NATIONAL OPEN AND DISTANCE UNIVERSITY – UNAD PSYCHOPATHOLOGY IN

ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE

JANUARY 2021

NATIONAL OPEN AND DISTANCE UNIVERSITY

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY IN OLD AGE AND OLD AGE

UNIT 1- PHASE 2 - CONCEPTUAL APPROACH

PRESENTED BY:

YUBELI KATERIN LOPEZ - 1023011538

JUAN MANUEL ESPEJO CASTRO- 16790053

ANDRES FELIPE DIAZ-

GLADYS JOHANA DIAZ- 1032475735

TUTOR: YEING ALEXANDRA CARDONA CUMACO

COURSE: 403008_2

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES, ARTS AND HUMANITIES

NATIONAL OPEN AND REMOTE UNIVERSITY UNAD

JANUARY 2021

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LINK CONCEPT MAP

https://www.goconqr.com/es-ES/mindmap/28279590/psicopatolog-a-de-la-
adultez

INDIVIDUAL SUMMARY PROPOSED READINGS

YUBELI KATERIN LOPEZ

The objective of this summary is to understand the relevant Aspects around the History

of Psychopathology in adulthood and old age. And the theoretical models such as

biological, biopsychosocial, psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral and cognitive

identifying concepts and characteristics of the elderly. Adulthood is a stage of human

development that begins at age 60 and ends when the person dies, and is characterized by

being a period of great changes in all areas of functioning. However, it is necessary to say

that the conceptions of this vary according to the culture of each country, the historical

moment, and the socioeconomic class. In this way, changes at a biological level in older

adulthood are identified as "normative failures of adaptation that ultimately produce a

decline in the organism", which leads to the origin and maintenance of a number of

pathologies, among them the most common are hypertension. arterial and diabetes and

other diseases currently broken down by social confinement Quarantine given by the COVI

19 pandemic, make the elderly enter into crisis faster both physically and psychologically,

on a social level some of the events that impact life of the elderly are related to the fear of

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the loss of loved ones, retirement and with 2021 inclusion, the lack of physical-
it social

recreational activities and the decrease in social interaction, taking into account the changes

of this stage, in Nowadays, it is necessary that as future psychologists we develop effective

tools that promote the quality of life of the elderly in all its dimensions.

When analyzing the historical approach to studies in the field of psychology of old age,

we can frame different historical stages, one of them by Galvanoski, in which he talks

about adult development and aging; exposing two reasons: the first the different

formulations on development throughout life and the second emphasizes the need to

address the development and behavioral changes of human beings in old age. Carus (1808)

was the first to offer a psychological description of human development across the lifespan;

He distinguished four general periods: childhood, youth, adulthood and old age. He also

pointed out that chronological age is not a psychological determinant of development.

Until the end of the 50s and beginning of the 60s, the stage where evolutionary psychology

of the life cycle emerged and developed. This approach maintains that important

evolutionary events occur during adulthood and old age, so the study of development has to

go beyond the

first years of life and extend to the entire life cycle. The evolutionary psychology of the

life cycle is based on the following principles:

1. Development is conceived as a process that takes place throughout life, from birth to

death.

2. Development is both an expression of individual ontogenetic principles and of the

principles of historical or evolutionary change.

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3. The importance of generational effectsJANUARY

on the2021
nature of development throughout the

entire life cycle.

4. The antecedents of the life cycle approach emerged from the end of the 18th century and

were not echoed in the scientific world precisely until the 1960s, a stage that marks the

beginning of contemporary evolutionary psychology.

Erick Ericsson (1902-1994) is considered the most relevant author of the

psychoanalytic tradition that involves a reconceptualization of the evolutionary dynamics of

the human being. In his theory of psychosocial development, he identified all the stages

based on the crises of the self that he describes for each of them; He called the final phase

with the term old age and pointed out as a characteristic crisis of this stage the relationship

between the integrity of the self versus hopelessness. Developmental psychology deals with

all changes in thinking, experiences and behaviors throughout the person's entire life cycle.

Therefore, no one doubts that we can speak of a developmental psychology of adulthood.

