4.2.

1 PROPULSION SYSTEMS

1. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF

PROPULSION SYSTEMS.

At the beginning of humanity, man used hollowed-out logs as boats or any other type of
floating material from the environment, using his own arms as a means of impulse, evolving
over time, using oars. Later, and after combining different logs or floating materials, they
began to create rafts and with them the rudder emerged.

Illustration 1.Hollowed trunks of primitive man.

As for the first people who managed to navigate the high seas by rowing and sailing, they
were the Phoenicians and the Egyptians, people in which great studies were carried out on
the stars with which they guided themselves, thus using what many today use the Polar
Star. during and at night and the sun during the day.

The triremes, which are boats with three rows of oars, these galleys were necessary by the
different empires because they were used for warlike actions and in this way it was possible
to perfect the sails, giving a great leap in terms of navigation because they managed to
control the wind almost completely.

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Illustration 2. Triremes boat

This navigation prevailed for a long time until an American John Finch in 1787 created a
boat powered by steam using one or two paddle wheels. Until 1804 the construction of
steamboats was not modified but this year John Stevens created some fundamental
principles for Steamships included the use of a propeller instead of paddle wheels. Between
1870 and 1880, many improvements were made to these ships, thus creating the so-called
golden age of steamships.

Some steamers of vital importance for the history of navigation are the Clemont, which was
the first ship entirely powered by steam, another ship of vital importance that cannot be
overlooked is the Savannah, which was the first steam ship capable of crossing the Atlantic
Ocean.

Illustration 3 The Savannah.

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Illustration 4 The Clemont.

The beginning of the 20th century was a time in which man felt the need to improve the
designs of propulsion systems where new designs and alternative means of energy were
tested and tested, among which the one that has prospered the most has been the engine.
diesel which is currently the most used. Not only did changes occur at the level of
propulsion and energy generation, but also in terms of the design and construction of ships.
During the 20th century there was also an increase in the efficiency of machinery with the
use of gas turbines, nuclear energy... giving greater autonomy, speed and maneuverability
to current ships.

Currently reference is made to combined machine systems among which:

• CODOG: combination of diesel or gas.

• CODAG: combination of diesel and gas.

• COGAG: combination of gas and gas.

• COGLAG: combination of diesel electric and gas turbine.

Leaving advances aside, it is worth mentioning the importance of nuclear energy used as a

propulsion system in the naval field, everything points to what this resource will be for the

future of propulsion in this sector.

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PROPULSION SYSTEMS.
The definition of propelling in the naval field consists of moving a ship between two points “A”
and “B”.

Therefore, the propulsion system is a series of combinations between different elements that causes a
ship to move on the sea surface.

Below we will break down the topic of the elements that make up the propulsion chain.

PRIMARY MACHINES
For a machine to be able to perform its function, energy is necessary. Energy, as we have
already explained in the previous point, in the evolution of propulsion systems requires fuel
that can be of organic, fossil or nuclear origin; or through renewable energy (wind energy,
solar energy...) transforming heat energy into mechanical energy.

Regarding the fossil fuel, which is the most used today, it has different ways to convert
these heat energies into mechanical energy, which are:

Internal combustion engine: it works by burning it directly inside the machine to be burned
there directly, producing the movement of a piston and thus converting heat energy into
mechanical energy.

• Boiler: consists of burning the fuel inside a container to use the heat energy of the
fuel to take the water from a liquid state to a gaseous state. This steam acts on a
steam turbine which converts the heat energy into mechanical energy. Also in the
case

From nuclear fuel, energy is released by subjecting the fusionable core to low-energy neutrons,
thereby producing heat.

• Gas turbine: consists of burning the fuel in an area of the machine using the flow of
gas, taking it through the appropriate ducts to a turbine that is part of the same
machine which transforms the heat energy into mechanical energy.

The mechanical work produced by these machines is what causes the ship's propulsion. As
for the performance, it must be the highest possible under the union of the different
systems within the security of contamination and under the safety of human life, for this it
is necessary that the elements that make up the machine have an optimal performance

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together and therefore Separately, for this it is sometimes necessary to use reducers
between the different systems since they operate at different revolutions.

