this means of observation is fixed to the weapon and homogenized with it,
there is no transmission as such, since it is done automatically. This system
is used in cars, attaching a light-enhancing periscope and a TV camera to
the cannon. or a passive infrared camera, instead of the projector that most
currently use. The same thing happens when using a scope on any
weapon.

Transfer after acquisition by sound

Transfer after acquisition by sound partly resembles the previous problem;
The listener has been able to acquire the objective, therefore he can locate it
with approximation; Whatever the intermediate transfers, the shooter can put
his weapon in direction.

Transfer after acquisition by radar

Two cases must be considered:

— Transfer from a surveillance radar to an acquisition radar.

— Transfer of an acquisition radar to a weapon.

TRANSFER FROM A SURVEILLANCE RADAR TO AN ACQUISITION

RADAR.

Two radars are on station:

— On the one hand, a surveillance radar capable of acquiring a target at

great depth and giving a warning well in advance.

— On the other hand, a shorter range radar, responsible for acquisition for
shooting.

It is about transferring the acquisition from the first to the second, in order to
allow the firing of weapons when the adversary's direction of progression,
established by the first, must end in the detection area of the second. The
procedure implies that both the radars are oriented topographically. The
successive operations are the following:

— The first radar places the successive echoes received on a plane and
determines the direction of the adversary.

— When the enemy is going to penetrate the area of responsibility of the

second radar, the first makes contact with him by radio and gives him the
coordinates of the last point with the direction of progression.

— The second radar carries out its search in the direction of probable arrival
of the enemy, until it has acquired it and transferred it to the weapon in
charge of firing.

TRANSFER FROM AN ACQUISITION RADAR TO A WEAPON.

Once the acquisition radar has determined the coordinates of the target, the
operator transmits them to the corresponding Chief or the shooter in charge
of hitting it directly. As the radar determines new positions, the shooting data
will vary until the fires are unleashed.

Night Combat Tactics #6

SURVEILLANCE

Whether day or night, surveillance is an operation aimed at discovering

targets and identifying them:

— Good to inform the Higher Echelon.

— Well, and it is the most frequent case, to intervene the Unit that
discovered it directly through the fire.

Surveillance at night is of great importance, since:

— Avoid the surprise that the enemy could attempt under cover of darkness.
— Provides many references. Indeed, as night falls, the enemy sector is
animated by a hidden life that was not determined during the day. It is
essential for the success of any night offensive action, no matter how limited
it may be. To lead to the shooting action, the different operations must be
conducted following a rigorous order, in which some phases can be
confused depending on the procedures put into practice and whose
development, analogous even to daytime operations, is notably complicated
by disturbances. contributed to the combatant's visual faculties.

The surveillance process involves successively:

— Detect the target.

— Recognize it.
— Identify it.
— Locate it.
— Inform the Command in any of these previous steps depending on the
situation.

In the objective acquisition process we successively deal with:

— Detect the target.

— Identify it.
— Locate it.

All this with the aim of being able to beat the target, if necessary. After the
acquisition of the objective, there may or may not be a transfer. All these
processes are hindered by the absence of reference points, which entails
problems in detecting and locating the target and transmitting information
from one observer to another. You have to try to be objective, not be
impressed and, above all, not be imaginative, maintain self-control and be
constant.

FORMS OF SURVEILLANCE
Basic principle: PATIENCE.

Biggest drawback: COLD-NUMBNESS.

The observation
The sense of sight is more or less important, depending on whether the night
is more or less clear. It has the following characteristics:

—The objectives are seen in their global form. Their details disappear in the
group profile.

—It can only be seen at a short distance.

— It takes approximately thirty (30) minutes to adapt to the darkness if you

leave a lighted place. However, with ten (10) minutes you can already have
a certain degree of perception.

Choosing an observation post.

The observation post should be chosen, if possible, in a counterslope;

standing low to the ground and looking from bottom to top to ensure that the
objectives are outlined against the clearest background of the sky.

Placement with respect to the Moon.

On full moon nights, and in general when there is a lot of light, the observer
should position himself ensuring that the Moon is behind him. In this way,
glare is avoided and the objective is more illuminated. If the orientation of the
sector to be observed requires facing the Moon, the eyes must be protected
from the light (hands forming a screen, cap visor, etc.).

Forms of observation.

— Decentered vision is used; Do not look directly at the object, but higher, to
the right or left of it.

—Do not look at a fixed point for more than ten seconds, resting three times
as long.

— Place your hands, like a funnel, one over each eye in order to protect
them from side lights.
Furthermore, the field of vision is limited to the observation area, which is
clearer (fig. 2-2).

— Sweep the sector to be observed with your eyes, through a series of

quick movements and pauses in lines parallel to the horizon (figure 2-3).
— To observe moving objects, circles of the greatest possible amplitude are
described with the gaze around them (figure 2-3).

— Find the contrast between the sought objects and the background.

— Close one eye when a light bulb appears.

—It often happens that one thinks one sees an object moving indefinitely.

To verify the real existence of this movement, a pole of circumstances

(bayonet, knife, stick, stone, etc.) is stuck in the ground, and the object in
question is looked at, pointing it through the pole. Without moving the head,
one directs one's gaze elsewhere and then turns to look at the supposedly
moving object; In this way it is checked if the object has moved with respect
to the pole. A very common and very harmful tendency is not to blink,
keeping your eyes wide open. This blinds you in the long run.

Appreciation of distances.

During the night there is a tendency to overcalculate distances. The only

way to calculate them with any precision consists in knowing the distances
between the features of the terrain seen during the day.

The Listening

Listening has a fundamental role, whatever the degree of clarity of the night.
Any noise, no matter how small, is clearly perceived in the calm of the night.
Humidity and cold at night increase this spread.

To a certain extent, hearing allows us to replace sight at night. The ear

functions under the same conditions as during the day, but benefited from
the aforementioned propagation. It can appreciate the distance and direction
of a noise-producing source and proceed to recognize it, but the
assessments it gives do not have the precision that can be achieved with
sight, since they are linked to atmospheric conditions and the nature of the
terrain.
Thus, listening can alleviate to a certain extent the insufficiency of vision,
especially in giving warning. It cannot, however, replace it in carrying out the
basic actions of combat. Vehicle personnel, for example, can only hear when
stopped and with the engine stopped. Therefore, one or more members of
the transported personnel or crew must ensure listening to external noises,
while another ensures, through the helmet, listening to the radio.

To reinforce your listening possibilities during arrests, it is often advisable to

highlight listening around and especially at the forefront. To orient yourself
by sound is to locate a sound source in space, which involves a triple
definition of the origin of the sound stimulus, referring to its height (angle of
location), direction and distance. It is still not known exactly what the altitude
localization process is; The only thing that is fully proven is that, to determine
the location of a sound source, high-pitched sounds seem to come from a
place located higher than the true one, and vice versa.