The processes of change, however, offer different characteristics at different ages, even

though there may be common causes. Development in adulthood is marked by typical

events, typical of age: retirement, chronic illnesses, new roles, such as grandparents, family

losses or the proximity of death. The development of adulthood is, therefore, qualitatively

different from that of previous times. By studying the guidelines for descriptive

development proposed by Martin and Kliegel (2004) we will be able to get closer to

understanding such a current topic. Theories born in the context of a developmental

psychology of adulthood.

THEORIES OF NORMATIVE CRISIS Havighurst (1948/1972).

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Havighurst's conception extends JANUARY 2021 life and formulates characteristic

throughout

developmental tasks for each life phase. These are born from the game between biological

development, the social-historical context, the personality of each person and individual

goals. For the phase of adulthood, it establishes some typical tasks of the aging process, the

corresponding losses and the proximity of death. Another conception that directly

thematizes the development of adulthood is that of Peck (1959, 1968), which establishes

four stages for adulthood and three for senescence. In explaining the special challenges of

adult life, Peck proposes four problems or conflicts of adult development:

 Appreciation of wisdom versus appreciation of physical strength.

 Socialization versus sexualization in human relationships.

 Emotional flexibility versus emotional impoverishment.

 Flexibility versus mental rigidity.

Peck, on the other hand, sets three main tasks for aging:

 Body transcendence versus concern for the body.

 Differentiation of ego versus concern for work.

 Ego transcendence versus ego concern.

 A basic concept is plasticity, which defines intra-individual adaptability in psychosocial

aspects.

THEORIES ABOUT SUCCESSFUL AGING

Havighurst, Neugarten and Tobin (1964) state that optimal aging is linked to a continued

active lifestyle. Older people should prolong their usual activities as much as possible and

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look for new alternatives for those that they 2021
must interrupt due to age. Starting in the 90s,

interesting theories and studies begin to appear that are based on an approach to old age as

a vital stage; as another stage of the human experience and that can and should be

considered a positive phase of individual and social development. In the life of the human

being, there is a continuity in his development, which does not exclude certain change,

comparatively less important in the whole of his personality, than the stable one. The

changes that occur at this stage do not necessarily have to do with the changes of aging, but

rather with the change in social roles. The sociocultural, the family and the individual.

Recognizes that the typical psychological formation of this stage is the self-evaluation of

oneself and life, and that the new psychological formations are the need to transcend the

other, the elaboration of mourning and the representation of death. Old age is the destiny of

everyone, being a natural phase of the human life cycle, its development, human growth, is

the most complex level of integration and organization of the psychological processes that

intervene in the regulation of behavior in each subject and is constantly changing. and

development throughout life.

ANDRES FELIPE DIAZ RUEDA

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HISTORY OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY JANUARY 2021of Readings)

(Summary

Psychopathology is a scientific discipline whose objective is to study abnormal

behavior, disorders and the origins and nature of pathological behaviors,

Psychopathology serves as a basis for other disciplines, guiding treatment, diagnosis and

prevention processes.

In the most primitive times in which more or less complex societies of preliterary

cultures already existed, a supernatural origin was attributed to abnormal behavior. These

ideas are shared by different cultures, both pre-Hispanic and In civilizations prior to Greco-

Roman thought, among the where the Mesopotamian , Hindu , Chinese , Hebrew and

Egyptian cultures meet

Hippocrates (460-377 BC) was the first to point out the organic origin of mental

illnesses and made a classification of temperaments. According to Hippocrates, health

depended on the interaction and balance of four bodily humors (blood, yellow bile, black

bile and phlegm), proposed three categories of mental disorders: mania, melancholia and

phrenitis. Soranus of Ephesus expanded the Hippocratic classification to include hysteria

(exclusive to women, related to uterine disorders) and hypochondria.

During the Middle Ages , the conception of mental illness acquired a markedly religious

character as a consequence of the influence of the Church on most areas of daily life.

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In the Renaissance, Paracelsus (1493-1541) in2021
his book “Of the diseases that deprive

man of reason” rejected demonology and spoke of a “structure” similar to what is known

today as the unconscious in his ideas about etiology. of madness.

