Sequence of construction of a building

1. Foundation
2. Plinth
3. Plinth course
4. Sill
5. Door & window
6. Lintel
7. Floors
8. Roof
9. Parapet
10.Coping

1. Foundation

It is the lowest artificially prepared part, below the surface of the surrounding
ground, which is in direct contact with sub-starter and transmits, all the loads
to the sub-soil.

2. Plinth

It is the middle of the structure, above the surface of the surrounding ground
up to the surface of the floor, immediately above the ground.

3. Plinth course

It is top most course at plinth level which is finished flush with the surface of
ground floor.

4. Sill

It is the horizontal member comprising concrete, stone or wood to give

support to the vertical members of wooden window. It helps in shedding rain
water from face of wall.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 1|Page

 5. Door & window

Door is a frame work of wood, steel, glass. The purpose of door to give access
to the users of the structure and free movement into and outside the
structure. The door provide a good ventilation. Windows are constructed for
providing light and ventilation in the building.

6. Lintel

A horizontal member of stone, wood, brick, steel, rein forced brick, R.C.C etc
above the opening to support the masonry or load above, it is called lintel.

7. Floors

Floors are horizontal elements of a building structure which divide the building
into different levels for the purpose of creating more accommodation.

8. Roof

A root is the uppermost part of a building which is supported on structural

members and covered with a roofing material. The main function of a roof is to
enclose the building and to protect the same from the damaging effects of
weather such as rains, wind, snow etc.

9. Parapet

It is the wall built around a flat roof which acts as a protective wall for the
users of the terrace. In case of pitched roof, the parapet wall is used to conceal
to gutter at coves level.

10. Coping

The coping is covering of bricks or stones which is placed on the exposed top of
on external wall to prevent seepage of water through joints of top most course
in a wall.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 2|Page

 Masonry
a) Stretcher: A brick laid with its length parallel to the face of the wall
b) Header: A brick laid with its breadth or width parallel to the face of wall
c) Bed: The lower surface of the brick when laid flat
d) Bed joint: The horizontal layer of mortar up on which the bricks are laid
e) Perpends: The vertical joints separating the bricks in either length or
cross direction.
f) Lap: The horizontal distance between the vertical joints in successive
course.
g) Closer: A piece of brick which is used to close up the bond at the end of
brick courses.
h) Queen closer: Cutting the brick longitudinally in two equal parts

CLASSIFICTION OF MASONRY

The masonry is generally classified as follows.

1) Stone masonry
2) Brick masonry
3) Hollow block concrete masonry
4) Reinforced masonry and
5) Composite masonry

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 3|Page

 Stone Masonry
The art of building the structures with stone is called stone Masonry

Stone Masonry

STONES
• The stones that are suitable for construction of structures such as
retaining walls, abutments, dams, roads, etc. are termed as Building
Stones.
• Quarrying of Stones: Various methods which are involved in the
extraction of stones from rock beds are collectively termed as
“Quarrying of Stones.
• Dressing of Stones: Process in which surface of stone is made fit to be
used in any construction purpose.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 4|Page

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 5|Page
 a relatively shallow due to pouring of
depth form earth depth from earth magma at earth’s
surface.

are of plutonic type grained crystalline exp – basalt

exp – granite. Structure

exp - dolerite

1.2 Sedimentary Rock

• These are formed by the deposition of products of weathering on the pre-
existing rocks.

exp- gravel, sandstone, limestone, etc.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 6|Page

 1.3 Metamorphic Rock
• These rocks are formed by the change in character of the pre-existing rocks.

• The igneous rocks as well as sedimentary rocks are changing character when
they are subjected to intense heat and pressure. The pressure of change is
known as metamorphism. exp- gneiss.

• There are three agents of metamorphism namely Heat, Pressure and

Chemically acting fluids.

Stratified rocks -

Unstratified -

Foliated rocks -

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 7|Page

 Granite:

Basalt:

Limestone:
Sandstone:

Chalk:

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 8|Page

 Marble: Laterite
masonary,

Slate:
Roofing, sills,

Sl No. Parent Rock Metamorphic Rock

1. Granite Gneiss
2. Syenite Gneiss
3. Sandstone Quartzite
4. Limestone Marble, Schist
5. Marl Marble
6. Shale Slate
7. Mudstone Slate
8. Dolomite Marble
9. Dolerite, Basalt Schist
10. Felsite Schist, Slate
11. Conglomerate Gneiss

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 9|Page

 Crushing strength Resistant to fire

Water absorption

Hardness
Toughness index

BRICKS
Brick is a small rectangular block typically made of fired or sundried clay, used
in construction.

Stretcher face: the side face of the brick Header face: The end surface of the brick

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 10 | P a g e

 BRICKS
• A brick is rectangular in shape and of size that can be conveniently
handled with one hand.
• Brick may be made of burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime or of
Portland cement concrete.
• Clay bricks are commonly used since these are economical and easily
available
Size of Bricks

Weight of Brick : 3 to 3.5 Kg

Specific gravity of Brick : 1.8 to 2

Unit weight of Brick : 18 KN/M3 or 1800 Kg/M3

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 11 | P a g e

 I. Composition of Brick
1. Silica (50-60%)
• Silica prevents the cracking, shrinkage and
warping of the bricks, thereby imparts
uniform Shape to it.
• If it is in excess, it destroys cohesion
between the particles, hence bricks become
too brittle.
2. Alumina (20-30%)
• Alumina impacts plasticity to the brick
earth so that it can be easily moulded in any
designed shape.
• If it is in excess, it causes shrinkage and
warping during the drying of the bricks and
makes the bricks too hard during the working
process.
3. Lime (4-5%)
• Lime also prevents the shrinking of the bricks.
• If it is in excess, it causes the brick to melt
during the burning thereby it results in loss of
the shape of bricks.
4. Oxides of Iron (5-6%)
• Oxides of iron helps silica and lime to fuse
with each other, hence leads to the
development of strength in the bricks.
• It also imparts reddish brown colour in bricks.
• Improves impermeability.
5. Magnesia (1%)
• Magnesia also prevents the shrinkage in
bricks and imparts yellowish tint in bricks.

II. Harmful Ingredients in Brick

1. Lime Slaking:

・Slaking →volume increase →cracking & disintegration.

・Changes the colour of brick from Red to Yellow.

2. Iron Pyrites:

・Presence of the Iron Pyrites leads to crystallization and disintegration of

bricks during burning due to the oxidation of these pyrites.

3. Alkalies

・Presence of Alkalies also leads to efflorescence & staining in bricks.

4. Pebbles or Stones

Presence of stones and pebbles brick earth leads to the formation of weak and
porous bricks, load carrying capacity of which is comparatively reduced.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 12 | P a g e

 5. Organic and vegetative matter

Presence of organic & vegetative matter helps in the burning of bricks but if
they are left unburnt, it results in the formation of gases during the
decomposition, which when escapes through the body of the bricks leads to
the development of numerous voids, which results in decreasing of load
carrying capacity of bricks.

