+ I

ntr
oduct
iont
oAgr
icul
tur
e
Agr
icul
tur
e;i
sthesci
encet
hatdeal
swi
thgr
owi
ngofcr
opsandr
ear
ingof
l
i
vest
ock
I
MPORTANCEOFAGRI
CULTURE
Economici
mportance
- sourceoffood
- sour
ceofdr aughtpower
- sour
ceofrawmat er
ial
s
- sour
ceofmanur e
Soci
ali
mpor
tance
- theyareusedasf oodinceremoni
es,e.gweddings
- theyareusedtopaybr i
de
- forprest
ige(Peoplewit
hmanycat t
learerespect
edbyt hecommuni
ty)
- Animalscanbesl aught
eredduri
ngrit
ualceremonies.
I
MPACTOFHI VandAIDSONAGRI CULTURALPRODUCTI VITY
 Farmers and f ar
m wor kers have become si ck and unabl et o wor k
eff
ecti
vely.somecannotwor katalll
eadi ngtonoorl owpr oductivi
ty
 Farmersandf arm workersoftenhavetot akecar eofr el
ati
v eswhoar eil
l
andtheycannotspendmanyhour swor king,l
eadingtol owpr oductiv
ity
 Whenf armer sandorf armers’workersdi etherearef ewerski l
ledpeopl e
toworkonf arms.
 Farmersof t
enhav etospendal otofmoneyonmedi ci
nesf orthemsel ves
andtheirrelati
v esandtheyt henhavel essmoneyt ospendonf erti
li
zers
andimplement s.
 Thegov ernmenthast ospendmoneyonhel pi
ngt hosewhoar esick.This
meanst hatther eis,
l
essmoneyt ospendont rai
ningpeopl e
I
MPACTOFAGRI CULTURALACTI VI
TIESINONTHEENVI RONMENT
- Itmayl eadt oov ergrazing
- Leadt osoilerosion
- Ferti
li
zersandpest ici
descanl eadtopol l
uti
onofairandwater
- Wildanimalsar ef orcedf r
om theirhabi
tatforagri
cul
tural
acti
vi
ties
- Mayl eadtodepl etionofsomepl antnutri
entsfrom t
hesoil
- Diseasesfrom domest icatedanimalsmayof tenkil
lwil
danimals.
- Theymayl eadt odr yi
ngupofwat erresourcesiftoomanyani mal
sar
e
kept
RELATI
ONSHI
PBETWEENAGRI
CULTUREANDOTHERSUBJECTS
Bi
ology;i
sthestudyofl i
vingplant
s(botany
)andanimals(zool
ogy
),whichisalsodone
agricul
ture
Geography;
isallaboutlearni
ngaboutthesoil,
weatherandcl
imat
iccondit
ionsofan
area,whichisalsoi
mportantinagr
icul
ture

1
Chemi stry; farmer sappl yt hisknowl edgewhendeal i
ngwi thpesticides, ferti
li
zers
Mat hemat i
cs; itdeal swi thcal cul ati
onsandmeasur ement swhi char eal sousefulin
Agr i
cul tur e
Phy sics;f armer suset heknowl edgeon how t ot akecar eoff ar m machi neryand
repai ri
ng
inagr i
cul tur e.
Homeeconomi cs; hel psf ar mer sonhowt hef oodi susedi nanimal bodi es
Economi csandaccount ing; canhel pf armer sunder st andt hemar ketwhent heyare
Readyt osel ltheirproduct s
BRANCHESOFAGRI CULTURE
SoilSci ence,Agr onomy ,Ani malSci ence,For estry,Hor ticultur
e,Agr iculturalEngineer
ing,
Agr icult ural Economi cs,
Ani mal husbandr y-Li vest ockpr oduct i
onandmanagement .
Agr onomy–Fi eldcr opspr oduct ionandsoi l management
For est ry–Gr owi ngandmanagement ,conser vationandut i
l
izationoft reesandot her
forest spr oduct s.
Soil Sci ence-Cl assi ficat ion, sur v ey ,
conser vat i
onandmanagementofsoi l
Hor ticul ture -Pr oduct i
on and managementoff ruitt rees,v eget ables,f l
owers and
ornament als.
Agr icult uralEconomi cs-Far m managementandeconomi csofagr icult
uralproducti
on
i
ncl udi ngaccount ing, fi
nanci ngandmar keti
ng.
Agr icult uralEngi neer ing-Far m machi ner y,toolsandf arm struct ur
eswat ersupplyand
i
rrigat i
on.
Car eerandt rainingi nAgr icultur e
 TeacherofAgr icul tur e
 Ranchmanager s
 Agr icultur al Demonst rat or
 Ar ti
ficial insemi nat or
 Vet er i
nar yassi st ant
 Soi lconser vat i
onof f
icer
 Far m manager
 Agr icultur al resear chof ficer.
I
nst itut i
onof f
er ingAgr icul turet raining.
Bot swanaCol l
egeofAgr icultur e
Of fersCer tif
icat es, Dipl omaandDegr eepr ogrammes.
Mini mum r equi rement -For m 5(BGCSE)
Ramat labamaRanchmanagementCent re
Offer st rainingi nRanchmanagementandAr t
ifi
cialinsemi nat i
on
Mini mum ent ryr equi r e( JCE)
Col l
egesofEducat ion
Producet eacherofagr icul tur e
Mini mum ent ry( BGCSE)
Rur al Tr ainingCent reof f ershor tcour set of armer s
Vocat ional Traini ngCent erandBr i
gades
Someof f
ert raini ngi nAgr icul tur e
Fact
orsl
i
mit
ingf
oodpr
oduct
ionandsecur
it
yinBot
swana
 Adversecl
i
mat iccondi
ti
ons
 Endemicdrought
 Pestsanddiseases

2
  Poormanagementandunski l
ledfarmer
s
 Lowadoptionofnewtechnologies.
 Unrel
i
ablerainf
all
 Cul
tural
,normsandvalues.

Way
sofi
mpr
ovi
ngf
oodpr
oduct
ionandsecur
it
y
 I
ncreasedt r
ainingofexpect sinv ari
ousagr i
cult
ureandoff ar
mers
 Encouragequi ckadopt i
onofnewt echnologies.
 I
mpr oveaccessbysmal lf
armer stocr edi
tandot herproduct
ionr
esour
ces
 Preventi
onofsoi lerosionandr angel anddegradation
 Betteruseofscar cewat erresources
 Useofbet terandr ecommendedmanagementpr act
iceincropandand
l
ivestockproduction.
 Increaseduseoff erti
l
izerstoimpr ovesoilfert
il
it
y.
Gov
ernmentst rat
egiestoi mpr ov
ef oodpr oducti
onandsecur ity.
 Cont r
ol nat ional i
mpor tantdi seasesandpest s.
 Pr ov i
sion of phy sical i nfrastructure and t o f aci
li
tat
e agricult
ural
dev el
opment .
 Tr aini
ngofhumanr esour cesdev el
opmentf orbet t
ermentofagr i
cultur
e
product ivity.
 Est ablishmentofl ivest ockadv isorycentre(
LAC)
 Suppor t agr i
cul t
ural r esear ch t o dev el
op new and appr opriat
e
technol ogi es.
 Pr ov i
sionoff i
nanci alassi stancet hroughpr ogrammessuchasCEEDA,
NAMPAADD, FAP, ALDEP, SLOCA
FoodSi tuat i
oni nBot swana–
Botswanai sanetexpor terofbeefandbeefpr oduct s.Inregardtofoodst uff
annualdomest icpr oduct ioni sal way slesst hannat ionalrequi
rementdemand.
Supplyf rom domest icpr oduct ioni sal waysl owlesst handemandsoBot swana
i
saneti mpor teroff oodst uf forf ooddef i
citnati
on.
Foodsel fsuf ficiency–meanst hatcount ryproducesadequat efoodtoitsself,
sodoesnot
i
mpor tf ood.
Foodsecur i
ty-r eferst oasi tuat ionwher ebyacount ryorhouseholdhasaccess
toadequat ef oodatal ltimesr egardl
essofsour ceofsuppl
y.
ProductionPr obl emsofAgr icul tur e
 Poorandunsui t
ablesoi l
 Er r ati
candunr eli
abler ainf all
 Far mer sl ackt echnical andmanager i
alskil
l
 Toughcompet it
ionf rom SA
 Hi ghcostofpr oduct ion
 Gr eaterr isksanduncer taint y.

3
Mar
ket
ingPr oblemsofAgr i
cult
ure
 Seasonal patter
nofpr oduct i
on
 Bulkiness’ofagricult
uralproduce
 Inadequat estor
agef acil
i
ties
 Perishabili
tyofagricul
turalproduct
s.
 Lackoft rainedpersonnel
 Lackofuni f
ormityofagricult
uralpr
oduce
 Lackmar ketinf
ormat i
on

TypesofFar ming
ArableFarming-i
nvolvesproducti
onofcropsonly
Pastoralf
arming–r eari
ngoflivest
ockonly
Mixedf ar
ming–pr oducti
onofcr opsandli
vest
ockont
hesamef
arm.
Scaleoffarming

4
Commer cialfarming–pr oductionofcr
opsandli
vest
ockmainl
yforsal
e.
Charact
erizedby
 Hi ghcapi tali
nput
 Hi ghpr oducti
v i
ty
 Useofmachi nery
 Car ryoutonl argescale.
Subsist
ence f arming -pr oducti
on ofcr
ops and l
ivest
ock mai
nlyforf
ami
l
y
consumpt i
on
Charact
erizedby
 l owcapi t
al i
nput
 Low pr oductivi
ty
 Useofhandt ools
 Car ryoutonsmal lscale

Tool
-adev
iceusedt
ocar
ryoutmechani
calf
unct
ionsusual
l
yhel
dandoper
ated
usi
ng handasi
npr
oducel
i
ttl
epower
.
I
mpl
ementAdev
iceusedt
ocar
ryoutmechani
calf
unct
ion,usual
l
ylar
gerand
mor
e compl
ext
hanat
ool
andr
equi
reagr
eatpower
.
Machi
ne–Dev
icewhi
chconsi
stsofv
ari
ouspar
tsf
ixedpar
tsandmov
ingpar
ts
eachwi
th def
ini
tef
unct
ions t
oget
herper
for
ming wor
k usi
ng orappl
yi
ng
power
.
Exampl
eoff
armt
ool
s,machi
neandI
mpl
emet
s
Tool I
mpl
ement
s Machi
nes
Spade, r
ake, di
ggi
ng Moul
dboar
dpl
ough Tr
act
or, Combi
ne
f
ork,
tapemeasur
e Di
scPl
ough,
Dischar
row har
vest
er
Sl
asher
,Mat
tock,Pi
ck, Cul
ti
vat
or, Ri
dger
, Sor
ghum or Mai
ze
Pi
ck axe, Saw, Pl
ant
er t
hrasher
.
Bur
dizzo, Hoe, Saf
im pl
ant
er, Zi
gzag
Secat
eus, Wat
eri
ng har
row

5
 can,

Saf
etyuseofTool
sandMachi
nes
 Carr
yt ool
swi thsharptool
swithbladesorspi
kespointi
ngdownandnever
runwheny oucarr
ythesetool
s
 Makesur ey ouhaveenoughroom towor ki
nwheny ouuseequi
pment
 Nevert hrow ordr ag tool
s and implements,unless t
hisi
st he way
equi
pmenti ssupposedtobeused.
 Stor
eequi pmentwi t
hcare.
 Nevercar ryapassengeronat r
actor-ther
ei sonl yoneseatforan
operator
.
 Separatetoolsaccordi
ngtosizes
Car
eandstorageoff ar
mt ool
s,impl
ement sandmachines.
 Useequi pmentf orthepur poseforwhi chitwasmadef orsot hati
twil
l
l
astlonger.
 Cl eanequipmentaf teri
thasbeenusedandbef oreitisputaway
 St oreequipmentawayf r
om directsunlightandfrom rai
n
 Oi lorgreasethemov i
ngpar t
soft heequi pmenttopreventrust
 Checkengi neoillev
elsandt ypepr essureont r
actorsandot hermachi
nes
beforeusingthem.
 Shar pentoolssuchasshear sandaxesr egul
arl
y.
 Bef oreusingequipmenti nspectbolts,nutsandtight
enanyt hatarel
oose
Far
m Mechanizat i
on–Theuseofmachi ner ytoperfor
mf arm oper
at i
ons

Adv
ant
agesofFar
m Mechani
zat
ion
 Wor
kisdonef
ast
erandeasy
 Mechani
zat
ioni
slaboursav
ing
 Far
m canf
arm onl
argescal
eandhav
ehi
ghy
iel
d
 Theuseofmachi
nemi
nimi
zespest
sanddi
seases
Di
sadv
ant
agesoff
arm mechani
zat
ion
 Machi
ner
yar
eexpensi
vet
obuyandmai
ntai
n
 Mechani
zat
ioncr
eat
eunempl
oyment
 Theuseofheav
ymachi
nesdest
roysoi
lst
ruct
ure
 Far
mer
srequi
re cer
tai
n ski
l
lst
o oper
ate ,r
epai
rand mai
ntai
nthe
machi
nes
Pr
obl
emscausedbyt
ool
simpl
ement
sandmachi
nesont
heenv
ironment

6
  Theconst antuseofi mplement ssuchaspl oughandhar r
owscanloosen
thesoiltoomuchandl evelandcancausesoi lerosion.
 Theer odedsoi li
swashedi nt
or ivers,st
reamsordamsandmakest hese
watersour cessitup.
 Theexhaustf umesf r
om machi nespol l
utetheenv i
ronment.
 Ther egularmov ementoft ractorsand ani mal son t hesoilmakesit
compact .
 Soluti
onst othepr obl
ems
 Farmer sshouldr educet henumberoft i
mest hesoi li
sculti
vat
edsothat
parti
clesarekeptt ogether
 Theyav oidploughingont hesteepandsl opedar eas
 Usingmachi nest hatdonotpr oduceal otofcar bonmonoxi de
 Farmer sshouldnotpl oughwhent hesoili
stoodr yortoowetasthewind
 Servi
cet hemachi nesr egularl
y

Soi
lFer
til
ity
- ref erst otheabi li
tyofsoi ltopr omot eplantgrowth
- abi li
tyoft hesoi ltosuppl ypl antwi t
henoughnut r
ients
Fert
il
izer–asubst anceaddedt osoi ltoimpr oveit
sfer t
ili
ty.
ImportanceofFer ti
li
zerst othesoi l
Theyaddnut rient stothesoi l
Somef ertil
izer scancor r
ectpHoft hesoi l
Fert
il
izersf rom pl antsandani mal si mprov ethestr
uct ur
eofsoi l
.
Organicf ertil
izer sprovidef oodf orsoi l
micr obes.
Typesoff ertil
izer s
OrganicFer ti
lizers
Inor
gani cf ertili
zer s
Organicf ertil
izer s–comef rom pl antsandani malproduct s
Exampl eofOr gani cfer
t i
l
izers
 Far my ar dmanur e
 Compost
 Woodash
 Gr eenmanur e
Organi cFerti
l
izers
Adv ant ages Di
sadv ant ages
 cheapandusual l
yav ai
lablelocal l
y  Bul kyanddi ff
iculttostore
 Improv esoi lst ructure  Al argequant it
yi soff erti
li
zer
si s
 Supplysoi l organi smswi t
hwat er needed because of l
ow
 No speci alski ll
s ar er equired t o concentr
ation
apply  Take a l ong t ime t o rel
easing
 Donotpol l
uteorhar m env ir
onment nutri
ents
sothear eenv ir
onment alfri
endl y.  Somesmel lunpleasantwhenwet
 Somecont ainweedseeds.
 Somef erti
li
zer smayat t
ractworms

7
 and otheri
nsect
sthatcanat
tack
crops.

Inor
ganicFert
il
izers–ar emadef r
om chemi cals.
ExamplesofInorganicFerti
li
zers
-Ammoni um ni
trate -Limestoneammoni um ni
trate -2: 3:2(22)
-Superphosphate -Sulfat
eofpot ash
-Urea -Potassium chlori
de
Inorgani
cFer ti
li
zers
Adv antages Disadvantages
 Easy to store because t hey take  Expensi vetobuy
l
essspace  Canpol l
utet heenvir
onment
 Neededi nsmal lquanti
ty.  Donotpr ovidesoilorganismswi t
h
 Donothar bourorat tr
actinsects food
 Donoti mpr ovesoilstr
ucture
 Speci alski llis needed t o appl
y
them.

Deter
minetheappl
i
cati
onrateoft
heferti
li
zer
s
I
fSuperphosphate appli
cati
on r
ate 200 kg perhect
are,how much super
phosphat
eneededfor5ha.
5x200kg=1000kg.
HowmuchSuperphosphateisneededfor1m x5m seedbed?Useanappl
i
cation
2
rat
eof200kg/ha. NB: 1ha=10000m

ep1-1m x5m =5m2

St
St
ep2 1ha: 200kg Substi
t e1haby10000m2
ut
2
St
ep3 10000m : 200kgMul
ti
ple5by200kganddi
vi
de
10000
5m2 :X

5x200kg= 1000 kg=0.

1kg
10000 10000
Whent oappl yf
erti
lizers
BasalDr essing–appl i
cati
onoff er
ti
li
zerbeforeplanting
Topdr essing-appl icati
onoff erti
li
zerstocropsthatar ealreadygrowing.
Methodsoff ert
il
izerappl i
cation
Broadcast i
ng– Scat teri
ngf erti
li
zersov erthefiel
di tcabedonebyhandor
machine
Banding-appl i
cat ionoffertil
izeri
nast ri
pnexttopl ants
Sidedressing–Shal l
owhol ear emadenextt oplants.
Dril
l
ing-t heseedsandf er
ti
li
zer sareplacedinthetoget herintheshall
owf ur
row
Ferti
gati
on–Fer til
izersismi xedwi t
hwat erthenthemi xtureisappli
edt owater

8
 - appl i
cationoff erti
li
zersthroughi rr
igat
ionwat er
.
FoliarSpr aying–Fer t
il
izersisdissolv edinwat erthenspraythrought hel
eaves
rather
t
hani nthesoil.
PlantsNut r
ients/Element s
Maj orEl ement s-ar ethoset hatareneededbypl antsinsmallquantit
ies
Exampl eofmaj orEl ements
Nitrogen, Phosphor us,Potassium, Calcium,Magnesi um,Sul
fur
MinorEl ement s – ar et hose element sthatar e needed bypl antsin smal
l
quant i
ties,
Exampl eofMi norEl ements
Zinc, I
ron, Manganese, Cobalt,chl
or i
ne
Maj orEl ement sf oundinf er
til
izer
s
Nitrogen
Pot assium
Phosphor us

Sourceofmaj
orEl ement
sfoundinf
ert
il
izers
Ni
tr
ogen Phosphor us Potassium
 OrganicMat ter  Or ganicmatt
er  Rocks
 Inorgani
cf ert
il
izer
s  I norganicf
erti
l
izer
s  I norgani
c
 Nitrogenfixati
onf r
om  Rocks fert
ili
zer
s(Mur
ate of
legumecr ops potash)
 Lightni
ngSt ri
kes

Functionsmaj orElements
Nit
rogen Phosphor us Potassi
um
 Needed by pl antsin Hel ps i
n r
oot Hel ps plants to
chlorophyll
formati
on dev elopment produce bet t
erseeds
 Ni trogenisnecessary Hel ps plant t o andf r
uits
formaki ngprotei
n producef l
owers  Needed i n product
ion
 Ni trogeninabsorpti
on I mpr ov e pl
ant ofchl orophyll
.
of ot her maj or resistancetodisease.  Helpsplantt oproduce
elements and st
ore
carbohydrat
es.
Sympt om Defici
encyof
Nit
rogen Phosphor us Potassi
um
 Stunt edgrowth  Leav es and st em  Leav esedgesbecome

9
 Leavest
urnyel
l
ow become r
eddi sh, y ellowish
 Plant
smatur
eearl
y pur pl
eorbr own  Flower s, f r
uit and
 Root sdev el
oppoor l
y seedsdev eloppoor l
y
 Plants show st unted  Low r esistance t o
gr owth disease
 Plants dev el
op f ew  Plantl odgeeasi ly(fal
l
flowers over )
 Fr ui
tsandseedst ake
longt ori
pen
Sympt
omsofexcess(t oomuch)supplyof
Nitr
ogen Phosphor us Potassium
Plantsdevel
opl ongl
arge Too ear l
y r i
pening of Slowseedger mi nat
ion
andv er
ydarkleaves fr
uitsandseeds Seedsr i
pensl owl y
Plant leaves become Reduce crop yi
eld Err
aticgrowt h
weakandsof t. somet imes Mayi ducecal cium
Easil
y at tacked by
di
seases

LossofNi t
rogen,Phosphor
usanPot assium forsoi
l
.
Nit
rogen Phosphor us Potassi um
Leaching Leaching Leaching
Soilerosion Soilerosi
on Soilerosion
Remov alofcropresi
due Remov al
ofcropr esi
due Remov alofcr
opresi
due
Continuouscr oppi
ng Continuouscr oppi
ng Continuouscroppi
ng
Bushbur ni
ng
Denitri
ficat
ion

Waysofimpr ov i
ngsoilfert
ilit
y
 Pr act icingcr oprotation
 Appl icat i
onoff erti
li
zers
 Pr ev ent ingsoilerosion
 Appl icat i
onofmul ch
 Cont rol l
ingweeds
 Pl oughi ngi nofcropr esidues
 Cont rol soilpH
ThenegativeEf fectsofFer t
ili
sersontheenvi
ronment
 Cont ami nationofdrinkingwater
 Iff ertili
zer sarenotpr operlymixedt
heycanbecarri
edawaybysur f
ace
wat eri ntodamsandr i
versandcont
aminatesour
ceofdri
nkingwater
 Af fect ingAquat icSpeci es
 Nut ri
ent ssuchasni tratesandphosphatecanwashint
olakes,r
iver
sand
dams.
Soi
lpH

10
I
sthemeasur
eofaci
dit
yandal
kal
i
nit
yoft
hesoi
l

ThepHscal
e
Aci
dit
y Al
kal
i
nit
y

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
St
rongl
y Sli
ght
ly Sl
i
ghtl
y St
rongl
y

Neut r
al
ThepHscal eisusedt omeasur et heacidit
yoral kal
ini
tyofthesoil.
Thescal er angesf r om 1–14
7ist heneut ral point.
AcidicsoilhasapHl essthan7
1-3i sst rongaci dit
y,4–6i ssli
ghtl
yaci dic
Alkali
nesoi lhasapHgr eaterthan7
8–10i ssl i
ght lyalkal i
ne, 12to14i sstrongal kal
ine
Theef fectsofsoi lpHonpl antgr owth
1.Al owsoi l pH(aci diccondi t
ion)r educeact i
v i
ti
esofsoilmicrobesandt hismay
results
inlowl ev elsofni t
ratesinthesoi l
.
2.Av erylowsoi l
pHmayi ncreaset heamountofal uminum inthesoilsoluti
on
wher e
theybecomepoi sonoust opl ants.
3. I nnatur epl antsgr owwel li
nt hesoil wi
thpHbet ween6.5and7. 5.
4.Whensoi lpHi smor et han8sal i
nesoi l
ar eformed.Thosear ehighl
yalkali
ne
soil
andmaynotbegoodf orgr owingcrops.

Cropsandthei
rSoi
lpHr
ange
Groups Crop Soi
lpHr
ange
Fi
ledCrops Maize 5.
7–7.5
Mill
et 5.
0–6.5
Sorghum 5.
5–7.5
Groundnuts 5.
5– 6.
5
Beans 6.
0– 7.
0
Vegetabl
es Spinach 6.
0–6.8
Rape 5.
5–7.0
Tomatoes 5.
5–6.0
Greenpepper 5.
5–7.0
Onions 5.
0–6.5
Fr
uits Banana 5.
0–8.0

11
 Ci
tr
us 5.
5–7.
0

Act
ivi
ti
est
hatal
terorChangesoi
lpH
1.Additionoflime
Li
mei saddedt othesoi ltoraisei
tspH.
2.Wat ering
Drysoilar emor eal
kaline,addingwat ert
othesoilreducesi
tsalkal
i
nit
y.
3.AdditionofOr gani
cmat ter
Organicmat t
ermakessoi lpHt obemor eacidi
c
4.AddingSul phurtothesoi l
Thislowersoi lph.Sul
phuri susedr educealkal
ini
tyofthesoi
l.
5.Applicationoffert
il
izers
Fert
ili
zerssuchasl imest oneAmmoni um Nitr
ate(
LAN)containl
ime.Li
merai
ses
soilpH

Waysofcont r
oll
ingorRegulati
ngSoilpH
 Soi laci
dit
ycanber educedbyaddi ngli
mesuchascal ci
um carbonate,
dolomite,
woodashandf ert
il
izerssuchasLAN
 Addi ngorganicmattertothesoilcanlowerit
spH.Thisbecausethe
rooti
ngofplatsmat er
ial
susuallycreat
esaidcondi
ti
onsinthesoil.
Soi
lalkali
nit
ycan be r educed byaddi ng Sul
phurorpot assi
um sulphate or
Gy
psumst
obr
ingt
hepHt
othecor
rectl
evel
sui
tabl
e

Cr
opPr
oduct
ion
Sy
stemsofCr
opPr
oduct
ion
Monoculture
Mixedcropping
I
ntercropping
Croprotati
on
Conti
nouscr oppi
ng
Conti
nuouscr oppi
ng–i st
hegrowingofcr opsi
naf
iel
dyeari
nyearoutwi
thout
al
l
owingthefi
eldar est.
Advantages
 Cr opproduceisavai
labl
eallyearround.
 Soi l
isunderaconti
nuouscropcov er

12
  Promot esef f
icientuseofl abourasi tkeptoccupi edal lti
me.
 Soilsofhi ghpot entialar eusedt othemax imum.
Di
sadvantages.
 Requi r
esav ail
abi l
it
yofadequat emoi stureal lyearr ound.
 Requi r
essoi lofhighf ertili
ty.
 Canl eadt ogr adual decl ineofsoi lferti
lityanddet eriorati
onofsoil
.
 Requi r
esi rr
igat i
ondur ingdr yseasonsoi ti sexpensi ve.
Monoculture/Monocr oppi ng–Pr acticeofgr owi ngonecr opt omaturi
tyona
pieceofl and.
Advant
ages
 Promot esdev elopmentofspeci ali
zedski l
l
 Faci l
itatesmechani zat ionoff arm oper ations.
 Suitabl eforl argescal ef aring
 Farm oper ationsar eeasyt ocar r
yout .
Di
sadvantages
 Leadst oi nadequat eut ili
zat i
onofl andr esour ces
 Promot ebui l
dupofpest sanddi seases.
 Highr i
skofcompl etecr opf ail
ur e
 Callsf orincr easeduseoff erti
lizersandpest i
cides.
Mixedcroppi ng-Meansgr owi ngt woormor ecr opsi naf ieldatt hesametime.
Advant
ages
 Affor dsbet tersoi lpr otect i
onf r
om soi lerosi on
 Highcr opy ieldpeeruni tar ea
 Efficientuseofwat er,sunl ightandsoi lresour ces.
 Spr eadofpest sanddi seasesar emi nimi z ed.
 Reducer i
skofcompl et ecr opf ailure.

Di
sadvantages
 Difficulttomechani zef arm oper ati
ons.
 Speci alizati
oni sl i
mi tedassev eral cropsar einv ol
ved.
 Farm oper ationsar enoteasyt ocar r
yout .