BASIC SYSTEMS.
Summarizing the basic systems that use fossil fuels are:

• Steam propulsion (nuclear propulsion is very similar to steam propulsion).

• Engine propulsion

• Gas turbine propulsion

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STEAM PROPULSION.
As for steam navigation, it must be considered as the pioneer in long-distance navigation
and in today's ships, it must also be mentioned that it has been the system most used by
man in terms of combustion ships and still persists in certain applications. . These ship
engines suffered a great decline in the oil crises when oil was considered a product to be
taken into account economically.

Regarding the elements that make up the steam chain, the steam turbine is a machine
composed of a rotating body, the rotor, equipped with elements located on its periphery,
the blades or vanes, on which the steam affects, producing its turn. This rotating body is
housed in a fixed casing where the nozzles and crowns of fixed vanes that are necessary for
the expansion and direction of the steam are located.

The operation and production of heat energy in these systems is very simple. Water is
introduced into a boiler by means of the heat provided by the combustion of fuel in the
burners, it is vaporized, the steam rises through the tubes and is collected in the upper part
or steam collector from where it re-enters the beams on heaters. to undergo a heat input
at constant pressure, thus increasing its enthalpy, that is, its capacity to produce work, the
superheated steam goes to work in the turbines, first in the high one and then in the low
one where it expands successively. increasing its volume and producing work that
translates into the rotation of the drive shaft through the reduction gear. The strongly
expanded steam is collected in a container where vacuum reigns, the main condenser, in
which by virtue of the prevailing conditions and the cooling it suffers from the seawater
that circulates through it, this steam condenses. and transforms into water. In the
condenser, the necessary feed water is added to replace the losses that always exist in the
circuit and the condensate (condensed water) is collected by the condensate pump and
passes to the “deaerator tank” which, as its name indicates, , its mission is to free what will
be the boiler's feed water from the air (oxygen) that it may have dissolved and heat it. The
feed water is collected by the booster pumps and the main feed pumps, which give it the
necessary pressure for its introduction into the boiler where it enters at a pressure slightly
higher than what prevails in it and at a lower temperature, but close to the of the water
inside so that the real cycle is as close as possible to the theoretical cycle. The water, once
in the boiler, starts the cycle already described again. Certainly the main circuit requires the
help of auxiliary circuits for its operation since the different pumps must be activated,
lubricated and collected the steam used in various uses. to increase the performance of the
installation.

There are two basic types of steam turbines: action and reaction. In action ones, the
steam, which has increased its speed at the cost of a pressure drop in the nozzles, moves
the rotor due to the impulsion it exerts on the moving blades, when changing direction in
them. Their differential characteristic is that in them there is only a pressure drop in the
fixed nozzles and a speed drop in the moving blades.

In the reaction vanes, the mobile vanes are arranged so that they form a kind of nozzle
between them, which causes the steam, as it circulates between them, to expand and
produce its rotation by reaction and hence its name. Thus, in this type of turbines there is a

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continuous pressure drop, an increase in speed in the fixed blades and a drop in speed in
the mobile blades.

Illustration 5. STEAM MACHINE.

PROPULSION BY ENGINES.
The combustion engine is currently the most used and most everyday used in automobiles,
machinery, generators…. This is due to its extraordinary operating economy since on
average its consumption is about 135 g/CV. This makes it the most attractive option for
merchant ships, even in Navy ships.

As for ships, the usual arrangement is that the engine is directly coupled to the shaft and in
cases where it is advisable, one or more engines can be installed coupled to the propeller
shaft through the corresponding gear. On non-combat warships, the diesel engine is
already widely used and on line ships the most common way to find it on board is as part of
the so-called “Mixed Installations”.

The combustion engine has almost no application in ship propulsion, except, of course, in
pleasure and sports boats.

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 Illustration 6. combustion engine.

PROPULSION BY GAS TURBINES.

Of the propulsion systems that use fossil fuels, it is the most modern, this system is the
most used propulsion element in combat ships due to its weight-power ratio. As for the
merchant marine, the various oil crises have stopped its use in favor of diesel engines since
the average consumption of a diesel engine is 135 g/CV. Hour and the gas turbine around
180 g/CV.Hour.