A central point of this historical era as far as psychopathology is concerned is the

proliferation of asylum institutions. The care centers for the mentally ill, which had already

appeared sporadically at the beginning of the 15th century

Philippe Pinel ( 1715 - 1826 ) is considered the father of modern psychiatry . He was a

defender of the anatomopathological current, which understood mental illness as the result

of anatomical, and not functional, alterations.

During the 19th century, psychopathology was constructed as a descriptive language.

This process, which begins in France and concludes in Germany, gives rise to the creation

of units of analysis that, in imitation of medicine, are also called 'signs and symptoms'

(mental).

Starting in the 20th century, there is a proliferation of various psychopathological

schools and models, the emergence of psychoanalysis , the development of

phenomenological schools, discoveries and advances in the field of psychopharmacology

and neuroscience , and the establishment of models of care. community, as well as the

disappearance of mental hospitals as reference centers for the treatment of

psychopathologies.

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THEORIES OF REGULATORY CRISIS

For Robert J. Havighurst, being a chemist and physicist, proposes characteristic

developmental tasks for each life phase. These are born from the game between biological

development, the historical-social context, the personality of each one and individual goals.

For the phase of adulthood, it establishes some typical tasks of the aging process. Some of

the tasks it proposes for the elderly are:

Adaptation to a deteriorating body, and losses,

They must be compensated with better social contacts with children and other family

members or friends.

Another essential adaptation, according to Havighurst, refers to retirement and its

consequent decrease in economic resources.

Another conception that directly addresses the development of adulthood is that of

Robert Peck, who establishes four stages for adulthood and three for senescence and

proposes four problems or conflicts of adult development:

 Appreciation of wisdom versus appreciation of physical strength.

 Socialization versus sexualization in human relationships.

 Emotional flexibility versus emotional impoverishment.

 Flexibility versus mental rigidity.

THEORY OF SUCCESSFUL AGING

Aging is in itself a process whose quality is directly related to the way a person meets

their needs throughout their entire life cycle.

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The satisfaction of people's needs is what 2021 the so-called “quality of life” and
determines

this is, in turn, what determines social well-being. Within the research of aging theories,

new theoretical concepts are being developed that provide a better understanding of old age

and its processes and the way in which people adapt to changes in a successful way. One of

these concepts is of “subjective well-being”, understood as the degree of satisfaction that

people experience when they make a global assessment or judgment about their lives.

Although calling aging successful is not the most convenient since we should take into

account the individual situation, their goals or life desires that will determine success.

Havighurst, Neugarten and Tobin (1964) state that optimal aging is linked to a continued

active lifestyle. It proposes that people should continue with their usual dynamics and

activities, be active, conscious and protagonists in their lives.

Baltes and Baltes (1989) giving shape to the constructed concept referring to the stage of

development of adulthood expose three fundamental adaptation processes that achieve

reach the satisfactory level of which it refers: the selection, optimization and

compensation

Selection: choice and formulation of goals and spaces for action

Optimization explains how to optimize the means, behaviors and resources to

achieve the proposed goals.

Compensation: refers to the recovery and maintenance of the level of functionality or the

biopsychosocial state, keeping active the resources, capacities and abilities that

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have become an important part of the individual's 2021

PARTIAL OR SPECIFIC THEORIES

These theories are better formulated since they focus on the partial field of adulthood. In

the Common-Cause theory (Baltes and Lindenberger, 1997), the relationships between

different ages and various functions are investigated and were able to demonstrate that,

after the introduction of sensory functions as a mediating variable between age and

cognitive performance, Age had no direct effect on cognitive performance. This means that,

taking into account individual differences, in sensory functions there are practically no

substantial age differences in cognitive performance capacity.

(Hultsch, Hertzog, Dixon, & Small, 1998). In the field of socio-emotional development, the

socio-emotional theory of Selectivity appears (Carstensen, 1992; Baltes and Carstensen,

1999) on the assumption that social interactions are closely related to subjective

satisfaction.

The fundamental thesis of the selectivity theory states that the person must continue to

activate their social environment, modifying and adapting it with the passage of age. There

are three reasons why social interactions must be initiated and maintained:

1) for direct regulation of emotions

2) for the development of self-concept

3) to search for information.

