GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 FINALS REVIEWER

I. Reproduction

6.1. Morphogenesis
1. Reproduction ● Change in shape
● Evolutionary adaptation to propagate and improve ● Shows the developmental difference between plants
● Ability to reproduce. and animals.
● Longer in plants – grow and develop continuously
2. Asexual Reproduction until death.
● No gametes. ● Animals develop distinct and complete body shapes.
● Plant cells grow by increasing in size and animal cells
2.1. Budding (Hydra) grow by increasing in number.
● Forming an outgrowth/bud.
7. Nutrition
2.2. Fragmentation (sea stars) ● Providing/obtaining food for health, survival, and growth.
● Organism forms from detached body parts. ● Taking in, digesting, and using obtained resources.
● Nutrients provide energy for metabolic processes; growth,
2.3. Binary Fission (amoeba) maintenance, reproduction, and immunity.
● Unicellular organism splits into two daughter cells.
7.1. Autotrophic
2.4. Vegetative (cuttings) ● Manufacturing nutrients by synthesizing inorg
● No seeds/spores. materials.
● Corm is used by gladiolus and garlic.
7.1.1. Photoautotrophic
2.5. Spore Formation (ferns) ● Directly use energy from the sun and other inorg
● Production of spores. materials to form organic food.
● No flowers.
7.1.2. Chemoautotrophic
2.6. Apomixis ● Use chemicals (H, S, NH2, etc.) to create org
● Asexual seed formation. substances.
● Result of plants bypassing sexual rep.
● Maternal clones from seeds. 7.2. Heterotrophic
● Cannot make own food and obtains energy through
3. Sexual Reproduction org matter.
● Union of gametes
● Offspring are not identical to parents. 7.2.1. Saprophytic/Saprotrophic
● Exhibited by higher forms of organisms. ● Releasing digestive enzymes to absorb dead org
matter.
3.1. Inside fertilization
● Male deposits sperm inside body and the fertilization 7.2.2. Parasitic
takes place. ● Taking food from other organisms.
❖ Ectoparasitism - parasite is outside host.
3.2. Outside fertilization ❖ Endoparasitism - parasite in inside host.
● Male deposits sperm outside female’s body and
fertilization happens in the envi. 7.2.3. Holozoic
● Ingests solid/liquid food.
4. Reproductive Traits ❖ Herbivorous - plants as source of energy.
● Color and display (i.e. peafowls). ❖ Carnivorous - eat other animals.
● Physical characteristics (i.e. brightly-colored flowers). ❖ Omnivorous - consume plants and animals

II. Nutrition and Development III. Gas Exchange

5. Development 8. Gas Exchange in Animals

● Ancestor of plants and animals is a unicellular eukaryote. ● Gas allows for other metabolic processes to proceed
● Plant cells are positionally fixed and undergo alterations of ● Gasses are transferred in opposite directions across a
generations through sexual and asexual reproduction. respiratory process.
● Animal cells are motile and have one continuous ● Use of O2 and release of CO2
multicellular stage after fertilization.
8.1. Cell membrane (bacteria)
6. Plant and Animal Cycle ● Used by unicellular organisms.
● Processes in gamete formation differ. ● Gasses pass through the cell through diffusion
● In meiosis, spores are produced before gametes in plants
and gametes are directly produced in animals.