I
ntercroppi ng–itisaf or
m ofmi xedf armingwher eshortter
m annual
sar
e
pl
ant ed
betweenlongt erm annualsorbi ennialsandhar vestedbeforethemain
Adv ant
ages
- Wat erandnut r
ient
sar eusedef fici
ent
ly
- I fl
egumesar eincl
udedt heywi lladdnitr
ogent othesoil
- Var ietyoffoodisobtained
- Reducedr i
skofspr eadofpest sanddi eases
Disadvantages
- Mor elabourneededt omanagemanycr ops
- Mor etimetakent ogrowdi f
ferentcrops
- Far mer sshouldhaveskilsf orgr owingallthecrops
- Cr opscompet eforsunli
ght ,wat er,
nut
ri
entsandspace

13
Cr
oprot ati
on–t hegr owingofdi ffer
entcropsinagi vensequenceont hesame
pi
eceof
l
andi nordert omakeuseoft hebestsoi lr
esources.
Pr
inci
plesofcr opr ot
ation.
 Al t
ernatedeepr ootedwi thshall
owr ootedcr ops.
 Al t
ernateeasyt oweedcr opswiththoset hatar enot.
 Cr opwithsimilarpest sanddiseasesmustnotsucceedeachot herina
rotati
on.
 Al t
ernateheavygi verswithheav yfeeders.
 I
ncl udeal egumecr opinar ot
ation,toi
mpr ov eferti
l
ityandstr
ucture.
Ifpossi ble,i
ncludeaf al
l
owper iodt oall
owt hel andtoregener
ate/r ecov
er.
Year PLOTorFI
ELD
A B C D
1 Sorghum Cowpeas Sunfl
ower Fall
ow
2 Cowpeas Sunfl
ower Fall
ow Sorghum
3 Sunfl
ower Fall
ow Sorghum Cowpeas
4 Fall
ow Sorghum Cowpeas Sunfl
ower

Adv
ant
agesofcr opr otat
ion.
 Resultsinbetteruseofsoilresources.
 Maintainorev eimprovessoilfert
il
ity.
 Parasit
icweedssuchasst ri
ga( wit
chweed)areeasil
ycontr
oll
ed.
 I
ncreaseni t
rogencont enti
fal egumecr opisi
ncl
uded.
 Pestsanddi seasesareeasilycontroll
edasithel
pstobreakthei
rli
fecy
cle.
 Controlssoilerosi
on
 I
mpr ovessoil str
uctur
eandsoi lmoi st
urecont
ent

Di
sadv
ant
agesofcroprotat
ion.
 Requi
resski
llandknowledgetopl
anagoodcroprot
ati
on.
 Fal
lowperi
odi sawasteoflandwher
eisscar
ce.
 Donotapplyi
nperennial
scrops.

Fact
orstoconsi derinsi t
esel ecti
on
 Typeofsoi l,chooseasi tewheret hesoi li
sf er
til
e,forgoodgr owthofpl
ant
 Topogr aphy–af latlandi spreferedt hanst eepsl oppi
nglandt ocontrol
soilerosi
on
 Near nesstoper manentsour ceofwat er,
foreasywat eri
ngofplants
 Near nesstomar ket,f
oreasyaccessi bil
it
ybyt heconsumer s
 Distancebet weent hegar denandhome,f oreasymanagementbyt he
farmer
 Presenceofwi ndbr eakst oprotectcropsf rom strongwi nds
Landcleari
ng/st umpi ng-Thi sinvolvesr emov alofbushes,t r
eesst umpscrop

14
r
esiduesandanyundesirableobjectf r
om sit
e
I
tisdoneto:
 Facil
it
atetil
l
ageoper at
ions
 Avoidcompet i
ti
onbet weencr ops,andtr
eesfornutri
ents
 Controlpestanddiseases
 Stumpscandamagemachi nesandimplement susedforti
l
lageoper
ati
ons
 TILLAGE.I tinvol
v es digging and cult
ivat
ing the soi
lwi thtool
s or
i
mpl
ement
sresul
ti
ngi
nasui
tabl
eseedbedf
orgr
owi
ngcr
ops
 Pr
imar
yTi
l
lage;
ist
hei
nit
ialbr
eaki
ngdownoft
hel
andei
theraf
tercl
ear
ing
orf
oll
owi
ngt
hepr
evi
ouscr
op
 Secondar
yti
l
lage;i
sthewor
kingoft
hesoi
laf
terpl
oughi
ngai
medat
seedbedr
efi
nementbef
orepl
ant
ing(br
eaki
ngoft
hehar
dcl
ods)
DI
FFERENCEBETWEENPRI
MARYTI
LLAGEANDSECONDARYTI
LLAGE
PRI
MARYTI
LLAGE SECONDARYTI
LLAGE
- Thi
s cannotbe done when - I
tcan al
so be done when
t
hecr
opsar
eint
hef
iel
ds cr
opsar
eint
hef
iel
d
- I
tist
hef
ir
stcul
ti
vat
iondone - I
tis done t
o br
eak har
d
t
othesoi
l cl
ods,whensoi
lhasal
ready
- I
tdoesnoti
nvol
vel
evel
i
ngof beenl
oosened
soi
l - I
tinv
olv
esl
evel
i
ngoft
hesoi
l

Pr
imar
yti
l
lagei
mpl
ement
s.Moul
dboar
d,di
scpl
ough,chi
selpl
ough,subsoi
l
ers,
subr
ipper
s
SECONDARY TI
LLAGE I
MPLEMENTS;har
row,sur
facer
oll
er,r
otav
ator,
ri
dger
,
cul
ti
vat
or
Pl
oughing–di ggingandhar rowingt hesoi
lbeforeplanti
ng
REASONSFORPLOUGHI NG
 Bur ycropr esi
dues
 Controlweedsbybur yi
ngt hem underground
 Loosen t hesoi l
,thusi mpr ovi
ng aerati
on,wat erpenet
rat
ion and easy
rooti
ngofseedl ings
 Tocont rolpestsanddi seases
 Tobur ryseeds
 Topr eparef i
netil
th
Reasonsforleveli
ngaf t
erploughing
 Toal l
owf orequal di
stri
butionofwateront hefiel
d

15
  Tobr eakdowncl odsorl umpssot hatt hesoi lbecomessmoot handf i
ne.
 Tor emov eweeds,st oneandanywast epl antmat erialnotgoodf orpl
ant
areremov eddur i
ngl ev eling.
Reasonsf orBasal dressing, (Appl y
ingf erti
li
zer sbef orepl anting)
 Toensur ethatdur i
ngpl oughi ng,ferti
lizersist urnedundert hesoil
.
 Tor eplacenut rientsl acki ngi nthesoi l.
 Toi mpr ovesoi lferti
lityandst r
ucture.
I
mpl ement susedf orappl yingf erti
li
zers
 Pl anters-Addsf ertil
i
zer st othesoi latt hetimeofpl anting
 Fer ti
li
zer sspreader–Usedt ospr eadf erti
li
zer sinal i
qui d
 Tr ail
ers–usedwhenspr eadi ngkr aalmanur eorcompostt oacr opf i
eld
 Spr inkl
er s–Usedt ospr ayl i
qui dordi ssolvef erti
lizersont heleaves.
 Spr ayer -applyingf ertil
izer sont opofl eav esofpl ants
Techniques/ met hodsofPl ant ing
Diff
erencebet weendi rectandi ndirectplanting
DIRECTPLANTI NG I
NDI RECTPLANTI NG
- issowi ngofseedsi napl otor - Thi si nv olvessowi ngseedsi na
fi
eldwher et hepl ant swi l
lgr ow nur sery and l at er transpl
ant
unti
l t
heyar ehar vested. them t oper manentseedbed.
-

DirectPlanti
ng-Adv antagesofDi rectpl anti
ng
- Ti mesav ingbecausepl ant i
ngi sdoneonceunt il
thecropsarehar v
ested.
- Lessmoneyi sspendonl aboursi ncelesswor kisdone
- Seedscanbepl ant edqui cklyov eral argerar eat hanifweusei ndir
ect
Disadvantagesofdi rectpl ant i
ng
- Manyseedshast obepl antedsi ncesomemaydi eduri
ngger minati
on.
- Car ehast obegi vent oal lseedl ingsev ent hoseofpoorqual it
y.
- Someseedl i
ngsmaybeov er crowdedunl esst heythinnedt ogivethem
space.
Indi
rectPlanting–Adv antagesofi ndi r
ectpl anting
- Onl yhealthyandst rongseedl i
ngsar et ranspl anted
- Fewerseedsar eused
- Youngseedl i
ngsar epr ot ectedf rom badweat hercondit
ions
- Bet termanagementofseedl ings
- Seedl ingsthatdi eaf t
erpl ant i
ngcanber eplaced
DISADVANTAGESOFI NDI RECTPLANTI NG
- Tr ansplantingi stimeconsumi ng
- Mor elabouri sneeded
- Tr ansplantingdi sturbpl antgr owt h
- Tr ansplantedseedl ingst aket i
met oadj ustt ot henewenv ir
onment
- Someseedl ingsmaydi edur ingt ransplanting
- Someseedl ingsmaybewast ed
Techniques/met hodsofPl anting
Differ
encebet weenRowpl antingandbr oadcast i
ng
Rowpl antingissowi ngofseedsi nar owwhi lebr oadcast i
ngissowi ngseedsby

16
scatteringt hem ov ert hef i
eld
Advant ages
 Onl yf ewseedsar eused.
 Easyt ousemachi nes
 Easyt oest abl ishcor rectpl antpopulation
Highcr opy i
eld
Disadv ant ages
 Requi redski llandknowl edge
 I tisexpensi veasi trequiresspeci ali
mpl ementt ocarryout.
 Consumest imeandl abour
 Soi lbet weenr owsar eexposedt oagent sofsoi lerosi
on
Broadcast ing–scat teringov ert hefieldto
Advant ages
 I tiseasyqui ckandcheaper
 Doesnotr equi reski l
l
 Sui tablef ort i
nnyseeds
Disadv ant ages
 Di fficul ttoest ablishcor rectpl antpopulation
 Useshi ghr ateofseeds
 Resul t
si nlocal izedov erspaci ngorov ercrowdi ng.
Depthofpl ant ingseeds-howdeept heseedi spl acedi nt hesoil
Factor sinf luenci ngdept hofpl ant i
ng
Seedsi ze-Aseedi spl ant edatadept h3-5timesi tsdiamet er,
sothel
argert
he
seedt hedeepert hepl antingdept h
Soilt
y pe-Seedar epl ant eddeeperi nlightsoilthani nheav ysoil
Moist urecont ent–seedar esowndeeperi ndr ysoi linordert opl
acethem i
n
contactwi thmoi st ure.
Emer genceHabi t–Aseedt hatshowshy pogealemer genceshouldbeplant
ed
deepert hatt heonewhi chshowsepi geal
Cropsandt hei rdept h
Crop depth
- Wheat - 1. 5-2.5cm
- Bar ley - 1. 5-2.5cm
- Mai ze - 2. 5-5cm
- Gr oundnut s - 2. 5-5cm
- Sor ghum - 2- 3cm
- Mi ll
et - 2cm
- Beans - 3cm
- Cabbage - 1cm
- car rots - 1cm

Spacing-meanst hedi
stancebetweenr owsandcropsinar ow
I
nterrowspaci ng–spacebetweenr ows
I
ntrarowspaci ng–spacebetweenpl antsi
narow
Factorsinf
luenci
ngSpacingofcrops
Usemachi nery–Thespacebet weenr owsshoul
df aci
l
itat
euseofmachi
ner
y

17
Soilf
erti
li
ty–Thehi ghthesoilfer
til
it
y ,
theclosert hespacingandv i
cev i
sa
Growthhabi t-Pl antswithlargecanopyorl eav esorwi derspreadofrootsneeds
morespaci ngt hant hosewithsmal ll
ateralspread.
Purposewhi cht hecr opisgrown-t husi fmaizei sint
endedf orgr
ainisplantedat
awidespaci ngt hanmai zeintendedf orsil
age.
Moistureav ail
abi l
i
ty-Closerspaci ngi sencour agedinar easwi t
hhi ghr ai
nfal
thanthoset hanwi thlessrainfall
.
Crop Spacebet weenr ows Spacebet weenpl antsin
arow
- Sor ghum 60cm 15-20cm
- mai ze 90-100cm 20-30cm
- mi l
let 60cm 15cm
- beans 50-60cm 20cm
- groundnut s 100-120 30cm
- cabbage 45cm 45cm
- carrot s 30cm 2cm

Mulching-Meanscov eringt hesoi lsur facewi thalayerofmat erialtoconserv

e
soi
l
moi sture.
Material usedasmul ch
Drygrass, l
eav es, sawdust , woodshav ings, andcompostkr aalmanur e
Reasonsf orMul chi ng
 Reduceev apor ati
on
 Pr omot eseedl i
ngger minationsi ncei tmodi fi
essoilt
emper ature.
 I ncr easewat erpenet rati
on
 Mi ni mizesr unof fandsoi lerosion
 Pr ev entscompact i
ngandcappi ngofsoi lsurf
ace
 I nsul atesandr egul atessoi ltemper at
ur e
 Smot hers weed as and decomposi tion ,organic mulch ,humus and
nut rients
Whenshoul dt hemul chber emov ed.af t
erpl anting
- Remov emul chassoonasseedl ingemer gence
- I ft het ermitesst arteat i
ngit.
WATERI NG-APPLI CATI ONOFWATERTOPLANTSI NTHEFI ELD
Reasons
- Forpl antst osur vi
ve
- Fort ranspirat i
on
- Di ssol venut rientsint hesoi l
- Tomai ntai
npl antshape
- Tot ranspor tnut r
ient sal loverthepl ant
- Forphot osynt hesis
Weeds-aweedi sapl antgr owi ngwher eisnotwant edori nawr ongplace
Weedi ngi sther emov al ofunwant edpl anti nthefi
eldorplot.
Reasonsf orweedi ng
- weedscompet ewi thcr opsf orspace, lightwaterandnut r
ient s

18
 - habourcr oppest sandhel pspr eaddi sease
- cont ami nat ecr oppr oduceandl oweri tsqual ity.
- Maypr oducephy tot oxicsubst ances
- Lowerpr oduct ivityofpast ur e
- Reducecr opy i
el d.
Commonweedsf oundi nBot swana
- Lar get hor nappl e/mokhur e
- Coachgr ass/ mot lhwa
- Bl ackj ack/moony ana
- Mexi canpoppy/ loper o
- Pi gweed/ thepe
Parasi tic weed a weed t hatdepend on ot herpl ant sf ori ts survi
v al,
e.g.
wi t chweedi sapar asi t
icweedofmai zeandsor ghum
WAYSOFCONTROLLI NGWEEDS
Physi cal cont rol -handpul l
ingandusi nghoest or emov eweeds
Chemi cal cont rol -useofchemi calscal ledher bicidest ocont rolweeds
Cultur al cont r
ol -pr act icecr opr otation, mul chi ngandear lyplanting
Biologi cal cont rol -
useofl i
v i
ngt hingst ocont rol weeds
Thinni ng–i st her emov alofext r
aseedl i
ngst oal low enoughspacef orthe
remai ni ngseedl ings.
Adv ant agesoft hi nni ng
- Pr ov idesuf ficientgr owi ngspacef orseedl ings
- Mi ni mi secompet itionbet weenpl ant sf orwat er,air,nutri
entandl i
ght.
- Pr ev ent soccur renceofdampi ngof fdi sease
- I ncr easecr opy ieldaspl ant sgr owv igor ousl yandheal thy.
Di
sadv ant agesoft hinni ng
- Requi reski ll andgoodt imi ngt ocar r yitoutwel l
- Wast eseedsunl essputt ogooduse, andi st imeconsumi ngandl abor
ious.
Caredur ingt hi nni ng
- Thi nwhent hepl ant sar est illyoungbef oret heirr ootsgr owi ntoeachot her .
- Adv i
sabl et odoi tinst agesr athert hani noneoper ation
- Thi nwhent hesoi l ismoi stbutnott oowet .
- Remov eweakpl ant scar eful l
ywi thoutdi sturbingt her emai ningones.
- Ear thupr owst osuppor tther emai ningseedl i
ngs.
Transpl ant ing-i st het r ansf erofseedl ingf rom anur seryt otheper manentsi te.
Whent ot r
anspl ant
- Tr anspl antv eget abl eseedl ingswhent heyar eabout10cm hi ghandt ree
seedl ingswhent heyar e30cm hei ght .
- Acool ,cloudyandwetdayi sbestf ort ranspl anting.
- Theev eni ngi sal sot hebestt imef ort r anspl ant i
ng.
Tool sused, handt rowel
Howt ot ranspl ant .
- Wat erseedl ingatl east12hr sbef or et ranspl anting.
- Makesmal l hol esatcor rectspaci ngi nt hemai npl ot.
- Li ftupt heseedl ingwi thasmuchsoi l aspossi bl
e.
- Pl acet heseedl ingi napr e-preparedhol eatt hesamedept hast heywer ei n

19
 theseedbed.
- Pr esst hesoilaroundt heseedl i
ngt oremov eairpocket s.
- Wat ersoonaf tert r
anspl anting.
- Shadet heseedl ingusi ngl eaft wigs
Suppor ti
ng
- Tr elli
sing–Meanssuppor t
ingpl antswi t
haf ramewor kofpar
all
eland/or
crossed
Wirefixedonv ert
ical posts
- St aking–suppor t
ingpl antwi thast ickplacedverticall
ynextt ot
heplant
Advant agesofsuppor ting
- Ensur eexposur eofpl antl eavest oadequat esunlight .
- Lengt henst hehar vesti
ngper i
odofcer t
aincrops
- Faci li
tat es wor king bet ween r ows of cer t
ain cr ops dur i
ng spray
ing
culti
vat ing
- Ai dst hef reeflowofai rwhi chdr i
esplantsquickly
- Faci li
tat eharvest i
ngandpr ev entslodging
- Pr omot ebet t
erqual i
typr oduceaspodsf rui
tsandl eav esdonothang.
Di
sadv antages
- Ti meandl abourconsumi ng
- Expensi vetocar ryout
- Requi resskillandknowl edge.
PRUNNI NG-i tisthecut tingof funwant edpar tsofplant s,sot hatwecancontrol
i
tsgr
owt
h
Adv
ant
ages
I
tmakeshar
vest
ingeasy
- I
tremov
est
hedi
seasedpar
tsoft
hepl
ant
- I
tpr
event
sthepl
antf
rom bear
ingt
oomanyf
rui
ts
- I
tgi
vest
hepl
antt
heshapet
hatwant
- I
thel
psr
emov
etheunwant
edpar
tsoft
hepl
ant
Di
sadv
ant
ages
I
trequi
resal
otofl
abour
- I
trequi
resski
l
ls
- I
tcancausei
njur
ytopl
ant
s
- I
tcanal
socausei
njur
ytot
hepr
unni
ngper
son
Fi
eldCr
ops-Cr
opsgr
owni
nlar
gef
iel
dsandr
ainf
ed
Exampl
esoff
iel
dcr
opsgr
owni
nBot
swana
Mai
ze,
Sor
ghum,
Mil
l
et,
Beans,
Wat
ermel
on,
Jugobeans,
groundnut
s,pumpki
ns,
Mel
on,
Sunf
lower
,Cot
ton,
Pot
atoes,
Tea,
Cof
fee

20
I
mpor
tanceofFi
eldcr
opsandt
hei
rpr
oduct
s.
 Sour
ceofr
awmat
eri
als
 Cr
eat
eempl
oyment
 Gener
atei
ncomet
otheowner
 Sour
ceofi
ncome
 Sour
ceofr
awmat
eri
als.
 Useasl
i
vest
ockf
eeds
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionoff
iel
dcr
ops
Cl
ass Exampl
eoff
iel
dCr
op
Cer
eal Mai
ze,
Sor
ghum,
Mil
l
et
Legume Jugobeans,
groundnut
s,Soy
abeans
Root
s Sweetpot
atoes,
iri
shpot
atoes
Oi
l Gr
oundnut
s,Sunf
lower
Fr
uit
s Wat
ermel
on,
Pumpki
ns,
but
ter
nut
s,
Fodder Lucer
ne
Condi
ment
sandSpi
ces Chi
l
li
es,
Gar
li
c,Gi
nger
Fi
bre Cot
ton,
sisal
,j
uteandhemp
Pl
ant
ati
on Cassav
a

Var
iet
iesoff
iel
dcr
ops
Cr
ops Var
iet
ies/
cul
ti
var
s
Mai
ze Kgal
agadi
Ear
lyPear
l,Pot
chef
str
oom Pear
l,
PNR473,
R201,
SR42.
Sor
ghum Mar
upant
si,
65D,
Segaol
ane,
8D,
Mmabai
tse,
BSH1,
Town,
Phof
u,Mahub
e.
Cowpeas Bl
ackey
e,Tswana,
Rhenost
er,
ER7
Gr
oundnut Sel
l
ie,
S46,
GC8-
13,
I
CGS-
31
s
Mi
l
let Ser
ere,
Bont
le,
Legakwe
Sunf
lower Russi
anNo.
4
Soi
landcl
i
mat
iccondi
ti
onsneededf
orgr
owt
hoff
iel
dcr
ops
Fi
eldcr
op Soi
lcondi
ti
onsneeded Cli
mati
c condi
ti
ons
needed

21
Mai
ze -Dif
fer entt ypesofsoi l -Cangr ow wel lunderhot
-Fertil
e, deep, wel l sunnyweat hercondi t
ions
aerat edandwel ldr ained - rainf all400mm- 900mm
l
oam soi l
. -dr y weat her needed
-sl
ight ly aci dt o neut ral bef or e har vesti
ng t he
pH crop.
Sorghum -Wider angeofsoi ls -Can sur vive under dr y
-Sandyl oam soi l condi tions
-welldr ained and f erti
le - Rai nf all of at l east
soil 300mm
-soilpH5. 5- 8.5 -canbedamagedbyf rost
Millet -Li
ghtsandyl oam soi l -gr ow wel l under hot
-deep wel ldr ained and t emper atures
aerat ed -rainf all of at l east
-SoilpH5. 0-7.0 300mm
-needsmor ewat erdur ing
flower ingst age
Sunf l
ower -Dif
fer entt ypesofsoi l
s - needsabout500mm of
-well drainedsandyl oam r ainf all
-soilpH6. 5- 8.5 -gr owswel lunderwar m
temper atures
Groundnut -Sandy t o sandy l oam - gr ows wel lin war m t o
soils hott emper atures
-soilpH5. 8- 6.2 -needsr ainfallof500mm
-deep,wel ldr ained and t hr oughoutt heseason.
aerat edsoi l
Cowpeas -Wel ldr ainedsandyl oam - gr owswel li nwar m dr y
andcl ayloam soi ls ar eas
-soilpH5. 5- 7.5 -rainf all of at l east
300mm.
Typeofmanur eorf erti
lizerr equir edf ornor mal growt hoff ieldcr ops.
Mostcr opswi l
lbenef itf r
om addi ti
onofcompostandkr aalmanur east heyal so
i
mpr ove soilst ructure.Fer t
il
iser sl ike ur ea,Li mest one Ammoni um Ni t
rat e,
Super phosphat eand2: 3:2(22). Ther ei snoneedt oaddni tr
ogenf er ti
li
zerst ot he
soilwhengr owi nglegumecr opsbecauset heyf i
xt heirownni tr
ogeni nthesoi l.̀
Calculatingandmeasur ingt heamountoff ertili
zert oappl yt oacr opf iel
d.
Ar ecommendat ioncanbemadeont her ateoff ertil
isertoaddt oacr opf i
eld.
Forexampl e: whengr owi ngcowpeas, super phosphat efer til
iseri saddedatar ate
of200- 300kgperhect are.Ify ouhav e10hect aref i
eldy oumul ti
ply200and300
by10.
Precaut i
onswhenappl yingf er t
ili
zeri ncr opf ields.
-Avoidappl yingf erti
li
zerdi rect l
yont ot hepl ant ssi ncet heymaybur nt heplant s.
-Donotbr oadcastf ert
il
izeronwi ndyday sast hef erti
li
zermaybebl ownaway .
-Uset hecor rectmet hodt oappl yt hef er ti
li
zer .
-Donoteatordr inkwhenhandl ingt hef er t
il
izer
-Donotaddt oomuchf er ti
l
iserast hiscanki ll thepl ants.

22
Reasonsf ortreat i
ngseedsbef orepl anting.
-Toki l
lanydi seasecausi ngger mst hatmi ghtbei nt heseeds.
-Topr otectseedsf rom at t
ackbyi nsect soranypest s
-Toimpr ov egermi nat i
onofseeds.
-Toenabl eseedl ingst ogr owheal thy .
Met hodsoft r
eat i
ngseeds. (
DEMONSTRATE)
a)Traditional met hod- usingwoodorcowdungasht ot r
eatt heseeds.
b)Moder nmet hod- usingchemi calstot r
eatandpr otectseedsagai nstanyi
nsects
thatcandamaget hem.
Precaut i
onst obet akenwhenhandl i
ngt reat edseeds.
-Readt hei nst r
uct i
ons
-Wearpr otectivecl othingsuchasgl ov esandmasks.
-Keept reat edseedsoutofr eachofchi l
dren.
-Donoteatordr inkwhi l
ehandl ingtreat edseeds.
Correctmanagementwhenr ai
singcr ops
Wat eri
ng,Thi nning,Soi lcul t
ivat
ion,Weedi ng,Appl ying f er ti
li
sers,Contr
olli
ng
pestsanddi seases.
Pest saff ecti
ngf i
eldcr opsandt heircont r ol.
Pest s Cont rol met hods
Maize/ sor ghum st al
kbor er Useendosul f
an
Dest roycr opr esi dues
Pr acti
cecr opr otat i
on
Armour edcr icket Usecar bar yl
Bui ldt renches ar ound f i
eldtot r
ap
them
Remov e weeds and bushes ar ound
field
Yell
owsor ghum aphi ds Useendosul f
an
Pl antresistantv arieties
Afri
canbol l
wor m Pr acti
cecr opr otat i
on
Usecar bar ylandendosul f
an
Quel eabi rds Scar etheaway
Har vestingsor ghum andmi l
l
etear
lier
Locust s Spr aywi thi nsect i
ci des
Spr aythebr eedi ngar eas
Diseasesaf f
ectingf ieldcropsandhowt heyar econt roll
ed.
Diseases Cont rol met hods
Maizer ust Dest roycr opr emai ns
Pr acti
cecr opr otat i
on
Leafspot UseDi thaneM45
Pl anti
ngear li
er
Rot ati
ngcr ops
Sorghum smut s Tr eati
ngseeds
Rot ati
ngcr ops
Keepi ngcr opf i
el df reeofweeds
Maizest reakv irus Useofcar bof uran

23
 Controlleafhopperwhichspreadsi
t
Powder
ymi
l
dew Pl
antr esist
antcropv ar
iet
ies
Avoidov er-
headwat eri
ng
Bact
eri
albl
i
ght Practi
cecr oprotat
ion
Usecleant reat
edseeds

Precaut ionswhenusi ngchemi calsorpest icides

-
Readal l t
hei nstr uct ions
-
Fol lowt hei nst ruct ions
-
Donotspr aydur ingwi ndyday s
-
Nev ereat ,
dr i
nkorsmokewhenusi ngchemi cal s
-
Keepoutofr eachofchi ldr en
-
Al way skeepchemi cal si nt heiroriginal cont ai
ner s
Effect sofchemi cal sorpest i
cidesont heenv i
ronment
-
Theypol l
ut et hesoi l,wat eri nrivers,wel lsanddams
-
Theyki llusef ul ani mal sl ikebees, f i
sh, birdsandear t
hwor ms
-
Theycandamageorki l
lcr opsandot herpl ant s
-
Someev apor at ei ntot heat mospher eandpol lutetheair
Pestcont rol met hodsnothar mf ultot heenv ironment
Biologi cal cont r
ol -Usei nsect st hateatcr oppest se.guseofcatforr
odent
s.
Cul t
ur al cont rol-cropr otat ion,cul t
ivation, weedi ng.
Mechani calcont rol -beat ingbyst icks,scar eawaybi r
ds,useoftraps,
useof
tr
enches.
Quar antinemet hod- e. gchi lli
esusedt ocont rol elephants.
Cor rectwayofusi ngaspr ay er
-
Readt hei nst ruct ionsonhowt hespr ay erisused.
-
Gety ourspr ay err eady
-
Wearpr otect ivecl ot hingandmi xchemi cal asspeci f
ied
-
Putt hechemi cal i
nt hespr ayer
-
Spr ayt hecr opsi dent i
fied
-
Cl eant hespr ay er
-
Washy ourhandst hor oughl y.
Chemi calsusedt ocont rol pest sanddi seasesofcr ops
Pestcont rol chemi cal s
-
Cut wor m bai t
-
Doom
-
Mal athi on
-
Di met hoat e
-
Car bar yl
-
Endosul fan
Diseasecont rol chemi cal s
-
Vi ri
kop
-
Br av o720
-
Di thaneWG
-
Car bof uran
Har vest ingandmar ket ingoff ieldcr ops

24
Harvest
ing-
diff
erentcr
opsar eharvest
edandmar ket
eddiff
erent
ly.Harvesti
ng
canbedoneusi nghandtools,
usingmachi
nes,handpicki
nganduprooti
ng.
Marketi
ng-t
hisinvol
vespromotingandsell
ingapr oduct
.Cropscanbesol dto
i
ndivi
duals, shops, mil
li
ng companies, breweri
es, Bot
swana Agr icul
tural
Marketi
ngBoar d.