Choosing a listening position.

It is advisable to establish the listening post, away from the "spots" of noise
(weeds or trees whipped by the wind, water currents, engines that are or
may be running, etc.):

— If the wind is strong, it is advisable to find the listening position so that it

does not rumble.

— If the wind is weak, it is advisable to look for the places where it flows so
that it favors the perception of the weaker noises that it may carry.

Placement with respect to the wind.

The effectiveness of listening is greater or lesser depending on the direction

of the wind with respect to the observer. Headwinds are favorable, while
backwinds can be dangerous.

Ways of listening:

— Remain motionless.
— Adopt the most comfortable position possible at first, to avoid movements
later.
— Differentiate suspicious noises from simply natural ones.
You have to know how to recognize human noises (cough, sneeze,
expectoration, voice, fall, etc.).
— Keep your mouth open, as hearing improves.
— Do not wear clothing that covers your ears.
— Sound arrives by air and land. Placing your ear to the ground is a good
measure, since it is transmitted with better quality through solids than
through gases.

Appreciation of distances.

Wet weather favors sound propagation more than dry weather. The same
goes for cold temperatures. The combination of light-noise allows distances
to be appreciated with quite a few approximations (especially at long
distances).

Appreciation of the direction of sound.

The possible origin of a sound must be located by all possible procedures:

— Terrain reference points.

- Compass.
— Marking of circumstances, etc.

Locating targets by sound.

It results from the combination of the appreciation of distances and direction.

In any case, both the location in height and distance is imprecise and difficult
to improve. If we take into account that the majority of the sound stimuli that
occur in combat, especially in night combat, have their origin very close to
the ground, we will have to agree that the importance of these adverse
circumstances decreases significantly, increasing, therefore, contrary to the
importance of location in direction.

In clear, windless terrain it is possible to recognize a car or vehicle several

kilometers away and locate it in position with about 20° of approach and
about two-thirds of its true distance. When there is a little wind,
reconnaissance is still carried out at several kilometers, especially if the wind
is favorable; but localization becomes difficult: the position approximation
drops to 450 and the distance approximation to half and even a third of the
true distance.

When the wind is very violent, detection is sometimes still possible, but
localization is impossible. In fact, "listening" consists of detecting a target,
sometimes recognizing it and rarely locating it. The information acquired
must immediately be transferred to weapons with the degree of uncertainty it
includes.
However, in certain very particular cases it is possible to locate by listening:
Knowing the terrain perfectly. This is why vehicles crossing a bridge or a hill
do not produce the same noise as driving on a road or behind a hill. Using
sound amplifiers correctly placed at points likely to be crossed by the enemy.

WITH THE HELP OF TECHNICAL

MEANS
These increase the effectiveness and scope of surveillance and are
described later.

Night Combat Tactics #5

THE MOVEMENT ON VEHICLES
In vehicles, the driver is the most affected. Depending on the optics it is
equipped with, and depending on the level of the night, it will have a more or
less panoramic vision, although its visibility distance will be reduced and its
fatigue great. The vehicle leaders and shooters must be trained as alternate
drivers, so that in the case of carrying out a movement on their own terrain,
with very little or no probability of having to fight, they can relieve the main
driver when their state of fatigue requires it. At the beginning and end of the
march, in the case mentioned above, each one will be in their corresponding
position.

In the case of armored vehicles, there is an instinctive tendency to drive with

the hatches open, without using optics, at least in the "bright" and "poorly
bright" degrees of clarity. When driving with the hatches open you feel more
confident, you have direct "contact" with the terrain, you tire less quickly as
there is less visual strain and the body position is normal (back supported);
On the other hand, in case of unexpected contact with the enemy, it is very
vulnerable. This form of driving is not advisable for the fulfillment of certain
missions (action in force) or under NBC threat. On the other hand, the driver
is not the only one who needs to see in a vehicle; The Chief of the vehicle,
due to the missions he has to accomplish, also has this need, although in a
different way (more distance, less field). Therefore, it must be equipped with
turret optics equivalent to that of the shooter.

In general, measures should be adopted to regulate the use of lights,

starting with determining the line of light. The closed column modality will be
the normal one to use in night marches....

DRIVING
Regardless of any consideration of visibility, the material act of driving differs
from night to day, if only for reasons of discretion (noise). Although the noise
of the chains of an armored vehicle is inevitable, it is advisable not to add to
it the noise of the engine operating at high speed. Therefore, the driver must
adopt a higher speed to obtain the minimum engine speed (rev counter
driving).

Passing obstacles on off-road terrain is the responsibility of the driver, who

benefits from the permanent observation of the Vehicle Chief. When there is
no enemy presence, in the case of a difficult obstacle, you should not
hesitate to get off the ground to recognize the terrain and guide your vehicle
by sight, if the degree of visibility allows it, and if not, with the help of a
flashlight.

For armored vehicles in particular, there are two procedures for driving them:

—Hatch open, head out, with direct or reinforced vision with binoculars.

—Hatch closed, with night periscopes or with binoculars through the daytime
ones.

It is, without a doubt, the first method, open hatch, that gives the best
results. Especially whenever the tactical situation allows it. It provides the
driver with very comfortable driving at night with a "bright" degree of clarity,
easy for nights with a "poorly bright" degree and sometimes possible, at the
cost of a reduction in gear for the night with a "dark" degree.

But driving with a closed hatch is and will be used more and more, forced by
the circumstances of combat (NBC environment. above all). The driver's
performance then decreases significantly, due to fatigue due to an
uncomfortable position and visual strain caused by the narrow field of the
periscopes. On the other hand, the psychological factor plays a great role.
Driving with a closed hatch cannot be maintained for more than a few hours.

In all cases, getting used to night driving through continuous instruction and
training of personnel for night driving is a primary success factor. Experience
shows that, indeed, with appropriate training, a driver can easily improve his
driving aptitude by an amount equivalent to one night level.

Influenced by the level of visibility at night, by the terrain (route or varied

terrain) and by the way of driving, progression is facilitated in all cases by
the use of technical aids.

The decision to use aids is a responsibility of the Chief, which cannot be left
to the driver's discretion. Depending on the freedom that the Leader of a
column or deployment has, he chooses, depending on the level of visibility,
the degree of discretion and the imposed speed, the aid that best suits him.

These are of different nature:

a) Devices to maintain cohesion:

It represents the most discreet aid to progression. Adapted to the level of

visibility, nothing seems to limit its use. Created to maintain the cohesion of
a column or deployment and a pre-established stagger, they do not increase
the speed of progression, but they make it more comfortable.

b) IR headlights (INFRARED) driving:

They are indiscreet, prohibit panoramic vision and, for armored vehicles in
particular, limit visibility to a few hundred meters in the periscope field (300
to 500), and require the driver to drive with the hatch closed. Driving with an
open hatch on "bright" or "poorly bright" nights is preferable to driving with IR
headlights.