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 8.2. Body Surface or Skin (flatworms and frogs)
● Respiratory surface covered with thin epithelial cells
that allow O2 and CO2 exchange.
● Gasses can only cross once dissolved in aqueous
solution; surface must be moist.
8.3. Gills (fishes)
● Convoluted outgrowth with blood vessels covered
with thin layer of epithelial cells.
● Increases surface area for gas exchange in aquatic
organisms.
● Lie behind and to the side of the mouth cavity and
consists of fleshy filaments supported by gill arches.
● Blood capillaries in gill filaments are close to the gill
surface for gas exchange.
8.4. Tracheal System (Grasshoppers)
● Respiratory tubes that carry gasses to cells for gas
exchange.
● Gasses enter and exit through spiracles.
8.5. Lungs (Humans)
● Outgrowths of the body wall connected to the outside
envi by respiratory tubes and small openings
9. Gas Exchange in Plants
● Gas exchange occurs in leaves through photosynthesis
and cellular respiration.
9.1. Stomata
● Where gasses enter and exit.
● Have guard cells that control the opening and closing.
● Open when light strikes due to turgor pressure when
guard cell is pushed against cell wall.
9.2. Lenticels
● Nonsuberized pores
● Pathways for direct gas exchange between internal
plant tissue and atmosphere.
IV. Circulation and Transport
10. Translocation
● Process that delivers nutrients throughout an organism.
● Occurs in the phloem transport system – principal food
conducting tissue in vascular plants.
● Nutrients are translocated as a solute in the phloem sap
that contains sugars, amino acids, and minerals.
● Starts where sugars are made (source regions) and
terminates where these are used (sinks).
● Only expanded and mature leaves can act as sources.
● In animals, translocations aim to restore species to
indigenous ranges, protect populations from threats, and
reinstate ecosystem functions.
11. Transpiration
● Water molecules are lost through water vapor from the
plants aerial parts.
● In actively growing plants, water continuously evaporates
from the surface of leaf cells exposed to air. Lost water is
replaced by additional absorption of water from soil.
● Animals transpire by sweating or giving off water vapor
through skin or mucous membranes. Water evaporates
with NaCl.
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12. Reasons why Plants Transpire
12.1. Evaporative Cooling
● As water evaporates at the leaf cell and atmosphere
interface, energy is released.
● This exothermic process uses energy to break H
bonds between water molecules; energy is taken from
the leaf and is given to water molecules converted
into highly energetic gas molecules.
● These gas molecules and associated energy are
released, cooling the plant.
12.2. Accessing Nutrients from Soil
● Water that enters roots contains dissolved nutrients
for plant growth.
● Transpiration enhances nutrient uptake for plants.
12.3. Carbon Dioxide Entry
● When a plant is transpiring, its stomata are open,
allowing gas exchange; water vapor exits the leaf and
CO2 enters.
● More water leaves the leaf than CO2 enters for three
reasons:
❖ H2O are smaller than CO2 so they move faster.
❖ CO2 comprises 0.036% of the atmosphere so the
gradient for its entry into the plant is smaller than H2O
moving from a hydrated leaf into a dry atmosphere.
❖ CO2 has a much longer distance to travel to reach its
destination in the chloroplast from the atmosphere
and H20 has to move from the leaf cell surface to the
atmosphere.
13. Transportation
● Xylem transports water and minerals from roots to other
parts, while phloem transports sucrose and amino acids
between leaves and other parts of the plant.
● Transportation in animals’ is the combined effort of the
circulatory and excretory system; blood flows in blood
vessels and transports digested food from small intestine
to body parts
13.1. Diffusion
● Substances move from high to low concentration.
● CO2, O2, water, food substances, and wastes.
13.2. Facilitated diffusion
● Transport of substances across a biological
membrane from high to low concentration with a
transport molecule.
● glucose and amino acid, gas, and ion transport.
13.3. Active Transport
● Substances move against a concentration gradient.
● In the root hairs of plants, it allows plants to absorb
mineral ions for growth, even though the
concentration of minerals is lower in the soil than in
the root hair.
● Animals and humans experience active transport at
the cellular level to distribute nutrients and ions.
14. Circulation
● For transporting molecules into the body and for waste
removal.
15. Transport and Circulation
15.1. In Plants
15.1.1. Xylem
● Water and nutrients from roots.
15.1.2. Phloem
● Sugars and other substances from leaves.
15.1.3. Tracheids
● Elongated cells in Xylem that help in transport.
15.1.4. Sieve Tubes
● Elongated conduit cells in Phloem for sugar
transport.
15.2. In Animals
15.2.1. Blood
● Transports gasses, nutrients, and wastes.
● Regulates body temp and pH level.
● Helps in healing and damage prevention
● Plays a role in the immune system.
15.2.2. Heart
● Hollow muscular organ that pumps blood.
15.3. In General
15.3.1. Circulation Process