Determiningt hemar ketpri

cesf orlegumeandcer ealcr
ops
Thef ol
lowingf actorsinf
luencet heprice.
-
Thei nputcost s
-
Qual i
tyofpr oducts
-
Thedemandf orthecrop
-
Thef ormi nwhi chcr opsaremar ket
ed.
Storagepest saf f
ectingfi
eldcrops
Pests Damagecaused Contr
ol
Ratsandmi ce They eat t he gr ains, Useofrat
urinateont heseedsand Chemi cal
met hod
leavet hei
rf eacesont he Use of r odent proof
grains. st
ores
Weev il They eatt he insi
de of Chemi cal
met hod
grainsandl owerproduct Useofwoodash
qualitybymaki ngholes.
Moth Bor eholesongr ains Chemical
treatment

25
Animal Nutri
tion
Thestudyoff oodt hewayi tisprocessedandusedi ntheanimal
body
.
Reasonsf orfeedi ngani mals.
- Formai nt enancepur pose
- Pr oduct i
onofpr oductssuchasmi l
k,meat ,
eggs,wool
- Pr otectionagai nstdiseases
- Repr oduct i
onofy oungones
- Forener gyt odowor k
- Fornor mal gr owth
I
mpor tanceofdi fferentfeedsubst ancesi nani
mal nut
rit
ion.
Water
 For msandmai ntainsshapesofbodycel l
s
 Neededf ordi gesti
on
 Assi stsi nt hebodyt emper atureregulat
ion
 Ar eact anti nmanybi ochemi calreact
ions.
 Ai dinexcr etionofwast eproduct s;
 For ms60- 70%oft heanimal body
 For m par tofal lanimal f
lui
dsandsecr eti
ons
Carbohydrates
 Sour ceofenergy
 Excessst oredasfatsforl
ateruse
 For m partofani
mal pr
oductssuchasl act
ose.
Li
pids(fatsandoi l
s)
 Ser vesasenergyreser
v ei
nt hebody.
 Sour ceofenergy
 For m partofani
mal pr
oducts
 I nsulateanimalbodyagainstcold
 Pr otectsomepartsofbodyagainstshocke.gki
dney
Pr
ot ei
ns
 Essenti
alforgrowthanddevel
opment
 Neededforr epl
acementandrepai
rwornoutt
issuesandcel
l
s
 Form partofanimalpr
oduct
 Excesssuppl yi
susedastosupplyener
gy
Mi
ner
als
 Neededforstr
ongbonesandskel
etone.
gphosphor
us
 Essent
ial
forbl
oodfor
matione.
gir
on

26
  Topr
eventnut
ri
ti
onal
diseases.

Vi
tamins
 Forbloodclotti
nge. gvitK
 Forstrongbonesandt eethe.
gvi
tD
 Improvesey esighte.gv i
tA
 Prot
ect sagainstdiseases

Rat
ion
Thedai
l
ymeasur
edamountoff
eedgi
vent
oanani
mal
(24hr
s).
Ty
pesofRat
ion
1)Bal
ancedr
ati
on.
2)Mai
ntenancer
ati
on
3)Pr
oduct
ionr
ati
on.
1)Bal
ancedRat
ion
-Suppl
i
es nut
ri
ent
s needed f
ormai
ntenance and pr
oduct
ion i
nthe cor
rect
amountandpr
opor
ti
on.
2)Mai
ntenanceRat
ion
-Abal
ancedr
ati
ont
hatcont
ainsenoughnut
ri
ent
stokeepanani
malal
i
veandi
n
goodheal
thwi
thoutgai
norl
ossofwei
ght
.
3)Pr
oduct
ionRat
ion
-Abal
ancedr
ati
ongi
veni
naddi
ti
ont
omai
ntenancer
ati
ont
opr
ovi
denut
ri
ent
s
f
orpr
oduct
ion.E.
g.Al
act
ati
ngcow canbegi
venadai
rymealatt
het
imeof
mi
l
king.
Roughages–coar
sef
eedt
hatar
eri
chi
nfi
brebutl
owi
nener
gyandpr
otei
n.
Ty
pesofr
oughage
Dr
yandSuccul
entr
oughages
Succul
entr
oughages–Theycont
ainv
eryl
owmoi
stur
econt
entf
orexampl
e,hay
,
dr
y gr
ass,
drycr
opr
esi
duesandst
raw.
Dr
yroughages–Theycont
ainhi
ghmoi
stur
econt
ente.
g.gr
eenf
odder
,gr
een
gr
ass, si
l
age,
rootcr
ops
Concent
rat
es–Feedst
hatar
ehi
ghi
nener
gyandpr
otei
nsi
nthei
rdr
ymat
terbut
l
owi
nfi
bre.

27
Ty
pesofconcent
rat
es
Ener
gyconcent
rat
es–Theyar
eri
chi
ndi
gest
ibl
ecar
bohy
drat
es,whi
l
enotv
ery
r
ichi
n pr
otei
nse.
g.mol
asses,
mai
zeandsor
ghum meal
,ri
ce
br
an
Pr
otei
nconcent
rat
es–Theysuppl
yhi
ghcont
entofpr
otei
nint
hei
rdr
ymat
ter
.–
oi
l cakes,
fishmeal
,cowpeameal
,ski
m mi
l
k.
Di
ff
erence bet
weenConcent
rat
esandr
oughages(
nut
ri
ti
onal
val
ue)
ROUGHAGES CONCENTRATES
 Ri
chi
ncr
udef
ibr
e  Lowi
ncr
udef
ibr
e
 Di
ff
icul
ttodi
gest  Easi
l
ydi
gest
ibl
e
 Feedi
ngv
aluequi
tev
ari
abl
e  Feedi
ngv
aluef
air
lyconst
ant
 Lowi
ntot
aldi
gest
ibl
enut
ri
ent
s  Hi
ghi
ntot
aldi
gest
abl
enut
ri
ent
s
 Suppl
y bul
k whi
ch i
mpr
oves t
he  Pr
ovi
del
i
ttl
eornobul
k
wor
kingoft
hesy
stem.
 Neededi
nlar
gequant
it
iesast
hei
r  Needed i
n smal
lquant
it
ies si
nce
nut
ri
entcont
entmassi
slow. t
hei
rnut
ri
ent
scont
entperuni
tishi
g
 Themai
nfeedf
orr
umi
nant
s.  The mai
n f
eed t
ype f
or non-
 Used as mai
ntenance and r
umi
nant
s
pr
oduct
ionr
ati
ons  Usedassuppl
ement
sforr
umi
nant
s
Suppl
ement
aryFeedi
ng–I
tist
hepr
act
iceofgi
vi
ngext
raf
eedst
oani
mal
sto
cor
rectcer
tai
ndef
ici
enci
esi
nthei
rnor
mal
diet
.
Theext
raf
eedsgi
venar
ecal
l
edsuppl
ement
aryf
eeds
Si
gni
fi
canceofsuppl
ement
aryf
eedi
ng
Topr
eventani
mal
from dev
elopi
ngnut
ri
ti
onal
diseases
Exampl
eoff
eeds
o Bonemeal
andsal
ts
o Cal
cium hy
drogenphosphat
eandsal
t
o Mi
ner
all
i
cks,
droughtpel
l
ets,
rumev
itebl
ocks,
Mol
asses
Nut
ri
ti
onalDi
seases-Theyar
edi
seasest
hatoccuri
nani
mal
sbecauseofl
ackor
def
ici
encyofcer
tai
nnut
ri
ent
sint
hei
rdi
et.
Exampl
esofNut
ri
ti
onal
Diseases

28
 o Aphosphor
osi
s–l
ackofphosphor
us
o Ri
cket
s-l
ackofphosphor
usandcal
cium,
alsol
ackofv
itD.
o Bl
oat
-t
oomuchgasf
il
li
ngupt
hest
omachduet
oeat
ingal
otoff
resh
gr
eenpl
ant
s.
o Mi
l
kfev
er-
lackofcal
cium i
nthebl
oodst
ream.
o Anaemi
a-l
ackofi
ron

Aphosphor
osi
sdev
elopwhenani
mal
seatf
ooddef
ici
enti
nphosphor
us.
Aphosphor
osi
s
Ani
mal
sAf
fect
ed
-
Cat
tl
e
-
Goat
s
-Sheep
Cause
-Whent
hesoi
landgr
assi
sver
ylow i
nphosphor
us.Thent
heani
maleat
s
gr
ass(f
ood)l
acki
ngphosphor
us.
Sy oms-Ani
mpt mal
seatol
dbonesandwi
res.
 Swol
l
enj
oint
sandst
if
fjoi
nts.
 Di
ff
icul
tyi
nwal
ki
ngbecauseofswol
l
enj
oint
sandst
if
fjoi
nts.
 Lossofappet
it
e.
 Ani
mal
sbecomet
hin.
 Youngani
mal
sdonotgr
owwel
l
.

Cont
rolandPr
event
ion-Feedani
mal
swi
thDi
cal
cium phosphat
eandsal
tata
r
ati
oof1:
1.Thi
sshoul
dbef
edad-
li
b(wi
thoutl
i
mit
ati
on)
.
-Pr
ovi
deani
mal
swi
thmi
ner
alssuppl
ement
sregul
arl
y

29
BEEKEEPI
NG
I
mpor
tanceofbeekeepi
ng
-
Iti
sasour
ceofempl
oyment
-
Iti
sasour
ceofi
ncome
-
Beespol
l
inat
efl
ower
s
-
Itneedsv
eryl
i
ttl
ecapi
tal
-
Beespr
oducewax(
cal
l
edbeeswax)
-
Beespr
oducehoney

FUNCTI
ONSOFPARTSLABELLED
Thebodyofabeei
sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreepar
ts.
a)
Head
Ant
ennae-f
orsmel
l
ing,
hear
ingandf
eel
i
ng.
Twocompoundey
esandt
hreesi
mpl
eey
es-
all
owst
hebeet
oseev
erywel
landi
n
al
ldi
rect
ionsatt
hesamet
ime.
Mout
hpar
ts(
mandi
ble)
-t
hehoneybeehasj
awsf
orchewi
ngt
hewaxf
orbui
l
ding
t
hecombs.I
thasal
ongt
onguewhi
chi
scal
l
edapr
obosci
s.Thepr
obosci
sis
usedt
osuckupnect
arf
rom t
hef
lower
s.
b)
Thor
ax
Wi
ngs-
usedf
orf
lyi
ngandf
anni
ngt
hehi
ve
Legs-
usedf
ormov
ement
(wal
ki
ng)
-
fr
ontl
egs-
gui
det
hepr
obosci
swhenpi
erci
ngt
hef
lowert
osucknect
ar
-
hindl
egs-
sincet
heyar
ehai
ry,
theyt
rappol
l
enandcol
l
ecti
ttot
hehi
ve.

30
Theyal
sohel
pinf
lyi
ngandl
andi
ng
c)
Abdomen
St
ing-f
orst
ingi
ngenemi
esdur
ingdef
enceoft
hecol
ony
.
Spi
racl
es-
forexchangeofgasesdur
ingr
espi
rat
ion.

DI
GESTI
VESYSTEM OFABEE
Wor
kerbeecol
l
ect
s

31
FRUI
TTREEPRODUCTI
ON
NAMEFRUI
TTREESINBOTSWANA

I
NDEGENIOUSfruittrees:Thesearefr
uittreest hator
igi
nat
einBotswana.
Theygrow nat
ural
l
yi nBot swana.Exampl
esi nclude;moretl
wa(br
andybush),
mogorogor
wane(monkey or ange)
, mmi l
o(widmedl ar
), mmupudu ( r ed
mil
kwood),
,
mowana( baobab)

EXOTI Cf ruitt r
ees;t heyor iginat efrom ot hercount ri
esot herthanBot swana
andhav ebeeni mpor tedt oBot swana.Exampl esinclude;bananas,or anges,
mango, gr apes, appl es,pawpaws
Material
sNeededf orconst ructionoff ruittr
eeNur sery
Gum pol es,shadenet ,cement ,sand,gr av el
,heav ywi re,nail
s,stapl
espegs,
measur i
ngt ape
Equipment sNeededf orconst ruct i
onoff ruittreeNur sery
Wheel barr ow, hammer ,hol edi gger, steprudder ,pli
ers,shov el
Impor tanceofnetshadi ng
- pr otect sseedl ingf rom hi ght emper atureanddi rectsunl i
ght
- r educeev apo-t ranspi rati
on.
- Pr otectseedl ingf rom di r
ectbeat ingact ionofr aindrops.
- Pr otectseedl ingsf rom bi rddamage.
Methodsofpr opagat ion.
-Sexual -r ai
singf ruittreeusi ngseeds
-Asexual -raising seedl i
ngusi ngv egetativepar ts.(cut ti
ngs,graft
ing,
buddi ng, l
ayering, )
Exampl eoff r
ittreewhi chcanr ai sedusi ngasexual propagati
on
Propagat i
onmedi ainanur ser y.
- Loam soi l,sandysoi l,peatmoss,compost edkr aalmanur e,saw dust,
perlite, horti
cul tural vermi culite.
Characteristicsofgoodpl ant i
ngmedi a.
- Fi rm anddenseenought ohol dseedsandcut t
ings
- Mai nt ainsconst antmoi stur e
- Goodwat err etent i
on
- Fr eef rom weedsandnemat odes.

32
 - Capabl eofbei ngpasteurized.
Ty
peofferti
l
izer
susedi nanur sery
- Compoundf erti
li
zerssuchas2: 3:2(
22)areusuall
yused.
- Kraal manur ecanal sobeused.
Pr
epar
ati
onf orplantingf rui
ttreeseeds
- Hav eseedsr eady
- Ifneededt reatseedst oimpr oveger minat
ion
- Sieveandaddacompoundf er t
il
izer
s
- Ifneededpast euri
zethemedi um usingsteam orchemical
.
- Fillupnur serypot switht epropagat i
ngmedium andaddwaterl
eav
eit
f
oradayt oset t
lebeforeplanting.

Cutti
ngs–I ti
sav egetat
iveport
ionofaplantwi
thoneormor
ebuds.
Preparat
ionofcutti
ngs-
Hardwoodcut ti
ngsarepr epar
edfrom l
ateaut
umntoearl
yspr
ingandpl
ant
edi
n
summer
-

Takecut ti
ngsf r om ar i
pedwoodwoodf r
om t hepr eviousy earsgr owth.Use
shar pkni f
et oensur ecleancutofcut t
ings.Size0. 6–2. 5cm i ndiamet erand
about30cm i nlengthwi that
least2nodes.Remov eleavesfrom t hepor t
iontobe
bur i
edandt hoseont heaerialsectionsi de.Tr eatabasalcuti nwi throoting
powdert opr omot eearl
yandbet terrootdev elopment
PlantingofCut ti
ngs.Cutti
ngscanei t
herbeseti nanur serybedsorpl anted
directlyinaf i
eld..Usuall
yplantt hem t o adept hofhal fthei rlength.Wat er
regular l
yfoll
owi ngplanti
ngsetti
ngs.
Grafting–I tist heactofconnect ingpar tsoft wopl antssot hatt heywi l
lunite
andgr owintooneuni t
.
Ther ear ediffer
entmet hodsofgr afti
ngbutt heyallinvol
v euni
tingsci onandr oot
stock.
Scionf or
mt heupperpar tandr ootst ockf orthel owerpar t
.Gr aft
ingi sdonei n
spr i
ngorl atewi nter
.

33
Budding–I ti saspeci alform ofgr afti
ngt hatinvolveuniti
ngav eget
ati
ve
budsandar ootstock..T-Budding–i tinvolv
essel ect
ionofascionplantand
rootstock.Preparati
onofbuddi ngsiteonr ootstock,cut t
ingofbudshield,
unit
ingofbudshi eldtot hestock,bindi
ngt heunionf i
rmly
:ger mi
nat
ionofthe
budshieldandev entualcutt
ingof fofpartthestock.

Lay
eri
ng-Thi
sinv
olv
einduci
ngabr
ancht
odev
elopr
oot
swhi
l
stst
il
lat
tached
t
othe amot
herpl
ant
.

34
Propagat ionUsi ngSucker s–Sucker si sashott hatarisesonapl antfr
om below
thegr ound.Bananasandpi neappl ear epr opagat edusi ngsuker s,
Stepf orforpr opagat i
onusi ngsucker s
i
. Sel ect ionofst rongandsucker sof1–1. 5m i nhei ght
i
i. Diggi ngoutandcut t
ingsoft hesucker sf rom themot herplant.
i
ii
. Tr i
mmi ngt hesucker sofexcessl eavesandadv ent iousroots.
i
v. Pr otect iont hesucker sfrom dr yingunt i
l t
heyar epl anted.
v. Sucker sareusual lytakendur i
ngdor mantseason.
ManagementofSeedl ingsi nanur ser y
- r egul arwat er i
ng
- Pr otect ionf rom pest sanddi seases
- Regul arcont rol ofweeds
- Thi nni ngt oav oidov ercrowdi ng
- Pr otect ionf rom adv erseweat hercondi tions
Fact or saffect ingdi mensi onsofapl ant i
nghol e.
Ty peofr oot ssy stem -at r
eewi thdeepandwi der ootsyst em requiresadeeper
plantingandwi derhol e.
Soi l
ty pe–i nheav yandhar dysoi l
pl ant i
nghol ehast obedeeper .
Sizeofaf ruitt ree–l arget r
eesneeddeeperanwi derplantinghol e.
Soi l
f erti
li
ty–. i
nsoi lofl owf erti
li
tyt hehol eshoul dbedeeperandwi derthenfil
l
ed
withmor egoodsoi landmanur e.
Topogr aphyoft hel and–onst eepsl opespl antinghol esshoul dbedeeperand
widert hani ngent l
esl ope.
Expect edpr oduct i
vel i
feofat ree.-at reeofal ongerl i
fespanneedabi ggerhole
thanonewi thshor tlifespan.
Met hodofPr opagat ion–t reesr aisedf rom cut t
ingsandl ay eri
ngdonotdev el
op
tapr oot s,sot heyneeddeeperpl antinghol e.
Fact
orsaffect
ingspacingoff rui
ttr
ee
Rootssyst
em -at reewi t
hdeepandwi der ootsyst
em requi
resmorespacethanwit
h
lat
eral
r ootedspread.
Syst
em oflanduse–t reesgr owninapur estandwouldbeclosert
hanthosetobeint
er
rowpl ant
edwithothercrops.
Growthhabit–at r
eewi thlar
geandspr eadingcanopyrequi
resmorethantheonewit
h
smal l
crown.

35
Soi
lfer
ti
li
ty-i
nsoilofl
owf erti
l
ityshouldbedeeperandwi derthanusual
Thepurposeforwhichtheyar er aised–t r
eeswhosef rui
tsaref orexpor
tsorpr
ocessi
ngwoul
d
bespaceddif
fer
entl
yfrom t hoset hataref
orlocalmarket.
Useofmachinery-spacingshoul dtakeaccountofuseofmachi neryi
ftheor
char
dis
mechani zed.
PREPARATIONOFPLANTI NGFORAFRUI TTREE
- Mar khol
epositionatar ecommendedspaci ng
- Dig1m squareofatl east60cm deep,keepholestr
aighttot hebott
om
- Separ
atet
opsoi
lfr
om subsoi
lasy
oudi
gthehol
e

- Mixtopsoilwit
hcompost
edkraalmanur
eatar
ati
oof1:
1andaddabout100-
500gof
superphosphat
etot
hemixtur
e.

- Br eakupt hebottom surfaceandmakei tloose.

Transplant
ingfruittr
eeseedli
ng
Lif
tingandmov ingseedl
ingfrom nurser
yt oanorchard.
Preparingtopl ant–bybackf il
li
ngt heholesot hattherootcoll
arwillbel
eveltothegr
ound
surface.Addsomewat ertotheholet ohelpremoveairpockets.
Planti
ngseedl i
ng– Remov epotandpl acetheseedl i
ngi nthecent
reoft hehole.Addthe
remainingsoilasbackf i
l
l.Fi
rmt hesoiltoremoveairpockets.Addsoi
ltothel
evel
ofthecol
l
ar.

36
Usesubsoi l
toconstr
uctadishshapedbasinroundt
heplanttowater
.
Mulching-Applymul chint hebasintoreduceevaporati
onandmai nt
aingoodsoi
l
st
ructureandcontr
olweeds.Watertheseedli
ngheavi
lyandrepeati
tevery2-
3dayst
o2
weeks.
PRECAUTIONSWHILETRANSPLANTI NG
-
Lif
tseedl
i
ngswi
thasmuchsoi
lroundt
her
oot
saspossi
ble
-Protectupr ootedseedl ingsf r
om heatunt i
ltheyar etransplanted.
-Transpl anti ntheaf ternoon
-Ensur et hatroot sar ewel l spr eadouti nt hehol eandt hest em kepterect
-Planttheseedl ingsot hatt hecol l
ari sal evel withthegr ound.
-Presst hesoi lr
oundt heseedl ingf irmlyt other emov eairpocket s
-Wat erseedl i
ngi mmedi atel yaf tert ransplanting.
-Prov i
deshadet oseedl i
ngt opr otectt hem from heat .
-I
faseedl ingsisi ndangerofbendi ng, suppor titwi t
hast ake.
Managementpr act i
cesi nanor chard.
Cultiv
ation–donet ocont rol weeds, aeratesoi landi mpr ovewat erinf
il
trat
ion.
Wat eri
ng–r egular l
ydonenor mal ofgr owt handhi ghy iel
d.
Cont r
ol pest sanddi seasesot her wiset hequal i
tyandt heyieldoftreewouldber educed.
Regularr emov alofweeds–t opr ev entthem f rom compet it
ionwi t
ht r
eeswoul dreduced.
Pruning–i sther emov al ofunpr oduct ivepart sofapl ant.
Reasonsf orPruni ng
- r emov edead, diseasedandot her wisedamagedbr anches
- easeai rcirculationandl ightpenet r
at i
on
- f or m andmai ntaindesi r
abl eshape
- pr eventov erbear ing
- cont rolpest sanddi seases
- f acilit
ateshar v estingoff ruits
- i ncreasequal ityandy ieldoff r
ui t
s
- i nducef ruit
ingi ncer t
ai nf r
ui ttrees.
Met hodsofhar vestingf ruit
- handpi cking
- Useofhandt ools
Fact
orst
oconsi derwhenmar keti
ngf r
uits
- Sor t
ing,grading,andpackagi ng
- Per i
shabilityandstor agefacil
it
ies
- Distancefr om majorconsumpt ioncentr
e
- Mar keti
ngchannel s–i ndi
vidualconsumers,
ret
ail
erswhol
esal
ers
- Priceandweat hercondi ti
ons
- Compet i
ti
onsf rom otherf r
uitproducer
s
- Qual i
tyoff rui
ts
- Consumer‘ spr ef
erenceandt a

37
 - Forestr
y–ist
hescience,
artandpr acti
cesofmanagingfor
estr
esour
ces
forvari
ous purpose.
Exoti
ctree I
ndigenousTrees
Eucaly
ptus(Gum t
ree) Colophospermum mopane
Pinetr
ee Camel thor
n
Peppertree Mogot l
ho
Syri
nger Baobab
Chri
stmast r
ee Shepherdtree
Sil
koak Snopappl e
Rubbertree

I
mport
anceoftreesandt reepr oduct s.
- Provi
deshadef oranimal s
- Prot
ectsoilfrom soilerosionbywat erandwind.
- I
mpr ovessoil f
erti
li
tyandassi stinnutr
ient
srecy cl
ingthr
oughtheleaf
- Prot
ectwat ersheds
- Usedforbor dersplanti
ngt odemar cateholdi
ngs, l
i
neinthefi
elds.
- Provi
dehabi tantforli
vestockandgameani mals.
- Provi
debrowsel iv
estockandgameani mal
s.
- Provi
detimber ,polesandpul p.
- Provi
denect arandpol l
enf orbeesandot herinsects.
- Sourceoffuel andchar coal .
- Sourceoftanni nanddy es
- Shadesoil
,sor educeev apor ati
onofsoilmoisture.

I
mpor
tanceoftreeproductsandt
hei
ruses
TreeProducts Uses(s)
Timberandpol es Furnit
ure, f encing, pol
es for
el
ectrici
ty,buil
ding
Woodpul p Makingpaper s
Tanninanddy es Dyeingandt anningindust
ri
es
Fuelwoodandchar coal Fuel f or cooki ng, warming
Fi
breandf r
onds houses
Frui
tsandroot s Handicraftmaki ng
Gumsandr esins Foodf oranimalsandpeople
Nectarandpol l
en Foodf oranimalsandpeople
Medicalherbs/products Foodf orbees
Phanewor ms Treatofdiseases
Browsesandgr eenfodder Foodf orpeople
Foodf orl
ivestockandgame.

Vel
dpr
oducts–ar
enon-ti
mberpr
oduct
s.
Vel
dpr
oductandt
hei
rUses

Vel
dproduct Uses
Kal
ahar
itruf
fl
e(Mahupu) Fungi t
hat gr
ows under
ground

38
 consumedasv
eget
abl
e
Edi
ble,
GumsOi
l
sandr
esi
ns
Tanni
nsandDy
es Usedf
ordy
ingandt
anni
nindust
ri
es
Di
kgose(Wi
l
dcof
febean) Beansar
eroast
edaneat
en
Dev
il
’scl
aw Secondar
yroot
sar
eusedasmedi
cine
Mosukuj
aneandmosukudu ort
ea.
Used as t
ea and t
o t
reat col
d,
Ar
temi
siaaf
ra br
onchi
al
That
chgr
ass Tr
oubl
e
Tr
eebar
ksandl
eafmoul
d Usedasmedi
cine
Honeyandmushr
ooms Forr
oof
ing
Usedaspl
ant
ingmedi
a
Usedasf
ood

Fact
orsinhibi
tingger minati
onoft reeseeds
 Hardcoatt hatareimper vi
oust owat er
 Hardcoatencl osi
ngst r
ucturessuchaspi tsandshel
l
sthatl
i
mitembr
yo
expansi ons
 Chemi cal germinati
oninhibitors
 Embr yost il
lundevelopedatt heofseeddi sper
sal
 Embr yodor mancyduei nhi
bitorswithintheembryo
 Unsui t
ablet emperature
 Insects, diseasesormechani cali
njury
.
 Viabil
ityoft heseed
 Lackofai r

SEED TREATMENT METHODS- SEEDS ARE TREATED BEFORE PLANTI NG TO

I
MPROVEGERMI NATI ON.
Whatcouldbedonet oi mpr oveseedger minati
on?
(Soft
eni
ngseedscoatandot hercov erings)
 Scari
ficati
on-breaking,softening t he hard seed coatso as to enable
moisturetopenet ratet heseed.
 Mechani cal
lybr eakingt heseedscoatt omakeper meabl
et owat erand
gas
 Soakingseedsi nwat erforagi venpr i
meperiod.
 Treati
ng seeds wi th hotwat er70 – 100oC and t hen soaking them
graduall
ycool i
ngwat erfor12-24hour s
 AcidScar i
fi
cation–dr yseedsar esoakedinconcentr
atedsulphur
icacid
unti
ltheseedcoati spapert hin.