Nights with a "dark" degree of clarity represent the limit from which the IR.
They become useful if the tactical situation authorizes their use. A mixed
solution is to drive only the first vehicle with IR. and the following with
cohesion devices.

c) The LV headlights. (VISIBLE LIGHT):

This lighting mode is known and does not have any notable particularities,
although it is true that on off-road terrain the headlights accentuate the
accidents on the ground. It is evident that visible light headlamps should only
be used outside the enemy's fire and observation range, due to their total
indiscretion.

With the war light, these inconveniences are partially alleviated.

d) Illumination of the battlefield:

It can be done:

— By visible light projectors.

—By illuminating devices.

This procedure is evidently indiscreet, and the decision on its use generally
lies with the Head of the affected Unit. The progression is noticeably similar
to that carried out during the day, allowing a normal speed. The projectors
must illuminate parallel to the direction of progression, in order to allow
movement in the shadow area between the beams.

e) The light intensifier:

The image intensifier device brings us closer to daytime conditions and

makes progress easier, but driving is not comfortable and forces the driver to
observe through optics. Modern binoculars, light in weight and volume,
adaptable to the helmet or attached to the head by means of a harness, and
periscopes, which reproduce the image on the screen; They make driving
significantly easier. The speed of progression, as stated above, is a function
of numerous variable factors; Therefore, the table on the following page has
no more than an indicative value.

ORIENTATION

On itinerary or along it
The orientation causes, under these conditions, few problems. The itinerary
serves as a reference axis to which it is possible to adjust. A careful study of
the map before departure serves to determine the changes in direction, the
distance between them and the kilometers to travel.
The level of visibility influences the speed of progression and makes walking
more or less easy. The marking of a route with the help of small luminous
indicators facilitates and accelerates progression, practically eliminating the
problem of orientation.

Whatever the type of material used, these light indicators always include a
light source visible up to a hundred meters in a single direction. Colored
covers allow for an elementary signaling code (fig. 1-5)

These indicators are placed on the ground three by three, to materialize the
direction to follow:

—The first two form an entrance door, which the driver must pass through
to take the right direction.

— The third is located 25 meters further away and to the left (driver's side),
and confirms the direction taken.

The driver passes through the door and, leaving the indicator isolated to his
left, must pass as close to them as possible. Between two groups of three
indicators, which can be relatively spaced, the driver follows the route that is
marked only when changing direction. Difficult routes can be indicated with
the help of a pre-established color code, in such a way that dangerous
obstacles to be avoided are indicated with the help of a greater number of
light indicators.
When it comes to the movement of a Bon., Group or GT. Entity Unit, forming
a Marching Column, the signaling can only be carried out by a Detachment
constituted for this purpose (which may be the Reconnaissance Section); in
principle, under the orders of an Officer, assisted by Non-Commissioned
Officers from each Unit.

Indeed, the Commands in charge of signaling must be chosen, since

orientation problems are sometimes difficult to solve. Additionally, tracking is
slow in medium, unrecognized terrain during the day, including roads, tracks,
and cross-country; being of the order of 5 km/h.

The number of light indicators necessary for an itinerary is around 20 for

each kilometer. In an itinerary for an entity unit Cía., Bía., Escón. or S/ GT.,
forming a Marching Column, the placement of light indicators can be carried
out by the vanguard (under the command of an Officer), and the collection
by the rearguard.

TECHNICAL PROCEDURES
OF ORIENTATION
ON BOARD ARMORED VEHICLES.
The common factor to the various orientation procedures described is their
random nature. The problem of orientation in all terrain, at night, cannot find
a satisfactory solution except with the use of appropriate technical aids. The
most used procedures are those detailed below.

Driving with land navigation

The navigator is a device that allows you to know at all times the exact
position (given in rectangular coordinates, corresponding to the plane used)
of the vehicle in which it is installed, as well as the direction of its movement.
At first glance, a browser seems like an overly complicated package; In fact,
it has been simplified, thanks to the advancement of technology, to the point
of achieving portable models that can be used by troops on foot.

On the other hand, it is not necessary for all vehicles to have a complete
navigator installed, but only the components that, depending on the Tactical
Echelon considered, are necessary.

Driving with direction finder

The procedure is based on the directivity of radio-electric waves. This
involves the installation of fixed stations, radio beacons, radio direction
finders and their marking on the plane used, which is not always possible. It
is subject to the electronic countermeasures of the adversary, and in many
cases it will not be feasible due to the imposition of the terrain configuration
that prevents the radio link.

Driving with radar

It consists of maintaining the topographical and radio link between a radar,
which successively and systematically locates the position of the vehicle or
vehicles that it guides in the correct maintenance of a given itinerary, and the
vehicles themselves.

Demands:
a) The precise determination of the radar settlement point, as well as its
orientation, with sufficient precision to guarantee the necessary data to carry
out the guidance (orientation and distance) of the successive detections.

b) That the entire itinerary is visible from the settlement, or the use of several
radars that, covering several sections, complete the itinerary.

c) Guarantee the permanent radio link between the radar and the vehicle or
vehicles, in good condition.

d) Have a 1FF system. (friend-enemy identifier) in the event that an

encounter occurs with enemy forces with similar characteristics, since this is
the safest means of being able to distinguish between one's own forces and
those of the adversaries.

Concealment from enemy radar is possible by marching near towns,

railways and roads close to forests or in defilade.

COHESION
At night, from the "poorly luminous" degree of clarity, reciprocal vision
between the elements of a Unit is not possible.

In these conditions, to break the feeling of isolation and to avoid multiplying

orientation and driving errors (crashes, sudden braking, etc.), it is essential
to equip the PUs. when traveling on board vehicles with devices to maintain
cohesion.

These devices must meet the following conditions:

—Be invisible to an observer positioned in front of the device or on top of it

(airplane).

—Be visible to an observer positioned behind or to the sides, depending on

the relative position of the vehicle at a small distance.

Therefore, the light intensity must be able to be adapted to the night level
and adjustable depending on the distance to be maintained between
vehicles (from 25 to 75 m).

—Can be started from inside the vehicle.

—Represent a range of identification signs.

There is currently no satisfactory regulatory arrangement. The main usable

procedures are indicated a. continuation.

war lights
Existing on serial vehicles, these devices ensure excellent visibility, but
present some drawbacks that prohibit their tactical use:

—Very big indiscretion: visible in front of the vehicle up to 800 or 1,000 m.

—No lateral visibility.

—No adjustment possible according to the level of the night.

—No possibility of identification.

Letters, numbers and signs painted on the vehicle.