III. Manufacturing of Bricks

1. Preparation of Clay
A. Unsoiling: top 200 mm of soil is thrown
and is not as it consists of majority of
impurities in it.
B. Digging: soil is dug out and spread over
the level filed to prepare it for next
operation of cleaning.
C. Cleaning: Impurities like stones, pebbles,
organic matter, vegetation matter is
removed from the brick earth.
D. Weathering: after cleaning the clay it is
imposed to the atmosphere for few weeks to
few months for its softening, ripening and
weathering
E. Blending: It is process in which different
ingredients of bricks earth is spread over the
weathered clay in definite proportion and
mixed.
F. Tempering: Tempering is the process in which
requested degree of hardness is induced in the
brick earth to make it suitable for the next
operation of moulding.
- Tempering of the brick is done in "pug mill"

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 13 | P a g e

 - Pug mill
2. Moulding of Clay
The process of giving desired shape and size to the bricks is termed as
moulding.
➢ Steel or wood moulds are used, size of which is approximately kept to be
8-12% greater than the size of the bricks in order to account for its
shrinkage.
➢ During moulding a mark of depth 10-20 mm is placed over the surface of
the brick that is termed as frog mark, which serves following two purpose:
I. Trade name of the manufacturer.
II. If acts a key for mortar when the layer of bricks is placed over it.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 14 | P a g e

 Moulding of the bricks can be done with the help of hand or with the
help of machines.
➢ Hand moulded bricks are further of two types:
a) Ground moulded bricks
b) Table moulded bricks
✓ Qualities of table moulded bricks in comparatively better than the
quality of ground moulded bricks and its rate of moulding is also
comparatively better than ground moulded bricks.
➢ Machine moulded bricks are also of two types:
a) Plastic clay moulded bricks
b) Dry clay moulded bricks
✓ Quality of dry clay moulded bricks is also comparatively better than
plastic clay moulded bricks.

3. Drying
Moulded bricks, if are directly burnt without drying are to liable to get crack
due to excessive shrinkage, hence its drying is carried out before the burning of
pressure in which moisture content of the brick is reduced up to 2%.

4. Burning of Bricks
Burning impacts strength and hardness to the bricks, it makes them
dense and durable

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 15 | P a g e

 ➢ Burning should be done properly
• Overburnt - Brittle/easily broken
• Underburnt - Soft/unable to carry designed load
➢ Burning of the bricks is carried out at 1100°C at which silica and lime fuse
with each other thereby imparting strength to the bricks.

Burning
a) Clamps b) Kilns

Burning in Kiln Burning in Clamp

• For large scale manufacture • For small scale manufacture
• High initial cost • Low initial cost
• For continuous manufacture • Temporary setup

FIRST CLASS BRICK

1. SUPERIOR QUALITY BRICK 4. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH > 14N/mm2
2. PLASTERING NOT NEEDED 5. MIN COMP STRENGTH :10.2 N/mm2
3. WATER ABSORPTION < 20% BY WT 6. Table moulded and kiln burnt

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 16 | P a g e

 SECOND CLASS BRICK
1. COMMONLY USED BRICK

2. PLASTERING REQUIRED

3. WATER ABSORPTION < 22%

4. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH : 7.5-14N/mm2

5. GROUND MOULD KILN BURNT

THIRD CLASS BRICK

1.TEMP CONSTRUCTION USES ONLY

2.WATER ABSORPTION: 22-25%

3.COMPRESIVE STRENGTH:3.5- 7N/mm2

4.GROUND MOULD CLMP BURNT

FOURTH CLASS BRICK

1.OVERBURNT BRICKS OR JHAMA BRICK OR JHUMN BRICKS.

2.DUE TO IRREGULAR SHAPE ITS USED AS AGGREGATE IN ROAD

CONSTRUCTION.

3.COMP STRENGTH MAY BE MORE THAN 1ST CLASS OR SOMETIMES LESS

THAN 3RD CLASS BRICK.

Lime

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 17 | P a g e

 Hydrated or Slaked lime.

Lime Cycle

Constituents of Lime

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 18 | P a g e

 Types of Lime

1. Fat/ Rich/ Pure/ High calcium/white lime:

➢ The lime which is produced from relatively pure lime stone (having
percentage purity 90-95% and clay content 5 to 10%) is termed as Pure
lime/Rich Lime/ High calcium Lime.
➢ This lime slakes vigorously and its volume is in increased nearly 2-2.5
times that the original volume so called Fat Lime.
➢ This lime posses high plasticity and sets slowly, hence is generally used in
the work where strength is not required.
➢ This lime possess pure white colour, hence is generally used for finishing
work like plastering and white washing.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 19 | P a g e

 2. Hydraulic Lime/ water Lime:

➢ It is the type of lime that is produced from relatively impure Lime stone
(having percentage purity 70-90% and clay content 10-30%).
➢ This lime is capable of setting underwater on in damp condition where
there is no free circulation of air, hence is being treated as Hydraulic
Lime or Water Lime.
➢ This Lime does not show slaking and sets comparatively quickly, hence is
generally used for those works strength is required ie, masonry works.
➢ The colour of this lime is not perfectly white hence it is not used for
finishing work.

3. Poor Lime/ Impure Lime/ Lean Lime:

➢ It is the lime which is produced from relatively impure lime stone having
high percentage of impurities in it (clay content is greater than 30%).
➢ This lime does not slake, sets or hardens very slowly, posses poor
binding property, hence is generally used for inferior works like brick
walls.
➢ This lime possess muddy white colour

Functions or Uses of Lime

Concrete
Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregates (gravel and
sand) cement and water. As a construction material, concrete can be
cast in to any desired shape, and once hardened, can become a
structural (load carrying) element.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 20 | P a g e

 Concrete is a composite construction material, composed of cement
(commonly Portland cement) and other cementitious materials such as
fly ash and slag cement aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate made
of gravel or crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, plus a fine
aggregate such as sand), water and chemical admixtures.

Types of concrete:
Plain cement concrete (PCC). A weak mix of cement, fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate used for levelling and foundation Reinforced cement
concrete (RCC) A rich mix of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate
and steel used for structural elements.

Ordinary RCC works-Concrete used for general works like columns,

beams, lintels, shades, slabs and have strength between 20N/mm to
35N/mm (M20 to M35) The steel used in RCC are ordinary steel
available in open market like mild steel and fore steel (Fe250 to F6550).
Prestressed concrete: This is a special type of concrete having very high
strength and specially manufactured steel This is used for large span
and heavy loading under special circumstances. The strength of
concrete ranges between 35N/mm² to 100N/mm (m35 to M100). The
steel used are of very high tensile strength of 1250N/mm² and more
available in different forms like cable, tendons, strands etc. Mix
proportioning: The concrete is proportioned by two methods

1) Volume batching measured on the basis of volume.

2) weight batching-Materials mixed on the basis of weight.

Cement Concrete
Most engineering construction uses cement concrete composites as the
main building material. It consists of cement, sand, brick chips, or stone
chips of the required size. The usual proportion is 1:2:4 or 1:3:6. After
mixing the required amounts of concrete materials, the mix is cured with
water for 28 days for proper strength building.

Cement concrete is a versatile construction material with a wide range of

applications. It can be used in structural applications such as beams,
columns, slabs, and foundations. It can also be used in non-structural

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 21 | P a g e

 applications such as paving, curbing, and landscaping. Cement concrete
is also a popular choice for precast applications such as pipes, paving
stones, and sewer systems.

