GENERAL

OVERVIEW OF
PRESSURE VESSEL

PENGAJAR

BENY JOSEP EMANTO

PT.MARINDOTECH
 Pressure Vessels
The History of Pressure Vessels
Pressure vessels, as we know them, have been in use since the 1800s, when they
were used to generate steam. However, the first documented pressure vessel was
described by da Vinci in 1495, in the book Codex Madrid I. There, he described an
idea for pressurized containers of air that could lift weights underwater.
The early pressure vessel, unfortunately, was quite dangerous. This was largely
due to a combination of poor material quality and inadequate knowledge of the
perils of pressurized substances. Sadly, during those days, pressure vessel and
boiler explosions killed and maimed people in the United States on a regular, if
not daily, basis. For that reason, local governments began drafting construction
laws. Finally, in 1914, engineers released the first pressure vessel safety code, the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
After that, engineers began a concentrated effort to come up with safer vessels. In
1919, they designed a model with higher pressure capacities, reinforced steel wire
sidewalls and longitudinally reinforced end caps. Later, they began welding vessels
instead of joining them with rivets, which made them more stable. Between the
1920s and 1930s, welding became the industry construction standard, and it
remains so to this day.
Today, thanks to advances like non-destructive examination, radiography, phased
ultrasonic testing, new material grades and new ways to join materials (like
explosion welding), pressure vessel engineering and operation is much more
reliable and safe.

Pressure Vessels Benefits

Pressure vessels are specially designed containers for gases and liquids. It holds
gases or liquid at a pressure significantly greater than the atmospheric pressures.
A standard pressure vessel can endure pressure greater than 15 psi. However,
based on the need, vessels can be made to withstand pressure up to 10,000 psi.
 How Pressure Vessels Work
In different applications, the pressure in a pressure vessel is achieved either from a
direct source or an indirect one by heat transfer. More precisely, pressurization is
normally controlled via a series of valves and release gauges. Using these,
operators can get pressure to reach the levels they need for their application,
whether that be forcing water into a building or keeping air viable in diving
cylinders.

Pressure Vessels Images, Diagrams and Visual Concepts

Pressure vessels are sealed containers used to store liquids, vapors, or

gasses at greater pressure or less pressure than the surrounding
atmosphere.
An example of pressure vessels are storage vessels which holds liquids,
vapors, or gases as either a finsihed product or for later processing.

Spherical pressure vessels evenly distributes pressure both internally and

externally in the sphere.
When the pressure exceeds the maximum tolerance safety concerns and
damage to the vessels are more likely to occur.

Utilizes x-rays to produce an image of a pressure vessel‘s surface and

subsurface, which can detect discontinuities, holes, and difference in
density of the vessel.
 A magnetic current detect any discontinuities on the surface if any
imperfections are present, the magnetic instability leaks out of the
material.

A small amount of liquid, called the penetrant, to an area with a

possible flaw, then allowed to settle after spraying and then wiped to
clean on the surface, if the penetrant has seeped into the cracks, which
revels the
imperfection.
 Types of Pressure Vessels

Autoclave
Like grease kettles use steam and pressure to cause chemical reactions
producing many different substances, including food, lubricants and
chemicals, and process tanks are designed to hold and store liquids.
High Pressure Vessel
The strongest type of pressure tank, and are used with the highest psi. They
are typically stainless steel vessels, which provide the best resistance to
pressure, temperature and corrosion.
While many pressure vessels are used in manufacturing facilities to produce
substances, others are used in different applications such as: expansion tanks
and heat exchangers found in every residential closed water heating system,
water pressure tanks as part of wells, and vacuum tanks as an
integral component in sewage applications. These vessels are mostly used to
store substances short term.

Spherical Pressure Vessel

When a high-performance pressure vessel is required, a spherical vessel can
be appropriate, as the shape is roughly twice as strong as a cylindrical pressure
vessel. However, only a small number of gas containers are made in the shape
of a sphere due to their complex manufacturing, which escalates the
construction cost.
Thin-Walled Pressure Vessel
Any pressure vessel can be labeled with this design name if they have a
cylinder [shell] ratio that is 10% or less of the ratio of the thickness to the
diameter. In other words, pressure vessels with the thin-wall design have
a diameter that is 10 times or more than that of the thickness.