39
 Ov ercomeembr y odor mancy
 St r atificat ion–subj ect ingi mbi bedseedst oachi l
l
ingper iod
 Leachi ngouti nhibitorsbysoaki ngseedsi nr unni ngwat erorpl acing
them i nf requentchangesofwat er .
Met hodsusedt ot reatseedsf orpat hogensandpest sbef orepl anting
 Di si nf ecting t or emov e or ganisms i nternaland ext ernalt o
seeds
 Appl yingpr otest ant stopr ot ectseedsf r
om f ungi int hesoi l
 Appl yingi nsect icidesandbi r dorrodent sr epellent s
Ger mi nationper cent agedet ermi nat i
onbyDi rectGer mi nationTest
Ar andom sampl eof400pur eseedsar et aken.Thet estseedsar et henpl acedi n
optimum condi ti
onst oi nduceger mi nation.Att heendoft estper iodacountof
normal seedl i
ngi sdoneandger mi nat i
onper centagei sdet ermi nedt hus.
FOREXAMPLE_ _ ___ __ _...
..
...
...
...
.__ __ _
___
Sour ceot reeSeeds
 Pur chasef r om deal er sandf orest ry
 Col lect ionf rom f or est sorwoodl ots
 Pr ivat ecompanynur ser i
es
 I mpor ts
Sour ceoft reeSeedl ings
 Gov ernmentFor est rynur ser y
 Counci lnur ser ies
 Commer ci al nur ser i
es
 Pr i
vat eorowner snur ser ies
Collect ionoft reeseeds.
Seedsar ecol lect edf r om t reesofhi ghqual ity.Onlymat ureandr ipeseedsar e
collect edf r
om t reet opsandar eofpr i
me/ supergr adeast heyhav egr ownand
dev elopedundert hemostopt imum condi ti
onscompar edt ot hoset hatar ef rom
otherl ocat i
ons.
Woodl ot–i sapi eceofl andsetasi def orgr owi ngt r
ees.
- Asmal lfor estpl antation
Whyt heexi st ingwoodl ot sshoul dbecor rect l
ymanaged.
 Tosust ainy ieldoft hei rr esour ces
 Topr ot ectsoi lerosi on
 To meetev eri ncr easi ng demand f orf uelwood and ot hert rees
product s
 Topr ot ectt heexi stingwat ershed.
Effect i
v emanagementofwoodl ots
o Pr uneof ft hel owerr anchesoft reest of acil
it
atesaccesst ot hepl antation
o Cont rol insect spest sandf ungal diseases
o Pr otectwoodl ot sf rom f irebyr emov ingweeds, useoff irebreaks,
o Al l
owl ivest ockt ogr azeunderl arget r eest oreducegr owt hofv eget ation.
o Pr acticesel ect iv ecut tingbyhar v
est ingonl ylarget r
ees
o Thi nweakt reessot hatt hebestt reescangr owbi g.
Forest ryconser v ation

40
 - i
sapl annedmanagementoffor
estr
esour
cest
opr
eventt
hei
rnegl
i
gence,
expl
oitat
ionanddest
ruct
ion

I
mport
anceoff orestryconser vation
- pr eventl ossofwat ershedar easthroughdef or estat
ion
- Pr ev entthespr eadofdeser tl
ikeconditions
- Conser vesoi landwat er
- Pr ev entlossofani mpor tantnaturalr esourcesf oraestheti
cpur poses
andt our i
stattracti
on
- Pr ev entendanger edspeci es
- Pr ev entlossofani mal sandani malsspeci esduet ohabitant
Way
sofConser v i
ngFor ests
- Di scour ageclear i
ngoff or est
- Pr otectt heforestfr om f ir
ebyconst ructingfi
rebr eaks
- Regul ati
onsoft i
mberhar vestingcoupl edwi t
hr eplanti
ng
- Li mitorexcl udebr owsi ngani mals.
- Est ablishmentofwoodl otsasanal ternat i
vef orfuelwood.
- I ncreasepubl icawar enessoft heneedandv alueoff orestconser
vation
- Pr omot eactiveinvol vementi nthecommuni t
ydev el
opment .
- For estr esearchmustbegi venapr i
ority.

Agrof or
estry– isa l andusesyst
em i
nvol
vi
ngsequent
ialorsimult
aneous
producti
onoft r
ees,cr
opsandani
malsont
hesamel
andinor dert
obenefi
tfor
m
posit
iveint
eract
ion.

AgroforestryPr actices.
Si
lvoarable–pr oduct i
onoft r
eeandcr ops
Theyinclude
 Alleycr oppi ng: Fi
eldar epl antedi nall
ey sbetweenhedges
 Cr oppingunderest abl ishedt rees
 St ri
ppl ant i
ngi nthef orest sort i
mberpl ant
ati
ons.
 Wi ndbr eaksorshel t erbel t
s
Si
lvopast or
al –Pr oduct i
onoft reeswi thpast ureandli
vestock.
Theyinclude:
 Tr eespl ant edi nar angel and,inper manentpast uresandgr
ass
 Gr azingani mal si nf orestpl antation
 Boundar ypl ant i
ngmai nl
yf orf odder
 Liv efencesusedasameansofdecr easingcostofmakingfences.
 Beekeepi ngi ntrees
 Insect si nt r
eesegPhanewor msi nmophanet rees.
 Aquacul tur ei nmangr ovet rees
Agrosil
vopast or al.[trees, cropsandl i
vestock]
 Woodyhedger owsf orbr owse, mulch
 Tr eesliv estockmi xi nhomest eads

41
 CHICKENPRODUCTI ON
Systemsofr aisingchicken
Freerangesy stem –thisisanext
ensi
vesy
stem i
nwhi
chchi
ckenar
eal
l
owed
tomov efreely
Advantages
 Ver ylowi nputcosts
 Vicesar enotcommon

42
  Nospeci al ski ll
sr equi r
ed
 Requi r
el it
tlet i
met omanage
 Noneedt opr ov i
degr itandf ood
Disadv ant ages
 Eggsar elaidal lov erandsomemaybeeat enbydogsorot herani
mals.
 Chi ckencandest roypeopl escr ops
 Ther ei snocont rol ov erbr eedi ngbecausechi ckenroam aroundfr
eely
 Thesy stem r equi resal otofspace.
 Chi ckenar enotpr ot ect edf rom pr edatorsandt hieves.
 Poorgr owt handeggpr oduct ion
 Di ff
icultt ocont rol diseases
 Nocont rol overwhatchi ckeneat .
Deepl i
ttersy stem-t hi sisani ntensi vesystem inwhi chbirdsarekept
permanent lyinachi ckenhouseandnotal lowedt ogoout side.
Adv antages
 Hi ghst oki ngr at e
 Lowl abourr equi rement
 Chi ckensar esecur ef rom t hievesandpr edators.
 Possi bletokeepr ecor ds
 Easyt ocont rol whatandhowmuchchi ckeneat .
 Easyt ocont rol di seasesandpar asi
tes
 Hi ghchi ckeneggpr oduct ion
Disadv ant ages
 Hi ghi nputcost s
 Vi cessuchascanni bal ism ar ecommon
 Li t
ternotal way sav ailable
 Mor et i
mei sneededt omanaget hechi ckens
 Pr omot er apidspr eadofdi seases
Batterycagesy stem- thi si sani ntensi vesy st
em inwhi chbi r
dsarekeptincages
forther estofpr oduct ii
on
Adv antages
 Hi ghst ocki ngr at e
 Chi ckeneatandwast el ess
 Easyt omechani ze
 Easyt okeeppr oduct i
onr ecor df ori
ndiv i
dualchicken.
 Hi gheggpr oduct i
on
 Eggsar eeasyt ocol l
ectandst ayclean
 Vi cesandbr oodi ngar enotcommon
Disadv ant ages
 Chi ckendev elopchi ckenpar aly si
s
 Requi remor el abour
 Hi ghcapi talinv est ment
 Requi rehi ghlev el ofmanagement
FOLDSYSTEM

43
Thisisnotcommonl yusedi nBot swana.Undert hissemi i
ntensi
v esyst
em
chickensar ekeptinencl osedar easknownasf oldsorchickenruns.Thesefolds
aremadeofwi r
emesh, met albar sandpol est omakehandl i
ng.About25t o50
chickscanbekepti nthesemov abl efoldsorchi ckenruns.Foldsareabout6m by
2m.
Adv ant
agesoft hef oldsy stem
- Closeat tenti
oncanbegi v entochi ckensundert hissystem
- Par asit
esanddi seasescanbeeasi l
ycont rol
l
ed
- Chi ckensarekeptawayf rom pr edators
- Ther earebet tercont r
ol ofchi ckenst hani nfreerangesy st
em
Disadvantages
- Itistimeandl abourconsumi ng
- Notmanychi ckenscanber ai
sedundert issyst
em
- Itismor eexpensi v
et hankeepi ngchi ckensunderf reerangesystem
Breedsofl ayers
Whi tel
eghor n
 Al i
ghtbreedsui t
ablef orcommer cialeggpr oducti
on
 Haswhi t
epl umageandy ell
owshanksandl ayswhiteshell
edeggs
BlackAust rol
op–aheav ybr eed, hasbl ackpl umageandi smoder atel
aysbrown

shelledeggs
Hybr i
dsofl ay ers–ar ecr ossbr edofchi ckens.
Isabr own,Hy line,Cor nishgame
BreedsofBr oil
er s
Red/l i
ghtSussex
Ithaswhi t
eski n,legs, feetandbeak
Ithaswhi t
ef eat her sbutwi t
hbl ackst ri
pesar oundtheneckandt ail
Itisal argebr eedwhi chgr owsf ast.
Plymout hr ock
Ithasst ripesofbl ackandwhi t
efeat her s
Itisamedi um si zedbr eedkeptmai nl yformeat .
Hy br
idsofbr oiler s–Ross, Hubbar d, Babcock, Cobb500
Dual purposebr eeds-keptf orbot hmeatandeggs
RhodeI slandr ed
NewHampshi re
Gener alchar acter i
st icsofgoodal ay er.
 Ear l
ymat ur ityofl ayersandl ay smanyeggsofhi ghqual i
ty
 Hasl i
ttleornobr oodiness
 Lowmor t alit
yr at eamonggr owi ngchickensandl ay
ingstock.
 Li ghtbodi eswi t
hl i
ttl
ef l
eshandgoodconv er
tersoffoodt oeggs
 Hi ghr esi stancet odi seasesandpar asites
 Hav el ar geabdomi nalcav ity,smoot h,wr i
nkl
esf ace,sof
tt ext
uredski
n
andbr ightr edcomb.
Gener al char act eristicsofagoodbr oiler
 Rapi dgr owt hr at e,reachki ll
wei ghtwithin8–10weeks.
 Ef f i
cientconv erteroff oodt omeatFCRof2: 1isconsiderate

44
  Lowmor tali
tyrat
edur ingbroodingandr earingper
iods.
.
 Largebodysizeandgoodcar cassquali
t y
 Highresi
stancetodi seasesandpar asi
tes
 Bigheadandbr oadbacks
 Skinandfleshconsistenttocost umerpreferenceandtast
e
 Chicksmustbecov eredwithplentyoffeat herswhentheyar
ehat
ched
andgoodt ailf
eathersat10day sofage.
Repr
oductiveSy
st em ofaHen.

Ov
ar y–ov adev elop, r
eleaseov um int
ot heinfundibul
um
Infundibulum –Recei vesovum r el
easedfrom ov ar
y: stor
esperm and
reser v
esasa si
teforferti
li
zationandchal azaei s
addedt othey olk
Magnum –Al bumen( eggwhi t
e)isaddedt otheov um.
Isthmus: Water ,miner al
saltsandv i
taminsar eaddedt othedev elopingegg
membr aneisadded. :deter
mi nestheeggshape.
Ut er
us; -Shelli
saddedar oundt heeggandshel lpi
gmentsomewat erand
mi nerals salt
sareadded.
Vagi na–cut iclesaddedt oeggshel landst oreeggt emporari
ly
Cloaca–Si teforsper m depositionandremov eseggsaddr oppings
Vent-anexi tt hroughwhi chtheeggpassest oout si
de.

45
Functionsofdi f ferentpar tsofanegg
Eggshel l
.–Pr otectt heinner /i nsi depar ts( i
ncl udingt hedev elopingembryo)
fr
om har m
- Actasabar rierthatpr event ssomemi cro-organismsent eri
ngtheegg
Shellmembr ane.–act sasabar r
ieragai nstent r
yofbact eri
ai ntheegg
- ser veasabr eathi ngsur facef ort hedev elopingembr yoi ntheegg
Albumen. /eggwhi te–Pr ov i
det heembr yowi thwat erandpr oteinsforgrowth
Chalaza.Hol dt hey ol kint hecent reoft heal bumen
-Protectthedev elopingembr yobyact ingasashockabsor ber .
Germ spot ;i
tisspoti nwhi cht heembr y odev elopswhenf er
til
ized
Yolk:Providest hegr owi ngembr yowi thpr oteinsandf at s
Airspace; i
tallowst heexchangeofgasesf ort hegr owi ngchick
Factorstoconsi derwhenchoosi ngt ypeofchi ckent oraise
 Demandf ort hechi ckenpr oduct
 Far mer sandpr ef er
ences
 Pur posef orwhi cht hechi ckenar etobekept
 Lev el ofexper ienceknowl edgeandski l
lofaf armer
 Gest at ionper i
odoft hepr oject
 Amountofcapi tal
 Magni tudeofr iskanduncer tainty .
 Av ailabi l
it
yofi nput sandcost s
Typesofr ecor dsi nChi ckenPr oduct i
on
Production–r ecor dsal ldet ail
sofpr oduct ionofachi ckenent erpri
se
Exampl esofpr oduct i
onr ecor ds.
 EggsPr oduct ion-foreachl ayinghouseeggl ai
dandnumberofl ayers
mustbe
kept
 Li vewei ghtgai nrecor d–
 Mor tali
tyr ecor d–ar ecor dofdeat hsshoul dbekept
 Feedconsumpt i
on–Amountoff eedused.
 I l
lnessandt reat mentr ecor d

46
  Vacci nation(i nocul ation)r ecor d
 Pr oduceusedathome-eggsorchi ckenusedathomeshoul drecorded
Fi
nanci al recor ds-ar ethosewhi chr ecor ddet ai
lsofal ltransacti
onsi nvol
ving
money .
Exampl esoff inanci al r
ecor ds.
 Cashbook-Al lcashr ecei vedandpai dout
 Debt or sandCr editor sAccount s–t ober ecor dedandkeept rackof
debt or s
 Expendi tur e-
 I ncomeaccount
 Asset sandl iabilit
ies
 Pr of itandl ossaccount
Const ruct ionofachi ckenHouse
Qual i
tiesofagoodchi ckenhouse.
 Wel l ventilat ed
 Easyt ocl eanr elati
v elyper manentst ructure
 Pr edat orpr oof
 Weat herpr oof
 Cheapbutnotofpoorqual i
ty
 Hav edamppr ooff loor .
Mat erialsneededf orconst ruct i
onofachi ckenhouse.
o Br icks oCementandsand
o Gr av el /stone ot reatedpol es
o Raf tersandpur l
inesodoorl ocks
o DPCsheet s or oofingnai ls
o Chi ckenwi remesh or oofingnai l
o Door sanddoorf rames
o Cor rugat edi ron
Sour cesofl ivechi ckens
1,Pr ivatechi ckenf ar mse. g.Not wanel ay erfar m,st arpoul t
ry,Acel ay
erf ar
m,
Tswanapr ide, Goodwi l
l
2.Indiv i
dual chickenpr oducer s
3.Impor tedf rom ot hercount ri
es
4.Hat cher ies(t heyi ncubat e and suppl ydayol d chi cks)
Theyar ever yfew
hatcher iesi nBot swana(Mmadi koko, Tswanapr i
de)
Prepar ationt obemadebef oret hear r
ivalofdayol dchi cks
 Repai randdi sinfectt hechi ckenhouseandt heequi pment
 Pl acebr oodi nguni ti ncor r
ectposi ti
on
 Cov ert hebr ooderf loorwi thlitterandl aydownnewspaper s
 Ensur eadequat esuppl yoff reshchi ckst artermash
 Ensur enecessar yv acci nesanddr ugsar eav ai
lable
 Ensur ebr ooderl ampsar el i
torheat ersar eswi tchedon24hour sbef or
e
thechi cksar r i
val andt emper aturebebet ween32º Cto38º C
 Pl acef eeder sanddr i
nker st roughsi nposi tion
 Theat t
endant sshoul dbet rainedanddr il
led

47
  Makeallr
ecor
dsbooksavai
labl
e
 Cl
eanfootbat
handfi
lli
twit
hcleandi
sinf
ect
ant
s

Prepar ati
ont omadebef or et hear riv alofpoi ntofl ay i
ngPul l
et s.
 Repai r, cleananddi sinf ectt hechi ckenhouseandt heequi pment
 Putl itteront hef l
oori ncasesofdeepl itter .
 Ensur eadequat esuppl yoff reshchi ckst artermash
 Ensur enecessar yv acci nesanddr ugsar eav ailable
 Pl acef eeder sanddr inker stroughsi nposi ti
on
 Theat tendant sshoul dbet rainedanddr i
lled
 Makeal lrecor dsbooksav ailabl e
 Cl eanf ootbat handf il
l itwit hcl eandi sinf ectant s
Ty peoff eedsf orl ay ers
Chi ckst artermash–adi etf orchi cksf rom dayol dt of iveweeks.I tcont ai
ns
highamountofpr ot ein( 18- 20%) ,mi ner alsandv itami nsf ordev elopmentof
heal t
hybonesandmuscl es.
Grower smash–adi etgi v enf orpul letsf rom f i
v eweekst ol ay .Itcont ainsless
(14–16%)pr ot einasgr owt hi soccur r
ingatasl owerpaceandmor e
car bohy dratest hanchi ckst art ermash
Lay ersmash–adi etf orl ay inghent hatcont ains16- 18%pr otei niscoar sel y
groundandcont ainspl ent yofmi ner alsespeci allycal cium andphosphor us.It
cont ainsj ustenoughcar bohy dr atesandf at st omai ntainthehens’ bodily
funct ionst ol ayeggs.
Ty peoff eedsf orBr oiler s
Broi l
erst artermash-adi etgi v ent obr oilerchi cksf rom onedayol dt o5weeks
old.Iti s highi npr ot ein( 21- 24%) , mi ner alsandv itami nswhi char e
neededf or bodybui l
ding.Theyhav ev eryfinepar tcles,foreasy
swal lowi ngbychi cks.Theycont ainscocci diost ant st opr otectchi cksagai nst
cocci diosis
Broi l
erf i
nishermash-adi etf orbr oi lersf r om 6weekst ot heageofsl aught er.I
t
i
sr ich inpr otein( 18- 20%)andcar bohy drat eswhi chpr omot erapidgr owth
and l
otoff leshi ngont hebodyandpr ovideener gy .
Prov isionofcl eanwat eratal ltimest ochi ckens
 Pr operf eedi ngofdr yf eeds
 Togr owanddev el opi ncasesofy oungbi rds
 Tomai nt aint hei rbodi esandpr oduceeggs
 Topr ev entdehy dr at i
onwhi chcanl eadt odeat h
 Topr ev entspr eadofdi seaseandpar asi tes
 Pr omot ehi ghqual ityofchi ckenpr oduct s.
Impor tanceofkeepi ngt hehouseCl ean
 Pr eventdi seasesandpar asi tes
 Pr eventt hebui ldupofunpl easantsmel ls
 Pr ovidegoodandheal thywor kingenv ironment
Impor tanceofl ittermanagement

48
  Toensuret hattheli
tt
ersr
emai nabsorbentatall
times.
 Topromot eproperandeffi
cientbreakdownoflit
terchickendr
oppi
ngsby
micr
oor ganism.
 Topreventbuildupofpathogensandpar asit
esinthel i
tt
er.
Br
oodi
ng–iscar eandmanagementofchi cksfrom t
imet heyarehat
chunti
lthey
gr
ow t
heirownfeat
hers.

Natur albr oodi ng–amet hodwher ebyahent akescar eofherchi cks.She

provides them wi t
hnat uralnest s,pr otectionf rom enemi es,hel pthem from
fi
ndingf ood andpr ovidethem wi thwar mt h.
Arti
ficial Broodi ng–i sbroodi ngwi thoutt hemot herhenasusedbycommer cial
poultry producer s.Abr ooderi susedt opr ov ideopt imum env ironmental
condi ti
onf ort he gr owt hoft hechi cks.Theseenv ir
onment alcondi t
ionsare
thosepr ov i
dedbyt he broodyhensuchasadequat ewar mt h,adequat efood
suppl y,suf fi
cientspace, v entil
at i
on
Const ruct i
onofabr ooder
Mat erialsneededf orconst r
uct i
onofabr oodinguni t.
 Pi ecesoft hickcar dboar dorhar dboar d, 35m hi ght oser veaschi ckguard.
 Heat erssuchasani nfraredel ectricl amp, par affingasbur ner s,small
stov es, mbawul achar coal s.
 Cont ainersf orfoodandwat er(f eeder sanddr inkers)
 Heatr ef l
ect or sorcanopy
 Li ttermat er ialsuchaswoodshav ings.
 Ther momet ert omoni t
ort emper aturechangesi nbr ooderar ea.
 Pi ecesofcar dboar dar emadei ntoaci rcul arf encear oundt hebr ooder
area.
Whyshoul dt hebr oodinguni tber ound?
 Theyar er oundorhav ecor ner stoav oidasi tuat i
onwher echi cksmayr ush
tocor nersandetcr ushedduet oov ercr owdi ng.
Whyt hebr oodi nguni tshoul dbemadewar m bef oret hear ri
val ofdayol d
chi cks.
 Toensur et hattheequi pmentar ef unct i
oni ngbef orethear ri
val of.
 Tost abi l
izet emper atureatt hecor rectlev el

49
Met
hodofheat
ingt
hebr
oodi
nguni
t

Mbawul aSy stem –Thisisacutdrum or

bucketwi t
hhol es.Thesourceofheatisfi
re
wood.Thedr um maybesur r
oundedbywi r
e
nett
ingt oavoidburningthechi
cks.Carbon
monoxi decanbeapr obl
em iftheuniti
snot
wellventil
ated.

TunnelSy stem –Amet alpi peisfit

ted
tothewal lofthepoul t
ryhouse.The
tunnelorpiper unsfrom oneendt othe
othersideofthehouse.I tpr otr
udes
beyondt hewal landext endsi ntoa
chimney .Theopeni ngoft hepi peis
heatedbyaf i
re.Asi sheat ed,theheat
i
st r
ansf er
redthrought hehouse. The
smokeescapest hr
ought hechi mney.

Gasbr ooder–Thesour ceofheather eisgas.

Specialgasheater
sar eav ai
labl
ewhi chcanbe
usedt owarm upabr oodingunit.Toav oidtoo
muchheati nthebroodinguni t,
thetemper atur
e
mustbecont rol
l
ed.Gasbr oodercanbe
dangeroustothechicksandwor ker
si fthereis
gasleakage.

50
 Drum br ooder–adr um t
hatisopenon
onesi deisfit
tedint
othewal lofthe
poultryhouse.Theopensi defacesthe
outside.Fir
eismadei nsi
det hedrum
sothatheatr adiat
estothepar tt
hatis
i
nsidet hehouse.Thehotdr um warms
theinsideofthehouse.

Managementofchi
cksi
nthebr
ooder
/Br
oodi
nguni
t.
Temper
atur
econt
rol
.
Keepchi cksatt hecor rectt emper aturef rom thest art.Itisessent i
al f
orgood
feat her i
ng, nor mal growt handt oav oidchi l
lingandheatpr ostrat i
on.Mai ntain
temper atureatabout35º Ci nt hef i
rstweekandt henr educeitgr aduall
yso
thatbyt hef our thweeki tis26º C. Afterthataddi t
ional heati sunnecessar y.
butdonott het emper atur egoesbel ow18C.I ft hechi ckshuddl etogether
underheat i
nguni t,theyar enotwar m enough.I fchi cksar eawayf rom the
heat inguni tthent heyar enotwar m enough.
Feedi ng.
Fort hef irsttwoday sar eachi ckst artermashont henewspaperorchi ck
tray st oencour agechi ckst ost ar teat ing.Allowf oraf eederspaceof2. 5cm
perchi cksf orthef i
rstweekandi ncr easei tby2. 5cm perweek.
Wat er i
ng
Pr ov i
decl ean, freshwat ert ochi cksatal lti
mes.Pr ov i
det hewat erinchi cks
st
drinker sal l
owi ngf orwat erspaceoft he1 2weeksand5. 0fort heremai ning
per iod.Changet hewat erdai l
yandcl eandr i
nker st horoughl ybef oreaddi ng
cleanwat er.
Floorspace.
Al low20chi cksperm2i nt he1st4weeksandt heni ncreaset o12bi r
dsper
m2.Adequat ef loorspacei sessent i
al forrapiddev elopment ,goodf eathering.
Vent i
lation
Pr ov i
deadequat ewi thoutcompr omi singpr otectionagai nstdr aught .Mai ntai
n
relat i
v ehumi dityatabout65%f oropt imum dev elopmentofchi cks.Good
vent ilationpr ev entst heoccur renceofr espiratorydi sease, prev entbui l
dupof
ammoni aandf umesf rom br ooderl amps.
Litter
Pr ov i
desacov er i
ngofl itterofsui tablemat eri
al toabsor bdroppi ngand
ser vesaswar m beddi ngf orchi cks.Remov eanywetl itt
erimmedi atel
y.
Diseaseandpestcont r ol.
Chi cksar ehighl ysuscept iblet odi seasedur i
ngt hebr oodingst ageoft hei r
dev el opment ,sov accinat et hem agai nstdiseasel i
keNewCast le.
Pr edat or s
Pr otectchi cksf rom pr edat orssuchassuchsnakes, catsandmouse.
Incubat ionofeggs

51
Provi
sionofwar mt htoaneggsot hatitcanhat ch.
NaturalIncubat i
on-Thisiswhenahensi tsoneggssoast ohat chthem usi
ng
thewar mt hofi t
sbody .Theeggsshouldbef ert
ilei
nor dertohat ch.Thehen
tur
nst heeggssev eralti
mesadayusi ngitsbeak.
Arti
fi
cialincubat i
on-isdoneinamachi necalledanincubat or.Largenumbers
ofeggsar eincubatedatt hesametime.Theyal lpr
ov i
deopt i
mum condi ti
ons
oftemper ature,moi st
ure,aer
ati
on,andrelat
ivehumi di
tywhi char ethe
caref
ullycont rol
led.