The main advantages of cement concrete are its strength, durability, and
fire resistance. It is also relatively low maintenance and can be easily
repaired if damaged. However, cement concrete is a relatively heavy
material and can be difficult to work with. It is also susceptible to
cracking and can be damaged by extreme weather conditions.

Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)

A concrete which has Steel fibres or rods embedded in it is called
reinforced cement concrete. Concrete is strong in compression and
weak in tension tensile strength is enhanced by placing reinforcing fibres
or steel in appropriate positions. It is RCC commonly used in civil
engineering structural element like slab beams columns etc.

Ingredients of Reinforced Cement Concrete

• Cement

• Fine aggregate

• Coarse aggregate

• Water

• Steal

Ingredients of Cement
• Limestone

• Clay

• Gypsum

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 22 | P a g e

 The various properties of cement are:
1. Fineness- It gives the idea about the grain size of cement. (it should be less
than 90 micron-90/1000 millimetre).

2. Setting Cement forms a paste when mixed with the required quantity of
water. It behaves like plastic in the initial stage and can be moulded into any
desired shape. Gradually it loses its plasticity and acquires a solid state. Setting
is the process of gradual achievement of binding property of the materials. It is
the transformation from plastic state to solid state. Initial setting time - The
time allowed for the cement to start setting. This should not be less than 30
minutes. This time is allowed for the mixing placing compacting and finishing of
the green concrete without losing the strength. Final setting time-This is the
time elapsed between the addition of water and the finally set concrete.

3. Hardening- It is the ultimate gain of the designed strength in the required

environmental conditions.

4. Compressive strength - It is the capacity of concrete to resist compressive

force.

5. Soundness

6. Consistency

7. Heat of hydration

8. Specific gravity

Different types of Cements:

Ordinary Portland Cement Portland pozzolana cement Air entraining cement

Rapid hardening cement Low heat cement Calcium chloride cement

High alumina cement Quick setting cement Water repellent cement

Super sulphated cement Masonry cement Water proof cement

Sulphate resisting cement White and coloured cement Blast furnace slag cement

Portland slag cement

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 23 | P a g e

 Fine Aggregate
It is the natural or artificial material obtained from disintegration of rocks. Its
grain size is limited from 150micron to 4750microns (0.15mm to 4.75mm). It
gives strength to the matrix and fills the voids and reduces shrinkage.

Various Types of Fine Aggregate:

1. Pit sand

2. Sea Sand

3. River Sand

4. Manufactured sand (M sand)

Properties of Fine Aggregate:

1.Fineness modulus - the numerical number indicating the gradation of
particles

2. Specific gravity

3. Bulking of fine aggregate

4. Void ratio

5. Porosity

6. Unit weight

Coarse Aggregate
It is the natural or artificial material obtained from disintegration of rocks. Its
grain size is limited from 4.75mm to 50 mm. It gives strength to the mix and
fills the voids and reduces shrinkage.

Construction aggregate, or simply "aggregate", is a broad category of coarse

particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed
stone, slag. recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are
component of reinforced concrete and asphalt concrete.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 24 | P a g e

 Coarse Aggregate consists of naturally occurring stones (crushed, uncrushed or
broken). It should be hard, strong, dense, durable, and clean. It should be
roughly cubical in shape.

Characteristics of a good Coarse Aggregate:

1. Coarse aggregate should be clean, hard, non-porous, free from lumps of clay
and vegetable matter.

2 Water absorption of aggregate is not more than 10% of its weight after 24
hours of

3. Angular and roughly cubicle particles are ideal.

4. Aggregate should be chemically inert material.

5. Aggregates should be well graded with all sizes of particles permitted.

Properties of coarse aggregate:

1. Bulk density

2. Void ratio

3. Specific gravity

4. Aggregate crushing value

5. Impact value

6. Water absorption

WATER:
Water has an important role in the preparation of concrete. The chemical
reaction called hydration takes only in the presence of water. Cement in its dry
form has no reactive power but when water is added the chemical reaction
starts and generates setting action and bonding Water used for the
preparation of concrete and other cement paste shall satisfy standard qualities
Water acts as a lubricating of fluxing agent. The water serves the following
purpose

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 25 | P a g e

 1. To wet the surface of aggregates

2. To impart workability to concrete

3. Water is also needed for the hydration of the cementing materials to set and
harden during the period of curing shape. Workability, easiness to mix and
place the concrete in the desired position and Water cement ratio: It is ratio
between the weight of water and weight of cement. It varies between 0.4 to
0.8.

Example: What is the quantity of water required for a W/C ratio 0.55 for a bag
of cement. Water Cement ratio = Weight of water/weight of cement Weight of
water =0.55 x 50 = 27.5 Kg = 27.5 litres.

Sl No. Volume mix I S mix Uses

1. 1:5:10 M5 Flooring, PCC and drainage concreting
1:4:8 M7.5
1:3:6 M10
2. 1:2:4 M20 All RCC works
1:1½:3 M25
1:1:2 M30
3. M35 to 100 Prestressed concrete works

Functions of concrete and steel in RCC:

The two major ingredients in RCC are concrete and steel. Concrete is a material
capable of resisting high compression but very weak in resisting tension. Hance
in RCC structures concrete is provided in areas of compressive stress and steel
is provided in areas of both compression and tension. The other properties of
concrete and steel like shear, coefficient of thermal expansion and bond are
mutually agreeable.

Steel has an expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of concrete Although

steel rods have ribs that binds it mechanically to the concrete, it can still be
pulled out of the concrete under high stresses. To prevent such a failure, rebar
is either deeply embedded into structural members (40-60 times the
diameter), or bent and hooked at the ends to lock it around the concrete.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 26 | P a g e

 Characteristics of Concrete:
1.Strength and Durability 5. Fire-resistance
2.Versatility 6. Thermal mass
3. Low maintenance 7. Locally available
4. Affordability. 8. Eco friendly

Properties of Fresh Concrete:

1. Setting

2. Workability

3. Bleeding and Segregation

4. Hydration

5. Air Entrainment

Properties of Hardened Concrete:

1. Strength gain of concrete

2. Concrete Creep

3. Shrinkage

4. Modulus of Elasticity

5. Water tightness (impermeability)

STEEL
Reinforcing Steel is a material used in concrete. The function of steel is to resist
tension, compression, shear and torsion in structures The high strength of steel
to resist these stresses reduce the volume of steel in RCC and also the volume
of concrete in structural elements. The co-efficient of thermal expansion of
these two materials are combatable which enables the combined use of them
It is usually formed from carbon steel, and is given ribs for better mechanical
anchoring into the concrete.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 27 | P a g e

 SITE VISIT

REPORT
Name of Site: Construction of Dreams Mall

Date of Visit: 22 May 2023

Name of Contractor: Uralungal labour contract co-operative society ltd.

Constructions.

Objective of Visit: To understand the working procedure of construction site.