Unfired Pressure Vessel

This vessel design is not exposed to direct heat. Instead, it channels heat
generated via electric heat or steam, and, occasionally, through the chemical
reaction of vessel contents. Examples of unfired pressure vessels include: air
tanks, digesters, steam-jacketed kettles and vulcanizers.
ASME Boiler/ASME Pressure Vessel
Every ASME pressure vessel has a stamp of ASME that helps in tracing the
manufacturer; it also provides other information related to the vessel. You can call
a vessel an ASME vessel if it has received the proper inspection and the
ASME stamp.
Cookers
Are a type of pressure vessel that are used to bring about a physical change in
their contents. Examples of this are digesters, vulcanizers and rendering
tanks.
Fired Pressure Vessels
Utilize fuel combustion to generate heat. Examples include boilers, furnaces, gas
water heaters and autoclaves.
Heat Exchangers
Include a variety of configurations of vessel equipment in which heating or
cooling is performed on one side of the vessel and the opposite conversion
on the other side.
Kettles
Are pressure vessels that use steam to heat fluids.
Pressure Tanks
Are vessels that hold contents at pressure levels greater than atmospheric
pressure.
Rotating Pressure Vessels
Usually contains steam, which is then used to dry articles such as paper,
fabric or plastics. The materials are passed over the rotating vessel via rollers
to come into direct contact with the emitting steam.
Steam Jacketed Vessels
Are used to heat liquid to a moderate degree. Steam is distributed between
the inner and outer shells of the vessel and is used in the commercial
preparation of foods such as candy.

Storage Vessels
 Include air tanks, hot water tanks, propane or other gas tanks, which contain
contents under pressure when needed.
Thick Walled Pressure
Vessels are the least common. They are any cylinder [shell] ratio that is 10%
or more the ratio of the thickness to the inside diameter.
Thin Walled Pressure Vessels
Are one of the most common of the vessels. They are any cylinder [shell]
ratio which is 10% or less of the ratio of the thickness to the diameter, or a
pressure vessel is thin walled if the diameter is 10-times or more of the
thickness.
Transportable Vessels
Are in contrast to those that are stationary. Examples of such are those are road
or rail tankers; propane and gas tanks are considered to be in this category.

Equipment Components
Pressure vessels are typically equipped with many different components, such as
ladders, stairs, removable or detachable lids, sight glass for observation, heating
and cooling systems, and propellers or agitation systems for mixing applications.

Other than those features, all vessels are equipped with safety valve fittings that
do not allow pressure to exceed the predetermined level. Commonly, the safety
valves in question are based on the pressure relief valve. This type of valve sets
off when the pressure exceeds the limits and it automatically releases the
contained material. This small feature has saved many lives over the years, making
pressure vessels safe for a range of roles, such as water pressure tank, mixer, air
pressure tank, vacuum tank, storage tank and heat exchanger units.

Applications of Pressure Vessels

Pressure vessels contain a wide variety of substances and can be designed with
specific purposes in mind. They are used for various industrial applications within
the chemical, petrochemical, aerospace, laboratory, pharmaceutical, food and
beverage, oil and fuel and plastics industries.
Their wide range of applications include: compressed gas (ex. oxygen or
nitrogen) storage tanks, laboratory autoclaves, hydro-pneumatic tanks and
refrigerant vessels. They can be found in oil refineries, petrochemical plants,
mining, submarines, and nuclear reactors, among other settings. Airplanes are a
unique example of pressure vessels; the entire structure of a plane is a pressure
vessel, both enduring the cabin pressure and maneuvering load of the aircraft.

Vessel Materials and Customization

The materials used to create pressure vessels must be high strength and durable,
and able to maintain their shape and properties even under pressure. Common
materials include carbon alloy steel, stainless steel, titanium, zirconium, aluminum,
nickel alloys and niobium. Pressure vessels may also be made from composite
materials or concrete material.

To help them bring their design to life before manufacturing, many manufacturers
design pressure valves using computer-aided design (CAD) programs. Whether
they use one of these programs, or draft their design by hand, when mapping out
their plans for pressure vessels, manufacturers consider a few key elements, as they
relate to the vessel application and the substance contained in the vessel.
These include: vessel material, lining material, vessel thickness, shape, and
manufacturing process.

Steel in Vessels
Typically, pressure vessels are manufactured from carbon steel; however,
when the application is demanding, manufacturers use better versions of
steel, such as hardened steel and stainless steel. When pressure vessels are
used in a cold environment, steel is required to have high impact resistance.
In facilities where the environment is corrosive, corrosion resistant steel, such
as stainless steel, is used for making vessels.
Composite Materials
When very high pressure is not involved in an application, manufacturers turn
to composite materials like carbon fiber. Composite pressure vessels are
made by a fabrication technique called filament technique, in which
filaments are wounded on a metal liner. Vessels made with this technique
have high
 tensile strength but are lighter. However, the process is complex, and thus can
be expensive. Polymers like polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are also used
for making carbonated containers.
Concrete in Pressure Vessels
Pressure vessels can also be made from materials that are weak in tension,
such as polished concrete veneer. To reinforce the structure, cables are
wounded around the structure or within the wall of the vessels.
Lining Material
The lining material of the vessels is important, as it endures a portion of the
pressure and helps in making the structure leak proof. Many materials, such
as polymers, ceramics, and even metals, can be used for lining pressure
vessels.
Wall Thickness
According to a mandate, the thickness of pressure vessels should be
proportional to the radius and pressure of the vessel. Moreover, the thickness of
the wall should be inversely proportional to construction materials' normal
stress. A pressure vessel that has such properties will have enough tensile
strength to hold gases effectively. This is a basic relationship. Based on this
relationship, for different applications, the wall thickness of a vessel scales
with the radius of the tank, and similarly, the mass of the vessel scales with
the volume a gas occupies in a vessel. However, the relationship varies with
the shape of a vessel, which, based on the requirements, can be spherical,
cylindrical, or conical.