Cul ling–apr ocessofr emov i

ngnon-pr oduct i
veorunwant edbirdsfrom the
fl
ock.Unwant edbi rdsar et hoset hatpr oducef eweggs.t hoset hataresick
ti
meandagai n,weak, def ormedori njured.
Ty peofcul li
ng
Masscul li
ng-whent heent i
reflocki sr emov edandr eplaced.
Sel ect i
vecul l
ing-whenaf armerr emov esundesi r
ablei ndividualbir
dsf r
om
thef lock.
Cr i
t eriaforcul l
ing
Lowpr oduct i
on–poorl ayersandnonl ay ersmustbecul l
ed.
Il
l heal th–di seasedbi rdsshoul dber emov edf rom thef l
ock.
VicesorBadbehav i
our -Bi rdsthatexhi bitsv icessuchaseggeat ing,
canni balism orbr oodi nessshoul dbecul l
ed
i
mmedi ately.
Poorgr owt h–Gr owi ngbi r
dst hatshowr etar dedgr owt hmustbecul l
ed.
Weaknessanddef ormi t
y-Weakanddef ormedchi cksshoul dbeculled.
Debeaki ng– r emov al ofpar toft hebeakofachi ckent oreducet heamount
of sev er i
tyofpecki ng.Iti sdonemai nlyt opreventchickens
from eat ingeggs, f
eat herpecki ngandpecki ngot her s.
 Debeakedhensar ecalm andmor er est f
ul.
 Resul ti nincreaseef fi
ciencyoff oodconsumpt ion.
 Mor euni form gr owt hisobt ained.
 Eggeat i
ngandbr eakagear epr ev ented.
 Popul ati
oncanbei ncreasedconsi derabl y.
Debeaki ngPr ocedur e.
Ageofdebeaki ng–Ear lydebeaki ngofchi cksatt heageofabout10day s
giv esgood results
Debeaki ngt ools–Cl i
pper ,pl
iers,knifes.Theycanbeusedcol dorhot .
Elect ric debeakercanal sobeused.
Debeaki ngt echni que:Bot hupperandl owerbeaksofachi ckareputt hrough
a 4.5mm hol eatt hesamet imeandcutatt hesamet i
mewi th
ar edbl ade.
Vacci nat i
on–makesanani mal i
mmunet odi sease
Reasonf orVacci nation
Tocont rol andpr eventdi seases
Topr eventeconomi clossduet odi seases.
Chi ckenpar asites

52
Internal orect opar asi tes
Roundwor m, Tapewor m, Gapewor m, Threadswor m, Ceacalwor
m
Exter nal
Lices, Tampaans, greyt icks, Mi tes, fleas
Chi ckenMi tes
Har mf ul Effect sofmi t
es.
 At tackf eather s, suckbl ood, causi nganemi a
 Lossofwei ghtandcondi ti
on.
 Reducedeggpr oduct ion
 Pal ecombandwat tle
 Poorgr owt hi ngr owi ngchi cken
 Sor epat chesundert hewi ngsandpl acewher et hebir
dcannotpeckat
them.
 I ncubat ionhenmay bef orcedt oleaveacl utchofeggs.
 Causei tchyi rrit
at iont ot hebi rds
Cont rol andpr ev ent ion
 Spr ayordustbi rdswi thr ecommendedi nsect i
cidesoracar
idaesuch
asmal at hion5%, Sev in,Car bor yl,
sodi um f
luor idesandbenzoate.
 Mi xani nsect icidei ntodustbat h
 Rubol dengi neoi lorr ecommendedi nsecti
ci desi ntot
herest
ingboxes
andper ches.
 Cl eanandf umi gat et hepoul tr yhouset hor oughl ybefor
eput t
ingina
newbat ch.
 Soundf loormadeofconcr et eandwal lswi thoutcr acksandcr ev
ices
ar er ecommendedi nachi ckenhouse.
Chi ckendi sease
 Newcast l
e Fowl pox
 Cocci diosi s Gumbur odisease
 Fowl typhoi d Fowl cor y
za
 Mar eksdi seaseI nf ecti
ousbr onchi ti
s
 Sal monel l
osi s
Newcast l
edi sease
Cause-Vi rus
Transmi ssi on
Thev iruscanbecar ri
edbyt hef eetofwi l
dbi r
dsf rom onef armtoanot her
.
Thenswal lowedt hr oughcont ami nat edf oodandwat er.
Sy mpt oms
 Di ffi
cul tyinbr eat hingandgaspi ngbr eat
h.
 Coughi ngandsneezi ng
 Par al ysisi nwi ngsand
 Lackofcoor di nat ion.
 Chi cksar eobser v edwal kingbackwar ds.Andf alli
ngdown.
 Neckt wi stingal sooccur .
 Hi ghmor t
al i
tyr at eabout90%
 Shar pdr opoff oodi ntake

53
  Sof tshel ledeggsoreggpr oduct ionmayst op.
 Enl ar gecr op
 Si ckbi rdr eleasey ellowdi arrhoea.
 St inkymucusi sr el easedt hr ought hemout h.
Treatment -ther ei snot reat ment
Controlandpr ev ent ion
 Pr operandr egul arv acci nat ionshoul dbepr act i
cedasexcel lentas
vacci nesasHi tcheratdayol dadmi nistert hrought heey es.Lasotaat3
-4weeksofage, admi nister edt hroughdr i
nkingwat erorey es,Komar ov
at4- 20weeksadmi nister edi nt ramuscul arlyort hroughdr i
nkingwat er .
 I ncaseofoutbr eakal lsi ckbi rdandi ncont actshoul dbedest r
oy ed.
Str i
cthy gieneandsani tationmustbeobser v
ed
 Chi ckenhousemustbescr eenedagai nstwi ldbirds.
 Av oi di nt roduct ionbyr efusi ngv isi t
orsent ryint of l
ocksandsepar at e
chi ckensofdi fferentages
Cocciodiosi s
Cause–Pr otozoa
Transmi ssi on–I tisspr eadf rom onebi rdt oanot hert hr oughdr oppingsoft he
affect edbi rds.I tcanal sobespr eadt hroughcont aminated
waterandf ood.
Sympt oms
 Chi cksl ookdul l, weak, depr essedandsl eepy .
 Chi ckenhav er af f
ledf eat her sanddr oppingswi ngs.
 Lossofappet it
ebutdr i
nksal otofwat er.
 Wat er yandbl oodydr oppi ngs
 Hi ghr at eofmor tal ity.
 Pal ecombsandwat tl
ei nol dchi ckens.
 Swel lingandi nflammat ionoft hei nt esti
ne.
Treatment
 Putachemi cal suchampr ol, sulphamezanet hine, embazi ne.
Controlandpr ev ent ion
 Useef f ect ivecocci diost atscont inuousl yonf eeds.
 Youngchi cksshoul dal way sbecl ean
 Av oi dov ercr owdi ngchi cks.
 Goodl i
tt ermanagementt oensur et hatl i
tterismai ntaineddr yalways.
 Obser vest r
icthy gieneandsani tation.
 Keepf oodandwat erabsol utel ycl ean.
 I sol atet heaf fect edbi rdschangel itterandst eri
lizeal lequipment .
Factorsinfl
uenci ngpr iceofchi ckenpr oduct s
 For ceofdemandandsuppl y
 Pr oduct ioncost s
 Qual ityoft hepr oduct s
 Whet herar esol dpr ocessedorr awpr oducts
 Compet iti
onamongpr oducer s.
 Shi ftinconsumer s

54
  Tast eandpr eferences
 Tr anspor tandmar ketingcost s
 Mar ket ingst r
uct ur eandi nt erv ention
 Gov er nmenti nterv entions
Slaughteringandpr ocessi ngofchi ckens
Chickenar ef astedf or12–20hour sbef oreslaught er.Chickensar ehungupsi de
downf orabout3mi nutesandst unnedusi nganel ect r
icalcurrent .Theirthroats
arecutwi thin30secondsofst unni ngandal l
owedt obl eedcompl etely.
Kill
edchi ckensar escal dedi nhotwat erf orabout30secondsatt emp55- 62 0c,
toloosent hef eather st henpl uckedmanual lyoraut omat ical
lyusi ngmachi nes.
Pluckedchi ckensar epl acedonat abl e,legs,necksandcr opsar et r
immedof f
theirbodies.
Eviscerationi st hendone-r emov alofi nteri
oror gans.
Evisceratedcar cassar ecl eaned, i
nsi deandoutwi thcl eanwat er.Thegi bletsare
separatedf rom v i
scer a,washedandputi nicedwat er.
Thecar cassesar echi ll
edr apidlyini cedwat erdr ai
nedof f,
trussedandpackedi n
plasti
cbagsexhaust ed ofai r.Theymayt hen bef rozen and di str
ibuted to
consumer sv iamar ketingchannel s.
GradingandPackagi ngofeggs
Egggr ading- Eggsar egr adedaccor dingt oqual ityandsi ze.
Wei ghtclassesofeggs( gr adingaccor dingt osize)
Grade1: >65g
Grade2; 55-65g
Grade3: 45–55g
Grade4: <45
Gradingaccor dingtoqual i
ty

Eggqual
it
ygrades Comment s
st
1 GradeorClassA Bestqual i
ty,
cl ean, fr
esh,nobloodspot s
andcr acks.
2ndGradeorCl assB Secondbest ,notv er
ycl ean,
havesmal l
cr acks,notver yfresh.
3rdGradeorCl assC Poor est i n t erms of qual it
y,
have
cr acks,are dirty, have blood and not
fresh.
EggCandl ing–passingapower full
i
ghtthroughaneggi nadar kroom sothatits
i
nter
nalqual i
ti
escanbedet er
mi ned.Thi sisdoneusi nga
candler.
Inter
nalqualit
iesofanegg–Si zeandcondi ti
onofai rspace,condi t
ionofegg
yolk,conditi
onofeggwhi t
e,pr esenceofbl oodormeatspot sineggwhi t
e,
presenceofot herabnormali
ties.
Externalquali
ti
es-sizeandwei ghtoftheegg, shapeoft heegg:smoot hnessand
evennessoft heshell,
colouroft heshell
,cleanli
nessandsoundnessoft heshell
.
Eggpackagi ng:Eggseasi l
ybr eaksandmustbehandl edcar e.Eggsshoul dbe
placedinaneggt r
ayandpackagedi ntheboxes.Thepoi ntedendmustf ace
downt okeept heaircell
inplaceandt heyolkint hecent r
e.

55
 FARM MANAGEMENT
Farm management– i st heact i
vepr ocessofmaki ngdeci sionssot hatthe
avail
able resour cesofaf arm businessi spl anned,or gani
zed
andcont rolledt oachi eveitssetgoalmostef fi
cientl
y.Itisaboutmaki ngthebest
useofav ai l
abl eresour cestoachi evemaxi mum pr oduct i
oni naf arm.
Importanceoff arm management
 Pr ov idedeci sionsont hebestuseoft heav ai
labler esour ces.
 Pl ansandor gani zepr oduct iv
er esour cestoef f
ectiv epr oduct i
on
 I mpl ement saf arm plan
 Keepsupt odat erecor ds
 Ev al uateaf arm busi nesswi t
hav iewt omaki ngimpr ovement s
 Hel psi nget tingwor kdoneef fi
ciently.
 Hel psi nmoni tor i
ngandcont rolli
ngt hewor k.
Demand-I tist hequant i
ti
esofapr oductt hatconsumer sar ewi l
li
ngandabl et o
buyatagi venpr i
cedur ingagi venper iod.
Determinant sofdemand
 Pr iceofacommodi ty-Ifthepr icei shigh,thedemandwi l
l below.
 Qual ityofapr oduct -I
ft hepr oducti sofgoodqual ity,mor epeopl ewoul d
li
ket obuyi t( highdemand) .
 I ncomeofconsumer s-Iftheconsumeri ncomei ncr eases,thedemandwi l
l
behi gh.
 Tast eandpr ef erences- I
ft hepr oducti sofgoodt ast e,thedemandwi l
lbe
high.
 Adv er ti
sing-Asuccessf ul advertisingwi l
li
ncreaset hedemand.
Supply–Thi smeanst hequant ityofacommodi t
yof f
eredf orsal ebyasuppl ier
ata speci fiedpr iceinagi venmar ketandatagi v
ent i
me.
Determinant sofSuppl y
 Pr iceofacommodi ty-Ifthepr i
ceofapr oducti shi gh,t hesupplywi l
lbe
highbecauset hesuppl ierwoul dliketogetpr ofi
t.

56
  Cost sofpr oduct ion-whenpr i
ceofinputsincr easest hesuppl ywi l
lbelow.
 Product i
ont echni que-useofmachi nesandnew v ar i
eti
esofcr opscan
makepr oduct i
oneasyt hereforesupplywil
l bemor e.
 Changei nweat hercondi ti
ons-badweat herwi l
laf fectfoodpr oducti
on
ther eforesuppl ywi l
lbel ow.
 Numberofsel lersi namar ket
MarketPr ice-Itist hev alueorwor thofsomet hi ngwhi chi sindi
catedbyt he
amountofmoneyonehast opayf orit
.Isthepriceatwhi chquant it
ydemanded
equal
squant ity
suppli
ed.
Deter
minant sofMar ketpr ice
 For ceofdemand- ifthedemandi shighthepr i
cewi llincrease.
 For ceofsuppl y -
ifthepr iceincreasethesuppl ywi l
lal soincrease.
 Changei ntechnol ogy-
whensuppl yishighduet ot echnol ogythepr icewil
l
increase.
 Av ailabil
it
yofapr oduct-whent hereisshortageofapr oductsitspricewil
l
increase.

Legal
for
msofabusi
nessor
gani
zat
ion
1.Sol
epr
opr
iet
orshi
p

Thi
sty
peofbusi
nesshasoneownerandt
hisownermanagest
hebusi
ness.

Theownermakesal
lthedeci
sionsandt
akesal
lther
esponsi
bil
i
tiesf
ort
hebusi
ness.

Theownerpr
ovi
desal
lthemoneyneededt
ost
artandr
unt
hebusi
ness.

2.Thepar
tner
shi
p

Thi
sisthet
ypeofbusi
nesst
hati
slar
gert
hanasolepr
opr
iet
or.I
nst
eadofonl
y
oneowneri
tisownedbytwouptotwent
yowners.

Thepart
nersprovi
deal
lmoneyneededt
orunt
hebusi
ness.Thepar
tner
smake
al
lthedeci
sion.

Theyusual
lyhaveawr i
tt
en,l
egalagreementabouteachper
son’
sresponsi
bil
i
ty
andlev
elofownership.Forexampleonepartnermayown60%ofthebusiness
whil
etheotherpar
tnerowns40%.

Thistypeofbusinessusual
l
yhasmor emoney ,
skill
sandexperiencestostar
t
withbecausethepartner
sputt
heirr
esourcestogether.Howeverbecausethe
partner
shav et
oshar eandmakedeci
sionstogether,t
hereismoreopportuni
ty
forconfl
ict
.

3.Thecooper
ati
ve

57
 Aco-
operat
ivei
sal
egal
regi
ster
edor
gani
zat
ioncr
eat
edbyagr
oupofpeopl
e
whoshar
eaneed.

Aco-operat
ivet
henserv
icet
hisneed.Themoneyneededt
orunt
hecooper
ati
ve
comesfrom sal
eoftheshar
es.

Wor
kisdi
vi
dedamonggr
oupmember
s.

4.Thecompany
-Acompanyi
sal
arget
ypeofbusi
ness.

Theownersareshar
ehol
dersrat
herthani
ndi
vi
duals.Thi
smeanst
hatt
hecompany
sel
l
ssharesinthecompanytoanybodywhom hasmoneytobuyt
hem.

Thecompanyt henusest hemoneyraisedfr

om saleofsharestost ar
torbuil
dupt he
business.Theshar eholdersv
oteforboardofdir
ector
st hatareresponsibl
efor
hir
ingandsuper visi
ngamanagerorchi efof
fi
cer(CEO),whoi nturnresponsi
blef
or
thedailyact
ivi
tiesofthecompany,forexamplewehav e;pri
vateandpubl i
c
compani es.

Anor gani
zati
onalstructureisaframeworkforident
if
yingandorganizi
ngthet
asks
tobeper f
ormedwi thinanor gani
zati
on.I
tspecif
iest
hedi f
fer
entdepart
mentsofthe
organizat
ionandwhoi sresponsi
bleforwhat.Thest
ructurei
salsoachainof
commandi ntheorganizati
on.

Anef f
ecti
v eor
gani
zat
ionalst
ruct
ureensurethatev
eryoneisinv
olv
edinthe
business,i
nter
act
swellwit
heachot herandunderthevi
sionandmissi
onofthe
organizat
ion

AnEf
fect
iveor
gani
zat
ional
Str
uct
urei
naf
arm.

Gener
almanag
ermmManager

Poul
tr
y Fr
uittr
ee Market
ing Fi
eldcr
ops Veget
abl
e
Manager ManagerOrgangram 2
Manager Manager Manager
Gener
almanag
er
Wor
ker Worker Wor
ker Wor
ker
s s s s

Li
vest
ock Cr
op
Market
ing58
manager manager
Manager
Thi
rdexampl
e:

Busi
nessowner
Topoft
hechai
nofcommand, f
inal
deci
sionmaki
ngboar
d.

Far
m manager
Report
stothe busi
ness owner,maybe giv
en power
st o make dayto day
deci
si
onsonthef
arm.Supervi
sesthef
armf or
emanandotherf
arm worker
s.

Farmf or
eman
Super
visesf
arm worker
s,disseminat
esi
nfor
mat
iont
owor
ker
s,act
sasf
arm
managerwhenneedari
ses.

Far
m wor
ker
s
Car
ryoutgener
aldut
iesont
hefar
m,r
epor
tdi
rect
lyt
othef
armf
oreman.

Generalf
unct
ions and r
oles ofmanagementi
n an agr
ibusi
ness
vent
ure
 Deci
si
onmaki
ng–deci
deont
heact
ivi
ti
est
obedoneont
hef
arm.
 Planning–out l
i
neact i
vit
iesont hef armf orthenextmont horthewhole
year.thati splanonwhatt obepr oduced, howmucht oproduce,howto
produce, whowi l
lbuythepr oduce
 Organizing–i nvolv
esor ganizingt helimitedr esourcestoachievewhat
theorgani zati
oncanaf f
ord
 I
mpl ement i
ng–Car r
iesoutt heact i
vit
iesoft hathav ebeenplanned
 Controll
ing/ supervi
sing-
Ensur i
ngt hatpl ansar ecar ri
edouti nthebest
waypossi ble.
 Staffi
ng-itist hemanagementr esponsibil
itytoi denti
fyqual
ifi
edpeopl
e,

59
 recr uitst aff,empl oyandr eplaceempl oy eeswhohav eresigned,pr ovide
trainingf orst aff.
 Super vi
si ng-inor derf orabusi nesst opr osper ,somebodymustov ersee
allt he depar tment s and ensur et hatwor ki s done pr operly and
compl etedont ime.
 Repor ti
ng- feedback f r om t he depar tmentheads i sv eryi mpor tant
becausei tassi stsmanagementt oi dent i
fywhet hert hebusi nessi s
doingwel lornot .
Quali
ti
esofagoodmanager .
 Abi li
tyt omakedeci sions- actsqui cklywhennecessar yanddoesnotpass
thepr oblem t osomeonet oresol ve.
 Har dwor ki ngandt imeconsci ous-shoul dbeanexampl eryanddoest hings
ont i
me.
 Abi li
tyt ot hinkclear l
yandl ogically
 Fair,honesti ndeal ingwi thot herpeopl e.-t r
eatpeopl eequal l
yandt el
l
them t het ruth.
 Hasasoundknowl edgei nmar keting,organi zingandaccount ing.
 Hasabi li
tyt omot ivate, inspire.getonwel linwi thandcont r
ol people.
 Goodheal th–She/Hemustbei ngoodheal thtokeepupdemandand
stressoft hef arm.
 Empower sanddel egat es-all
owsandgi v esempl oyeesoppor tunit
iest odo
theirwor kt ot hebestoft heirabi li
tiesandmakest hem r esponsiblef or
theiract i
ons.
 Creat iv eandi nnov ati
v e-mustcomeupwi t
hnewway sofdoi ngt hings,be
prepar edt ochangeandt akecal culatedr isks.
Fact
orstoconsi derbef oreSt artinganagr icult
ur epr oducti
onent erpri
ses
 Avai
labi
l
ityofcapi
tal
 Ski
ll
andKnowl edge
 Avai
labi
l
ityofmarket
s-car
ryoutmarketr
esearch
 Avai
labi
l
ityofwater
 Avai
labi
l
ityofi
nputs
 Avai
labi
l
ityandcostofl
abourr
elat
ivel
ytootheri
nput
s
 Av
ail
abil
i
tyofgoodfert
il
eland
 Vi
abi
li
tyoft
heproj
ect
 Av
ail
abil
i
tyofqual
if
iedstaf
f

Pr
oblemsexper iencedbycommer ci
alfarmer sinBotswanaandt hei
r
sol
utions
 Poorandunsui t
ablesoil-
addi
t i
onoff ert
il
isers
 Errat
icandunr eli
ablerainf
all
-buil
dingmor edams
 Farmerslackt echnicalandmanager i
alskil
l-useofruralt
rai
ningcent
resto
tr
ainfarmers.
 Toughcompet i
ti
onf rom SA- govtshoul dst opt heimportati
onoff ar
m
produceifthereisenoughl ocalsuppl y
.
 Pestsanddi seases-govtshouldt r
ainmor ev eter
inar
yassist
ants.

60
  HI VandAI DS-f armer sshoul dbet aughtaboutHI VandAI DS.
MARKETI NGANDMARKETI NGCONCEPT
Mar ket ing- def inedasper for manceofal l busi nessact i
viti
esinv olvedi nthef low
ofgoodsandser vices.I tinv olv esactivitiest hatensur ethatt heneedsandwant s
ofconsumer sar emet .Itisusedt ocr eat eandsat i
sfycust omer s.
Mar ket ingconcept -Itist hei deat hatabusi nesscannotsur vi
v ewi thoutsat i
sf yi
ng
theneedsandwant sofi tscust omer s.
Reasonsf ormar keting
-I
thel pst oi dent ifycust omer s,keepandsat i
sfycust omer s.
-Makecust omer sawar eoft hebusi nessandi t
spr oduct s.
-I
tcreat esnewcust omer sf ort hebusi ness.
-Helpsbusi nesshav ecompet it
iveadv ant agesov eri t
scompet i
tors.
Mar ket ingmi x- I
tout linest hemosti mpor tantel ement sofasuccessf ul market i
ng
plan.Al sor efer redt oast he4Psofmar ket ing.
1.Pr oduct -at tract i
ve, affor dabl e,goodqual i
tythatmi ghtsat isfycust omer sneed.
2.Pr i
ce- af for dabl e, itdet er mi nest heamountofi ncomet hatcanbegener ated.
3.Place- thepr oductmustbei nt her i
ghtpl acet obepur chasedbyt heconsumer s.
4.Pr omot ion- tot ell cust omer saboutt hepr oduct .Anewbusi nesswi llhaveno
customer sunl essi ti sadv ertised.
Met hodsofmar ket i
ng
1.Dir ectmar ket ing-Consumer sarecont act eddi rect l
ybycal l
ingori nforming
them aboutt hepr oduct .
2.Adv ert i
si ng- Thebusi nesscanbeadv ert i
sedonr adi o,newspaper sandi nternet.
3.Per sonal selling-Iti nv olvesasal esper sonv i
sitingi ndividual cust omer s
conv inci ngt hem t obuyt hepr oduct .
4.Sal espr omot i
on- Thebusi nesssel l
sapr oductataspeci al(reduced)pr ice.The
met hodat tract scust omer sawayf rom ot hersel lers.
5.Organi singDi st r
ictandNat ional Agricul turalshows- Farmer si nBot swanahav e
beenmar ket i
ngt hei rpr oduct st hrought heseshows.
TheuseofI CT( I
nf or mat ionCommuni cat ionsTechnol ogyt opr omot et r
adei n
theAgr icul tur al sect or .
ICTi nv olv escomput ers( inter netwebsi tesandemai l
ing) ,mobi lephonesand
l
andl inet elephones.
ICTf orexampl e; useofi nt ernetmakesi tpossi blet or eachov erseasmar ketsf or
yourpr oduct s.ICTal lowst hef ar mert ocr eat eadv ertisement s, increase
awar enessabouthi spr oduct sandat tractmor ecust omer s.Af armerwhohas
thenecessar yski l
lsandaccesst oI CTwi ll havegr eatadv antageov erfarmer s
whodon’ tusei t.

Farm Records
-anywritteninformat
ionaboutacti
vi
ti
esofthefarm.
Typeofr ecords
-Pr
oduct i
on
-Fi
nancial
Producti
onr ecords–invol
vesalldet
ail
sofproducti
onofi
ndi
vi
dual
ent
erpr
isesof
afarm business.

61
Exampl eofPr oductionrecords
 Far m diaryrecords
 Cr op
 Li vest ock
 I nv entory
 Labourr ecords
 Machi neryrecords
Financialr ecords– ar et hosewhi
chrecordsdetai
l
soft ransacti
onsinv
olvi
ng
money
Exampl esoff i
nancialrecords
-Cashaccount
-Bankaccount
-Debtor saccount
-Creditorsaccount
-Expensesaccount
-I
ncomeaccount s
-Capital account
-Assertsandl i
abil
iti
esaccount
-Profi
tandl ossaccount
Profitandl ossaccounti sasummaryofrevenueandexpendit
urerecor
dedover
per
iodoft
ime.
Howt
odr
awpr
ofi
tandl
ossaccount
.
Thel
ayouti
ssucht
hatononesi
der
etur
nsar
erecor
dedandt
heot
hersi
decost
s
orExpensesar
erecor
ded.
Onexpensessi
de
 al
li
temsofexpendi
tur
ebot
hvar
iabl
eandf
ixed
 Val
ueofpr
oducepr
oducedf
rom t
hepr
evi
ousy
ear
Onr
evenuesi
de
Sal
eofpr
oduce(
out
put
)andv
alueofpr
oduceusedathome.
Val
ueofpr
oducepr
oduceddur
ingt
hecur
rentyearawai
tingsal
e

Uset
hei
nfor
mat
ionbel
owt
odr
awapr
ofi
tandl
ossaccountf
orMrSmi
th
 Pur
chaseof200pul
l
etsonpoi
ntofl
ayi
ngcost
sP15.
00each
 Pur
chaseofdr
ugsandv
acci
nescost
sP45.
 Wat
erbi
l
lsandel
ect
ri
cit
ybi
l
ls P540each
 Wagef
orchi
ckenat
tendant
sP4200

62
  Eggt
raycost
s P2000
 Pur
chaseof50bagsofl
ayersmashP90each
 Sal
eofeggsi
sP20000
 Sal
eofof
f-l
ayer
sisP10perbi
rd

Expenses Rev
enue
I
tems Amount I
tems Amount
Poi
ntofl
ayi
ngPul
l
ets P3000 Sal
eofEggs P20000
Dr
ugsandVacci
nes P 45 Of
f-l
ayer
s P2000
Wat
erbi
l
ls P 540
El
ect
ri
ci
tybi
l
l P 540
Wages P4200
Eggt
ray
s P2000
Lay
ersmash P4500
P22000
Subt
otal 14825 Subt
otal
7175
Pr
ofi
t/Loss
Tot
alExpenses P22000 Tot
alI
ncome P22000

Det
ermi
ningpr
ofi
torl
ossoft
heent
erpr
ise
Pr
ofi
t/Loss=I
ncome-
Expenses
Pr
ofi
t/Loss=P22000-
14825
PROFI
T =7175
Pr
ofi
tal
way
shasaposi
ti
veanswer
,Negat
iveanswershowsal
oss

Budget
-isanest
imat
eofexpect
edi
ncomeandexpensesofapr
oposedf
arm
busi
ness
Budget
ing,
ist
hepr
ocessofest
imat
ingf
utur
eincomeandexpenses
REASONSFORBUDGETI
NG
-
Showsweakandst
rongpoi
ntsoft
hepr
oject

63
-
Isar
equi
rementf
orobt
aini
ngl
oansandgr
ant
sfr
om banksorot
herl
endi
ng
i
nst
it
uti
ons
-
Enabl
esf
armer
stochooset
hebestent
erpr
iseorcombi
nat
ionofent
erpr
ises
-
Prov
idesagoodest
imat
eoft
heamountofi
nvest
mentr
equi
redt
ost
artan
ent
erpr
iseorexpandapr
oject
-
Indi
cat
epr
ogr
essorl
ackofi
ttowar
dssetgoal
s
Pr
epar
eabudget
EXPECTEDCOSTS EXPECTEDRETURNS
Dat
e I
tem Amount
(P) Dat
e I
tem
Amount
(P)
1/
3/11 Bought 2000 l
ayer
s 17\
10/
11 Sal
e of eggs
4000.
00 5000.
00
11/
3/11 Bought f
eeds 20/
10/
11 Sal
e of l
ayer
s
1000.
00 4400.
00
12/
3/11 Bought v
acci
nes 20/
10/
11 Sal
e of manur
e
200.
00 200.
00
14/
3/11 Bought egg t
ray
s
800.
00
Tot
al expect
ed cost
s Tot
alexpect
edr
etur
ns9600.
00
6000.
00
Expect
edr
etur
ns–Expect
edcost
s=Expect
edl
oss/
prof
it
P9600.
00-
P6000.
00=P3600.
00
MARKETRESEARCH
Amar
ketr
esear
chi
sapr
ocessofcol
l
ect
ingi
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hemar
ketwher
e
apr
oducti
stobesol
d.
Reasonsf
oramar
ketr
esear
ch.
-
Toi
dent
if
ycust
omer
sfory
ourpr
oduct
s
-
Findoutcust
omerneeds
-
Hel
pinmar
ket
ingt
hepr
oduct
-
Hel
pinf
indi
ngt
hecompet
it
ors

64
Sour
ceoff
undi
ngf
orAgr
icul
tur
eent
erpr
ises
 Gov
ernmentgr
ant
ssuchasCEDA(
Cit
izenEnt
repr
eneur
ialDev
elopment
Agency
)and I
SPAAD (
Int
egr
ated Suppor
tPr
ogr
amme f
ort
he Ar
abl
e
Agr
icul
tur
eandDai
ryDev
elopment
)
 YFF(
YoungFar
mer
sFund)
 NAMPAADD (
Nat
ionalMast
erPl
anf
ort
heAr
abl
eAgr
icul
tur
eandDai
ry
Dev
elopment
)
 LI
MID(
Liv
est
ockManagementandI
nfr
ast
ruct
ureDev
elopment
)
 Nat
ional
Dev
elopmentBank
 Commer
cial
banks
 Per
sonal
sav
ingsandl
oansf
rom f
ri
endsandr
elat
ives
 Nongov
ernment
alOr
gani
zat
ions.
Condi
ti
onsat
tachedt
otheGov
ernmentschemesandgr
ant
s
 Onl
yci
ti
zensofBot
swanaar
elegi
ble
 Far
m pr
ojectmustbepr
oduct
ive
 AnyMot
swanaei
ght
eeny
ear
sol
dorol
dercanappl
yforassi
stance
 I
tmustbecl
eart
hatt
hepr
ojecti
svi
abl
e
 Appl
i
cantmustmeett
he appr
ovalcondi
ti
ons and t
hen si
gned t
he
agr
eement
Howt
oappl
yfort
hef
und
 Obt
aint
heappl
i
cat
ionf
ormsf
rom t
her
elev
antgov
ernmenti
nst
it
uti
onor
bank
 Compl
etet
hef
ormf
ull
yandr
etur
nit
 Theappl
i
cat
ionf
ormi
sthenappr
aisedbyt
echni
cal
off
icer
s
Busi
nessi
dea-
iti
sat
houghtaboutapossi
blebusi
nessonecanst
artandhowi
t
canbedone.
Busi
nessoppor
tuni
ty-
iti
sachancet
oownabusi
nessei
therbybuy
ingorl
easi
ng

65
anypr
oductt
hatwi
l
lenabl
eyout
ost
artoper
ati
ngt
hebusi
ness.