This procedure, used for a long time, ensures both cohesion and
identification, both day and night. Depending on the location of the letters,
numbers and signs illuminated through a luminous slit, it offers good visibility
from behind and from the sides.

However, this system has some drawbacks:

—Indiscretion for indicating the U. belonging and visibility at a distance,

depending on its color with respect to the vehicle's camouflage paint.

—Difficulty in having a good vision of letters, numbers or signs in weak

lighting; hence the alternative, if adjustment of the luminous intensity is not
possible, between the suppression of identification and vulnerability at great
distances.

Phosphorescent tablets or self-luminous

devices
They have the advantage of being able to be placed quickly, as needed, and
being independent of the vehicle's electrical supply. These devices are
presented as second-hand solutions, whose main drawback is their non-
adjustable intensity. In the same order of ideas, you can also place situation
lights with a red screen.

Luminous box
It is a case fixed to the rear of the vehicle or on the tower of a car. It has a
light source that, by transparency or reflection, illuminates letters, numbers
or signs for their recognition of desirable format (20 X 30 cm). In all cases it
is necessary to have an adjustable power supply, obtained with a rheostat
mounted on the power circuit.

If this procedure has the advantages of offering good rear and side visibility,
and zero visibility in front and above; The material is fragile and hindering.
On the other hand, reading letters, numbers or signs is only possible with
strong light intensity, which has the consequence of making the device
visible at a great distance (several hundred meters).
Permanent luminous device

The cohesion device that can give complete satisfaction is a permanent

device that consists of two lights of variable luminosity, fixed in a stable
manner on the sides and rear, to the right and left of the car or vehicle, in the
vicinity of the situation lights, combined with these and visible laterally at an
angle of 30° in their vicinity and from the rear.

The light intensity must be adjustable from inside the vehicle, thanks to a
rheostat that allows this intensity to be adapted to the level of the night and
the distance and intervals imposed by the tactical situation (fig. 1-6).

Vehicle identification can be obtained by adapting a different colored light

protection glass per Unit. The line of the two lights defines a horizontal line
that facilitates driving on all terrain. Each driver, seeing the movements or
oscillations of that line in the vehicle in front of him, can foresee accidents in
the terrain that he will have to cross.

* IMPORTANT NOTE:
It is advisable to take particular precautions in a column composed of light
vehicles and armored vehicles fitted with cohesion devices. If the armored
vehicles progress guided only by the cohesion lights of the one in front of
them, there is a risk of crushing the light vehicles interspersed in the
column.

This is why it would be convenient for all combat vehicles to be provided with
cohesion devices. It is advisable, whenever the tactical situation allows it, to
constitute elements of homogeneous march, armored or light vehicles, and
maintain sufficient distances between these elements to avoid the danger of
collision.

Night Combat Tactics #4

THE MOVEMENT ON FOOT

Basic principles:

— AVOID RUNNING.
— AVOID WALKING THROUGH THE LIGHTEST AREAS.

GENERAL RULES
A study of the terrain must be carried out to allow choosing the most
appropriate itinerary.

To avoid being seen

— Use shaded areas.

— Avoid standing out on a light background.

— Flee from the crests, remaining at all times "below the horizon line."

— Use the lowest parts of the terrain for movement, but without forgetting
that these areas are frequently guarded, mined or with traps. Therefore, it is
advisable to advance along the slope halfway up the slope, avoiding the
bottom.

— Do not use lights inappropriately.

To avoid making noise

— Choose terrain that is easy to navigate.

— Avoid passing through fences, brambles and all kinds of obstacles.

— Whenever possible, walk facing the wind.

— Take advantage of all noises to advance (shot, explosions, rockets,

columns, etc.).

— Do not scream when you trip or fall; one must know how to fall, even
painfully, in silence.

— Cough can be avoided by pressing on the nut. There are pills that ensure
the suspension of coughing for a couple of hours.
— To prevent sneezing, place the index finger, extended horizontally, on the
upper lip; Biting the lower lip also works.

— The nasal itch that announces a sneeze can disappear by rubbing the tip
of the tongue against the base of the palate.

— If, despite everything, some noise is produced, stop for a while to see if
there is an enemy reaction.

— Hedges and walls limit the spread of sound.

— The noises are muffled with the handkerchief or a cloth.

recommendations
Never walk alone at night. The couple is the minimum nucleus that should
move at night, whenever possible.

Loss case:

— Do not walk without knowing where you are going.

- Look at the time. Compare it with the departure from the last known point
or place.

— Mark on the plane a circle of radius equal to the maximum distance that
could have been traveled in this time.

— Look for clear references in that circle.

— Gain height, a high point that allows you to locate a reference. Keep in
mind that it will instinctively go downwards.

— If it is still not possible to orient yourself, walk in a known general direction

(North-South, East-West, highway). In extreme situations, look for shelter
and wait for dawn.

— Never lose your cool (nerves can cause an accident or reveal our position
to the enemy).
 INDIVIDUAL GEAR

It is called that because of the execution of the technique, not because of its
implementation, as it was already said in the previous section (
Recommendations ). that a man alone (except in exceptional circumstances)
should not move at night. It is advisable that this be done a few times during
training, so that the soldier knows the feelings of isolation, loneliness and
helplessness and can overcome them.

The silent march must be used at such a distance from the opponent that he
can detect us by ear. The enemy's best procedure to discover the attacker is
listening, so the march should be as silent as possible.

silent walking technique

* BASIC PRINCIPLE : GO-STOP-LISTEN.

a) Standing:
— The weight of the body is supported on the back foot, until a safe support
point is found for the other foot.

— The front foot should be raised quite high (in order to avoid possible
friction with grass or weeds and tripping over the cables of mines or traps),
keeping the tip of the foot higher than the rest.

— Feel with the tip of your foot to find a place free of stones or branches that
could make noise.

— Then gently settle the foot, progressively resting the weight of the body on
it, and continuing the same series of movements for the next step.

— Even when the characteristics of the terrain do not require taking all these
precautions, it is advisable to raise your feet when walking so as not to trip
over the cables of the mines or traps.

— When stopping, always reduce your silhouette.

b) On all fours:

—The weight of the body rests on the hands, forearms or elbows and knees,
or only on the hands and knees. The weapon can be carried in the hands,
hanging from the neck, between the arms or in one hand next to us (the
worst solution, since we can forget).

— It is advisable to feel the ground with your hands so as not to trip over the
cables of the mines or traps.

— This procedure is slower than STANDING, but faster than CLIMBING.

However, it has the advantage of greatly reducing the silhouette and being
able to use the touch of the hands. It makes more noise than the STANDING
procedure and less than the Crawling.

c) Crawling:

First procedure:

— In the "body on the ground" position, the forearms are supported either on
the ground or the elbows are supported with the arms semi-flexed,
supporting the body against the ground.