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Development is influenced, therefore, by social 2021
activities, roles, resources, but also by age

and historical changes and events, whether normative or not.

GLADYS JOHANA DIAZ

ADULTHOOD

Erikson's ideas:

Cultural influences that specify the rate of socially desirable development and that may

favor certain aspects of the laws of development, while detrimental to others.

It is not a stable period, it is a stage in full development; that their learning capacity does

not decrease, their experience contextualizes new knowledge and favors its understanding.

1. Changes in development are more qualitative than quantitative.

2. The importance given to the role of the person when developing their knowledge.

3. The concept of mature thinking.

4. The way each person reacts, organizes and directs their own development in response to

biological and cultural influences.

Definitions of adulthood:

Sociologically:

Person integrated into the social environment and occupying a position of recognition

(rights, freedoms and responsibilities).

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A manner, pattern, or constellation ofJANUARY 2021

behavior (or disposition toward behavior) that

appears to characterize some specific period in terms of chronological age (with the

resulting difficulty of taking into account individual differences in the pace of

development).

Psychologically:

ALLPORT, ERIKSON, MASLOW

1. Acceptance of responsibilities

Determines personality maturity, mentions: (responsible, thorough person, with full

capacity, seriousness and personal mastery. They consider adulthood as that of a mature

personality.

Huberman's Motivational Theory or Model

a) Concentration on one's own life (18-30 years): social identity through work, achieving

one's own ideology.

b) Concentration of one's own energies (30-40 years): potential, strength and energy

(Family life, professional life, upbringing, economic matters)

c) Strengthening one's own values (40-50 years): peak of the adult life cycle.

d) Maintenance of the position achieved (50-60 years): decline of physical potential, civic

and social affairs.

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e) Thinking about retirement (60-70 years):JANUARY

greater 2021
attachment to immediate rewards.

f) Increases disconnection (70 years and older), retirement and dependence on others.

Theory or Clinical Model: Erikson, Maslow and Havighurst.

Erikson distinguishes different psychosocial or psychosexual stages that support or are

interconnected with each other throughout life. Each stage carries with it a crisis in which

the subject has to face and overcome the problem, which will lead to personal growth.

a) Stage of young adulthood (18-30 years): critical anthesis of intimacy Vs isolation. (the

subject must have good relationships with others).

b) Stage of intermediate adulthood (30-60 years): generativity Vs stagnation, greater

fullness and maturity in the adult.

c) Stage of advanced age (60 years and older): integrity Vs despair, the subject perceives

the end of life

In this sense, Maslow, a humanistic psychologist, agrees with Erikson and speaks of

needs, not crises, although they maintain their satisfaction or frustration. Maslow

distinguishes two categories of needs: basic and idiosyncratic.

Havighurst distinguishes three stages of adult development, and in each one the

individual must face and overcome a series of problems or difficulties that will allow him

or her to advance in development, maturity and personal fulfillment.

a) Stage of youth (18-35 years): search for a partner, and selection of employment.

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b) Mature age (35-60 years): responsibilityJANUARY 2021

and social commitments.

c) Second maturity (60 years and older): adaptation and acceptance.

Theory or Empirical Model:

Levinson distinguishes four eras with his theory:

a) pre-adulthood (up to age 17): rapid biopsychosocial change

b) Early adulthood (17-45 years): enormous vitality, maximum potential, greater degree of

tension and stress, culminates period of development at a biological level. This is the most

important period where socially and psychologically it is a good time to materialize desires

and dreams, achieving your full personal development.

c) Middle adulthood (45-65 years): decreased physical abilities and skills, but has enough

energy for an active social and personal life. Leadership at the political, religious, scientific,

etc. level.

d) Late adulthood (65 years and older).

Summary

In this sense, Maier (1977) comments that it is the social circumstances that determine

the legal entry of an individual into an adult group, recognizing their rights and

responsibilities, thus society expecting or demanding the responsibilities that condition its

process. and development. Likewise, the sociocultural and political context determines the

recognition of adulthood. Therefore, it can be clearly inferred that the development of the

human being goes through different stages, as mentioned in the studies of Smelser and

Erikson (1983), far from being considered a stable period, such important changes and

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evolutionary processes occur, but the specific case 2021
of the stage of adulthood and old age, a

chronological order is observed that is not clearly defined but we can conclude that this

stage is also defined by the biological development determined by the years and that in turn

being an adult is also determined by certain conditions of the context. society in which the

individual develops.