In the naval application of the gas turbine, it is referred to as marine turbines derived from
the turbines that propel airplanes, since in aviation it is necessary to have powerful, small
and light propellants and due to these circumstances it is why ships of war have benefited
from this technology, it is also worth mentioning that they are simple machines without
great complexities when operating, repairing or inspecting. The gas turbine works with the
so-called Brayton cycle which specifies that a perfect gas undergoes compression at
constant entropy in a compressor, and followed by heating at elevated temperature and
constant pressure in a combustion chamber, in this way it then expands. isentropically in a
turbine up to the initial suction pressure of the compressor. The result of the work carried
out on expansion is greater than that of absorption in the comprehension phase.

The steam turbine is an open cycle machine, since the fluid that begins the new cycle is not
the same one that carried out the previous one, this is technically said to mean that the
fluid that evolves is exhausted. This machine is not called internal combustion since the fuel
does not necessarily have to be found in the turbine but can come from another machine
or boiler.

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In the process of operation of this machine as well as the diagram that we will see below,
we will break it down into a few simple steps:

 The atmospheric air is sucked in by the compressor, which is axial, this means that
the sucked air passes into smaller compartments in its evolution. In this way, it
undergoes compression. After this phase, the compressed air begins to mix with
the fuel, this is produced in a combustion chamber where the fuel is injected
resulting in gas which goes directly to the high turbine which in turn drives the
compressor and after expanding it passes to the low turbine or also called power
turbine in which it is produced. the job. Like all combustion, waste is produced and
released into the atmosphere.

In the diagram you can see two zones in the machine: the gas generation zone, with the
cold and hot extremes, and the power zone, and in the figure we can clearly see what we
said: there is no mechanical connection between the two, although There is the physical
connection of the fluid that evolves in them.

Comment that the application of the gas turbine must always be done through a reduction
gear since the output of the power turbine is of the order of 3,500
rpm and the propeller speed has to be considerably lower.

The arrangement can vary greatly: a single turbine moving the shaft: two turbines on a
reducer with a single outlet and even a single turbine with two outlets (two-propeller
vessel). Although there are currently many installations where only one type of gas turbine
is used, it is usual to use it as a power machine in mixed installations, associated with diesel
engines or other lower-power gas turbines used for cruising speed.

Illustration 7. Gas turbine.

2.6. NUCLEAR PROPULSION.

As for this type of propulsion, what we see in movies and history is that it has risks inherent
to its operation. Currently, many precautionary measures are taken, as well as current
knowledge of the treatment and the dangers that it entails, making it something really
remote for an accident to occur.

As for nuclear propulsion, it is basically a steam propulsion and also a steam propulsion
with not very high characteristics, since the nuclear process itself does not allow very high

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temperatures of the steam obtained, as is always desired to increase the performance of
the cycle.

Regarding the nuclear reactor we will say that its foundation is the phenomenon of nuclear
fission. There are certain heavy chemical elements whose nuclei, having a certain
instability, are susceptible, through the bombardment of low-energy neutrons, to splitting
into two approximately equal, lighter nuclei, with the production of new neutrons and a
resulting mass defect. This mass defect appears in the form of heat energy, by virtue of the
well-known Einstein Law E= m.c2, in which E is the energy, m the mass and c the speed of
light.

There are several types of reactors, but the one used on board ships is the “pressurized
water” reactor or PWR (Pressurized Water Reactor), in which the core is kept under
pressure so that the water does not boil inside. .

As for this type of propulsion, it is very little used only in some military navies in
submarines and some ships since it does not give them limitations when refueling and they
can remain submerged for longer.

Illustration 8. Nuclear engine.