Shape of Pressure Vessels

Manufacturers can fabricate a pressure vessel of practically any shape. Most
often though, pressure vessels are made into cylinders, cones, or spheres, as
these shapes withstand pressure more efficiently than rectangular or square
shapes. The most common pressure vessel shape design consists of a cylinder
with hemispherical end caps as heads. Also common are cylinders with
torispherical head domes.
With cylindrical pressure vessels with caps on each end, the cylindrical part is
typically made from a pipe. Even larger cylindrical vessels that have a
 diameter of, for example, 600 mm, are made from seamless pipe, so they are
stronger and need inspection less often. However, they are more expensive.
For different shapes, there is a different formula to calculate the mass of a
vessel, and there are other factors too that should be considered, such as
density of the pressure material, maximum shear stress that can be allowed,
and pressure and volume of a vessel.
Manufacturing Processes
Engineers usually create vessels using one of three manufacturing processes:
forging, welding and brazing, all of which involve heating pieces of metal and
joining them together. Forging refers to the formation of metal parts through
the application of heat and pressure. Welding involves melting two similar
metals together by heating their edges until molten. Finally, during the brazing
process, metals are joined by filling the space between them with a non-
ferrous metal.
In addition, most of the cylindrical and spherical parts are made from cold
rolled metal, as cold rolling creates a stronger metal than hot rolling. Pressure
vessels are also often galvanized, quenched or tempered to increase
temperature resistance and tensile strength.

Customization of Vessels
Using these same considerations, as well as corrosion resistance and vessel
abrasion potential, engineers can customize: pressure vessel shape, size,
material, pressure capacity and temperature capacity. Pressure vessel
manufacturers fabricate a range of pressure vessels; from a few hundred
pounds per square inch (psi) to measuring up to 150,000 psi.

Safety and Compliance Standards for Pressure Vessels

Many tanks are required to be registered ASME pressure vessels and to adhere to
strict safety and quality standards put forth by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers. This includes ASME Section VIII code, or the Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code (BPVC), upon which American engineers must base their designs.
Certified ASME tanks are important because due to the nature of pressure vessels,
even the tiniest stress or leak can cause a major explosion or shrapnel damage.
All pressure vessels are designed by following a "leak before burst" philosophy.
This design allows them to crack under higher operating stress, in order to allow
gases and fluid to leak out. This way, pressure vessel blasts, which have taken
many lives in the past, can be avoided. Under pressure vessels standardizing
agency codes, including ASME code, pressure vessels are required to leak before
blast.

Although the ASME code remains the most common standard code, engineers
also follow other code sets, such as those of the American Petroleum Institute
(API), National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBIC) and the
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). Rigorous analyses
for complex pressure vessels are created when standard design rules do not apply.
In such instances, engineers conduct intensive mathematical and scientific
analyses to ensure design and construction methods meet the stringent
requirements of pressure vessels.

Also, different authorities across the world govern the operation, manufacturing,
design and inspection of pressure vessels. As many authorities and legislations
are involved in pressure vessels at the global level, the code that defines a
pressure vessel and the parameters for its safe operation vary from region to
region. Make sure that your pressure vessel is up to code for your region.

Note: While testing and certification approval ensure that your initial vessel design
is sound and your vessel itself is healthy, it’s also very important that you inspect
your vessel regularly. Regular post-purchase inspection is a way for you to know
for sure that your vessel continues to meet industrial standards and safety
requirements.

Other safety inspection tests and standards adherence inspection tests that your
pressure vessel manufacturer can conduct include: leak and strength tests
(hydrostatic, pneumatic, vacuum, radiography, ultrasonic wave, and magnetic
practice tests).

Things to Consider When Purchasing Pressure Vessels

Pressure vessels are very sensitive equipment; for not only the success of your
application, but the safety of you and your staff, you must select yours very
carefully. To help you make an informed decision, we’ve provided a list of
suppliers that we trust near the top of this page. Find the right manufacturer for you
by perusing their websites and reaching out to a few in whom you’re interested.
Talk to them about your specifications, your timeline, your budget and your
standards and restrictions. Make sure they’re willing to conduct the necessary
inspection procedures. Compare and contrast what the suppliers say to you, and
pick out one to do your vessel design based on not only who is the most skilled, but
who offers the best customer service. Remember, you can’t go wrong with a
talented supplier that wants the best for you.