● Plants: fluids circulate through transpiration pull.
● Animals: the heart pumps blood.
15.3.1. Water Transport
● Plants: xylem
● Animals: 90% of water is transported through
plasma.
15.3.2. Food Transport
● Plants: Phloem
● Animals: Glucose in blood plasma
15.3.3. Gas Exchange
● Plants: Gas diffusion through stomata or lenticels.
● Animals: O2 and CO2 is transported in the
bloodstream by combining with hemoglobin
16. Blood Circulation in Humans
● Each side of the heart has two chambers, the upper (atria)
and the lower (ventricles) chambers.
● Blood flows from atria to the ventricles through one-way
valves.
● Right atrium receives O2 depleted blood and pushes it into
the right ventricle, which pumps it out to the lungs.
● O2 enriched blood returns to the left atrium which pushes it
into the left ventricle and pumps it to the body.
● Occurs 60-100 times per minute.
● The heart beating in rhythm is driven by electrical
impulses within the heart.
● Electrical signals originate in the Sinoatrial (SA) node,
which travel from the Atrial Ventricle (AV) node which acts
as a natural gatekeeper for the heart through which all its
electrical signals pass.
● Electrical signals pass through the bundle of His to the
Purkinje Fibers which cause contraction.
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V. Chemical and Nervous Control
17. Organ for Nervous Control
● Animals: brain (controls all activities) or nerve nets (nerve
cells that form net-like arrangements)
● Plants: Serial nervous system where the root tip (apex) is
basic unit and apices connect to vascular strands
18. Channel or Medium where Info Travels
● Animals: nerves carry info from brain to spinal cord to
muscles and to glands
● Plants: vascular strands in leaves form bundles in stem
and cylinder in roots.
19. Chemical Control
19.1. Plant Growth Hormones
● Abscisic Acid - maintains seed and winter dormancy
and closes stomata.
● Auxins - stem elongation, root initiation, root growth,
and inhibition of axillary bud outgrowth and leaf
abscission.
● Brassinosteroids - stem and pollen tube elongation
and vascular tissue differentiation.
● Cytokinins - inhibits leaf senescence, promotes cell
division and leaf abscission, and affects root growth
● Ethylene - fruit ripening and leaf abscission and
inhibits stem elongation and gravitropism.
● Gibberellins - seed germination, stem growth, fruit
dev, breaks winter dormancy, and immobilizes nutrient
reserves
19.2. Human Hormones
● Growth Hormones (Pituitary) - growth and dev
● Thyroxin (Thyroid) - carb, protein, and fat metabolism
● Adrenaline (Adrenal) - emergency situations
● Insulin (Pancreas) - blood sugar
● Testosterone (Testes) and Oestrogen (Ovaries) - dev
of sex organs and secondary sexual characteristics.
VI. Immune System
20. Immune System
● Protects organisms from diseases and foreign bodies by
identifying and fighting threats
21. Immune System of Animals
● Complex interactions allow for distinguishing between own
cells from foreign cells as well as specific features.
22. Types of Lymphocytes
22.1. T Lymphocytes
● Protects against infection and cancer formation by
killing infected cells, activating other immune cells,
producing cytokines, and regulating immune
response.
● Thymus - organ where developing T cells migrate and
mature.
● Major component of adaptive immune system
 22.2. B Lymphocytes
● Makes infection-fighting proteins (antibodies).
● Effectors of humoral immunity
● Constitute 15% of peripheral blood leukocytes and
arise from hemopoietic stem cells in bone marrow.
22.3. NK (Natural Killer) Lymphocytes
● Destroy infected and diseased cells in the early
stages, preventing spread.
● In the same family as T and B cells, coming from a
common progenitor.
● Secrete cytokines such as IFNγ and TNFα which act
on other immune cells to enhance immune response.
23. Types of Immune Response
23.1. Innate
● First to respond to infection - barrier defenses such as
skin and ectodermal derivatives.
● Fast, non-specific, and never changes from exposure
to exposure.
● Internal defenses consist of phagocytic cells, NK
cells, antimicrobial proteins (interferon), and
inflammatory response (histamines, mast cells, and
cytokines).
23.2. Adaptive
● Recognition of a pathogen’s traits using receptors.
23.2.1. Humoral
● Production and secretion of antibodies or
immunoglobulins against antigens
● Antibodies are secreted by cells in bloodstream
or found at the cell’s surface.
23.2.2. Cell Mediated
● Occurs when cytotoxic cells defend the body.
● Dev of B and T cells, memory cells, and plasma
cells.
24. Types of pathogens
24.1. Helminths
● Parasitic - feed on a host for nourishment and
protection while causing poor nutrient absorption,
weakness, and disease.
24.2. Malaria
● Caused by Plasmodium, spread through mosquitoes.
24.3. Tinea
● Diseases caused by fungus - ringworm, athlete's foot,
and jock itch.
24.4. Leprosy or Hansen's disease
● Chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium
leprae
● Affects skin, peripheral nerves, mucosal surfaces of
upper respiratory tract, and eyes.
24.5. HIV
● Attacks immune system and leads to AIDS.
24.6. Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease
● Prion disease - neurodegenerative disorder with