— Feet are placed so that they only touch the ground with their toes.
—The body is supported only on the forearms and the tips of the feet.

— In this position, and by the impulse of the feet, the body is raised, the
body is moved forward and the body is placed back on the ground. The
forearms are then moved forward and the movement is resumed after
moving the toes forward in turn.

— This procedure is the most tiring and the slowest.

— The weapon can be hung around the neck, on the forearms or held with
both hands, palms up.

Second procedure:

— While standing on the ground, bend the right leg, trying to bring the foot to
hip height, until supporting the inside of the foot and leg.

— Then lift the body, leaning on said leg and the fists (or the forearms), up
to a few centimeters from the ground.

— Advance by extending the indicated leg.

— This system is the fastest or the least tiring, but it has the disadvantage of
being the one that produces the most noise and the most visible due to the
greater amplitude of the movements.

— The weapon can be carried: hanging from the neck, held with one hand or
in the "hunter" and held with both, gripped to shoot.

The "crawling" march is used in the vicinity of the enemy, that is, from the
moment in which there is a danger of being seen by the enemy (the distance
depending on the light of the night). Added to the condition of silence, which
continues to be obligatory, is the concern of not being seen. The crawling
progress is very tiring and slow. We will try to start it as late as possible.

THE COLLECTIVE MARCH

Generalities
Each individual must follow the same rules as those indicated in the
TECHNIQUE of silent walking. When it is not a question of the progress of
an isolated individual, but of a group, a certain number of small problems
arise, especially those relating to the conservation of the marching
apparatus and silence. To solve them, a discipline and a system of signals
must be established.

a) WALKING DISCIPLINE

The link is preferably from front to back. However, a signal system must be
established (from back to front) to be able to communicate any information
very quickly.
The Chief marches with the first elements to be able to decide in each case
what he deems appropriate (change of itineraries, detour or passage of an
obstacle, attitude towards the enemy that is located, etc.), collecting for
himself the appropriate information, since that this can be deformed by the
appreciation of another and its transmission to him. The second Head of the
Unit must go from the center to the rear of the formation.

The advance in PU,s. It is advisable to do it in a row, watching all directions:

the first one looks in front and from him the others alternately to the right and
left, (e.g.: even numbers on the right and odd numbers on the left) observing
the last one backwards. It is important that the penultimate, in addition to
monitoring its assigned sector, constantly checks its link with the last. This
will constantly monitor the rear of the Unit.

Each of the individuals in the row must comply with these precepts:

1- Do not lose sight of the individual in front of you, trying to maintain the
distance indicated by the Leader, to avoid stretching the U. and the loss of
the last men.

2- Monitor the direction that the Boss has indicated.

Each individual "follows the movement of the one before him" and always
adopts the same posture and attitude. This procedure avoids having to
establish signals for every act. There must be rules of conduct to follow that,
although flexible, outline the reactions that the Unit must have in the face of
various situations that may arise.

3- When stopping, take the body-on-ground position or knees on the ground.

In this way the silhouette is reduced to avoid being seen and can be
observed better.

4- Once stopped, you must remain motionless, so that, mainly the Boss, can
hear better. It is enough for one or two of the components of the Column to
move, even slightly, to make listening difficult.

To control the Unit, its components are numbered, starting with the first to
the last, and from this the numbering returns in reverse direction to the first,
or to the Chief, who will be next to the first, in such a way that each one
repeats his number. (it is preferable to do this when the Unit is stopped).

Reduce speed on difficult or very dark terrain. When passing an obstacle,

wait until the entire Unit is assembled before starting the movement again.
Mark meeting points subject to a schedule along the itinerary in cases of
loss or forced dispersion. If possible, all individuals should know the
itinerary, referring to a schedule, and have the area through which they are
going to move memorized.

b) SIGNS

Before entering combat, silent and discreet signals are used:

— Signals with the hand, holding a phosphorescent tablet in it (in the

absence of said tablets, a luminous watch or compass).

— Light noises, clicking of the tongue, hitting a stone against the wooden
case of the weapon, etc.

— On very dark nights, a piece of rope that everyone clings to can be used
as a "linking element", using a simple signal code. For example: a pull, stop;
two pulls, from the front; three pulls, prepare to fight; etc

— It is advisable that the number of jerks, noises and movements with the
phosphorescent tablet be the same for each signal.

— Avoid whispering at all costs, they produce a rumor that can be perceived
from quite a distance.

— If possible, to emit an acoustic signal that does not alarm the enemy (if
they hear it) about our presence, imitate some animal or nocturnal bird
sound (ideally, one that would be typical of the region), but taking into
account that a bad imitation is as revealing as a conversation. The use of
claims is acceptable.

In the event that due to unforeseen circumstances it is essential to give an

order out loud, it should be done in a very low voice, if possible in the ear,
and first take the precaution of almost completely eliminating the air from the
lungs, thereby prevents involuntary hiss.

It is advisable to carry a weakly illuminated sign or tape on the back of the

backpack, which allows the person behind to see it at a greater distance
than the visibility distance (it may be the number that corresponds to the
individual).

* Important : Avoid human noises at all costs.

In the event that a Unit attacks a POSDEF. or it is likely that it could be
attacked, this luminescent signal or tape will serve as a signal to be
identified, so sometimes we are interested in using it and other times not.
But if it is not very likely to carry out this specific case of combat, the use of
this type of signals does have more advantages than disadvantages.

In the moments preceding the combat, and once it has started, simple
signals, optical or acoustic, should be used, trying to use several of these
means at the same time, since in the confusion of the combat some may go
unnoticed. These signals must be few, referring to the most likely actions to
be executed, so that they have the lowest possible probability of error.

Foggy
Fog is impossible to predict; It can appear at any time (especially in the
mountains) and paralyze us for several days. If you do not have a compass
and map (and altimeter, in the mountains) it is advisable to stop and wait for
the fog to pass.

In the fog you can see where you are stepping, but nothing more. It is in a
way the opposite of the night, in which we do not see where we are
stepping, but we do distinguish the silhouettes. If the tactical situation
requires not parking, if possible a Reconnaissance Detachment or Patrol will
be formed which, made up of the most experts and under the command of
an Officer, goes ahead to search, identify and mark the route to be followed
by the Unit. This Detachment will be linked, if possible by radio, with the
aforementioned • Unit.

All this requires reducing the speed of movement (of all types of Unit) and
shortening the distances between elements to the minimum possible. The
latter is dangerous in the event that the fog rises suddenly and you are left
exposed to enemy sights and fire. If the terrain is difficult, the pace
decreases by up to 25 or 30 percent.