Busi
nesspl
an-
Iti
sawr
it
tendocumentorpr
oposaldescr
ibi
ngi
ndet
ailt
het
ypeof
busi
nessy
ouwoul
dli
ket
ost
artorar
einv
olv
edi
nandhowi
twi
l
lbeor
gani
zed.

Reasonsf
orpr
epar
ingabusi
nesspl
an
-
Hel
psi
npl
anni
ngf
ort
hebusi
ness
-
Assi
sti
nbudget
ing
-
Showspossi
bleway
sofi
mpr
ovi
ngt
hebusi
ness
-
Dir
ect
sthebusi
ness
-
Showst
hev
iabi
l
ityoft
hebusi
ness
-
For
msabasi
sforget
ti
ngal
oan
-
Hel
pst
oev
aluat
ethepr
oject

El
ement
sinabusi
nesspl
an
Descr
ipt
ionofabusi
ness
Mi
ssi
onandv
isi
onst
atement
s
Obj
ect
ives
Pr
oductdescr
ipt
ion
Mar
ket
ingpl
an
Busi
nessoper
ati
on
St
aff
ingandmanagement
Fi
nanci
alf
orecast\pl
an

66
VEGETABLEPRODUCTI
ON

a)EXOTI CVEGETABLES-Vegetabl
est hatdonotgrownatural
lyi
nBotswana.
Theyor i
ginat
efrom ot
hercount
ries.
Exampl es:
cabbage,tomato,
spi
nach,
onion,
caulif
lower
,cucumber
,beetr
oot
,radi
sh,
egg
plantandlett
uce.

b)I
NDIGENOUSVEGETABLES-Vegetabl
est
hator
igi
nat
eorgr
ownat
ural
l
yin
Bot
swana.Exampl
es:
Del
ele,
thepe,
rot
hwe,
monyaku.

Nut
ri
ti
onal
val
ueofv
eget
abl
es.

a)Theyar eri
chinmineral
sandvitaminswhi chprotectbodyagai nstdi
seases.
b)Spi
nachi sari
chsourceofir
onwhi chisessentialforbl
oodf ormat i
on.
c)Eatingcarr
otscanhelpimprov
eey esight.
d)Manyv eget
ablescont
ainalotofwat erneededforbodypr ocessessuchas
buil
dingbodycellsandti
ssuesandtransportingdissol
vednutrients.
e)Onionsandgarli
cincr
easeone’sappetit
e.

Suppl
yofvegetabl
esi
nBotswana.
Thesuppl
yislowhencet
her easonwhymostofv
egesar
eimpor
tedf
rom ot
her
count
ri
essuchasSouthAfr
icaandZimbabwe.

Demandofvegetabl
esinBot
swana.
Thedemandisveryhi
gh.

OPPORTUNI
TIESFORVEGETABLEPRODUCTI
ONI
NBOTSWANA.

Theopport
uni
ti
esf
orproducingveget
abl
esar
ehi
gh.
-
Thereishi
ghdemandf
orv egetabl
es
-
Vegetabl
esar
emarket
able

Governmentstrat
egi
esaimedati mprovi
ngv eget
ablepr
oductioninBotswana.
-
Providesi
nputatsubsi
dizedprices-
Farmersbuyseeds,seedl
ings,pest
ici
des,
fer
ti
li
zersf
rom ISPAAD(I
nt egr
atedSupportProgrammef orArabl
eAgr i
cul
tur
e
Devel
opment).
-
Incl
udinghort
icul
tur
eintheschool cur
ri
culum-St
udentsaretaughthowt ogrow

67
vegetables.
-Provi
dingtechnicalsupporttovegetableproducers-ManyAgr i
cultur
al
Demonst at
orshav ebeenempl oyedbygov ttoprovidetechni
cal advi
cet o
vegetableproducers.
-Conductingagricshows- Veget
ableproducersexhibitthei
rproduceatt hi
sshows.
-Provi
dingfinancialsupport
-CEDA( Ci
ti
zenEntrepreneurial
DevelopmentAgency )
andYFF(YoungFar mersFund)pr ovi
deslowi nt
erestloanstoviableproduct
ion
businesses.

REQUIREMENTSFORTHEESTABLI SHMENTOFAVEGETABLEENTERPRI
SE.
-
Adequateandf ert
il
eland
-
Adequateirr
igat i
onwat er
-
Equipment,t
ool s,
machiner y
-
Skil
l
ed,experiencedandr el
i
abl
eper
sonnel
-
Reli
ablemar ket
-
Adequatefundsorcapi tal

FACTORSTOCONSI DERWHENDECI DINGWHI

CHVEGETABLECROPSTO
GROW.
-Typeofsoi lr
equiredbythecrop
-Reasonf orgr owingthecrop
-Cli
maticcondi t
ionsneededbythecr
op
-Avail
abil
ityofl abour
-Valueoft hecr op
-Managementneedsoft hecrops
-Technical knowledgeofthecrops
-Needsoft hemar ket

METHODSOFVEGETABLEPRODUCTI
ON TOADOPT.

1.
OPENBEDS- Thi
siswher
evegetabl
esar
egrowninanopencul
ti
vat
edpi
eceof
l
and.Noindi
vi
dualpl
otsar
epreparedi
nst
eadthewhol
ewhrevegesar
etobe
pl
antedi
scult
ivat
ed.

2.CONCRETEBENCHES- Severalpermanentbedswithaframewor
kofbr
icksor
concret
eareconstr
ucted.Sui
tablesoi
listhenusedtofi
l
lupthe
benches.
Vegetabl
ecropsareplantedunti
lmaturi
ty.

3.GREENHOUSES-Thisarestruct
ureswithaglassorplasti
croofandwal l
salso
madeoutofglassorplast
ic.Thetranspar
entglassorplast
icroofandwallofa
greenhouseal
lowsunli
ghttoenterandwar mtheinsi
debutpr eventheatf
rom
escapi
ng.

TYPESOFSEEDBEDS

68
a)
Flatseedbed-
Iti
slev
elwi
tht
hegr
oundl
evel
.

Advant
ages
-
Iti
seasytomakeandlesst
imeconsumi
ng
-
Lesslabourr
equi
red

Di
sadvantages
-
Easi
lyeroded
-
Watermaybr eakt
hewal
l
sandescape.

b)
Sunkenseedbed-
iti
smadel
owert
hant
hegr
oundl
evel
.

Advantages
-
Itconservesmoistur
etheref
oresui
tabl
efordri
erar
eas.
-
Reducessoi ler
osi
on.
-
Plantrootscanusedeeperundergr
oundwater.
-
Seedli
ngsar eprot
ectedfr
om damagebystrongwinds.

Di
sadvant
ages
-
Easi
lybecomewat er
logged.
-
Notgoodforareasofhighrai
nfal
l
.
-
Timeandlabourconsuming

c)
Rai
sedseedbed-
iti
srai
sedabov
ethegr
oundl
evel
.

Advantages
-
Ithasgooddr ai
nage.
-
Plantscannotbeeasi
lywashedaway.
-
Itencouragesbett
err
ootpenet
rat
ion.

Disadv
antages
-
Itcannotbeusedinsandysoi
l
s
-
Timeconsumi ng
-
Labourintensi
ve

Classi
fi
cati
onofveges
Vegetabl
esarecl
assif
iedaccor
dingt
opar
tofthepl antthatiseatenorused.
Class Exampl es
Leaf Lett
uce, spi nach
Legume Peas, beans
Root Beetroots, carrot
s
Frui
t Tomat oes, eggpl ant
Bulb Onions, garlic
Fl
ower Cauli
flower , br
ocoll
i
Tuber Ir
ishpot atoes, sweetpotat
oes

69
GROWI NGOFBEETROOT
BEETROOTCULTI VARS/ VARIETIES
-Detroitdarkr ed
-Crimsongl obe
-Redace
-Earlywonder
-Egypt i
an
SOI L REQUI REMENT
Beet rootdoeswel linloose,welldug,well drainedandf erti
lesandyl oam soi l wit
h
theopt imum soi l pH of5. 8-8.
Ifbeet r
ootsar egrowni napl otwher ef reshmanur e
hasbeenadded, ther ootsmayf orkorbecomedef ormed.
CLI MATI CREQUI REMENTI ti
sacool weat hercr opwhi chrequiresat emper at ure
of200c.I tisaf f
ect edbycol dweat herwhi chnor mal lyresultsinthi ckt apr oot s.
FERTI LIZER REQUI REMENTS
Add80g/ m 2of2: 3:2( 22)aweekbef orepl antingandl atertopdr esswi th35- 75
g/m2.Whenr ootsofbeet root
sst artcrackingorshowbl ackenedar eas, t
his
mi ghtbeani ndicat i
ont hatBoroni snotenoughi nt hesoi l
.HenceBor axshoul d
beaddedasacor rectiv
emeasur e.
GROWI NGBEETROOTS
Met hodofPl anting
I
nt errowspaci ng-20-30cm apar t.
I
nt rarowspaci ng-10cm apar t
.
Dept hofpl anting-2cm.
Pest sofBeet root sandspi nach.
Pest Cropsaf fected Damagecaused Cont rolmeasur es
Aphi ds Spinach, Theysucksap Remov eand
beet r
oot causi ngwi l
tingand dest roypl ant s,
transmi tdiseases. weedi nganduse
ofmal athi
onor
Dimet hoat e.
Nemat odes Spinach, Makesr ootknot s Upr oot ingcr ops,
beet r
oot whi chblockst he pract icecr op
rootcausi ngwi l
ti
ng, r otat i
on, soil
stunt edgrowt hand f umi gat ion.
deat hofseedl i
ngs.
Cut worm Spinach, Cutt hest em at Sprinkl ecut wor m

70
 beet
root groundl
evel
atnight bai
tovert
he
andhidei
nthesoil
. soil
,weedi
ng.
DiseasesofBeet
root
sandspinach
Disease Aff
ect
edcr ops Symptoms Cont rol
Leafspotcaused Spinach,
beet r
oot Smalli
rregul
ar Appl yDit
hane
byfungus. l
ightbr
ownspot M45
ontheleaves,dar
k
Usecer ti
fi
ed
l
eafedgesappearseeds
Practicecrop
rotati
on
Fieldsanit
ati
on
Av oi
dwat er
l
oggi ng
Dampingof
f Spi
nach,
beet
root Baseofr ootand Usecer ti
fi
ed
causedbyf
ungus. stem tur
nsblack seeds
orbrownandr ots Practicecrop
causingdeathof r otati
on
seedli
ngs. Fieldsanit
ati
on
Av oi
dwat er
l
oggi ng
Appl yDit
hane
M45

ManagementofBeet root
.
Managementpr acti
ce Reasonforcar
ryi
ngthem out
Thinning-Remov
ingextr
acropsf
rom Thinsothatt
heremaini
ngseedl
ings
thefield. haveenoughspacef
orgrowthand
reducecompeti
ti
onbetweenseedli
ngs
forwater
,ai
r,.
Weedi ng-
Remov ingunwant edcrops
from thef iel
d.
Wat ering-applyi
ngwat ert
oplants
Soilcul t
ivati
on-looseningofsoilby
digging.
Ferti
liserapplication-addi
ti
onof
fert
ili
zert othesoi l.
Cont rolofpest sanddi seases.

SIGNSOFMATURI TYOFBEETROOT
Theact ualsizeofmat ureseedbeetrootdependonthevarietyplant
ed.Mature
beetr
oot sareabout8cm indiameter
.Itcanbeharvest
edbeginning9weeksafter
sowing.
HARVESTI NGOFBEETROOT
Iti
sbestt owat ertheplotswherebeetrootsar
etobeharvestedadaybef or
et o
makei teasiertoli
ftorpulloutt
herootsf r
om soi
l
.Agardenf orkcanbeusedt o

71
l
oosent hesoi
lsothatbeetrootscanbeli
ft
edoutoft hesoi
l.
PROCESSI NGANDMARKETI NGOFBEETROOT
Beetr
ootsshouldbewashedwi thcl
eanwatertoremovesoil
.Damagedbeetr
oots
shouldbesepar at
edf rom thosethatarenotdamaged.Beet root
sshouldbe
packagedinboxesortiedinbundlesandtransport
edtothemarket
.Beet
rootcan
besoldtoindi
vi
duals,r
et ai
l
ersandwholesaler
s.
STORAGEANDPRESERVATI ONMETHODSOFBEETROOT

Ref
ri
gerat
ion-keepingofbeet
rooti
nar ef
ri
dger
ator
.
Bot
tl
ing-
beetrootputint
obott
leswhicharet
hensealed.

GROWI NGOFSPI NACH

Var
ieti
es;
FordhookGiant
,Lucull
us,
Rhurbab,
Vir
ofl
ayandNewZealand
CLI
MATI CREQUIREMENTS;
Acoolweathercropthatr
esi
stli
ghtfr
ost.Opt
imum t
emper
atur
efori
tsgr
owt
his
10-
300C.

SUITABLESOI LTYPES;
Growsi nawi der angeofsoi ls,butdoeswel li
ndeep, fert
il
eandwel ldrainedsoi l
s.
Sandyloam soi lwi thaphr angeof6. 0- 6.8isideal.
BASALDRESSI NG;
Addkr aalmanur eorchi ckenmanur eatr at
esof5- 8kgand2- 3kgrespect i
vel
y
beforepl ant i
ng.2: 3:2[22] +1Zi ncatar at
eof80gperm2atl east7day sbef or
e
pl
antingusi ngbr oadcast i
ngmet hod.
TOPDRESSI NG;Appl y14gofL. A.Nor20gofAmmoni um Sul phate perm2,3
weeksaf terpl antingandr epeatt het reatmentev er
y2- 3weeks.Si dedressi ngor
ri
ngmet hodi susedasmet hodofappl icat i
on.
Whyaddf ertil
izerst oacr op
Leafcr opsar eheav yfeeder sandr equi r
el ot
sofnut ri
entst opr oducegood
quali
tyl eav esandf orsust ainedy i
elds.
SOWI NGANDSPACI NG
Sowndi rect lyori nt henur ser yonr ai
sedorsunkenpl ots.Int
er-r
owspaci ngi s40-
60cm.I nt rar ow spaci ng 15- 25cm atf inalthi
nning.Seedsar epl anted1- 2cm
deep.
MANAGEMENTPRACTI CES
Water ing
 Thi nning-st artthinni ngspi nach2-3weeksaf terseedli
ngemer gencet o
allowseedl ingenoughspacet ogr ow
 Weedcont rol;Keeppl otsfreeofweedsatal lt
imes.
 Cul tivation
 Mul ching
 pestanddi seasescont rol(NOTE)seebeet r
oott ogetpest sanddi seases
ofspi nach)
 Av oi duseofpest icidesunl esspest sar etoomany
Signsofmat urityandhar v est i
ngofspi nach.

72
Spinachwi l
lreachmat ur
itywithi
n7-9weeksaf t
erdirectplant
ing.
Leafpi
cki
ng
start
sabout2mont hsaf t
erplanti
ngandcontinuesfor3–10mont hs.
ProcessingandMar keti
ngofspi nach
Washedspi nachleavesar eti
edintobundlesbeforesold.Leavesaresol
daft
er
harvest
ingtoindiv
iduals,supermarket
s,schoolsandclini
cs.
STORAGEANDPRESERVATI ONOFSPI NACH

Dry
ing–cooki
ngspinachthensundry
ing.
Refr
iger
ati
on-
keepi
ngspinachi
nar ef
ri
dgerat
or.

GoatPr
oduct
ion
I
mpor tanceofGoatpr oduct i
on
 Sour ceofi ncomeandempl oyment
 Sour ceofani mal pr otei n(food)
 Sour cer awmat erials
 Canbeexchangedf orgoodsandser vices
 Sour ceoff or eignexchange
 Goat sar eusedi nsoci al andr el
i
gi ouscer emoni es
 Requi rel i
ttlecapi tal andgi v esqui ckr etur ns
 Goat sar edr oughtt ol er ant
DemandandSuppl ysi t
uat ion
Thereishighdemandi nci ti
esandbi gv i
llages.Demandi sgr eat ert
hansupply.
Goatsar eimpor tedmai nl yf rom Republ icofsout hAf rica.
GovernmentSt rategi est oi mpr ovegoat spr oduct ion
 Pr ovidesf inanci al assi stancepol i
cyt hr oughgr ant sschemessuchas
CEDA.
 Pr ovidet rainingt oagr icultur estaffandf ar mers
 Pr ovidesi mpr ovedr esear chandeducat ional faci li
ti
es
 Takesr esponsi bilityf orcont r
oll
ingnat ional lyIpor tentdi seaseand
parasites.
 Pay scompensat iont of armer sincasesofl ossofst ockt opredat
ors
 Pr omot esdi versificat ionofagr i
cul tural product i
on
 Passedast ockt hef tbi ll i
ntendedt opr ot ectf armer sf rom stockthef
t
Factorstoconsi derbef or est ar ti
nggoatpr oduct i
onent erpr i
se
 Di stancet omar ket s, slaughterandpr ocessi ngcent res
 Met hodofpr oduct iont oadoptandl ev elofpr oduct ion
 Av ail
abi l
ityofenoughl and

73
  Av ailabilit
yofdr ugsandv acci nes
 Av ailabilit
yofsui tablebr eedsofgoat s
 Av ailabilit
yofper manentwat ersuppl y
 I ncidenceofdi seaseandpar asi tes
 Av ailabilit
yandcost sofl abour
 Av ailabilit
yandcost sofcr edit
 Vi abi li
tyoft hepr oject
 Feasi bi l
ityst udyoft hepr oposedpr oject
BreedsofGoat s
-Boer -Br i
tishAl phine
-Saanen -
-Togger nbur g -Tswana
Classif
icat i
onofGoat sandt hei rchar acter i
sti
cs
Mohai rBr eeds_ -Angor a
 Al argehor nedbr eeds
 Bodycov eredwi thl ong, sof twav yhai r,
 Adaptt oaf air
lydr yclimat ebutsuf fersrecurr
entabor t
ion.
 I tisadual purposebr eedbutmai nlykeptf ormohair.
Dairybr eed-Saanen, Br i
tishAl phineandTogger nburg
Saanen
 Al argesi zedai rybreed, usual l
ypol led
 Bodycov eredwi thshor thai r,
whi te/cream coloured,haserectear
s
 Doci leandgent lenat ur e
 Hi ghmi lkpr oducer sav eragi ng3L
Dual pur posebr eed-Thesear ebr eedswhi chcanber earedf ormorethan
onepr oduct .
Boer,TswanaandAngor a
Boer
 Al argeandf astmat ur ingbr eed
 Whi t
ei nbodycol ourwi thr eddi shbr ownheads
 Qui tehar dyandr esistantt odi seaseandpar asit
es.
 Wel ladapt edt ocl i
mat iccondi tionsi nSA
 Hi ghf ertili
tyr ate, t
wi nsort ri
pletsar ecommonandhasgood
mot heringabi lit
ies
 I tisdual purposebr eedmai nlyformeat
Tswana
 Har dyandwel ladoptedtothel ocalcondi
ti
ons
 Exhibitsreasonabl
egr owth
 Producegoodqual it
ycarcassanddoespr oducesat
isf
actor
ymil
k
Hencecall
eddual purposebreed.
I
mportanceofhousi ngingoatproduct i
on
 Pr otectsgoatsfrom adverseweat hercondi
ti
onsegentensi
veheatcol
d,
draughtandr ai
n
 Pr otectfrom pr
edatorsandt hieves

74
  Keepsmot herandy oungonest oget herforaf ewday safterki
ddi
ng
 Faci
li
tategener almanagementofgoat s
I
mpor t
anceofpr ovidi
ngf oodandwat erregul arl
yt ogoats
 Tomai ntaingoat sinstrongandheal thycondi t
ionsatallti
mes.
 Toincreasef ert
il
ityof,hencer ateofconcept i
oninbreedingstock.
 Toenablesgoat stoproducemor eef f
ici
ently
 Toall
owr apidgrowt hoff oetusandbui l
dupofbodyt issues
 Tomai ntainhighmi lkproduct i
oni nl actati
nggoat s.
TypesofFeedsf orgoat s
 Roughages–br owseandgr azingf rom nat uralpast
ure,hayandsil
ages
 Concentrates–usual l
yf edtolact atinggoat s.
 Supplement aryfeeds–bonemeal andsal t
sandmi nerall
icks

RoutinemanagementPr act
ice
Castrat
ion
Dewor ming
Vaccinati
on
Hooft r
immi ng
I
dentifi
cation
Castrati
on-removal
ordestruct
ionoft
est
est
opr
eventamal
efr
om br
eedi
ng.
Toolsused
.
Burdizo
.
Rubberr ingandanelast
rat
or
.
Knife\scalpel

PROCEDURE
 Burdizzo-abl oodlessmet hodinwhi chbur
dizoisusedt ocrushspermat i
c
cords
 Elastr
atorandRubberr ingband/r i
ng–abandi splacedonscr otum
abovet hetest i
cles
 Knifeorscal pel–knifeisusedt ocutt hel
owerpartoft hescrotum,test
es
arepushedoutandt hei
rcor dsarescrapedoff,di
sinf
ectthewoundwi th
Stockholmt ar
.
Deworming-Gi v i
ngofant helminti
cstogoat stopreventi
nternalparasit
es,
Reasons
 Preventspr eadofwor ms
 Preventeconomi clossduet odeath
 Improv eresistanceofgoat stodiseases

75
  Toattai
nfastgrowt
handmat
uri
t
Tool
sused
.
Drenchi
nggun,dosi
nggun

PROCEDURE

Hol
dtheanimal,hol
dtheheadup, pl
acethedr ugatthebackofthet
hroat.
Hooft
rimming–cut ti
ngbackt heelongatedorover
grownhoovesofli
vestock
Reasons
 Cont r
olfootrot
 Pr ev
entbuildupofpar asitesanddi r
tbet
weenhoov es
 Keepani mal i
ngr oomedandcondi ti
on
 Pr ev
entlamenessandr educest r
essingoats
.
Toolsused
Hooftri
mmer ,
strongclippers

PROCEDURE
Hol
dtheani
mal
,
cleant
hehoof
,cutt
heov
ergr
ownwi
thoutcausi
ngbl
eedi
ng.

Vacci nation–Admi ni
strati
onofv accinest oani
mal stopr oduceimmuni tyt
o
certain
Diseases.
Tool used:Sy ri
ngeandneedl e
Identifi
cat i
on-meansgi vingeachgoatamar kornumbert odisti
nguishitfr
om al
l
the othergoats.
Met hodofI dentif
icati
on
Brandi ng-amar koranumberi spl acedont heskinoft heanimal usingextr
eme
heator cold
Tool used: Brandingir
on.
Eart agging–smal lnumber edstri
ppedmet alorplasticeartagisattachedtothe
earof everykidusingeart agappl
icator
Earnot ching–smal lpiecesofanearcl i
ppedoutusi ngearnot cher
Ear–t attooing: Number sar emadei nt heearusingt att
oof or
cepsandneedl e
and shapeofnumber s
Par asitesofgoat s
Internal
 Roundwor m
 Tapewor m
 Li verflukes
 Wi rewor ms

Ext
ernal
 Fl
eas
 Li
ce
 Ticks
 Mi t
es

76
Roundwor
m
Ani
nter
nalpar
asit
esofgoat
s.
Lif
eCycl
esofroundWor
m:

77
 Theeggs
hatchinto
Thegoatpass larv
aeand
f
aeceswit
heggs. i
ngestedby
Theeggspass t
hegr azi
ng
outint
opastur
e. animal

Insi
det hehost
larvaedevelop
i
ntomat ur
e
wor mswhi chlay
eggsaf t
ermat ing
t
huscompl eting
theli
fecycle.

Ef
fectsofroundwor m
 Poorcondi tionandveryslowr at
eofgr owth.
 Causer educedpr oducti
onofmi lk,
mohai randmeat.
 Causel ower edresi
stancetodisease,andgeneralunt
hri
ftness
 Affect
edgoat shaveharsh,roughcoatwi ththehai
rst
andingup(star
ing
coat)
 Causedi arrhea(scours)anemi a,lossofappetit
eandcoughingin
severecases.
 Mayr esultst odeat
hofkids.
Contr
olandpr event i
on

78
  Maintai
nhi ghst andar dsofhy gieneandsani tat
ion.
 Suspectedani mal sshoul ddei solatedandtreatedforroundwor ms.
 Pract
icer outi
nedosi ngusi ngr ecommendedant hel
minticssuchasdyl
ox,
phenothiazine,copperI IsulphateandOv i
vax6.
 Grazegoat sonwel ldrainedpast ure,avoi
dwetandmar shypastur
es.
 Pract
icer otati
onal grazingtobr eakt heli
fecycl
eoft heroundwor m

DiseasesofGoats.
Pulpykidney, Contagi
ousabor
ti
on,
Footrot, Bl
oat
,
Footandmout h, Bl
ackquart
er,
Heartwat er
, Masti
ti
s. Ant
hrax

Footrotcausedbybact eri
a
Sympt oms
 Pusf or
msbet weenhoov esleadingt olameness, diffi
cul
ti
esi nwal ki
ng
 Hoov esbl eedandsmel l badly
 Goat sar eseengr azingwhi lekneelingifthefrontlegsareaf fected.
Treat
ment
 I solategoat sandt r
im of fovergrownhoov esandr ot t
entissuesand
thencl eanwi thantisepti
ceg.CopperI Isulphatesol ut
ionordet tol
.
 Appl ypeni cil
li
nort etracycli
neinaspr ayorcream f ormtoaf fected
hoov esunt i
lhealed,
Control andPr ev enti
onmeasur es
 Pr acti
cesr egularhoofexami nati
onandt ri
mmi ng
 I sol at
eaf fectedgoat si mmedi atel
yf ortreatments
 Wal kthem t hroughaf ootbathcont aini
ng25%ofCopperI Isuphat e
sol uti
on
 Pr acti
cer ot ati
onalgrazingandav oidkeepi nggoatsi naf i
l
thykr aal.
Goatsproduct s
 Meat ,Milkpr oducts,Mi l
k,Mohai r
Goat sBy -product s
 Ski nandpel ts,manur e,bloodmeal bonemeal gut

Mar
ketingofgoats
 Goatsaresoldtol
ocalbut
chers,i
ndi
viduals,middl
eman.Skinandpel
ts
aresoldtoski
ndealer
sandmohai ri
sf orexportsmarket
.Goatmeati
s
soldtothepubl
icvi
alocal
butchersandsuper market
s.