characteristic clinical and diagnostic features.
● Rapidly progressive and fatal.
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25. Plants Immune System
● Plant cells respond to pathogens independently through
receptors
● When an invader is identified by the receptor, it triggers
the defense responses: cell wall production and
thickening, prod of antimicrobial compounds (phytoalexins
and enzymes), and cell death (apoptosis) to prevent
pathogens from accessing the rest of the plant.
25.1. Plants Response to Methyl salicylate (MeSA)
● MeSA increases in leaves inoculated with pathogens
that induce Systemic acquired resistance (SAR).
● When Salicylic acid (SA) accumulates in
pathogen-infected leaves, some of it is converted to
MeSA, which travels to systemic leaves via phloem.
● Once in systemic leaves, MeSA is converted back to
SA which is vital for growth, dev, and physiological
roles: increasing biotic and abiotic response to stress
conditions by increasing resistance of SAR by
stimulating or changing the internal paper dissection
endogenous signaling to withstand stress.
● SA is a cell stimulant or transmitter to withstand envi
stress conditions.
VII. Sensory and Motor Mechanisms
26. Sensory and Motor Mechanisms
26.1. In Animals
● Controlled by nervous system.
● Sensory info is conveyed and perceived by:
● Presence of physical stimulus that would allow certain
reactions;
● Transduction of stimulus into electrochem impulses in
sensory receptors;
● transmission of action potentials in sensory neurons;
● Interpretation of stimulus perceived by CNS.
26.2. Plants
● Plants react to light, chem, gravity, water, and touch.
27. Tropisms
● Ability to respond to stimulus
● Positive - plant moves towards stimulus.
● Negative - plant moves away from stimulus.
27.1. Geotropisms
● Movement in response to gravitaty.
27.2. Hydrotropism
● Movement in response to water.
27.3. Thigmotropism
● Movement in response to mech stimulation.
 VIII. Feedback Mechanisms
28. Homeostasis
● Maintenance of constant internal conditions through
negative feedback (change in system causing a response
that returns it system to its orig state).
● Depends on movement of materials across cell
membrane.
● Involves behavior.
28.1. Process of Homeostasis
● Stimulus produces change in a variable such as temp,
pH, and levels of NA, K, Ca, and blood sugar which
must be kept within homeostatic range.
● A change is detected by a receptor and info is sent as
input along afferent pathways to the control center.
● Info is then sent along efferent pathway to the effector
● Response of the effector influences magnitude of
stimulus and returns variable to homeostasis.
❖ Stimulus, receptor, control center, and effector
29. Organ Systems in Homeostasis
29.1. Hypothalamus and Pituitary Glands
● Secrete hormones to maintain homeostasis and
regulate metabolism.
● Command and control centers that direct hormones to
the body.
31.2. Closed-loop
● Continuously measures effector output and
communicates this to receptors.
● Extra structure, comparator, will affect what info
arrives at control center.
31.3. Negative
● Allows internal condition of the body to go back to
normal state by inhibiting or removing stimulus.
● As concentration of substances increase, rate of
processes decreases.
31.4. Positive Feedback Mechanisms
● Increase in concentration of substances results in
increase in rate of processes.
● Allow output to enhance original stimulus.
32. Importance of Feedback Mechanisms
● To Maintain the internal environment of organisms
especially higher vertebrates in a steady and balanced
state.
● To establish the optimum condition of organisms.
● All cellular activities are controlled by different feedback
mechanisms that regulate body temperature, body fluids,
gas concentration, blood pressure, and glucose
concentration

29.2. Cardiovascular, Urinary, and Lymphatic Systems

● Controls water balance by transporting fluids, sensing
solute and water levels, and regulating pressure.

29.3. Pancreas and Liver

● Stores glucose and ensures that blood glucose
remains steady between meals and during sleep.
● When blood glucose falls, the pancreas secretes
glucagon which instructs liver to convert glycogen to
glucose, making glucose more available in the
bloodstream.

30. Feedback Mechanism or Loop

● Physiological regulation system to achieve homeostasis.
● Our body uses feedback from a process to monitor how
well it is functioning.
● Based on the outcome, it decides whether it should
continue or stop performing an action.
● Amplifies or inhibits a biological pathway

30.1. Components to adjust specific physiological

pathways:
● Receptor or sensor - receives info and sends it to the
control center.
● Control center or evaluator - processes receptor info
and stimulates effector.
● Effector - carries out stimulatory or inhibitory effects
according to control center instruction sent through
nerve pathways (action potentials and
neurotransmitters) or chem signals (hormones).

31. Types of Feedback Mechanisms

31.1. Open-loop
● Regulatory steps are simple: input from receptors
arrives at the control center and sends signals to
effector cells.
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