Organised by: Technosol Consultant, Kollam

Branch Co-ordinator: Mr. KHALEEL & Mr. JOY ASHOK

Faculty in Charge: Miss. UTHARA P RAJ

Site Engineer: Mr. VISHNU

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 28 | P a g e

 Introduction
The visit to the construction site at Kottiyam Dream mall was conducted by
Technosol Consultant, Kollam. On Monday, 22 May 2023 students from first
year Civil Engineering were taken to the construction site of Kottiyam Dream
mall for observing and understanding the construction practices on the site for
minimizing the gap between construction practices and academics for the
students. This visit has scheduled between 10am to 12.30pm. Students were
allowed to observe the functioning of each construction activity and their
queries were also answered by the site engineer during the visit.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 29 | P a g e

 Brief report on Construction Site
During the site visit the site engineer has been explained that there will be 32
apartments units as part of the Dreams mall project by Desinganad Rapid
Development & Assistance Cooperative society. They plan to develop
Commercial cum Residential project at Kottiyam. Total plot area of the project
is 0.8722 Ha and total built up area is 23071 Sqm. The project involves the
construction of 32 residential apartments with shopping mall area, multiplex
with supporting infrastructure facilities with 65 crores as project expenditure.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 30 | P a g e

 Communication Skills In English
He will be whistling - അവൻ ചൂളം വിളിച്ചുക ൊണ്ടിരിക്കം

She writes - അവൾ എഴകതകന്നക

She wrote - അവൾ എഴകതി

She will write - അവൾ എഴകതകം

She is writing - അവൾ എഴകതികക്ൊണ്ടിരിക്കന്നക

She was writing - അവൾ എഴകതികക്ൊണ്ടിരിക്ക യൊയിരകന്നക

She will be writing - അവൾ എഴകതികക്ൊണ്ടിരിക്കം

She stitches - അവൾ തകന്നകന്നക

She stitched - അവൾ തകന്നി

She will stitch - അവൾ തകന്നകം

She is stitching - അവൾ തകന്നി ക ൊണ്ടിരിക്കന്നക

She was stitching - അവൾ തകന്നികക്ൊണ്ടിരിക്ക യൊയിരകന്നക

She will be stitching - അവൾ തകന്നികക്ൊണ്ടിരിക്കം

It plays - അത് ളിക്കന്നക

It played - അത് ളിച്ചു

It will play - അത് ളിക്കം

It is playing - അത് ളിച്ചുക ൊണ്ടിരിക്കന്നക

It was playing - അത് ളിയ്ക്ക്ക യൊയിരകന്നക

It will be playing - അത് ളിച്ചുക ൊണ്ടിരിക്കം

It rains - മഴ കെയ്യുന്നക

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 31 | P a g e

 It rained - മഴ കെയ്ക്തക

It will rain - മഴ കെയ്യും

It is raining - മഴ കെയ്ക്തകക ൊണ്ടിരിക്കന്നക

It was raining - മഴ കെയ്ക്തകക ൊണ്ടിരിക്ക യൊയിരകന്നക

It will be raining - മഴ കെയ്ക്തക ക ൊണ്ടിരിക്കം

They sing - അവർ െൊടകന്നക

They sang - അവർ െൊടി

They will sing - അവർ െൊടകം

They are singing - അവർ െൊടക യൊണ്

They were singing - അവർ െൊടികക്ൊണ്ടിരിക്ക യൊയിരകന്നക

They will be singing - അവർ െൊടികക്ൊണ്ടിരിക്കം

They smile - അവർ മന്ദഹസിക്കന്നക

They smiled - അവർ മന്ദഹസിച്ചു

They will smile - അവർ മന്ദഹസിക്കം

They are smiling - അവർ മന്ദഹസിച്ചു ക ൊണ്ടിരിക്കന്നക

They were smiling - അവർ മന്ദഹസിച്ചുക ൊണ്ടിരിക്ക യൊയിരകന്നക.

They will be smiling - അവർ മന്ദഹസിച്ചുക ൊണ്ടിരിക്കം.

We play - ഞങ്ങൾ ളിക്കന്നക.

We played - ഞങ്ങൾ ളിച്ചു.

We will play - ഞങ്ങൾ ളിക്കം.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 32 | P a g e

 More questions
ഇംഗ്ലീഷിൽ സംഭൊഷണം നടത്തകമ്പൊൾ മ്ചൊദ്യങ്ങൾ
മ്ചൊദ്ിക്കവൊനൊണ് െലർക്കം ബകദ്ധിമകട്ട് അനകഭവകെടകന്നത്.
മ്ചൊദ്യങ്ങളിൽ ഉെമ്യൊഗിമ്ക്ണ്ട സഹൊയക് ിയ ൾ വയക്തമൊയി
മനസ്സിലൊക്ക . ഇത് ഉെമ്യൊഗിച്ച് െരിശീലിക്ൊൻ നിരവധി
മ്ചൊദ്യങ്ങൾ തൊകഴ നൽ കന്നക. ഓമ്രൊ മ്ചൊദ്യത്തിമ്ലയകം
സഹൊയക് ിയ ൾ അടിവരയിട്ടിരിക്കന്നക. അവ സക്ശദ്ധം മനസ്സിലൊക്ി
മ്ചൊദ്യത്തിന്കെ യഥൊർത്ഥ ഘടന മനസ്സിലൊക്ക . മ്ചൊദ്യങ്ങളുകടയകം
ഉത്തരങ്ങളുകടയകം ഘടന മനസ്സിലൊക്കന്നതിന് മൊക്തമൊണ് ഇവ
നൽ കന്നത്. ഇവ െരിശീലിക്കമ്പൊൾ വിവിധതരത്തിലകള്ള
മ്ചൊദ്യങ്ങൾ അനൊയൊമ്സന ഉെമ്യൊഗിക്കവൊൻ ഴിയകന്നക. ഒരക
നിശ്ചിത അർത്ഥം ലഭിക്കന്നതിന് ക്െസ്തൊവന ളിൽ ഉെമ്യൊഗിക്കന്ന
സഹൊയ ക് ിയ ൾ തകന്നയൊണ് സമൊന അർത്ഥം ലഭിക്ൊൻ
മ്ചൊദ്യങ്ങളിലകം ഉെമ്യൊഗിക്കന്നത്.

1.What is he?

He is a teacher.

2.What is his name?

His name is Ravi.

3.What are you?

I am a student.

4.What are they?

They are students.

5.Which college are they from?

They are from SN College.

6.Where is her office?

Her office at Kollam.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 33 | P a g e

 SOME PREPOSITIONS
In front of the post office - മ്െൊസ്റ്റ് ഓഫീസിന് മകപിൽ

Behind the post office - മ്െൊസ്റ്റ് ഓഫീസിന് െിെ ിൽ

Near the bank - ബൊങ്കിന് അടകത്ത്

In the hall - ഹൊളിൽ

With knife – ത്തിക ൊണ്ട്

With Rajesh - രൊമ്േഷിന്കെ ൂകട

Without fear – ഭയമിലലൊകത

Across the road - മ്െൊഡിന് കെകക

Along the road - മ്െൊഡിൽ ൂകട

From the school - സ് ൂളിൽനിന്ന്

To school – സ് ൂളിമ്ലക്്

Into the hall - ഹൊളിൻ ഉള്ളിമ്ലക്്

Upon the horseback – കതിരെുെമ്ത്തക്്

Through the window - േനലിൽ ൂടി

Beside the bank - ബൊങ്കിന്കെ സസഡിൽ

On the table - മ്മശയകകട മക ളിൽ

Under the table - മ്മശയകകട അടിയിൽ

Between the tables - മ്മശ ൾക്് ഇടയിൽ (രണ്ടിനിടയിൽ)

Among the tables - മ്മശ ൾക്ിടയിൽ (രണ്ടിലധി ം)