79
REPRODUCTI
ONI
NCATTLE

Reproduct
ion-Pr
ocesswhi
chi
nvol
vef
usionofmal
eandf
emal
etogi
vebi
rt
htoa
younganimal
LEAVEA SPACEFORTHEDRAWI NG OFTHEREPRODUCTI
VESYSTEM OFA
COW

Funct
ionofpar
tsl
abel
ed
Ov
ari
es-pr
oduceov
aandf
emal
esexhor
mones.
Fal
l
opi
ant
ube(
Ovi
duct
):Pr
ovi
desi
tef
orf
ert
il
izat
ionandconv
eysov
um t
out
erus.
Ut
erus:Pr
ovi
dessi
tef
ori
mpl
ant
ati
onofzy
got
e,wher
etheembr
yodev
elopsi
nto
a f
oet
us;
prot
ect
sandnour
ishest
hef
oet
usunt
ilbi
rt
handcont
ract
ionofi
ts
muscl
esai
dthei
nthebi
rt
hpr
ocess.
Vagi
na:Recei
vesmal
eor
gansdur
ingcopul
ati
onandser
vesasabi
rt
hcanalat
par
tur
it
ion.
Cer
vix:Seal
sof
ftheut
erusdur
ingpr
egnancyandpr
event
spat
hogensf
rom
ent
eri
ngi
nto i
t,
opensdur
inggi
vi
ngbi
rt
h.
Vul
va:Ext
ernalpar
tsofacow openi
ngoft
her
epr
oduct
ivepat
s.I
tfaci
l
itat
es
mat
ingand ser
vesasanexi
tthr
oughwhi
chf
oet
usandur
inear
eexpel
l
ed.
Bul
l
LEAVEASPACEFORAREPRODUCTI
VEW SYSTEM OFABULL
Test
is:
Producemal
egamet
es,
sper
mat
ozoa.
Epi
didy
mis:
recei
vessper
msandf
rom t
est
esandst
oret
hem unt
ilt
heymat
ure.
Sper
m duct
;Conv
eymat
uresper
msf
rom epi
didy
mist
othepeni
s.
Accessor
ygl
ands;
Addf
lui
dst
opr
otectsemen.
Ur
ethr
a;Conv
eyssemenorur
inet
otheout
sidet
hrought
hepeni
s.
Peni
s;Copul
ator
yor
gant
hati
ntr
oducessemeni
nto f
emal
e’
svagi
nadur
ing

80
mat
ing.
Peni
ssheat
h;Cov
ersandpr
otect
speni
s
Scr
otum;
Encl
osest
est
isandr
egul
atesi
tst
emper
atur
esot
hatsper
msdonotdi
e.
Cowper
’s gl
and,pr
ost
rat
e gl
and and semi
nalv
esi
clet
oget
hermakes t
he
accessor
ygl
ands.

Processofr eproducti
oni ncattle;
Involvesproductionofgamet esf rom maturedcowandbul l:mat i
ngtoi ntr
oduce
mal egamet esintofemal ereproducti
vesy st
em, Fert
il
izati
ons,fusionofmal esex
cell
st oproduceszy gote;dev elopmentofzy goteint
of oetusinsidethef emale’s
body ,andendofgest ati
onper iodandpar tur
it
ion
Puber ty
Iti
st hest agewhenr eproductiveprocessesbegi ntof unct
ioninay oungmal e
andf emales.
Ageofpuber t
yf oraheiferi
s9–18mont hsav er
age10. 5months.Thewei ghtfor
puber
tyi
s200–260kg.
Fact
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngpuber
tyar
e:
 Ty
peofbr
eed
 Season
 Feedi
ngl
evel
 Env
ironment
alf
act
ors
 Lev
elofmanagement
Heatper
iod
Aper
iodwhenf
emal
eani
mali
sreadyt
omat
e.I
tlast
sfor10-
26hr
sav
eragi
ng
t
o18mont
hs.
Si
gnsofheatper
iod
 Rednessofv
ulv
a
 Rest
lessandf
requentbel
l
owi
ng
 Fr
equentur
inat
ion
 Lossofappet
it
e,andsl
i
ghtdr
opi
nmi
l
k
 Cl
ear,
thi
nmucusdi
schar
gef
rom t
hev
ulv
a.
 Al
l
owt
habul
ltomountwi
thoutr
unni
ngaway

81
  Mount
ingot
hercowsi
nfr
ont
.
Oest
rusCy
cles-I
tist
hei
nter
valbet
weenoneheatper
iodandt
henext
.It
l
ast
sfor21day
s.Dur
ingt
hisper
iodser
iesofchangesoccuri
nani
mal
body
.
I
tismar
kedbydev
elopmentofov
a,heatper
iod,ov
ulat
ion,pr
epar
ati
onof
ut
erust
orecei
vet
hezy
got
e.
Ov
ulat
ion–Ther
eleaseofoneormor
eov
afr
om ov
ari
est
otheov
iduct
.
Fer
ti
li
zat
ion– Apr
ocesswher
ebyasper
mfuses/
uni
teswi
thanov
um t
o
f
orm azy
got
e.
Gest
ati
onper
iod-
Aper
iodbet
weenf
ert
il
izat
iont
opar
tur
it
ion.I
tis280–285
day
s.
Car
eofcowdur
ingpr
egnancy
 Pr
otect
ionf
rom pest
sanddi
seasesatal
lti
mes.
 Pr
ovi
si
onofadequat
eandcor
rectnut
ri
ti
on.
 Al
l
owdr
yper
iodofabout60day
stoal
act
ati
ngcow.
 Car
eful
handl
i
ngandher
dingt
oav
oidst
ress
 Al
l
owr
egul
arexer
cisei
ncasesofzer
ogr
azi
ng.
 Ensur
echeckupbyav
eter
inar
ydoct
or.
Par
tur
it
ion–I
tist
hepr
ocessofgi
vi
ngbi
rt
hort
het
imeofcal
vi
ng.
Si
gnsofpar
tur
it
ion
 Cowbecomer
est
lessandseekasecl
udedpl
acef
orcal
vi
ng.
 Udderenl
argesandbecomef
ull
ydev
eloped.
 Appear
anceoft
hef
ir
stmi
l
k.
 Vul
vaenl
argesandadi
schar
geofapl
ugofmucusf
rom i
t.
 Cer
vixopensandut
erusbegi
nsaser
iesofcont
ract
ion.
 Consi
der
abl
y r
elaxat
ion of pel
vi
c l
i
gament
s t
o al
l
ow f
or
enl
argementofpel
vi
c.
Dy
stoki
a-Meansdi
ff
icul
torpr
olongedpar
tur
it
ion.
Causesofdy
stoki
a
 Abnormalpr
esentati
on-br
eechpr
esent
ati
on.
 Lar
gesizeofthecalf.
 ext
remelysmallsi
zeofthecow
 Genet
icfact
orse.glar
gecowswit
hsquarerumps

82
  Weaknessofthemot
hercow.
Cont
rolofDy
stoki
a
 Regul
archeckupbyav
eter
inar
ianoranexper
ienced.
 Hei
fer
smustdev
elopwel
landmustnotcal
vet
ooy
oung.
 Usebul
lswit
hmedium bi
rt
hweightandavoi
dextr
emesi
nsel
ect
ionofabul
l
.
 Donotoverf
eedheav
il
ypregnantcowsandhei
fer
s.
 Zer
ogr
azedcowsshoul
dbeal
l
owedr
egul
arexer
cisest
okeept
hem f
it
.
 Av
oidsel
ect
ingcowswi
thsquar
erumps.

Br
eedi
ng–Pr
ocessofmat
ingsel
ect
edmal
eand f
emal
esi
nor
dert
opr
oduce
y
oungones.
Sel
ect
ion–Pr
ocessofchoosi
ngspeci
fi
edani
mal
stoser
veaspar
ent
soft
he
f
utur
egener
ati
on.
Fact
orsonwhi chselecti
onisbased
 Ageofani mal
 Bodyconf ormati
on
 Fert
ili
tyrate
 Growthr ate
 Resistancetodiseaseanddr
ought
 Herit
abili
tyofthetrai
ts
 Parentage

Cr
ossBr
eedi
ng–Mat
ingt
woani
mal
soft
hesamespeci
esbutdef
fer
entbr
eeds
Adv
ant
agesofCr
ossbr
eedi
ng
 Producehybri
dv igourinof f
spri
ngHy br
idvi
gouri
st hei
mpr
ovedv
igourof
perfor
manceabov etheparentalav
erage.
 Combi net
hedesi rabl
et r
ait
softwoormor eanimal
s
 I
ntroducegeneticv ar
iabi
li
tyinaherdofanimal
s.
 Result
sinincreasedpr oducti
oninregar
dtofer
ti
li
ty
 Result
sinestabli
shmentofnewbr eeds
di
sadv
ant
ages
 Cr
ossbr
edani
mal
sdonotbr
eedt
ruet
othei
rki
nd

83
  Needsspeci
ali
sedski
l
landknowl
edge
 Requi
rekeepi
ngdif
fer
entbr
eedsofbul
l
s.

I
nbr
eedi
ng–For
m ofpur
ebr
eedi
ngi
nvol
vi
ngmat
ingcl
osel
yrel
atedani
mal
seg
Mot
her andson,
Fat
heranddaught
er.
Adv
ant
ages
 Concentr
atesdesir
abletr
ait
sinaherd
 Canexposeundesirabl
echaract
eri
sti
cs
 Usefuli
nachievi
ngunifor
mityi
nrespectt
ocer
tai
ntr
ait
sinaher
d
 Requir
eslessski
ll
st odo

di
sadv
ant
ages
 Result
si ni
nbr
eedingdepr
essi
on,decr
easedper
formancewi
threspectto
somet rai
ts
 Giverisetodeformedoff
spri
ngasithel
pstoconcent
rat
es l
ethalgenes
i
naher d.
 Undesir
abletr
aitscangetconcent
rat
edinaher dalongsi
dedesi r
able
tr
ait
s

Upgr ading–For m ofcr ossbr eedi nginv olvi

ngmat i
ngofpur esir
esofasuperior
breeds wi thf emal esofani nferi
orgr adegenerationaf t
ergener
ationt o
impr ov etheof f
spr i
ng.
Adv ant agesofupgr adi ng
 Upgr adedani mal r
etainsomepr opor tionofthei
rgoodgr ades.
 Rel at
ivelyeconomi calasonl ybul l
sf rom otherbr eedorevenAIcanbe
usedf orupgr ading
 Ther eisnodangerofdev elopi
ngunwant edoffspringsi
ncethetrait
sof
theof fspr i
ngar eknown.
 I tcanbeeasi l
ydonet hroughAI .
 Pr oducehy bri
dv i
gourint heupgr adedani mal
Di
sadv antages
 Requi repr operknowl edgeandski llofbr eedi
ngwhi chmaynotbeav ail
able
i
nf armer s.
 Usual lydif f
iculttogetgoodqual i
tybul l
.
 Compar edt orandom mat ingi t
sexpensi ve.
 I ttakesal ongt imet oimpr oveabr eed.
Othermet hodsofani mal i
mpr ov ement
 Bet t
erf eedingandmanagement
 Genet r
ansf er,i
nv olvinginjectionofgenesf rom onespeci
esto
anot her.

84
  Properanimal protecti
onagainstdiseasesandpar asi
tes
Methodsusedtocont r
ol breedingofcattl
e.
Castr
ati
on-t
hiswil
lleadtoamal eani
mal notproducingyoungones.
Bul
lseparati
on-
onlyselectedbul l
swillbeall
owedt omat e.
Cul
li
ng-wegetri
dofanybul lswedonotneedorpr eventthem f
rom mating.

Arti
fi
cial I
nsemi nat ion
Theactofdeposi tingi ntheappr opr i
atepar toft hef emal er eproducti
vetract.
Thiscanbedonenat urallyorar ti
ficiall
y.
Natural mat ing
Meansuseofabul l t
omat ef emal es.
Advantages
 Mor eaccur at easmal esar et hebestdet ect orsoff emalesonheat .
 El imi nat est heneedt ocheckf orheatper iod
 Usef ul whenoest rusi nf emal esi sdif f
icul ttodet ect .
Disadvant agesof
 Hi ghchancesofi nbr eedi nganduncont rolledmat i
ng
 Expensi vet obuyandmai ntainbul ls
 Lar gemal escani njur esmal lfemal es.
 Wast eal otofsemen
 Vener eal di seasesorpar asitesar eeasi l
yspr ead
Arti
fi
cial I
nsemi nat ion
 -meansdeposi tingsemeni nt heut erusofacowbyhandusi ngan
insemi nat ionsy ri
ngeoranyot hersui tableequi pment .
Adv antages
 Cont rol orEl iminat est het ransmi ssionofv enereal diseaseorbreeding
diseaseandpar asi t es
 Ef f i
cientuseoft hesemen(semenoft hesuper i
orcanbeuset oser ve
manycows)
 Al lowsf ormor er api dgenet icimpr ovementasanyf armercanhav e
accesst osemenf rom t opqual itysemen
 El imi nat edangerandcost sassoci atedwi t
hkeepi ngbul l
s
 Av oidl ar gebul l
si njur i
ngsmal l cows
 Easyt ocont rolbr eedi ngandi nbr eeding
 Semencaneasi lybet ranspor tedt oser vecowsi nthei nremoteareas.
 Semencanbest oredf oral ongt i
meev enaf terthedeat hofabull
 I tismuchcheapert ot ranspor tasement hanabul l
Disadv ant ages
 Needsf oraccur atedet ect ionofoest rusper i
od
 Notsuccessf ulonf emal est hathav esi l
entheatper i
od
 Requi ret rainedper sonnel t
ocar ryitoutsuccessf ull
y
 St or agef aci li
ti
esf ort hesemeni sexpensi veandmaynotber eadil
y
av ailable.
SemenCol lection
Requi rement(Abul l
,adummyort easer ,
ar t
ificial,vaginaani nseminator,and
ElectroEj acul at or

85
 Procedure.
Abullisallowedt
omountadummyort easercow.Itspenisi
sgent
lygr
abbed
anddirectedtoar
ti
fi
cial
vagi
nawhi
chstimulatesej
aculat
ion.
Ej
aculati
oncanbest i
mulat
edbyanel
ectroejacul
ator

Semendi luti
onandst or age
Semen, mi cr
oscope, nutrient ssoluti
on, buff
ersol uti
on,antibi
otics,
Dimethy sulphoxide, disposabl est r
aw, canisters,Liquidnit
rogen, Li
qui
dnitrogen
container,
Procedur e.
Aftercollecti
on, semeni sexami nedusi ngmi croscopet odetectabnor mali
ties
inthesemenanddet er mi neitssper m count.
Disti
lledwat er -
forv olume
Buf f
ersol ution–t hatcont ai
nsal tstomai ntai
ndesirablepHand
osmot i
cpr essur e.
Dimet hylsulphoxi de-t opr ev
entcel l
ulardamagedur i
ngt hawing.
Nut r
ientsSol ution( eggy ol
k)–t hatcont ainnutri
entsfort hesemen
Ant i
bioti
cs–t opr eventbacterialinf
ect i
on
Dilut
edsemeni spackedi ntodisposabl est r
awsandpl aceincanisters
withinacy l
indercont ai
ningliquidnitrogeni naf r
eezeratat emper atur
e
at–196C

HowAIi scarriedoutincatt
le
Requi r
ement: Acowi noestrus, aninseminator,
war m waterat37oC,f
rozen
semeni nastrawani nseminationgunandpi pett
e.
Procedur e:Whenacowi stobei nseminated,astr
awofsemeni sthawedand
placedinaspeci alpi
pet
tefit
tedwi t
hani nseminati
ongun/sy ri
nge.Onehandof
ani nseminatorisplacedinther ectum toguidethepipett
ei nt
othevagi
naand
throught hecer v
ix.Whenthepi petteispositi
ondcor r
ectl
y,thesemenis
deposi t
edint helowerpartoftheut erus.

Peri
od/Seasonwhencowsar earti
ficiallyi
nseminatedinBotswanaandwhy
Cowsar earti
fi
ci
al l
yinseminat
edinBot swanainthemont hsofJanuary,Februar
y
andMar chthatisduringthebreedingseason.Dur i
ngthesemont hsgrazingisat
i
tsbest,sothebr eedinganimal
sar eingoodheal thandconditi
onsformat i
ng.
Thusincreasi
ngchancesofconcept ion.Cal v
ingwillt
akeplacebetweenOct ober
andDecemberwhent heweatheriswar m.Parasi
teswilldi
eduringdryseason
andwhencal vesst ar
tgrazi
ng,youngt endergrasswillhaveappear
ed.

AICAMPS
Ramat l
abama
Dibete
Makor o
Mor upul
e
Ncojane
Sefhophe

86
Makalamabedi
Nokaneng
Goodhope
Tsat
su
Makoba

BEEFPRODUCTI
ON
Gener
alChar acteri
sticsofaBeefCat t
le
 Short,strongandbl ocky/ squareshapedbodywi t
hagoodcov
eri
ngof
fl
eshal lover.
 Eff
icientconv ertersoffeedsi ntomeatandf ats
 Shortlegst hatar ewel l
setapar twit
hasmal l udder.
 Abil
itytogr owf astandmat ur
eearly
 Havel argebrisket ,
broadbackandsquar erumps
 Resistanttomostl ivestockdiseasesandpar asit
es.

Br
eedsofBeefCattl
einBot
swana
1.Tswana-Theonl
ynati
vebr
eedt
oBot
swana.
2.Afri
kander
3.Brahman
4.Si
mment al
5.Bonsmar a
6.Tuli
7.Herefor
d

RecommendedBeefCat
tl
eBr
eedsi
nBot
swana
Theyi
ncl
ude-
Tswana
-
Tuli

87
 -
Brahman
-
Simmental

Tswanabr
eedi
srecommendedf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons;

#Welladaptedt otheharshBotswanacl
imati
ccondi t
ions
#Highlyt
olerancetoawi derangeofdi
seasesf oundi
nBot swana
#Abil
it
ytoef fi
cient
lyut
il
isepoorqual
it
yrangelandsgrazi
ngar easfoundin
Bot
swana.
#Veryhardy,producesfair
lygoodqual
it
ycarcassandhasaf airr
eproduct
ive
per
formance.

Tul
ibr
eedi
srecommendedf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons;

 Fair
lywel
ladaptedtoBot
swanacondit
ions
 Hasexcell
entcalv
ingper
cent
ageandhighfer
ti
li
tyr
ate
 Highgrowthrat
eandgoodcarcassquali
ty

Br
ahmanbr
eedi
srecommendedf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons;

 Resist
antt
oheatduet oitsbi
gski
nsur faceandshortf
inecoat
 Needlessnutri
ti
ontomeeti t
smai
nt enancerequi
rements
 Resist
antt
otickinf
estat
ionandeyeinfecti
on
 Producealar
gecarcassandhasar apidgrowthrate

Si
mment
albr
eedi
srecommendedf
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons;

o Fair
lywel
ladapt
edtoBot swanacli
mat
iccondi
ti
ons
o Producealar
gecarcass.
o I
t’
scalvesshowsveryrapidgrowt
hrat
e

Sy
stemsofRear
ingBeefCat
tl
e

i
Communal grazi
ngsy
stem
i
iRanchi
ngsystem

i
. Communal
Grazi
ngSy
stem-
mai
nfeat
uresi
ncl
ude;

 Catt
legrazeonunencl
osedcommunal pastur
esandcommonuseof
waterr
esources
 Nolimit
st ot
henumberoflivestocktokeeponthegrazingland
 Overgr
azingi
scommonespeci al
lyar
oundthewateri
ngpoi nts
 Managementispoor,usual
l
yundert hehandsofunskil
ledand

88
 unmot
ivat
edlabour
ersscar
cel
ysupervi
sedbytheowner
s
 Lowcapit
ali
nvest
mentandproduct
ivi
tyofl
i
vestocki
sal
sol
ow.

Adv
ant
agesoft heCommunalGrazi
ngSystem
- I nputscostsar
eusuall
ylow
- Al argenumberofcat
tl
ecanbekeptinanarea(
tradi
ti
onal
ly
numberofcat t
lei
sameasur eofweal
thanddet
erminesone’
s
status)
- Ski ll
edmanpowerislessimpor
tant

Di
sadvantagesoft heCommunal Gr azingSy stem
 Diff
icul
tt ocontrolbreedingandf eedingduet ouncontroll
edmov ementof
li
vestock
 Overstockingleadst oov er
grazing, soilerosionandr angel
anddegradati
on
 Parasit
esanddi seasesar ediff
iculttocont r
ol
 Cattl
emaydest royot herspeople’scr ops
 Diff
icul
tt opreservefodderf orthedr yseason
 Governmentf indsitdi f
fi
culttopr ovideassi stanceandext ensi
onser
vice
 Productionundert hissystem isnor mal lylow.

i
i
. Ranchi
ngSy
stem-mai
nfeat
uresi
ncl
ude;

 Practisedi nf r
eeholdorleaseholdranches
 Grazingl andi sfencedandpaddocked
 Managedoncommer ci
alli
nes,maximizationofprofi
tbeingthemain
objective
 There’shi ghst andardofmanagement ,ownersprovidedail
ysupervi
sionor
empl oytr ainedmanager s
 There’simpr ovedanimal husbandrypracti
cessuchascont roll
edgrazing,
controll
edbr eeding,r
egulardiseasecontrolandparasit
econtroland
weani ngofcal ves
 Capitalinv estmentisquitehighandpr oductiv
ityi
smuchhi gher

AdvantagesofRanchi ngSy stem

*Diseasesandpar asi
t esareeasilycont roll
ed
*Breedingi seasi
lycont roll
ed
*Betteruseofpast uressi ncecont rol
ledgr azi
ngispracti
sed
*Iti
spossi bletopreser vefodderf orthedr yseason
*Weani ngofcal v
esi seasi l
ycarriedout
*Conser vati
onandsust ainableuseofr angeresour
cescanbepr act
ised
*Managementoff armsi susual l
yont hehandsofski ll
edranchmanagers
*Registershighproduct ivi
tyandhi ghr eturntocapi
tal
*Therei ssecuri
tyofl andt enuresy st
em t hatal
lowsfarmerstobenefi
tfr
om
thei
ri nv estments

89
 Di
sadv
antagesofRanchi ngSy st
em
 Inv
olv eshighcapit
al i
nvest
mentandr equi
resski
l
ledpeople
 Itr
equi r
esal otoflandyetgrazi
nglandisl
imit
ed
 There’sli
mi t
ati
ononnumberofl i
vestockt
okeeptheref
ore,i
tis
contrarytoBotswana’sculture

ManagementofBeefCat
tl
e

1.
Housi ng:
-Beefcattl
earekeptent
ir
elyoutofdoorswithsi
mpl
ekr aal
stoshel
tert
hem
atnightandprot
ectt
hem fr
om predator
s.
-Aweat herproofst
oref
ortool
s,medici
nes,bonemealandsalti
sessenti
al.
-Aloadingrampandhandlingstr
uctur
essuchasdiptankandcrushareal
so
needed

2.Feeding:
-Ismainlybygr azi
ngnaturalpastur
esandbr owsi
ng.
-Inwinter,orduri
ng drought,supplementar
yfeeds,
sil
age,
hayandcrop
resi
duesar eprovi
ded.
-Bonemeal andsaltorDical
cium phosphateandsal
tareprov
idedatal
l
t
imest o
counteractphosphorusdefi
ciencyinthegrass.
-Calvesareallowedtosucklet hei
rmothersfor7-9monthsbeforeweani
ng.

3.Wateri
ng:
-Beefcatt
leshouldhavef r
eeaccesstofresh,cleanwat
erf
reef
rom
par
asit
esatal lt
imes.
-Waterisessenti
alfor;
#nor malbodyprocesses
#regulat
esbodytemper ature
#producti
onfunct
ion
-Sourcesofwat erforl
ivest
ockinBotswanaar e;
 bor eholes
 dams
 rivers

4.Breedi
ngContr
ol:
Donethrought
hefol
l
owi
ngmeans;-castrat
ion
-cull
ing
-bullseparat
ion

(i
)Castr
ati
on:Bull
snotwantedf
orbreedi
ngwil
lhavethei
rtest
icl
es
r
emov edorother
wisedest
roy
edtoprev
entthem f
rom mati
ng.

(
ii
)Cul
l
ing:
Bul
l
sundesi
redf
orbr
eedi
ngar
eremov
edf
rom t
hef
lockt
o

90
 pr
eventt
hem f
rom br
eedi
ngwi
tht
heent
ir
eher
d.

(
ii
i)Bul
lsepar
ati
on:Bul
l
skeptforbr
eedingarekeptseparat
ef r
om cows
unti
lneededf
orser
vici
ngtocontr
oltheti
mef orbreeding.

5.Dehorni
ngandDi sbuddi
ng
-Dehorningistheremovalofhornsfr
om cat
tl
e.
-Disbuddingistheremovaloforprev
ent
ionofgr
owt
hofhor
nbudsi
nyoung
catt
le.

I
mpor tanceofDehorningAndDi sbudding
*Topr eventanimal
sfrom hurt
ingeachot herandat tendants
*Dehornedcattlear
eeasiertohandlet hanthosewi thhorns.
*Highqualit
yhidesareobtai
nedast heyarenott or
nbyhor ns.
*Dehorned/pol l
edcattl
eoccupylessspacei nfeedingandwat eri
ngpoi
ntsas
wellasinloadingtr
ucks.
*AtB.M.C,farmersarepaidapremi um fordisbuddingtheircat
tle.

ToolsforDisbuddi
ng
-Dehorningir
on
-Causti
csoda
-Scoopdehorner

Toolsf orDehorni
ng
-Shar pkni f
e
-Guil
lotine
-Scoopdehor ner
-Saw
-El
astratorband
-Dehorningwi r
e
Note:St ockholmtarisusedonwoundst
opr eventi
nfect
ionsandatt
imesl
ocal
anaesthet i
csaregiventoani
malst
opreventpains.

6.Weaning
-Itisdef
inedast heseparat
ionofcalvesfrom t
hemot hertoal
lowittorecover
forsubsequentcalvi
ng.
-Itcanbeachievedbyt heuseofnosepl at
esont hecalvesbuttheseparat
ion
i
nt oanotherpaddockismor esuccessful
.
-Calvesareusuallyweanedatabout7-10mont hsofage.

Met hodsofWeaning
1.Compl eteWeaning
-Inthissystem t
heyounganimalsaresepar
atedfr
om t
heirmother
sandkepti
n
separatepaddockswheretheywill
nevermeetthei
rmothers.
-Foodandwat erar
ethenprovi
dedtotheweanersint
hesepaddocks.
2.Par t
ial
/Incompleteweani
ng

91
-Int histechni quet hecalvesar enotsepar at
edcompl etelyfrom t
heirmothers.
Twot ypesofpar tial weaning
(a)Theuseofher dboy s-thesear euseddur i
ngt hedaytoav oi
dcalvesmixing
witht heirmot hers.Cal vesareonl yallowedtomeetwi tht heirmothersinthe
evening.
(b)Theuseofnosepl ates-I
nt hi
st echnique,
thecalvesst aywiththeirmother
s
butar epr event edf rom sucklingbyt heuseofnosepl atepl acedont hei
rnose.
Impor t
ance/ SignificanceofWeani ng
1.Weani ngal lowscowst ogainwei ghtandener gywhencal vesstopssuckling
2.Weani ngal l
owscowst ocomeonheatsoonaf t
erdryi
ng
3.Weani ngf acili
tateseasysepar ationofdiff
erentagegr oupsofani malsf
or
bettermanagementandhandl i
ng.
7.Ident i
ficati
onofBeefCat t
le
Beefcat tlecanbei dentifi
edby ;

 Br ands
 Eart ags
 Eart att
oos
 Earnot ches
Acombi nati
onofeartagsandbrandsisr
ecommendedi
nBotswana.
A)Branding
Themaki ngofapermanentandr eadi
l
yvi
sibl
emar
kornumberontheski
nofan
ani
mal fori
denti
fi
cat
ionpurposes.