Depending on the psychological success of the previous stages, a correctly integrated

personality would be achieved.

JUAN MANUEL ESPEJO

HISTORY OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY.

It begins in the 19th century, goes from being a knowledge of ideas dominated by

philosophy and outlines a path as an experimental science. On the other hand, psychiatry

initially achieves the liberation of the mentally ill, which allows it to be configured as an

independent specialty. Psychopathology will be enriched with the progress of clinical

observation provided,

THE FIGHT FOR THE FREEDOM OF THE MENTALLY ILL.

The mentally ill are often treated as a dangerous person, inspiring fear and forcing

society to defend itself against them, which led to them being locked up in "sanatorium

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hospitals", "insane houses", therapy wasJANUARY

almost2021
non-existent and only They required

bureaucratic procedures. Hence psychiatry is focused partly as a legal problem, many

people tried to improve the fate of these patients, the first were Italian doctors, who gave

humanitarian treatment to the patients, in turn countries like France and Germany

contributed.

The greatest impact for liberating the position of the mentally ill is due to Philippe Pinel

(1745-1826). He divides mental illnesses into 4 large chapters: mania, melancholy,

dementia and idiocy.

Mania: states of agitation.

Melancholy: Pictures with a single idea (monomania, obsession with a recurring idea),

sadness and mutism and tendency to suicide.

Dementia: Destruction of thought due to exhaustion.

Imbecility: Absence of mental faculties.

RESIDUES OF PHILOSOPHICAL PSYCHOLOGY.

In the 19th century, a philosophical orientation predominated, which was adopted by new

trends in the theoretical vision of mental phenomena.

a) Germany: important mark left by Kant, followed by Herbart and Loize, Wandt who

created his experimental psychology laboratory Herbart scientific rational psychology

“mechanics of consciousness” as the only support for psychic phenomena.

b) British: J stands out. Stuart (1806-1873) “mental chemistry”, H Spencer “principles of

psychology”.

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c) French T. Ribat; diseases of memory, will 2021
or personality, his disciples P.Janet and G.

Dumas.

RISE OF PARALLEL DOCTRINES

This name is given to the set of mixed systems between psychology and psychiatry,

psychopathology for the most part theoretical that translates into intense practice, main

exponents:

Mesmer (1734-1815) direct suggestive therapeutic antecedents, immediate precedent of

hypnosis and second degree techniques, a line that opened Freud, most important

contribution from a practical medical point of view, treatment of conditions within the field

of psychosomatic medicine and hysterical origin phenomena.

Lavatea (physiognomy) Knowledge of the person's character through the study of facial

features.

Gaul (phrenology) Doctrine of cerebral locations, this theory was the one with the

greatest development, interest and impact, it represents a serious and methodical attempt to

study the morphology and physiology of the brain.

INFLUENCE OF PHILOSOPHICAL PSYCHOLOGY.

In this period of psychopathology, it enriches with contributions from the biological

field, allowing the foundations of neurological and mental processes to be laid.

Physiologists of the first half of the 19th century:

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Most notable Weber and Fechner established the first basic law that explains the

relationship between stimulus intensity and response, Fechner established a mathematical

formulation.

Midcentury:

French: C.Bernard, addresses all fields of physiology.

German: E. Dubosi, initiator of modern electrophysiology, H. Helmholtz, physiology,

vision and adduction.

CONTRIBUTION OF MORPHOLOGISTS.

Schools from Spain and Italy stand out; these contributions resulted in the systematic

study of the cerebral cortex, distribution in depth and extension of various types of cells,

thus forming the maps of the cerebral cortex.

PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC DEVELOPMENT .

French : it begins with the work of Pinel, the following stand out:

Esquirol (1772-1840) modified Pinel's classification of mental illnesses, creator of

monomania.

Ferrus (1874-1861) dealt with the reform of asylums for the mentally ill, law 1838, regime

of establishments for the mentally ill.