At 6 o’ clock - 6 മണിക്്

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 34 | P a g e

 സഹൊയ ക് ിയ ൾ

ഇംഗ്ലീഷികല ഏറ്റവകം ക്െധൊനകെട്ട ഒരക വിഭൊഗമൊണ്

സഹൊയ ക് ിയ ൾ, സഹൊയ മി യ ളുകട ഉെമ്യൊഗം
മനസ്സിലൊക്ിയൊൽ മൊക്തം സവന്തമൊയി വൊ യങ്ങൾ ഉണ്ടൊക്ി
ക്െമ്യൊഗിക്ൊൻ ഴിയൂ. Main verb ൾക്്
അർത്ഥവയതയൊസമകണ്ടൊക്ൊനൊണ് Supporting verb at ഉെമ്യൊ
ഗിക്കന്നത്. ഇവൊ മ്െൊ ക എന്ന വൊക്് ചിലമ്െൊൾ മ്െൊ കം,
മ്െൊ ണം, മ്െൊ ൊൻ ഴിയകം, മ്െൊവക യൊണ് എന്നിങ്ങകന െല
രൂെത്തിൽ ഉെമ്യൊഗിമ്ക്ണ്ടിവരകന്നക. verb ൾ ഉെമ്യൊഗിച്ചൊണ്
അർത്ഥവയതയൊസം ഉണ്ടൊക്കന്നത്.

ഇംഗ്ലീഷിൽ Supporting verb ൾ ഉെമ്യൊഗിച്ചൊണ് അർദ്ധവയതയൊസം

ഉണ്ടൊ കന്നത്.

സഹൊയ ക് ിയ ൾ ക്െധൊനക് ിയ ളുകട മകൻെിലൊണ് കെൊതകകവ

വരകന്നത്. കനഗറ്റീവ്

അർത്ഥങ്ങൾ ലഭിക്കവൊൻ സഹൊയ ക് ിയ ളുകടയകം main verb

ന്കെയകം ഇടയിൽ not എന്ന െദ്ം മ്ചർക്കന്നക മ്ചൊദ്യങ്ങൾ
ഉണ്ടൊക്ൊൻ സഹൊയ മിയ വൊ യത്തിന്കെ ആദ്യം മ്ചർക്കന്നക.
Supporting verb കള 3 വിഭൊഗങ്ങളൊയി തിരിച്ചിരിക്കന്നക ഇവയിൽ
ഒന്നൊമകത്ത വിഭൊഗം main verb ന്കെ base form കനൊെം
ഉെമ്യൊഗിക്ണം.

തൊകഴ െെയകന്നവ ഈ വിഭൊഗത്തിൽകെടകന്ന can, could, will, would,

may, might, should, must തകടങ്ങിയവ.രണ്ടൊമകത്ത വിഭൊഗം
Supporting verb ൾ be എന്ന െദ്ത്തിൽ നിന്ന് ഉണ്ടൊ കന്നവയൊണ്.
ഇവMain verb ന്കെ ing, രൂെമ്ത്തൊകടൊെം ഉെമ്യൊഗിക്ണം Is, am,
are/was, were/ will be/ may be/ should be agama. മൂന്നൊമകത്ത
വിഭൊഗം Supporting verb ൾ ve എന്ന െദ്ത്തിൽ നിന്നകണ്ടൊ
കന്നവയൊണ്. Main verb ന്കെ past participle കനൊെമൊണ് ഇവ
ഉെമ്യൊഗിക്കന്നത്.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 35 | P a g e

 Examples:
Can

*I can speak English - എനിക്് ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് സംസൊരിക്ൊൻ ഴിയകം

*I can drive the car - എനിക്് ൊമ്െൊടിക്ൊൻ ഴിയകം

Will

*I will come in the evening - ഞൊൻ സവ കമ്ന്നരം വരകം

*I will pay the fee tomorrow - ഞൊൻ നൊകള ഫീസ് അടക്കം

Should / Must

*You should help me - നീ എകന്ന സഹൊയിക്ണം

*You must consult a doctor - നീ നിർബന്ധമൊയകം മ്ഡൊക്ടെികന

ൊണണം

Have to

*I have to write a letter - എനിക്് കത്തഴകതൊൻ ഉണ്ട്

*I have to study - എനിക്് െഠിക്ൊൻ ഒണ്ട്

Used to

*I used to play cricket - ഞൊൻ ക് ിക്റ്റ് ളിക്ൊെകണ്ടൊയിരകന്നക

*We used to go there - ഞങ്ങൾ അവികട മ്െൊ ൊെകണ്ടൊയിരകന്നക

Is, Am, Are

*He is a student - അവൻ വിദ്യൊർത്ഥിയൊണ്

*He is sleeping - അയൊൾ ഉെങ്ങക യൊണ്

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 36 | P a g e

 Was / were

*He was sleeping - അവൻ ഉെങ്ങക യൊയിരകന്നക

*I was studying - ഞൊൻ െഠിക്ക യൊയിരകന്നക

CLASSROOM SENTENCES

• Bring your note book

• Don’t soil your uniform
• Don’t move your hand
• Don’t lift the desk
• Don’t disturb me
• Clear your doubt now itself
• Don’t tease the animals
• Count the cash
• Don’t take medicine
• All of you sit in line
• Please go and light the lamp
• Is there enough oil in it
• Extend the wicks
• Who is reciting prayer song
• All of you recite together
• All of you look forward
• Why are you looking back

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 37 | P a g e

 SURVEYING

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 38 | P a g e

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 39 | P a g e
CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 40 | P a g e
CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 41 | P a g e
CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 42 | P a g e
CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 43 | P a g e
 Area and Volume

INVESTIGATION OF ROAD PROJECT

Objective Of Road Investigation:
To locate the alignment of a road which provides maximum transportation
facilities with minimum cost of construction and maintenance.

It is mainly done in following stages:

• Map Study

• Reconnaissance Survey

• Preliminary Survey

• Location

NAGPUR CLASSIFICATION
In Nagpur road classification, all roads were classified into five
categories as,
1. National highways

2. State highways

3. Major district roads

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 44 | P a g e

 4. Other district roads

5. Village roads.

IRC 73 is concerned with the design of rural highways.

NATIONAL HIGHWAYS
• They are main highways running through the length and breadth of India
connecting major ports, foreign highways, capitals of large states and large
industrial and tourist centres including roads required for strategic
movements.

• It was recommended by Jaykar committee that the National highways should

be the frame on which the entire road communication should be based.

• All the national highways are assigned the respective numbers.

• They are constructed and maintained by CPWD (Central Public Works

Department).

• The total length of National highway in the country is 1,40,937 Kms, and
constitute about 2% of total road networks of India and carry 40% of total
traffic.

STATE HIGHWAYS
• They are the arterial roads of a state, connecting up with the national
highways of adjacent states, district head quarters and important cities within
the state.

• They also serve as main arteries to and from district roads.

• Total length of all SH in the country is 176166 Kms.

• Major district roads: Important roads with in a district serving areas of

production and markets, connecting those with each other or with the major
highways. India has a total of 4,70,000 kms of MDR.

• Other district roads: Roads serving rural areas of production and providing
them with outlet to market centres or other important roads like MDR or SH.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 45 | P a g e

 • Village roads: They are roads connecting villages or group of villages with
each other or to the nearest road of a higher category like ODR or MDR.