(21)

2.7. MIXED INSTALLATIONS.

There are two types of installations on ships: basic systems and mixed systems. Basic
systems are, to a greater extent, applications that are installed alone, which means they are
gas turbine ships, steam ships, motor ships or nuclear systems. On the contrary, mixed
systems are those in which several machines are used, whether or not they are of the same
type or with the same characteristics. In this way, it is described that a mixed installation
can be two machines of the same type simply to distribute the work or obtain power. extra
at the right time as may be necessary in a warship since in a merchant ship it normally
operates throughout the navigation at a uniform speed, which is maintained until the
voyage is completed. On the other hand, on warships the difference in situations in which

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it can be found is such that it is in them that this type of installation has a specific
application and rationalizes the use of machinery. For this reason, it seems logical, if
possible, to have two types of machines, one with low consumption that provides the
relatively small power needed for cruising speed and another, as light and compact as
possible, so that it can provide on its own or help to give full power, although its specific
consumption is greater, since the relative time it will act is short.

As for the most used combinations, we will specify them below:

The designation of these systems begins with “CO”, initials of the English word
“COMBINED”, then the initial of the machine used in the mixed system to give cruising
speed is placed: S for steam = steam, D for diesel and G for “gas” = gas turbine.

Regarding the most used combinations, they are those mentioned according to their
appearance over time. Some of these combinations, specifically the COSAG, are no longer
used due to the tremendous complexity of carrying steam and gas on board
simultaneously. It was, however, the logical evolution of what existed and was known,
which was steam, towards a combined installation. The English Navy, which was the one
that used it, quickly moved to “full gas” facilities.

The most used mixed installations and completing the previous section where we named
the different systems:

• COSAG COMBINATION STEAM AND GAS TURBINE

• CODAG DIESEL AND GAS TURBINE COMBINATION

• CODOG DIESEL OR GAS TURBINE COMBINATION

• COGAG COMBINATION GAS TURBINE AND GAS TURBINE

• COGOG COMBINATION GAS TURBINE OR GAS TURBINE

• CODAD DIESEL AND DIESEL COMBINATION

• CODLAG COMBINATION DIESEL ELECTRIC AND GAS TURBINE

THE PROPELLER.
The propellant is the last link in the chain, which transforms said mechanical energy into
movement.

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The most used propeller is the propeller, it is the most common and is neither more nor
less than a screw that is screwed into a large non-solid nut that constitutes the water, this
propeller rotates powered by the propeller shaft that connects it to the engine. or main
machine, it is screwed into the water and, just as happens with any screw, it advances and
produces the movement of the boat to which it is fixed by means of a thrust bearing, on
which the forward impulse is produced (forward). ) or backward depending on the direction
of rotation of the propeller.

Logically, there are other forms of propulsion, such as the water jet, which consists of
launching a mass of water backwards through a nozzle-type conduit by means of a suitable
system of pumps, so that when it leaves at a certain speed backwards produces, by
reaction, a movement of the boat forward.

To go backwards, in this case, it is necessary to provide the installation, at the outlet of the
jet, with a thrust diverter that, when desired, deflects the jet forward, causing the boat to
move backwards.

It is also worth mentioning the Voith-Schneider type circular thruster models that allow
their thrust to be vectored in 360º, so that the boat in which it is installed can maneuver
with complete precision forward, backward or move laterally in any direction. They are
used in tugboats, minesweepers and in general small vessels that need excellent
maneuverability and that do not require the use of large propulsion powers.

In any case, the propeller, with all its defects, is the propulsion par excellence, capable of
being used in ships of all sizes and applications and, I insist again, with a careful design and
with due experimentation together with the hull with which has to work gives excellent
results.

In recent years we are witnessing a true revolution in the field of ship propulsion, as
designers are designing and creating “ad hoc” combinations of propulsion machines to
achieve a versatile installation that satisfies all operating requirements.

For example, we present a diesel-electric propulsion system in cruise ships, which has been
widely disseminated in specialized technical magazines.

DIESEL-ELECTRIC PROPULSION.
It is one in which the diesel propulsion engines, instead of being directly coupled to the
drive shaft or shafts, drive alternators that produce the electrical energy necessary for
propulsion and all other services of the ship. Specifically, propulsion is carried out by
means of electric motors located near the propeller, long transmission shafts are avoided
and there is greater design flexibility.

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 Illustration 9. DIESEL-ELECTRIC ENGINE.

The advantages of an installation of this type are:

• The most significant is that both prime movers and electric drive motors can be
located practically anywhere on the ship and, therefore, flexibility of installation
and layout for damage purposes (very important in its application to warships) is
guaranteed. .