OBSTACLE CLEARANCE
The problem of clearing obstacles in the vicinity of the enemy is solved at
night differently than during the day. During the day speed prevails; try to
remain detained and exposed to enemy fire for as little time as possible. At
night, however, the aim is to pass the obstacle unnoticed by the enemy.
Whenever possible it is advisable to take a short detour and avoid the
obstacle. However, there are cases in which it is necessary to pass it.

The difficulty lies in locating exactly the type of obstacles and their nature.
Here touch intervenes to complete the data obtained by sight.

* SPEED and COORDINATION are essential .

Depending on the entity of the U. Clearing an obstacle can be done in two

different ways:

—If the U. It is small (as guidance you can take the one formed by about 10
men) two groups are organized and the step is carried out in two phases:

• In the first phase, one of these groups crosses the obstacle while the rest
are prepared to protect it.
• In a second phase, the group that crossed the obstacle supports the
crossing of the second group (fig. 1-3). If you cross in pairs, do not do it
together, but separately, so that a gust or explosion does not affect both of
you.

Fig. 1-3.—Obstacle clearance by a Pn entity Unit. or patrol

—If the U. is of greater importance than the one mentioned above, the way
to overcome the obstacle may be as follows:

• To pass through a dangerous point or an obligatory Passing Point—P/P

obligatory— (bridge, clearing in a forest), stop the Unit first. Place some
weapons to support, if the enemy is discovered, the passage through this
point of the vanguard. Once the vanguard has taken positions on the other
side of the aforementioned point, and has given an agreed signal, the bulk
can pass in one or more groups protected by the vanguard and rearguard.
Finally, at another agreed signal, the rear guard crosses the point or
obstacle (fig. 1-4).
Cross a wire fence
Before passing it, you must observe it from a point such that the wire fence
stands out from the sky to be able to see it well. Then look for possible
traps:

— Loads attached to the pickets.

— Threads laid irregularly.

— Metal objects hanging from wires to produce noise, etc.

Fig. 1-4.—Obstacle clearance by a Se entity Unit. or higher

You can pass:

1. Below: taking advantage of some terrain accident:

a) On your back: sliding face up, lifting and holding the low wires with your
hands and the soles of your boots. Place the weapon on the chest, with the
bayonet in front of the face, or between the arm and the side, with the
bayonet at shoulder height.
b) Face down: crawling between the low and high wires, carrying the
weapon in one hand.

2. Above: this procedure is only used when the enemy has already realized
the attempt and it is not necessary to remain silent. Before passing,
blankets, capes, ladders, boards, sheets of uralite, etc. are placed on the
wires.

Open a gap in the fence

The following technique works for both barbed wire and barbed tape:

— Observe the fence so that it stands out against the sky and then choose
the point to pass through. — Wrap the cut point with rags.

— Cut the wires flush with the pickets, holding them with your hand so that
when they are cut they do not vibrate the fence.

— If two individuals are cutting, they must do so in the center of the pickets,
and if it is only one, they must cut along the side of a picket, holding the long
piece of wire with their left hand.

— Roll them up or secure them to the fence so that they leave a free
passage.

— Then pass gently, testing the terrain.

— If what you intend to do is a step to cross on foot, the high wires must
also be cut.

—When it is not necessary to go unnoticed by the enemy, explosive poles or

tongs are used, as during the day.

— Be careful when cutting folding or quick-type wire, because when it is in

tension between pickets or between staple and picket, it will be like a spring
when released, and it will be difficult to control it so that it does not make
noise.

— Do not open, if possible, a gap close to a horse, hedgehog, or a step in

the fence, as these are the most guarded points of the fence.
Passage of walls, palisades, cuts
—If there is no gap to slide through, it is necessary to climb them without
any noise.

— Once up, care must be taken not to get up or stay still, as the silhouette
stands out against the sky.

— If possible, keep watch for some time to try to verify the absence of an
enemy in the vicinity.

— Descend gently to the opposite side, using, if necessary, ropes and

ladders, etc.

— You should not jump. The jump produces a lot of noise and it is a human
noise.

— This obstacle presents a serious drawback: if the enemy appears when a

part of the Unit is on each side of the wall, the fraction of the U. who is on
the free side will find it difficult to support the U. faced, which will have to
resolve its situation on its own.

Trench passage or narrow passages

— Observe and listen for a long time.

— Then crawl to the very edge of the trench and look inside it.

— Remove dirt and stones that could slide or roll from the edge of the
trench.

— Make sure that the opposite side of the trench has the necessary solidity.

—Fall to the other side, adopting the body-to-ground position.

— Observe and listen again before crawling away.

Anti-tank pit passage

The same procedure as for crossing trenches, but, since these ditches are
too wide to be able to jump over, it is necessary to slide inside without
making a sound, and after having listened again, get out of the ditch and
crawl away.

Passage of a minefield
In this case, personnel mines are the only ones dangerous to a dismounted
combatant.

Test the terrain with a minesweeper stick, electronic detector or even a

machete to locate pressure mines. For traction mines, use, if possible, a
flexible rod with the tip bent, forming a 45° angle, and pass it flush with the
ground to reveal any loose cables. Instead, the tight cables should be
passed over them without touching them. Pay attention to the cables located
at a person's height. Remember that a pressure mine, when lifted, can be
anchored by a pressure relief fuze or to a traction or pressure relief mine.

When possible, even in exchange for making a long detour, avoid crossing
minefields, which is always a risky and slow operation. When it is not
necessary to go unnoticed (in the case of an attack with fire support), the
same means can be used as during the day.

Passage in the vicinity or areas of

inhabited towns
It will be necessary to go around it, if possible against the wind, since
animals, especially dogs, can give away our presence.

Passage of railway lines or roads

Do it on curves or in narrow areas, which reduce the exposure time.

Passage of open fields (discovered

places)
Hide near the edge of the area and observe it carefully. If the distance is
short, cross quickly. If the distance is great, go through groups, supporting
the group that is crossing at all times with fire.

Passage of water courses

Select a place where the creek, stream, etc., narrows or there is a possibility
of concealment on both banks. Observe the opposite shore before crossing.
Cross quickly, but with caution.

Posted by jyj5022

Night Combat Tactics #3

GUIDANCE AND REFERENCES
Orientation is one of the essential problems of night combat. The following
procedures can be used, among others:

— Lines and/or reference points.

- The compass.
- The planets.
— Perfect knowledge of the terrain (guides).
— Plans, sketches, drawings, photographs, etc.

All orientation procedures must be used simultaneously, comparing their

results. Custom makes orientation much easier and ends up constituting
something like a sixth sense.

LINES AND/OR REFERENCE POINTS

Those that have some of these characteristics are called:

— Lines marked on the ground: Highways, paths, railways, canals, streams,

fences, lines of trees, slopes, etc.