SOME IMPORTANT DATA

FACTORS AFFECTING GEOMETRIC DESIGN

1. TYPE OF ROADS
1. Rural roads –

➢ National highways (joins various states)

➢ Expressways (speed upto 120km/h)
➢ State highways (joins various districts)
➢ Major district roads (joins area of population)
➢ Other district roads (joins rural areas to market place)
➢ Village roads (joins various villages)

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 46 | P a g e

 2. TYPE OF VEHICLE
➢ The vehicle for which road elements are designed is called DESIGN
VEHICLE.
➢ The length, width and height of design vehicle are used as design
parameters for the roads.
➢ Width of non-transport vehicle = 2.5m
➢ Width of transport vehicle = 2.7m
➢ Height of double decker bus = 4.75m

3. TOPOGRAPHY
➢ The next important factor that affects the geometric design is the
topography.
➢ It is easier to construct roads with required standards for a plain terrain.
➢ It is classified on the basis of general country slope across the road
alignment.
➢ It is generally expressed as 1 in n or x%

Country Slope Class

0-10% Plain
10- 25% Rolling
25-60% Mountainous
> 60 % Steep

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 47 | P a g e

 4. DESIGN SPEED
➢ It is decided theoretically as the 98th percentile speed, that is the speed
at or below which 98% vehicles are moving.
➢ From economical point of view, IRC has limited the design speed on the
basis of topography.
➢ Ruling speed should be the guiding criteria, however minimum speed
can be adopted in localized sections where cost considerations does not
permit ruling speed.

Types of Road Ruling Speed Minimum Speed

Expressway 120 km/h 100 km/h
NH/SH 100 km/h 80 km/h

6. SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS
➢ Unevenness index -

• It is a cumulative measure of vertical undulations of pavement per

unit length of the road.
• It is measured using BUMP INTEGRATOR.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 48 | P a g e

 CLASSIFICATION OF ROAD SURFACE
• According To Unevenness Index

TYPE OF SURFACE UNEVENNESS INDEX

Good surface <1500mm per km

Satisfactory surface upto 2500mm per km (for speed

upto 100km/h)

Unsatisfactory surface >3200mm per km (for speed upto

55km/h)

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
• According To Traffic Volume
TYPE OF ROADS VEHICLES PER DAY

Very heavy traffic roads >600

Heavy traffic roads 251 – 600

Medium traffic roads 70 – 250

Light traffic roads <70

HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

1.Carriageway

2.Shoulder

3.Kerbs

4.Median

5.Road margin

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 49 | P a g e

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 50 | P a g e
 HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
1. CARRIAGEWAY: It carries traffic
TYPE OF ROAD WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY

Single Lane 3.75m

Dual lane (no kerb) 7m

Dual lane (with raised kerb) 7.5m

Multi lane 3.5m per lane

Intermediate lane 5.5m

2. SHOULDER
➢ Shoulder are provided to accommodate stopped vehicles and to provide
lateral confinement to the pavement layers.
➢ Desirable width of shoulder is 4.5m with a minimum of 2.5m on a two
lane rural highway.

3. KERBS
➢ It indicates the boundary between pavement and shoulder or footpath
or median.

4. MEDIAN
➢ The process of median is to prevent head on collision of vehicles.
➢ It is also known as 'traffic separator'.
➢ Minimum desirable width for rural highway is 5m and if lane width is
restricted then the value maybe reduced to 3m.
➢ Width of median for bridges should be between 1.2m - 1.5m.
➢ Transition in median should be 1 in 20 (milder) and 1 in 15 (steeper).

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 51 | P a g e

 5. ROAD MARGINS
➢ The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can
be generally called road margin.
➢ Various elements of road margin are bus bays and service roads, cycle
track, footpath and guard rails.

SUPER ELEVATION
• Super-elevation or cant is the transverse slope provided at horizontal
curve to counteract the centrifugal force, by raising the outer edge of
the pavement with respect to the inner edge, throughout the length of
the horizontal curve.
• When the outer edge is raised, a component of the curve weight will be
complimented in counteracting the effect of centrifugal force.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 52 | P a g e

 GUIDE LINES FOR PROVIDING SUPER ELEVATION
❖ MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM SUPERELEVATION
▪ Depends on
(a) slow moving vehicle
(b) heavy loaded trucks with high CG.
▪ IRC specifies a maximum super-elevation of 7 percent for plain and
rolling terrain, while that of hilly terrain is 10 percent and urban road
is 4 percent.
▪ The minimum super elevation is 2-4 percent for drainage purpose,
especially for large radius of the horizontal curve.

IRC RECOMMENDATION
TYPE OF TERRAIN MAXIMUM SUPERELEVATION

Plain and rolling terrain 7%

Hill roads 10%

Urban road stretches 4%

EXTRA WIDENING OF CURVES

❖ Extra widening refers to the additional width of carriageway that is
required on a curved section of a road over and above that required on a
straight alignment.
❖ This widening is done due to two reasons:
• the first and most important is the additional width required for a
vehicle taking a horizontal curve, referred as the mechanical
widening.
• the second is due to the tendency of the drivers to ply away from
the edge of the carriageway as they drive on a curve, referred as
the psychological widening.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 53 | P a g e

 COMPARISON OF BITUMEN AND TAR
BITUMEN TAR

1. Petroleum biproduct. 1. Destructive distillation of coal and wood.

2. Pure bitumen is completely soluble 2. Tar is only soluble in toluene.

in CCl4 or CS2.

3. Superior durability and water 3. Low quality.

resisting capacity.

4. Less temperature susceptible. 4. More temperature susceptible.

5. Less free carbon. 5. More free carbon.

TYPES OF PAVEMENT
On the basis of structural behaviour, they can be classified as;

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
• Seal Coat: For impermeability and better skid resistance (high viscosity)
• Tack Coat- For Bonding between two layers (bitumen emulsified in
water)
• Prime Coat: For plugging the voids of Base course (bitumen emulsified in
kerosene, to reduce viscosity)

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 54 | P a g e

 • The pavement layer thickness is decided in such a way that the stresses
in each layer does not exceed its maximum permissible value.
• In flexible pavements any deformation in the bottom layer is reflected
on the top layers.

FAILURE OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

• IRC considers only Fatigue cracking and Rutting due to subgrade
deformation.
• To control Fatigue Cracking, we limit Tensile strain at the bottom of
surface.
• To control Rutting, we limit the axial compressive strain at the top of
subgrade.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 55 | P a g e

 RIGID PAVEMENT
• Rigid pavements are those which possess worthy flexural strength.
• The rigid pavement transmit the wheel load stresses through a wider
area below by the slab action. The rigid pavements are made of portland
cement concrete.
• The plain cement concrete slabs are expected to take up about 40
kg/cm2 flexural stress.
• Joints are also used in the construction of rigid pavement and has high
completion cost but low maintenance cost.
• IRC-58: 2012 DESIGN CODE OF RIGID PAVEMENT is used

Portland Cement Concrete (150-300mm)

Base/Subbase (100-300mm)
Soll Subgrade
PAVEMENT DESIGN
• For pavement design, only vehicles having significantly heavy loads are
considered, i.e., generally Commercial Vehicles.
• As per IRC, vehicles having load greater than 3 tonnes are called as
Commercial Vehicles and only these vehicles are considered in design
calculations.