• The propulsion motors can be located very aft or on the so-called AZIPODS or
azimuthal posts, giving rise to very short or non-existent axle lines.

• The generators that supply the required power needs can be unified, both for the
main propulsion and for the remaining services.

• Since the transmission of electrical energy is through cables, they can practically
always be carried along the most convenient route and their protection is much
simpler than when, as occurs in current systems, the drive shafts are long,
sometimes reaching a third of the length or more.

• On the other hand, by its very essence, reduction gears are dispensed with, making
the use of variable pitch propellers unnecessary.

PROPULSIVE PERFORMANCE.

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This point of the project is the most complex, but also the most important economically and
ecologically. It consists of the application of Newton's laws to allow us to carry out the
pertinent studies that will allow us to more assertively select the different systems that
allow the propulsion of our ship.

Definitions:

• Indicated Horsepower (IHP) is the thermal cycle power of the engine

• Brake Horsepower (BHP) is the power of the motor, measured at the

coupling of the motor to the shaft (via a brake).

• Shaft Horsepower (SHP ) is the power transmitted through the shaft

(measured with a torque meter as close to the propeller as possible).

• Power delivered to the propeller (PHP = Propeller Horsepower) is the power

delivered to the propeller (discounting the losses in the previous shaft).

 Thrust power (THP = Transformed Horsepower) is the power transformed by

the propeller (obtained by discounting its power output to the propeller).

 Effective or towing power (EHP = Effective Horsepower) is the power that is

actually used to move the boat or the power that would be necessary to use
to tow the boat at the design speed (it can be obtained by deducting from
the above the losses due to the ship shape, appendages, etc.).

• Engine performance (ηMotor): The performance of the engine indicates its

effectiveness in converting the energy generated in the pistons into mechanical
power.

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 • Mechanical performance of the shaft line (ηm): The performance of the engine
indicates its effectiveness in converting the energy generated in the pistons into
mechanical power.

• Propulsion performance (ηp): This performance gives us an idea of the project's

propulsive efficiency and is made up of four factors, the hull performance (ηh), the
propeller performance (ηo), the relative rotational performance (ηrr) and the
mechanical performance. of the axle line.

• Isolated Propeller Test to determine propeller performance. To do this, the thrust

(KT) and torque (KQ) coefficients are measured for different degrees of advance (J)
of the propeller.

Where VA is the forward speed of the propeller, n its revolutions per second, D its
diameter and T, Q the measured values of thrust and torque, respectively. In this
way, the performance of the propeller is calculated by, the previous values,
obtained directly for the model, must also be extrapolated to the scale of the ship,
for which there are various techniques that are not included here.

• Self-propulsion test to determine hull and relative rotary performance. In this

test, the propeller thrust and delivered torque are measured, in the same way as in

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 the isolated propeller test, observing that for the same value of KT, the
corresponding value of KQ differs between the two tests. In this way, the relative
rotating performance is defined as,

Where AP refers to the self-propulsion test and PA to the isolated propellant test.
On the other hand, from the measured value of KT, we can determine the
corresponding value of J from the test data of the isolated propellant. This value
allows us to determine the so-called wake factor (w) that measures the actual
forward speed of the water that reaches the propeller, in relation to the forward
speed of the vessel according to,

The previous parameters (ηrr and w) are also subject to scale effects so they must
be corrected. This fix is not included here.

Furthermore, it is experimentally verified that for a forward speed of the ship, in

the self-propulsion test, the thrust supplied by the propeller is greater than the
value of the hull resistance, obtained in the towing test, for the same speed. This
effect is measured by the so-called suction coefficient,

From the previous coefficients, the performance of the hull is defined as,

Finally, the propulsive performance is calculated as:

It is also possible to estimate the propulsive performance of a design, without

resorting to experimental tests.

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There are various statistical methods, among which the best known is the one developed by
Holtrop and Menen, which allow the following parameters to be calculated from the
characteristic dimensions and other general data of the vessel: k, w, t and ηrr.