AND. Georget (1795-1828) brain localization of mental illnesses and medico-legal

problems.

Q. Falret (174-1870) suicide, general paralysis “circular madness”.

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F. Leuret (1797-1851) psychological conception of 2021
delirium

F. Voisin (1794-1872) mental retardation.

M. de Tours (1804-1884) studies on degeneration, cannabis intoxication.

B.aillarger (1809-1873) mental retardation, I value the role of heredity.

Magnan (1835-1912) alcoholism, hereditary madness, degeneration.

German:

Reil: psychotherapeutic treatment, defense of hospital standards.

Heinroth: mental illness is an illness of the soul and loss of freedom, a sin that is

punished with the loss of the ability to speak, of free will, he introduced 36 types of mental

illness, he expressed problems with internal conflicts and contributed to the development of

psychotherapy .

W. Griesinger (1817-1868): founder of the society of medical psychology.

OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS

H Maudsley (1835-1918) representative of the somatic and anatomoclinical current,

basic work of physiology and pathology of the mind.

Rush: Liberation of the asylums

J. Jackson (1835-1811): aspects of epilepsy.

Pedro Mata y Fontane (1811-1877): first professor of legal medicine (Spain)

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Juan G. and Partagas (1836-1903), the JANUARY 2021

most prominent personality in 19th century

psychiatry, humane treatment of the mentally ill.

BEGINNING OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

H. Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) memory measurement techniques, color vision

L. Galton (1822-1911) importance of statistical studies to evaluate biological facts, his

method facilitated the development of experimental psychology.

L. Simardo (1851-1921) silver impregnation techniques for demonstration of structures of

the nervous system.

CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOPATHOLOGY.

Structuralism considers the mind as the object of study of psychology.

Functionalism, knowledge of the psyche and human behavior to the study of

consciousness.

Confessionist, phenomena of mind and behavior as processes that list networks formed by

simple interconnected units.

Gestalt, of a theoretical and experimental nature, which is dedicated to the study of

human perception.

Field theory is his way of expressing the idea that psychology should not focus on the

study of the person and the environment as if these were two pieces to be analyzed

separately, but rather we must see the way in which they affect each other. yes in real time.

Reflexological school: “reflexology is all psychic activity, it is the result of muscular

movements originating in the brain, which at the same time can act as an inhibitor of
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reflected activity. It should be said that there 2021 schools that have emerged over the
are many

years; different scientific scholars, through their research, have made many contributions to

Psychology and the formation of these schools.

DEVELOPMENT OF EXPLORATION AND TREATMENT TECHNIQUES

Electroencephalogram: Electroencephalography is a neurophysiological examination

that is based on the recording of brain bioelectric activity in basal conditions of rest, while

awake or asleep, and during various activations using electroencephalography equipment.

Psychopharmacology: Psychopharmacology is a scientific discipline that studies the

effect of drugs with special attention to cognitive, emotional/motivational and behavioral

manifestations. In this sense, it may be related to the study or pharmacological treatment of

Psychopathology.

Psychiatric Clinic: comprehensive orientation of the patient's entire life situation.

Social reality: assessment of its reality and all psychopathology problems.

Anti-psychiatry: Basically, it is questioned that psychiatry applies medical tools and

concepts improperly, "medicalizing" problems that are social in nature; that treats patients

against their will, in an overly directive and domineering manner, both in comparison to

other areas of medicine.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY. YOUR TENDENCIES.

1. Introspective school of structuralism: Psychological structuralism is a philosophical

and psychological current that considers the "structure of the mind" as the object of

study of psychology. That is, psychology would deal with the analysis of

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consciousness through its supposed JANUARY 2021 components and the way in which
elementary

these are articulated.

2. William James Functionalism: William James Functionalism is a theoretical current

that emerged in England in 1930; It asks the why and wherefore of the psychological

process and behavior. ...James assumed that every time we repeat something, our

nervous system changes so that each subsequent repetition will be easier than the

recent one.