Centre Line for 2 Lane Road

• On roads with less than four lanes or on those roads having four lanes
and on which parking is permitted thus reducing the operational width,
the centre lines shall consist of single broken line 150mm wide of 3 m
long segments with 4.5 m gaps. On curves and approaches to
intersections, the gap shall be 3 meters as shown
• The colour of the centre line shall be yellow.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 56 | P a g e

 Centre Line Marking For Four Lane Road
• On undivided roads with at least two traffic lanes in each direction, the
centre line marking shall consist of a single solid continuous line of 150
mm wide with lane markings of 1.5 m segments and 3 m gaps as shown
in Fig. and gaps on curved reaches and approaches to intersection shall
be 1.5 m long. The colour of the centre line shall be yellow.

Centre Line Marking For Six Lane Road

The Permanent Way

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 57 | P a g e

 •The combination of rails fitted on sleepers and resting on ballast and Railway
Track or Permanent Way.

Railway Gauge
• Clear distance between inner faces of two rails near their tops is called a
gauge
1. Broad Gauge (BG):
➢ 676 m wide
➢ Adopted for main cities and routes of maximum intensity
➢ Speed of locomotive is restricted to 96 kmph to 120kmph

2. Metre Gauge

➢ 1m wide
➢ Adopted for undeveloped areas
➢ Speed of locomotive restricted to 80kmph

3. Narrow Gauge

➢ 0.762m wide
➢ Gauge is adopted for hilly areas and thinly populated areas

4. Feeder Track Gauge

➢ 0.61m

5. Standard Gauge

➢ 1.435m

6. Light Gauge

➢ 0.610m

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 58 | P a g e

 Rail Section
• Rails are continuous steel sections laid along two parallel lines over
sleepers.
• They form a suitable track for train and should be strong enough to bear
the stresses developed in the track due to wheel loads, lateral and other
forces as well as variation due to temperature changes.
• The rail section is designated by mass per metre length.

Length of Rail
• For Broad gauge, standard length of Rail is 12.8 m, and
• For metre gauge, standard length is 11.89 m.

Tilting of Rails
• Placing of rail of the track at an inward slope of 1 in 20 is known as
Tilting of rails.
• Main purpose of it is to reduce wear on inside edges of the rail in a track.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 59 | P a g e

 Sleepers
❖ Members that are laid transverse to the rails to support the rails and to
transfer the loads from rails to ballast are called Sleepers.

Main function of sleeper is to

1. To support rail firmly and evenly

2. To keep two rails at correct gauge and level

3. To distribute the load to ballast

4. To act as an elastic medium

5. To provide stability to permanent way

SLEEPER DENSITY
❖ It is defined as the number of sleepers used per rail length on the track.
❖ It is generally given as (n + x), where n is the length of rail and x may vary
from 2 to 7.
❖ In India, the sleeper density provided is 18 sleepers per rail length.

Que. For a rigid track of broad gauge width, if sleeper density = (n+5), how
many sleeper will be required for 1km length?

Solution:

12.8 18

18 1000- × 1000 12.8 = 1406.25 sleepers

BALLAST
• It is a layer of broken stones, gravel, morrum or any other gritty material,
packed below and around the sleepers, so that the load from sleepers may be
transmitted to the formation.

• Functions of ballast:

1. Uniformly distributes the load from sleepers over a large area of formation.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 60 | P a g e

 2. Holds the sleeper in position during the passage of moving trains.

3. Provides elasticity and resilience to the track.

4. Provides proper drainage to the track and keeps the sleepers in dry conditions.

5. Prevents lateral, longitudinal and vertical movement of the track.

6. Provides proper superelevation to the outer rail on curves.

MAIN CONSIDERATIONS FOR BALLAST

1. Size of ballast used on Indian railways for wooden sleepers is 50mm
and for steel sleepers, it is 38mm.

2. Size of ballast used on Indian railways under points and crossings is

25mm.

3. The standard width of ballast for broad gauge track on Indian railway
3.35m and for metre gauge track, it is 2.3m.

4. The minimum depth of ballast for broad gauge track on Indian

railways is 250mm and for metre gauge track, it is 200mm.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 61 | P a g e

 DEEP FOUNDATION

Pile Foundation Pier Foundation Caisson or Well Foundation

Piler Foundations

Based on Functions Based on Materials Based on Construction Methods

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 62 | P a g e

 Pier Foundations

Masonry or Concrete Piler Drilled Caisson

Caisson

Box Caisson Open Caissons or Well Pneumatic Caisson

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CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 64 | P a g e
CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 65 | P a g e
CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 66 | P a g e
 Requirements Of Good Foundation

Foundations

Shallow Foundations Deep Foundations

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CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 68 | P a g e
CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 69 | P a g e
 Concrete Piles

Precast Concrete Piles Cast-in-situ Piles

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 70 | P a g e

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 71 | P a g e
 Disadvantage of Precast Concrete Piles

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 72 | P a g e

 Cast-in-situ Concrete Piles

Driven Piles Bored Piles

Driven Cast-in-situ Concrete Piles

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 73 | P a g e

 Driven cast-in-situ Concrete Piles

Cased cast-in-situ Concrete Piles Uncased cast-in-situ Concrete Piles

Bored Cast-in-situ Concrete Piles

Advantages of Cast-in-situ Concrete Piles

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 74 | P a g e

 Disadvantages of Cast-in-situ Concrete Piles

• In our country building construction activities are regulated by a set of

rules and guidelines.
• These regulations are framed as per the Municipal or town planning
authorities for framing public or private buildings.
• Government of India has published National Building Code (NBC), for a
reference or basic guideline for local bodies in framing building rules.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 75 | P a g e

 KMBR ( Kerala Municipality Building Rules )
Chapter 1 - definitions
• Apartment means a building, accommodating more than two dwelling
units for residential purpose. This word is synonymous to 'residential
flat'.
• Basement floor means any lower storey of a building partially or fully
below the lowest contiguous proposed ground level provided that, the
part of such storey above ground level shall not exceed 75 centimetres.
This word is synonymous with 'cellar'.
• Set back line' means a prescribed building line drawn with reference to
the central line or boundary of a street, on the street side of which
nothing can be erected or re-erected except compound wall.
• Building line means the line up to which the plinth of a building adjoining
a street or an extension of a street or a future street may lawfully
extend.
• Corner plot' means a plot abutting two or more intersecting streets.
• Covered area means the ground area covered by the building and is
synonymous to area of the building foot print. It shall include covered
parking. It does not include the spaces covered by; Garden, rockery, well
and well structures, plant, nursery, water tank, swimming pool.