— Points that stand out on the horizon: Towers, bell towers, isolated trees,
factory chimneys, isolated houses, mountain ridges, etc.

— Easy identification points: Crossroads, bridges, isolated houses, towns,

etc.

Some of these points or lines are dangerous, because they may be

garrisoned by the enemy, mined or beaten by fire. They will be used by
drawing them from a convenient distance.

Reference Points Procedure

It requires detailed prior study and preparation. This study, depending on
the means available, can be carried out on:

— Map, which can be consulted in the itinerary, with due precautions.

— Aerial photographs.
— Relief maps.
— Model or sandbox.
— Observing the terrain during the day from a dominant point.
— Information given by patrols, natives, prisoners, etc.

The ideal would be to use all these terrain recognition systems

simultaneously. This study allows you to immediately know the terrain "as
well as possible", so that you are well oriented thanks to the reference points
recorded in your memory. You have to be able to carry a "true photograph of
the terrain" in your head. When advancing on all fours or crawling, you must
choose closer reference points than if you do so on foot. Reference points
appear on the terrain as spots on a dark background or vice versa. However,
the same reference point can change its appearance with the lighting, the
direction from which it is viewed, the prevailing weather, etc. For example, a
dirt track that appears light in dry weather will look like a dark strip after it
has rained. A wet or moonlit tar road at a certain angle will look like a bright
strip, etc.

Artificial Reference Procedure

When there are no reference points on the ground or they cannot be
identified, the following can be used, among others:

— Fire with tracer bullets.

— Rockets.
— Incendiary grenades.
— Projectors.
— Milestone (case of correct itineraries).

They have the disadvantage of losing the surprise effect when observed by
the enemy (except with the use of pulls). These artificial reference
procedures must have been established in advance. The fires are carried
out by the most advanced elements, according to these two systems:

— At the request of the acting Unit (by radio or rocket).

— By schedule set in advance.

Artificial reference procedures become true "marking beacons" that facilitate

the orientation of lost elements. It is very useful, when carrying out a night
movement or march, to plan the itinerary to follow, knowing unmistakable
and closest references to each other, in addition to knowing the directions of
the different directions to take along the aforementioned itinerary, especially
at intersections, confluences of valleys, etc., using the compass or some
orientation system.
 THE COMPASS
The compass allows you to take a direction and follow it. It is advisable, due
to the obstacles that we will encounter on the itinerary, to provide a certain
number of reference points on a route that allow orientation control. The use
of the compass must be completed with other procedures. On a night with a
"barely luminous" degree of clarity, it is impossible to take distant references;
Therefore, you will have to be constantly aware of the direction, which will
force you to reduce your speed, unless with a clear sky you can take a star
as a reference, taking into account its relative movement. The references
taken during the movement will be both at the forefront and at the rear. The
schedule is of great importance. Always write it down at the departure times
of known points, arrivals, etc.

ASTRONOMICAL PROCEDURES
The stars allow you to orient yourself quite precisely. They constitute a
means of controlling the general direction of travel, which can be combined
with the reference point procedure.

Orientation by the North Star

The North Star is not the brightest star. It is located at the end of the
constellation called Ursa Minor. Once the Big Dipper has been located, the
line that joins the two rear stars (of the four that make up the chariot) must
be extended and the distance that separates said stars measured five times.
Once this is done, we find in the Little Dipper a star of quite vivid brightness:
it is the North Star, which shows us the direction of the North. Since the Big
Dipper is not visible all year round, another constellation called Cassiopeia
must be used to locate the North Star. It is shaped like a double vee, with
one of its angles being more closed than the other. The North Star is on the
bisector of the sharpest.

Location of the South by Orion

The constellation Orion allows us to locate the South, being visible in Europe
from approximately November to April. It has a characteristic shape of a
deformed quadrilateral, whose stars (those that occupy the ends of one of
the diagonals) are brighter. Orientation by the Moon

The crescent Moon can be seen during the first part of the night. Its horns
then point in the direction of the East.

When the Moon is in the waning or waning quarter, it is visible only during
the second part of the night; The horns then mark the West. When the Moon
can be seen throughout the night, it is a full Moon. It then resembles a disk,
and it is impossible to orient yourself by means of its horns. It must be taken
into account, in this case, that the Moon rises in the East, passes through
the South, towards the middle of the night, and sets in the West. When it is a
new moon it is not visible.

Night Combat Tactics #2

OVERVIEW OF THE MOVEMENT

Movement is materialized by moving a Unit over a communication route or

terrain over more or less long distances. If in a night with a "bright" degree of
clarity and sometimes with a "poorly luminous" degree of clarity (see
Comparative Table), the visibility distance is sufficient to progress and in
general navigate, the night with a "dark" degree of clarity provides to visibility
such a restriction that it becomes difficult to progress, even on an itinerary,
and it is practically impossible to navigate on varied terrain without
assistance.

In this way, maintaining speed on board a vehicle requires, as long as

visibility is insufficient and when safety permits, the use of technical aids to
progression and navigation, such as cohesion devices, IR, beacons. of
itineraries, etc. Movement on foot suffers fewer restrictions than on board
vehicles, especially in the case of cross-country....

MASKING AND INDIVIDUAL

PREPARATION

It is decisive, due to the importance it has for the fulfillment of the mission,
that none of the components of a Unit be discovered. Therefore, before any
action, the Chief must verify, through a thorough review, that all the
components of his Unit have strictly complied with the rules given below in
relation to himself, his clothing and equipment, material and weapons, aimed
at achieving the strictest discipline of light and sound. The same precautions
will be adopted as for day combat, in addition to those specific for night.

Staff
The hands and face constitute very visible light spots; To prevent them from
standing out, they must be dyed or tarnished (cork and burnt papers, herbs,
bitumen, etc.), including the neck and part of the chest, breaking the regular
lines of the body. Even when wearing gloves, masking of the hands on both
sides should not be eliminated. As a means of circumstances, you can use
the mimetic net, raise the collar of the jacket, put on hats, etc.
 Locker room
The night fighter's clothing must be:

- Comfortable : so that the individual can move without hindrance.

- Warm : to withstand the cold and humidity during long periods of

immobility.

- Dull : Avoid using light-colored garments, such as canvas, drill, plastic

capes, etc. It is advisable to wear dark and matte clothes, dull wool or
corduroy. In snowy areas the tones should be light, preferably white, tinged
with gray. Hide all shiny objects, such as rings, wristwatches, badges,
glasses, etc.

- Silent : Discard clothes that make the most noise after being wet.

It is important to keep in mind that the helmet limits hearing and can produce
noise.

Prohibit the use of hobnailed footwear; use shoes with rubber, felt or hemp
soles, etc. Lastly, wrap it with rags. When shoes creak, the noise can be
suppressed by greasing them with any type of waste oil.