3. Connectionism Assumptionist Psychology: In a simple and generic way, the

associationist theory can be summarized as that which proposes that knowledge is

acquired through experience, linking the sensations that the presence and interaction

produces in us with the stimuli in a mechanical way and whenever they are brought

together. a series of basic requirements known as laws of association . As new

associations are added, thought and behavior become increasingly complex, and

human behavior can be explained based on learning the links between phenomena.

4. Gestalt Psychology: It is a current of modern philosophy that has representation as its

meaning, which emerged in Germany and is based on the statement that the whole is

always more than the sum of its parts.

5. Field Theories: Field theory is a psychological theory that examines patterns of

interaction between the individual and the total field or environment. The concept

first appeared in psychology with roots in the holistic perspective of Gestalt theories.

6. Behavioral school: Behavioral psychology is a current of psychology with three

levels of scientific organization that complement and feed each other: behaviorism,

experimental analysis of behavior and behavioral engineering.

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JANUARY 2021
7. Russian reflexological school: Reflexology is the name given to a psychological

school born in Russia, which has a close relationship with physiology. In essence,

reflexology affirms that psychological processes are reducible to reflexes, that is, to

purely physiological and elemental processes.

REFERENCES

 mador, L., Marco, M. & Monreal, M. (2001). The adult: stages and considerations
for learning. Seville: Eúphoros Magazine No. 3. P. 97 – 112. Recovered from
https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=1183063

 Beleño, C. (2013). Adulthood. Retrieved from

http://www.slideshare.net/CamiloBeleo/la-adultez-24817936

 Domenech, E. (1991). Introduction to the history of Psychopathology. P. 77-156.

Retrieved from http://diposit.ub.edu/dspace/bitstream/2445/11772/2/spm45.pdf
 Izquierdo, A (2005). Developmental psychology of adulthood: Theories and
contexts. Complutense Journal of Education 16 (2). Q. 601-619. Recovered from
https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/RCED/article/viewFile/RCED0505220601A/
15990
 Triado, C & Villar F. (2014) Psychology of Old Age. Editorial alliance. P. 23-42.
Recovered from
https://elibro-net.bibliotecavirtual.unad.edu.co/es/ereader/unad/45413?page=1

 Domenech, E. (1991). Introduction to the history of Psychopathology. P. 77-156.

Retrieved from http://diposit.ub.edu/dspace/bitstream/2445/11772/2/spm45.pdf

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 NATIONAL OPEN AND DISTANCE UNIVERSITY – UNAD PSYCHOPATHOLOGY IN
ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE

 Izquierdo, A (2005). DevelopmentalJANUARY 2021 of adulthood: Theories and

psychology
contexts. Complutense Journal of Education 16 (2). Q. 601-619. Recovered from
https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/RCED/article/viewFile/RCED0505220601A/
15990
 mador, L., Marco, M. & Monreal, M. (2001). The adult: stages and considerations
for learning. Seville: Eúphoros Magazine No. 3. P. 97 – 112. Recovered from
https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=1183063
 Beleño, C. (2013). Adulthood. Retrieved from
http://www.slideshare.net/CamiloBeleo/la-adultez-24817936
 Domenech, E. (1991). Introduction to the history of Psychopathology. P. 77-156.
Retrieved from http://diposit.ub.edu/dspace/bitstream/2445/11772/2/spm45.pdf
 Izquierdo, A (2005). Developmental psychology of adulthood: Theories and
contexts. Complutense Journal of Education 16 (2). Q. 601-619. Recovered from
https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/RCED/article/viewFile/RCED0505220601A/
15990
 Triado, C & Villar F. (2014) Psychology of Old Age. Editorial alliance. P. 23-42.
Recovered from
https://elibro-net.bibliotecavirtual.unad.edu.co/es/ereader/unad/45413?page=1

 Ferrer, J. J., & Álvarez, J. c. (2009). To found bioethics: Theories and theoretical
paradigms in contemporary bioethics (2nd. ed.) pp. 297 – 309. Retrieved from
https://elibron-net.bibliotecavirtual.unad.edu.co/es/ereader/unad/47693?page=298

 Tanur, T. B., Córdova, P. V. H., & Escarela, S. M. (2007). Bioethics in medicine:

Current events and future. (AIDS, elderly, disability pp. 185- 191. Recovered from
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