Plans to be submitted
• Site Plan - The site plan shall be drawn to a scale of not less than 1:400.
• Service Plan - The service plan shall be drawn to a scale not less than
that of the site plan.
• Building Plan - The plans, elevations and sectional elevations in the
building plan shall be accurately drawn to a scale of not less than 1:100.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 76 | P a g e

 Chapter 2 – Drawings, Permits, and Occupancy certificates
Sl. No. Item Notational colouring
1. Plot line Thick black line
2. Street (existing) Brown line
3. Street (proposed) Brown dotted line
4. Permissible building line Thick black dotted line
5. Building (existing) Black outline
6. Building (proposed to be demolished) Yellow hatching
7. Building (proposed) Red outline
8. Drainage sewerage work Red dotted line
9. Water supply works Black dot and dash line
10. Electric line Green line

CLEARANCE FROM OVERHEAD ELECTRIC LINES

Sl. No. Type of supply Electric Minimum Vertical Minimum Horizontal
line clearance in metres clearance in metres

1, Low & medium voltage 2.5 1.2

lines
2, High voltage line upto & 3.7 2
including 33,000 volts
3, Extra high voltage lines 3.7 2
above 33,000 volts
Plus 0.3m for every Plus 0.3m for every
additional 33,000 volts additional 33,000 volts or
or part there of part there of

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 77 | P a g e

 DISTANCE BETWEEN PLOT BOUNDARY ABUTTING THE

STREET & BUILDING

National Highway, State Highway, Other un-notified roads with width
District Roads, other roads notified less than 6 m
under section 383A of the Kerala
Municipality Act 1994, other un-
notified roads with width 6 m and
above
3m 2m

Chapter 5 – Occupancy
Group Al Residential

Group A2 Lodging Houses & special residential

Group B Educational

Group C Medical/Hospital

Group D Assembly

Group E Office
Non-Residential
Group F Mercantile/Commercial

Group G1 Industrial - I

Group G2 Industrial - II

Group H Storage

Group I Hazardous

Group J Multiplex Complex

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 • Height of room. The height of room intended for human entry in a
building other than residential occupancy and livestock/poultry farm
shall not be less than 3 metres.
• Provided that in the case of air-conditioned rooms it shall not be less
than 2.4 metres.

♦ Size of bathroom and latrine :-

• The area of bathroom shall not be less than 1.50 sq. metres with either
side not less than1.1m.
• Area of a latrine shall not be less than 1.10 sq. metres with one side not
less than 1.0 metre.

♦ Staircases and fire escape staircases :-

• Minimum width of stair shall be 120 centimetres.
• Minimum width of tread shall be 30 centimetres.
• Maximum height of riser shall be 15 centimetres.
• Minimum height of handrail shall be 90 centimetres.
• The minimum headroom in a passage under the landing of a staircase
and under the staircase shall be 2.2m.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 79 | P a g e

 ♦ Rainwater storage arrangements :-
The components of a workable rainwater storage arrangement, shall
include;
I. Roof gutters
II. Down pipe and first flush pipe arrangement
III. Filter unit and
IV. Storage tank with provisions for drawing water and spill over

CHAPTER XVI - WASTE DISPOSAL

• Every new building of built-up area exceeding 100 sq.metres shall be
provided with septic tank of suitable size unless it is connected to a public
sewerage system or sewage treatment plant. The design criteria and
construction shall be as per the Code of

Practice for the septic tanks - IS 2470.

• Leech pit, sock pit, refuse pit or septic tank shall have a minimum distance of
1.20 metres from the plot boundaries.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 80 | P a g e

 Introduction
• Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building)
expands and complements the building design concerns of economy, utility,
durability, and comfort.

• A Green Building is one which uses less water, optimizes energy efficiency,
conserves natural resources, generates less waste and provides healthier space
for occupants as compared to conventional buildings.

Objectives Of Green Building

• Low Impact
➢ Minimize impact on natural environment.

• Energy Efficient
➢ Reduced Energy usage and Water usage.

• Healthy
➢ Protect occupant health and increase productivity.

• Minimize waste
➢ Designed and constructed in a manner that minimizes waste, pollution,
and environmental degradation.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 81 | P a g e

 Features of Sustainable Building
➢ Consideration of sustainability aspects in all phases of building design
and planning.
➢ Use of healthy and environmentally friendly building materials and
products.
➢ Use of efficient systems.
➢ Use of constructions and systems which are easy to maintain and
service.
➢ High aesthetic and urban design quality; high public acceptance.

Green Building Features

❖ Structure design efficiency
❖ Energy efficiency
❖ Water efficiency
❖ Materials efficiency
❖ Waste and toxic reduction

Energy Efficiency
CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 82 | P a g e
 ▪ The strategy is to reduce the operating energy use.
▪ Renewable energy through solar power, wind power, hydro power and
biomass can significantly reduce the environmental impact of a building.

Water Efficiency
▪ Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality is the key
objectives of sustainable building.
▪ The use of non-sewage and greywater for on-site use such as site-
irrigation will minimize demands on the local aquifer.

Materials Efficiency
▪ Buildings materials should be renewable materials, recycle and friendly
to the environment.
▪ Examples are lumber from forest, renewable plant materials like
bamboo and straw and other products that are non-toxic, reusable, etc.

Waste and Toxic Reduction

▪ To reuse resources
▪ To recycle the resources

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 83 | P a g e

 Green Building Rating Systems Used Around the World
Country Rating system

USA LEED/LIVING BUILDING CHALLENGES/GREEN GLOBES/

NAHB/BUILD IT GREEN

AUSTRALIA NABARS/GREEN STAR

CANADA LEED CANADA/ GREEN GLOBES

SWITZERLAND MINERGIE

UK BREEAM

UAE ESTIDMA

FINLAND PROMISE

ITALY PROTOCOLLO ITACA/ GREEN BUILDING COUNCIL ITALIA

BRAZIL AQUA/ LEED BRASIL

INDIA LEED INDIA/ TERI GRIHA

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 84 | P a g e

 Green Building Rating Systems In INDIA
▪ LEED INDIA: An Indian adaptation of LEED USA, by Indian green building
council.
▪ TERI-GRIHA:
▪ A National Rating System for Green Buildings developed by MN RE in
association with TERI.

Different Levels of Green Building Certification

The various levels of rating awarded are;
➢ 'Certified' to recognize best practices
• (30-36 Pts)
➢ 'Silver' to recognize outstanding performance
• (37-44 Pts)
➢ 'Gold' to recognize national excellence
• (45-55 Pts)
➢ 'Platinum' to recognize global leadership
• (56-75 Pts)

Different Levels of Green Building Certification

IGBC Green Buildings addresses green features under following categories;

➢ Site selection and planning

➢ Water efficiency
➢ Energy efficiency
➢ Indoor environmental quality
➢ Innovation & design process

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 85 | P a g e

 TERI – GRIHA
TERI GRIHA HAS 100 POINT SYSTEM
Points achieved GRIHA Rating
50-60 ★
61-70 ★★
71-80 ★★★
81-90 ★★★★
91-100 ★★★★★
The minimum points required for certification is 50.

Building scoring.

➢ 50-60 points- One star

➢ 61-70 - Two stars
➢ 71-80 - Three stars
➢ 81-90 - Four stars
➢ 91-100 Five stars

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 86 | P a g e

 Conclusion

It was a great learning experience that is conducted by TECHNOSCOL

CONSULTANTS, KOLLAM for 15 days (15-05-2023 to 31-05-2023). I gained a lot
of insight regarding the basic classes about different fields and site visit. I was
given exposure in almost all the sections at site. The friendly behaviour from
the Guides and Trainers are appreciating, sharing their experiences and giving
their knowledge which, they have gained in long journey of their job. I hope
this experience will surely help me to shape my future.

CE DEPARTMENT, SREE NARAYANA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, KOTTIYAM 87 | P a g e