Pressure Vessel Terms

Agitator
Device used for agitation of the product or substance found inside a pressure
vessel.
Atmospheric Pressure
The amount of force the atmosphere exerts upon the earth's surface,
measuring 14.7 psi at sea level.
Ba e
Primarily used in pressure vessels with agitators. Commonly used to increase
the amount of agitation or mixing.
Boiler
Pressure vessel that heats water and creates and heats using combustible
fuels or energy.
Brittle Fracture
Fracture of steel associated with exposure to very low temperatures often in
circumstances in which stress levels have not exceeded yield strength.
Corrosion Allowance
An increase in pressure vessel shell thickness designed to compensate for
the corrosion and abrasion of certain pressure vessels; protective coatings
and linings are also added to pressure vessels to prevent corrosion.
Creep
Permanent deformation of steel caused by strength reduction resulting from
exposure to high temperatures.
Cryogenic Temperatures
Extremely low temperatures, ranging from -250° C to -100° C (-418° F to -148°
F).
Design Pressure
The maximum internal and external pressure limits that a pressure vessel can
withstand, usually equivalent to 110% of pressure vessel operating pressure.
Design Temperature
The temperature of the pressure vessel metal when the vessel is subjected to
the design pressure.
Dewar
Pressure vessel created to sustain cryogenic temperatures.
Ferrule
A nozzle made for sanitary and low pressure applications. A ferrule contains
an inset gasket surface and is designed to work with clamps instead of
bolting.
Fluid
Any substance, whether liquid, gas or vapor, in which the particles move freely,
resulting in no permanent shape and low resistance to pressure.
Fusible Plugs
Pressure relief mechanisms initiated with rapid pressure increases resulting
from a fire.
Heat Transfer Surface (HTS)
Broad terminology for providing a pressure vessel or pressure tank with a means
of temperature control.
Hydropneumatic Tanks
Pressure vessels in which both liquids and gases are collected.
Hydrostatic Test
Test in which pressure vessels are subjected to 150% of the design pressure.
ID (Inside Diameter)
Diameter of the pressure vessels measured from the interior of the pressure
vessels surfaces. This dimension does not include the material thickness.
Lifting Lugs
Lugs attached to the outside of the pressure vessels specifically placed to
help aid lifting of the pressure vessels.
Manway
Access port to the internal region of the pressure vessels.
Megapascal
Unit of measurement equal to 1,000,000 pascals, used to express tensile
strength and yield strength.
National Board Inspection Code
Worldwide standard for pressure vessel inspection, alteration and repair.
Newton
Unit of force producing an acceleration rate of one meter per second per second
on a one-kilogram mass.
Nozzle
The spout through which fluid is released from or introduced into pressure
vessels.
Operating Pressure
The pressure at which pressure vessels operate while in use.
Pascal
Unit of pressure measurement equal to a Newton per square meter.

Psi (Pounds per Square Inch)

Unit that measures the amount of pressure applied to an object.

Relief Valve
Pressure relief mechanism that automatically releases liquids from pressure
vessels when vessel pressure exceeds set pressure, and closes when the
pressure level returns to normal.
Rupture Disks
Pressure relief mechanism designed for single usage that instantly relieves
pressure in a pressure vessel. These can be used in conjunction with other
pressure relief mechanisms.
Safety Relief Valve
Pressure relief mechanism that automatically releases liquid and vapor
streams from pressure vessels when vessel pressure exceeds set pressure, and
closes when the pressure level returns to normal.
Safety Valve
Pressure relief mechanism that automatically releases gases and vapors from
pressure vessels when vessel pressure exceeds set pressure, and closes when
the pressure level returns to normal.
Set Pressure
The predetermined pressure at which a pressure relief device begins to discharge
fluid.
Straight Flange
Small, cylindrical pressure vessel component consisting of a bolted rim
connected to the body of the pressure vessel.
Strain
The change in an object's dimensions, resulting from the application of force.

Stress
The force responsible for causing a change in an object's dimensions.
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Fracture resulting from the combination of corrosion and tensile stress.
Tensile Strength
The maximum stress level exerted upon a test specimen before the specimen
fractures.
Tensile Stress
The force applied to a test specimen to produce strain.
Vessel Heads
The end of a pressure vessel, including flanged and dished, ellipsoidal, flat,
conical and hemispherical.
Vessel Shell
The pressure vessel body.
Yield Strength
Amount of stress producing an inelastic strain in a pressure vessel. Exceeding
the yield strength can result in permanent deformation of the vessel.