Dark gloves can be used to protect yourself from the cold, taking into
account that they insulate sufficiently, but without making it difficult to touch.
Do not carry unnecessary things in your pockets. Carry the equipment
placed in pockets and backpack, in order of priority of use, and hold the
uniform items to eliminate friction (rubber bands, ribbons, ropes, etc.).

Equipment
-It must be the essential minimum.

-It must be perfectly adapted and attached to the body, without presenting
surfaces perpendicular to the normal direction of travel, which could cause
snagging.

-Its volume should be reduced by adjusting the closure and straps to the
maximum, to prevent the movement of the different objects inside the
backpack or bag.

-All elements must be placed in order to facilitate their possible order of use
and quick use of any of them. It is advisable that the placement is always the
same.

-Prepare the metal elements so that they do not produce noise among
themselves.
-The canteen must always be full, refilling it whenever possible.

- Always carry: spare socks, slippers, rope, wire, sealed matches or wick
lighter, prepared flashlight (Be careful! can light up on its own), knife, whistle,
care package, sweater, rags, plastic bags, poncho, emergency ration and
water purification tablets.

The Command must carry:

Compass, binoculars, map holder, flashlight of various colors (NATO) and

writing utensils.

Weapons and material

-Eliminate noise from buckles, gun carriers, drumsticks, latches, etc.

-Remove shine on the weapon, material and accessories.

-Do not leave gaps between the ammunition that could be the source of
noise.

-Carry weapons ready for use; This will later avoid typical charging and
feeding noises. Also bring the material prepared for use.

-Make sure that this preparation does not prevent the use of the weapon
(assembling, removing and inserting the magazine and ejecting the cases),
and material (inserting or removing the radio antenna, etc.).

The means are verified and put into practice, which well-trained personnel
must execute "blindly", in time periods substantially equivalent to those of
the day.

MASKING AND PREPARATION OF

COLLECTIVE WEAPONS
It will be taken into account, in addition to what was said in the previous
point, that most of the scopes, goniometers and aiming pegs of these
weapons are equipped with a lighting system; Therefore, its operation will
have to be checked, checking the condition of the batteries, light bulbs and
connections.
 MASKING AND PREPARATION OF
VEHICLES
The preparatory devices for combat do not differ at night, as a whole, from
those executed during the day.

We proceed to verify and put into practice the means that well-trained
personnel must execute "blindly" in time periods substantially equivalent to
those of the day. Masking, simulation or concealment measures must be
considered against enemy surveillance with or without the help of different
types of detectors.

Certain additional precautions must be taken, always depending on the

materials provided:

- Radio: Check the switches and the placement of the covers.

- Windshields, headlights, brake lights: Remove or mask the windshields to

avoid the reflection of lunar or starlight on nights with a "bright" degree of
clarity or a more comfortable acquisition by the enemy if IR light is used. or
LV. Cover the headlight glasses with mud or similar to avoid reflection,
except on those occasions when their use is planned.

Cover the warning lights and rear brake lights with screens, except in cases
of absence of cohesion devices, to avoid relative but real glare, especially if
the following driver uses light-increasing binoculars.

- Devices to maintain cohesion: Regulate them based on the distance to be

maintained between each vehicle.

- Projectors and optics: Control the placement of materials based on the

expected lighting. Check the situation and condition of the batteries.

Night Combat Tactics #1

INTRODUCTION
Among the many factors that influence the battlefield there is one that
inevitably arises: the arrival of night. The night has normally meant the
interruption of combat. Of course it has been used for other purposes related
to it, such as: rest, movement, relief or even combat, but almost always at
the level of patrols or small units used with very specific missions: detection,
reconnaissance, etc. As for conventional combat, the night is used to
achieve surprise, hiding in the darkness, in offensive or defensive actions...

Modern detection means make available to all Arms and Echelons a wide
range of possibilities that cover their various needs and make it possible to
use night to combat.

Night action is less expensive than that carried out during the day, but much
more complex to plan and difficult to execute.

There are only 15% of nighttime hours, according to the lunar calendar, that
allow military activities, with reduced procedures, but similar to daytime
ones; Therefore, there remains 85% of hours in which the Command must
choose one or another of the following alternatives:

1- Take provisions (procedures and particular means to combat)

2- Adopt a passive attitude.

If we take into account that the second point is not viable, since it may
happen that although on our part there is no desire to actively use the night
environment, the enemy may be willing to do so, a possibility that must
always be taken into account, which will force us to foresee the first point.
We came to the conclusion of the need to prepare for combat in its
conventional and irregular varieties, both offensive and defensive, within an
almost total lack of light.

In any case, night is not the only time when there are conditions of reduced
visibility. During the day, similar conditions may occur, due to meteorological
phenomena (rain, snow, fog), which also bring with them secondary effects
that aggravate tactical conditions (ice, mud, poor propagation of radio
waves), or artificial phenomena, such as barriers. of smoke placed by us or
by the enemy. On the other hand, the glare produced by a "nuclear
explosion" may last several minutes during the day and even hours at night,
this being another phenomenon to take into account.

Given the peculiarities of night combat, the procedures will have to be

adapted to them. The first thing will be a detailed daytime instruction; Only
then can this type of combat be faced, although some aspects are common
to both, and others, especially theoretical, can be simultaneous.

Each Unit, depending on its tactical specialty, must insist on the type of
actions in which it may possibly be used. A tank unit must carry a different
specific instruction than a foot rifle unit. mechanized, although, in essence,
the mentalization of Cadres and troops is basically the same.

The main difficulties in executing a night attack are: command, maintenance

of the link, coordination in time and space and orientation. The training of the
Units (U,s), as well as the previous reconnaissance and the detailed
planning and preparations that must precede a night attack are essential
conditions for said night action to end successfully, reducing the adverse
consequences of the aforementioned difficulties.

Other Regulations, Manuals and Guidelines provide something new, in the

sense that they consider the normal nature of night combat, but they limit
themselves to stating general principles. To date, no official document has
compiled all aspects of this type of combat. .
Certainly, in the current state of equipment, many technical aids, almost
indispensable or, at least, very useful for combat without visibility, are not
available to the Units; On the other hand, it is possible that these technical
aids are damaged or neutralized by the enemy. Fighting at night is mainly a
matter of training, habit and will. Only in the event that the Cadres are fully
aware of:

1- The severity of the threat imposed by an enemy prepared and equipped

for this type of combat;

2- The advantages that the night offers with or if you help;

3- The need to prepare the troops and themselves.

The Units will be in a position to exploit the possibilities that the night offers.
We must recognize that in this aspect there is still much to do, and the first
step will be to raise awareness among all the Command Boards of the need
to seriously and urgently consider the problem as it is in reality, achieving a
degree of instruction. nocturnal in parity with the diurnal.