TwoTy
pesofBr
andi
ng

1)Hotbr
anding
2)Col
d/f
reezebrandi
ng

1)HotBr anding
-Brandnumberormar ki sburntont ot
heskinofacal fatsui
tableposi
ti
onusing
adullr
ed( stainl
esssteel)hoti r
on.
-Hotbrandingi srecommendedf oruseinBotswana.
Advantages
 Lessski l
lisneededt odoi t
.
 I ti
squi ckandsi mplet obedone
 Br andnumberi sv i
sibleandpermanentt hr
oughoutthelifespanofan
animal .
Disadvantages
 St ainl
essst eelbrandingironsareexpensive.
 Br andmar ksreducet hev al
ueofthehides.
 Br andingmaycausedeepwoundst hatt
akelongt i
met oheal.
2)EarTaggi ng
-Asmal l
stripofmet alorplasticwithanumberi satt
achedtot heearofever
y

92
calfsoonaf terbi rth.
-Aneart agappl i
catorisani nstrumentusedt oat t
acheartagstotheearsof
calves.
Adv antages
 Doesnotr educet hev alueofhi des.
 I ti seasyandpai nl esst oapply.
 Numberofamet al eart agr emainl egiblethroughouttheli
feofanani
mal.
Disadv antages
 Eart agscangetl ost , especiall
yt hepl asti
cones.
 Met al tagsneedcl osei nspect i
ont oensur eaccurat
ereading.
 Pl astict agsdonotr emai nlegiblethr oughoutt heli
feofananimal.
Parasi t
esofBeefCat tle
-Apar asiteisanyor ganism t hatdependsuponanot herorganism f
orit
ssurv
ival
,
asi tgetsi t
snour ishmentf rom itshostani mal .
TwoTy pesofPar asit
es
1)ext ernalorect opar asite
2)internalori ndopar asite
1)Internal Par asites
Thesear epar asit
est hatar ef oundorl iveinsi dethebodyofanani maland
dependont hehostf orthei rsur viv
al.
Exampl es
-Tapewor ms
-Li verflukes
-Roundwor ms
-Hook/ wirewor ms
EffectsofI nt ernal Parasitesont heHost
1.Theysuckt hebl oodf rom t hehostandmakei tanaemic
2.Reducet hegr owt hoft hehostandmakei tweak
3.Causepai nandi rr
it
ationt ot hehost
4.Theyar eliabl eforthespr eadofpest sanddi seases

Cont r
ol AndPr ev enti
onofI nt ernalParasi
tes
#Pr acticer outi
nev acci
nat ionofcat t
le
#Mai nt ai
nhi ghst andardsofhy gi
eneintheanimal houses
#Av oidcont aminat i
onofani mal f
eedsandwat erwi t
hcowdung(faeces)
#Disinfectingtheani mal s’housesr egul
arly
TreatmentofI nternalPar asit
es
-Dewor mt heani malsregul arlyusingwor mr emediessuchaspanacurand
nasalcur .
-Admi nisterant helmenticdr ugssuchasi vomac.
Lif
eCy cleofaBeefTapeWor m
-Adulttapewor mi ntheintestinesofaper son
-Segment swi t
ht apewor m eggsr eleasedwithfeacesongrass
-Cattl
eeatgr asscont ami natedwi theggs

93
-Lifecy cl
eofabeeft apewor m
-Lar vaf rom eggsf orm cy stsint hemuscl es
-Per soneat spoor lycookedmeatwi thcy sts
Ext ernal /Ect opar asit es
-Theyl i
veont heski nofanani mal andf eedbysucki ngbl oodf r
om thehost
ani mal .
-Theymayal socar rydi seasef rom oneani mal toanot her.
Exampl es
-ticks
-fleas
-tsetsef l
y
Ticks
-Ther ear edi f
fer entt ypesoft ickst hatl iveont heski noft heanimal aroundt he
ear sandneck, neart het ailandont hedewl ap.
-Theyf eedbysucki ngbl ood.
-Theyar er elatedt ot hespi der s.
-Theadul thav esmal lroundbodi eswi theightl egs.
LifeCy cleofOneHostTi ck
-Ther ear ef our( 4)di st inctst agesi ni tslifecy cl e:- eggs
-l
ar vae
-ny mph
-mat ur et ick
-Aonehostt ickcompl etesi tsl ifecy cleononehostani mal i.
eoncet hel arva
at tachesi tssel ft oanani mal i
tdev elopsi ntoanadul tt ickwhi l
estil
lont hesame
host
St eps
1.Af emal et i
cksucksbl oodf rom ahostunt ilshebecomesf ul
lyengor ged( f
ullof
blood) ,t
henshedr opst ot hegr oundandl ayst housandsoff ert
il
izedeggsont he
gr ass.
2.Theeggshat chi ntot i
nyt i
ckorl arv aewhi chhav esi xl egs.
Thesel arvaecl imbt ot het i
psofgr assl eav esandwai ther eforcatt
let oeither
br ushagai nstt hem orl iedownont hegr ass.
3.Thel arv aecr awl st ot henewhostandst artsucki ngbl ood.
Soont heychangei ntoei ghtl eggedny mphs, theni ntomal eandf emaleadul tti
cks.
Whi l
et heyar egoi ngt hr ought hesechanges, ticksmaydr opoffthei
rhostf ora
whi l
eandbepi ckedupl at erbyanot herhost .
Thi scanhappensev eral timesandi tmeanst hatt ickscaneasi l
ycar r
ydi sease
causi ngor gani sm f rom oneani mal toanot her .
4.Themal eandf emal et i
cksmat e.
Thef emal et i
ckbecomeengor gedwi thbl ood, dr opof ff rom thehostani mal and
l
ay shereggsont hegr ass, star tingt hel ife-cycl eov eragai n.
Ef fect sofTi cksont heHost
@ Heav yi nf estat ioncausessev eredi sabili
ty ,anaemi aandl owerresistancet o
diseases
@ Tr ansmi tv arioust ickbor ndi seasessuchas-hear twat er
-gal lsickness

94
 -redwat er
@ causewoundst hatmayst ar
toff-inf ecti
ons
@r educet hev al ueofhi des
@t ickscancausebl oodpoi soni
ngr esul ti
ngi ndeathofanimal
Cont rol AndPr ev ention
*Regul ardi ppingorspr ay ingofl i
vestock.
*Pract iserot ational graz ingt obreakt hel i
fe-cycleofti
cks.
*Pract isecont rol ledbur ningofheav i
lyi nfestedpastures
*Fenci ngf ar mst okeepoutunwant edani mal sforexamplewi l
dani mal
s
DiseasesofBeefCat tle
Exampl es
-Hear twat er
-Footandmout hdi sease( F. M.D.)
-Cattlel ungdi sease
ECONOMI CI MPORTANCEOFDI SEASES
1.Theycausel ossesofpr oduct i
onduet odeat hsandsubopt i
mal per
for
mance
ofdi seasedani mal
2.Mayr ui
nt heexpor tmar ketofbeefsi ncei mpor ti
ngcountriesmustbeassur ed
ofnor iskofi mpor ti
ngdi seasesi ntothei rcount ri
es.
1.HEARTWATER
Cause: protozoaoft heRi cket t
issppspr eadbyabontt ick
Sympt om/ Signs
Affect edani mal showt hef oll
owing:
#Dev el opsner v oussy mpt omssuchaschampi ngofthejaws, animalmovesin
cir
cles, becomer estless, pl aceheadagai nsthardobjects,t
wi t
chingeyel
idsand
l
ips, anduncoor dinatedl egmov ement s.
#Fev er ,dullness, andl ossofappet i
te
#Prot rusionoft het ongue
#Whenani mal f alldown, itmaypaddl ei t
slegsi ntheairbeforedy i
ng
POSTMORTEM FI NDI NG
Collect ionofaccessf luidi nt heheartsac

TREATMENT
Treatmentisonlyeffecti
veintheear l
ystagesi.
ebeforetheonsetofthenerv
ous
symptoms.Ant i
bioti
cssuchast etr
acycli
neandsulphonamidesaregiventothe
af
f ect
edanimal.
CONTROLANDPREVENTI ON
a.Regulardippingofanimal stocontrolbontti
cks
b.Admi nist
er’heartwater’t
osuscept i
bleanimalsandtr
eatsubsequent
i
nfecti
onthatdev el
opswi thtetr
acycl
ine
1.FOOTANDMOUTHDI SEASE( FMD)

95
 I
tisahi ghlycont agi ousdi seaset hataffectsonlyclovenhoovedanimals
Cause: Vi r
us
TheAf ricanbuf falot ransmi tsthedisease
Sympt omsandorsi gns
Salivast reamsoutoft hemout h.
Bli
st ersont het ongue, dentalpad,gums, roofofthemout h
Mar ketingbeefcat tl
e
Beefpr oducer ssel lt
hei rani
mal stoindivi
duals,l
ocalbutcher
iesand
BotswanaMeatCommi ssion(BMC)
Ageandwei ghtatwhi chbeefcat t
lear emar ket
ed
Age- 2-3y ears
Wei ght-450kg
Beefgr adesusedatBot swanaMeatCommi ssi
on
-Pri
megr ade( zer o-twoper manentt eeth)
-Supergr ade( t hree- f
ourper manentt eeth)
-Grade1( fi
ve–si xper manentt eeth)
-Grade2( ei
ghtper manentt eeth)
-Grade3( ei
ghtper manentt eethwhichar enowwor nout)
-Grade4( ei
ghtper manentt eethwhichar enowwor nout)
Theabov eor deri sbasedonqual i
ty,tenderness,f
reefr
om diseaseswhi
ch
aremost l
yaf fect edbyageoft heanimal.
Beefpr oduct s
Bonel essbeef
Offal
Cornedbeef
By-pr oduct s
Hidesandski ns
Bloodmeal
Carcassmeal
Tallow( animal fat )
Hor ns

DAIRYPRODUCTI ON
Dai
rycatt
leareanimalskeptmai nl
yf ormi l
kpr oduction.
I
mportanceofdairyproduct ioninBot swana
1)Sour ceofmi l
k(acheapersour ceofpr oteinthanmeat)
2)Sour ceofrawmat erialforfoodi ndustries.
3)Sour ceofincomef ordai r
yfarmer s.
4)Sour ceofempl oyment ,
par t
icularlyi
nr uralareas.
5)Sour ceofbeef(mal edai ryanimal s)
Thedemandandsuppl ysituationofdai ryproduct sinBotswana

96
Demandf ordai rypr oduct sishi ghert hant hesuppl yofmi l
kinBotswana.
Botswanai sabout25%sel fsuf fi
ci enti nl i
quidmi lk,75%oft hecountr
y
requir
ement sar ei mpor t
ed.Al l othermi l
kpr oductsar eimpor t
ed.
Factorslimitingdai rypr oduct i
oni nBot swana
 Lackofcapi tal(
money )
 Lackofmanager i
al ski l
ls.
 Shor tageofdr inkingwat er.
 Shor tageofgr azingl and.
 Pr obl emsofpar asitesanddi seases.
Soluti
onst ot heabov ement ionedpr obl ems
 Pr ov i
si onoff undsbyt hegov er nmentt hroughschemesl i
keNAMPAADD.
 Teachi ngofdai r
ypr oduct ioni nschool .
 Tr ainingoff armer st hr oughwor kshopsandsemi nars.
 Cont rol ofani mal diseasesandpar asit
esbyt heveteri
nary
depar tment (animal heal thandpr oduction)
Requirement sf orst arti
ngdai r ypr oduct ionent er
pr i
se
 Af arm
 El ectricity
 Mi l
kbr eedsofani mal s
 Qual i
typast ure
 Rel iabl ecl eansour ceofwat ersuppl y
 Mi l
kingpar l
our/mi l
kingshed
 Av ail
abi l
ityofadequat ecapi tal.
Dairybreedsf oundi nBot swana
 Fr i
esi an
 Jer sey
 Br ownSwi ss
 Si mment al
 Guer nsey
Whati sadai rycow?
 Cat t
let hati sabl et oconv ertmostf eedi ntomi lkandmet abol
i
zenutr
it
ive
mat er i
al intomi l
kef ficient l
y .

Char
act
eri
sti
csofagoodandabaddai
rycow

GoodDai r
yCow BadDair
yCow
Lar
gest omach Smal lstomach
Bodycarri
eslit
tlefl
esh Haswel l f
leshedbody
Angularorwedgeshaped Blocked-shaped
Lar
geandwel ldevel
opedudderwi
th Smal landpoor l
ydevelopedudderwi
th
well
spacedt eats unevenlyspacedt eat
s
Doci
lewi t
hmi l
dt emperament Wildtemper ament

97
Calv
esregularlyandhasl ongl actat
ion Cal vesirregular
lyandhasshor t
l
actat i
on
Resi
stanttodiseases, par asitesand Pronet odiseases,parasi
tesand
ambienttemper ature ambi enttemper at
ure
Dair
yproductionr ecor ds
1.Mil
kproduct i
onr ecords; -Recor dsmilkproducedpercowandperday .
Import
anceofmi lkpr oduct ionr ecords
 Tocul lunpr oduct i
v edams
 Tosel ectrepl acementst ock
 Tocal culatepr ofitpercoworf orawhol eher d
 Todet ermi nepr oduct i
onpercowov eragi venper i
od
 Tocompar epr oduct ionwi thotherfarmer sint hearea.
Exampleofmi lkpr oduct ionr ecordsheet
Monthlymi l
kr ecor d(kg) Mont h--
---
--
---
--- Year---
--
--
--
--
Day Mor ningor Namesofcows
ev
eni ngmi l
king Abi Ebi Obi Ubi Pi ki Poki
1 AM
PM
2 AM
PM
3 AM
PM
4 AM
PM
5 AM
PM
6 AM
PM

TOTAL
2.Breedi
ngRecor ds
-Recordsdet ai
lsofbr eedingacti
vi
ti
esofindi
vi
dualdamsandbul
l
s.
Forexampl e;
 Dateofser vice
 Dateofcal ving
 Birt
hwei ght
 Sexandnumberofcal ves
 Bull numberandbr eedused.
3.Operati
onal records
-Recordst hefollowings;
 Dateofweani ng
 Datesf orwei ghi
ng
 Datesduef orcastrati
on,vacci
nati
on,
drenchi
ng.
4.Feedrecor ds
-Recordst hef oll
owings;
 Amountf edt oanimalsdaily

98
  Amountoff eedi nst ore
 Foodconv ersionr ates.
5.Healthr ecor ds
-Recordst hef ollowi ngdet ails;
Vacci
nat ions
 Out breakofdi seasesandpar asites
 Tr eat ment sandr emedi esused.
Importanceofheal thr ecor ds
 Theyhel pf armer st oknowwhatani malst ocul l onheal thgr ounds.
 Theyr emi ndf ar mer swhencer taindi seases/ par asit
espr evention
oper ationsar et obecar ri
edout .
Importanceofkeepi ngdai r
ypr oduct ionr ecords
 Tomoni t
ort hedai lyperfor manceofadai rycow.
 Tohel pf armer st ogetl oanf rom thebanks.
 Todet er mi newhet herthebusi nessi smaki ngapr ofitorl oss.
 Recor dsser v east r
uegui desf orotherpeopl ewhowantt ostar tt
he
busi ness.
Whatiscol ostr um?
-Thef i
rstmi lkofadam i nt hef i
rst3- 5day saf tercal ving.
Importance/ Adv ant agesoff eedingcol ostrumst oanewl yborncal f
 Col ostrum cont ai nsant i
bodiest opr otectt hecal ffrom di seases.
 Col ostrum i shi ghl ynut r
it
ive(r i
chi npr oteins, vitami nsandmi nerals)and
digest i
bl e.
 Col ostrum hasal axat i
veeffect ssoi thel pst hecal ftogetr i
doff oetal
dung.
Whatisweani ng?
-Thesepar ationofcal v esf rom theirdamsper manent l
yandst oppi ngt hem f r
om
suckl
ing.
Reasonsf orweani ng
 Tosav emi l
kt hatcanbesol df orincome.
 Toi mpr ov et hedam’ scondi tionandheal th.
 Tof aci li
tatecar ryingoutofcer tainoper at i
onsoncal ves.
 Toal lowdamst ocomeonheatandgetpr egnanti nthenextbr eeding.
 Topr ov idet hecal fwi t
hanoppor t
unityt of ullydev elopi tsrumensoi t
mayhandl er oughages.
Howl ongshoul dacal fst aywi ththedam bef oreweani ng?
-Dair
ycal v esar eal l
owedt osuckl et heirmot hersaweekt o16weeksdependi ng
onthemanagementsy st em i nplace.

Managementofcal
vesafterweani
ng
-Thi
sinvol
vesthefol
l
owings;
 Housing
 Feeding
 Diseasesandparasit
escont
rol

99
  Sel ect ionandcul l
i
ng
 Br eedi ng
Managementofdai rycows
 Kr aal s- Simpl yconst ruct edshel tert ohousecowsatni ght.
 Mi l
kingpar lour / Dairyshed- Ahousei nwhi chcowscanbemi lkedunder
somedegr eeofcomf or tandcl eanl iness.I tshouldhav ear oof,concr ete
fl
oor , st alls, dunggut ter ,apassageandaf oodtrough.
 Dai ry -Ar oom orbui ldingwher emi lkiswei ghed, cooled,fi
lt
eredandst or
ed
untilt ranspor tedf orsel ling.
 Cal fpens- Indiv idual st allsinwhi chcal vesar erearedwhi lest i
llsuckling
theirmot her s.I tshoul dbewel lv ent il
ated, warm andf reefrom dr aughtand
shoul dbekeptcl ean.
 Cr ushpen- Usedf orhol dingandsecur ingani malswhenv accinat i
ng,hoof
tri
mmi ng, cast rat ingandeart aggi ng.
 Feedst or e-Usedt ost orel ivestockf eeds.
 Zer ogr azi nguni t-
Aper manentst ruct ur eusedt ohousedai r
ycows
cont inuousl yunderi nt ensi vesy st em.
Typesoff eedsf ordai rycows
1.Roughages
2.Concent r
at es
3.Mi ner alsuppl ement s.
1)Roughages;
-Exampl es; gr ass, foddercr ops, silageandhay .
-Usual l
yf edt opr ovidenut rient sf ormai ntenanceandal i
mi t
edamountofmi lk
production.
2)Concent r at es;
-Exampl es; dai r
ymeal ,drycowmeal andcal fst art
ermeal .
-theyar ef edi naddi tiont or oughagest oobt ainaddi t
ional mil
kpr oduct i
on.
3)Mi neral suppl ement s
-Exampl es; mi ner al l
icksl ikewi nterl ick, dicalcium phosphat eandsal t,bone
meal andsal t.Di cal ci um phosphat eandsal tshoul dbepr ov i
deddur ingdr y
peri
ods.
Wat errequi rement s
-Adairycowr equi res35l i
trespl us3l itresperl itreofmi l
kpr oduceddai l
y.
Impor t
anceofgoodnut ri
tioni ndai rypr oduct ion
 I tpr ev ent soccur renceofnut ri
tional diseases.
 I tincr easesf er ti
lit
yi nbr eedingst ock.
 I tensur essust ainedeconomi cl ev elofmi l
kproduct i
on.
 I tensur espr opermai nt enanceandgr owt hofdai r
yani mals.
 I tensur espr opernour ishmentofunbor ncal v
esandcal vesaf terbirth.

Di
seasesofdair
ycat
tl
e
1. Milkfever
2. Mastiti
s
3. Brucell
osi
s

100
4. Tuber culosi s
5. Footandmout h
6. Hear twat er
7. Ant hrax
8. Bloat
Milkf
ev erdisease
- I tisanon- i
nf ect i
ous, def i
ciencydi seaseofcat tl
eduet olowblood
cal cium af tert hesuddenst ar tofmi lkproduction
Cause;
-Lowbl oodcal cium i ndai r ycows.
Symptoms/ signs
 Exci t
ement
 Par al
y sisandt henf alldowni nconv ulsions
 Rumenst opsmov ing( rumenst aysis)
 Sal i
vaoozesf rom mout h
 Temper aturedr opst o350C
 Deat hmayf i
nallyoccur .
Treat
ment
- I ntrav enousi nject i
onofcal phont opr eventheartfai
lure.
- I ntrav enousorsubcut aneousi nject i
onofcal cium borogl
uconate.
Contr
ol andpr ev ention
- Pr ov i
dehi ghcal cium cont entf eeds.
- I nject i
onof5ml v i
gant olEorDet anol EorZylphonamont hbefor
e
cal ving.
Mast i
tisdiseases
- I tisabact erial i
nf ect
ionoft heudder .
- I tcanbechr oni coracut e.
Cause;
- Bact eri
al i
nf ectionoft heudder .
Symptoms/ Si gns
- I nflammat i
onofoneormor equar tersoft heudder
- Udderbecomesenl argedandhar d.
- Ani mal r
eject ssuckl i
ngormi lkingandki cks.
- Dr ast i
creduct i
oni nmi lkpr oduct ion.
- Mi lkcont ainspus.
- Af fectedudderget sdead.
Treat
ment
- Tr eatear lycaseswi t
hant i
biot i
cs.
- Massageaf f ectedquar terorudderwi thahotpad, mil
koutteatand
fillitupwi thant ibioti
cs.
- Gi veant ibiotici njecti
ons.

Cont
rol
andpreventi
on
Usecorr
ectmil
kingtechniques;
- Stri
ctcleanl
inessanduseofdisi
nfect
antsduri
ngmi
l
king
- Milkingmachi nesmustbepr
operl
yadjusted.

101
 - I nfusi onofl ongact ingant ibiotici ntot eat satt hebegi nningofdr y
per iod.
Cl
eanmi lkpr oduct i
on( Mi lkinghy giene) ;
-I
tinvolvest hef ollowingpr act i
ces;
 Mai ntai ningcl eanheal thycowst hatar ewel l trainedf ormi l
king.
 Keepal lmi lkingut ensi lsandequi pmentst erileaspossi ble.
 Mai ntai nmi lkingshedspot l
esscl eanbef oremi lking.
 Mi lker sandot herper sonnel involv edi nhandl ingmi l
kmustbecl eanand
freef rom i nfect i
ousdi seasesatal lti
mes.
 Mi lker sshoul dwashhandsandudderwi t
hwar m sani ti
zingwat erbefore
mi lking.
 Washcomponent sofmi l
kingmachi nei ndisinf ectant ,par ti
cularlymet al
teatcups.
 Pr act iset eatdi ppingaf termi l
kingt ocont rol thespr eadofmast iti
s.
 Appl ymi l
kingcr eam ont eatst oav oidt eatcr acki ng.
 Al way scov ermi lkaf termi l
king.
Preparationdonebef oremi l
king
 Cl eant hemi l
kingpar lour /shedandt hesur roundi ngar east horoughl y
.
 Assembl eal lequipmentandmat erialsneededf ormi lking.
 Makesur et hatev er ypi eceofequi pmenti scl eanandst eri
li
zed, andin
goodcondi tion.
 Br ingi ncowst ot hemi l
kingpar l
our .
 Pr ov i
det hecowswi thconcent ratef eeds.
 Makesur et haty our emai ncal m oncet hecowsar einsi de.
 Cl eanhandswi t
hcl eanwar m sani ti
zi ngwat er .
 Washudderandt eat swi thwar m sani t i
zingwat er.
 Dr yt heudderandt eatswi thacl eandr ycloth.
 Smeart eat swi thmi lkingj ell
y /
cr eam t oav oidcr acki ngoft het eats.
 Useast r
ipcupt ot estt hepr esenceofmast itis.
Handli
ngofmi lksoonaf termi l
king
 Mov et hemi lktot hedai ryandf i
ltert or emov ef oreignobj ects.
 Cov ert hemi l
kwel ltopr ev entdustandf li
esdr oppi ngi ntothemi lk
cont ai ner s.
 Cool themi lkimmedi atelyandst orei tat40Ci ncl osedcont ai
ner suntil
readyf ormar ket.
 Usev ehi cleswi thr ef r
iger ati
onequi pmentt ot ranspor tmi l
kf r
om t hefarm
tot hemar ketcent re.
Handv er susmachi nemi lking
1)Handmi lking
-Thi si sanat ural wayofmi l
kingacowbyusi nghands.
Advantages
 I tiseasyandcheapt odoi t.
 I tdoesnotr equireski l
l
s.
 I tdoesnotr equireel ect ri
city.
 I tcr eat esempl oymentofunski l
ledl abourbecausei tr equi r
esmor elabour.

102
Disadvant ages
 I tissl owandr equi resmor elabour .
 I tisl essef fi
cientatmi lkingcows.
 I fmi lker sar ecar ri
er sofi nf
ectiousdi seasesi twoul dresultinr
api dspread
oft hedi seases.
2)Machi nemi lking
-Thi
sist heuseofmachi nest omi lkthecows.
Advant ages
 I tisqui ckandef ficientatmi l
kingcows.
 I trequi resl essl abour .
 I tpr omot esmi lkhy giene. (machinecomponent sarepr operl
ycleanedand
disinf ect ed)
Disadvant ages
 I tisexpensi ve(machi nesar eexpensi vet obuyandmai ntai
n)
 I trequi resski l
ls.
 I tleadst ounempl oy mentbecausei tr equireslessl abour.
Milkheatt reat ment
-Thisisdonet ost opbact er iai nmi l
kf r
om mul ti
plyi
ng.
Twoexampl esofmi l
kheatt reat ment
A)Mi lkpast eurizat ion
B)Mi lkst er i
li
zat ion
A)Mi l
kpast eur i
sat ion
-I
tisapr ocessofheat ingmi l
kt oat emper at ureof71- 720Cf or15secondsand
0
thencool edqui ckl yto10C.
Reasonsf ormi l
kpast eur i
zat i
on
 Todest roypat hogensi nmi l
kandmakei tsafet odrink.
 Topr ev entt hespr eadofzoonot icdiseasest ohumans.
 Toi ncr easekeepi ngqual i
tyofmi lk.
B)Mi l
kst er i
lisat ion
- I ti st hepr ocessofmaki ngmi lkcompl etelyfreeofliv
ingmi cro-
or gani sms
- Forexampl e, UHTmi lkisheatedt otemper atureof1350Cf or2
0
secondsusi ngst eam, t
hencool edrapidlyt o20Candpackagedi n
car tons.
Reasonsf ormi l
kst eril
izat i
on
 Todest royal lmi cro-or ganismsi nmi lk.
 Topr ev entt hespr eadofzoonot icdiseasest ohumans.
 Toi ncr easet hesel flifeofmi lkupt o5mont hsi fnotopened.
 Toal lowmi l
kt obet ranspor tedtodi st antmar ketssuchasexpor tmarkets.
Makingofsourmi l
k(madi la)
-Therear et womet hods;
1)Tr aditional met hod
2)Moder nmet hod

103
1)Traditi
onal met hod
 Fr eshmi l
ki saddedt oaspeci alpot(nkgwana), everydayunti
lfi
ll
edup.
 Thepoti sposi ti
onedi nawar m place.
 Themi l
kbecomessour ,for
mscur dles,duetot heactivi
ti
esofbacter
iain
themi l
k.
 Af t
er3- 5day sthecur dledmi xtureisstrainedthroughasackal l
owingthe
whey (liquidpar t)todri
pout ,l
eav i
ngmadi laint
hesackr eadyfor
consumpt ion.
2)Moder nmet hod
 Past eur isedmi l
kisplacedi nacont ai
nerandast arter
(acult
ureofknown
bacteria)isadded.
 Themi xturei sleftovernightat15- 200Ctomakei tsour.
 Theni tisst rainedt oall
owt hewheyt odr ainawayl eavi
ngbehindthesour
milk(madi la).
Marketingofmi l
kandmi l
kproduct s
-Mil
kcanbesol das;
 Fr eshmi lk
 Past eur isedmi l
k
 UHTmi l
k
 Sourmi lk(madi l
a)
 Mi lkpowder
 Condensedmi lk
 Lowf atmi l
k.
Mil
kpr oducts
 Cheese
 But ter
 Ice-cream
 Yoghur t

104
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