The characteristics of the propeller can be calculated quite accurately from data from
systematic series, among which the B series (or the more recent BB) stands out. From its
characteristics, we can calculate those of any propeller, using expressions of the type, H c Z

Where H, D are the pitch and diameter of the propeller, Z the number of blades, c0.75 the
chord of the blade at station 0.75D/2 and ∆CD is the increase in the drag coefficient of the
blade profile. section.

PROPULSIVE POWER.
The propulsion power that must be installed on the ship is then defined by:

Where V is the design speed, and R is the drag for that speed.

Once the necessary propulsive power for the specified navigation condition has been
calculated, the propulsion engine must be chosen within the available range.

The power must be increased in those cases in which it is desired to incorporate some
additional power take off such as PTO (power take off).

On the other hand, the peak power of the propulsion engine to be installed must exceed
the calculated power by 15% (approximately), with the objective that the navigation
situation at sea meets the required speed criteria (sea margin).

Likewise, it is customary to increase the installed power value by an additional 10%, to

reduce engine maintenance costs.

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PROPELLERS.
The definition of a propeller: a mechanism composed of several tilted blades that, when
rotating with force around an axis, displace the fluid in which it is producing movement.

Propulsion theory does not depend on propeller size or vessel type for those who are aware
of propeller design.

MATERIALS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF

THE PROPELLERS:
During the long history of propeller construction, several types of materials resistant to
seawater corrosion were used for navies as well as merchant marines. The best
compromise between the need for strength, moldability, repairability and adequate
corrosion resistance that is easy to manufacture and affordable is an alloy of bronze and
aluminum.

Stainless steel is very difficult to cast correctly in large quantities, polish and shape with
great precision. This explains why it is only used when a certain property is intended, such
as antimagnetic for minesweepers or minehunters or extreme hardness for icebreakers.

Titanium must be forged for naval applications and is harder to handle than stainless steel.
Due to the forging and manufacturing costs, the use of titanium is very expensive.

Material alloys (manganese copper) are suitable when they are new but over time they
become brittle and cannot be repaired, even the vibration of the propeller itself is its first
major drawback.

Composite materials, this type of materials has been a great revelation in the construction
of propellers and aircraft, but they are not suitable for ships, not even medium-sized ones.
The reason is that ship propellers must withstand a large amount of multidirectional
stresses. that even the most sophisticated fibers do not tolerate the load for long. The
second disadvantage of these materials is that they have low levels of elasticity, the
defection at the end of the propellers is quite large and the manufacturing processes are
not precise enough to guarantee the same defection on any propeller blade. As a
consequence, when the thrust occurs, the blades of this material do not bend
homogeneously, so each blade has its own pitch slightly different from the others.

Finally, the most resistant fiber is carbon, but it does not resist seawater, which is why a
special coating must be placed, but this coating resists erosion due to cavitation less than
metal alloys.

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FIXED PITCH OR CONTROLLABLE PITCH
PROPELLERS:
This is the question most often asked, the answer depends on the choices regarding the
propulsion plant and the mission profile of the ship. There are also several factors to take
into account, they must be carefully analyzed such as flexibility, efficiency, maneuverability,
safety, noise characteristics, reliability, ease of maintenance and costs during the useful life.

CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLERS (HPC):

As far as maneuverability and flexibility are concerned, HPC are the appropriate solution for
propulsion plants powered by diesel engines and/or gas turbines. With HPC, the turbine has
a large recoil capacity through its capacity for all forward, all back in approximately 20
seconds without any consequence on the strength of the propeller blades. With a low pitch,
diesel engines have the ability to stay in place even with the engines running.

For multipurpose vessels, HPC allows a sonar device to be dragged as long as adequate
controls are installed to minimize noise emission.

Another advantage is that it is sometimes essential to protect diesel engines from early
deterioration. With HPC, efficient load control can be achieved to protect the engine from
overloading due to sea conditions or high-speed maneuvers.

As far as reliability is concerned, according to reports provided by shipyards where repairs

are carried out, they indicate that after collisions and even after some grounding, the
mechanism inside the blade remained intact and the blade was completely destroyed.

As far as maintenance is concerned, it is carried out during the normal dry dock periods and
every 4 or 5 years the blade seals and the blade fixing elements must be changed.

FIXED PITCH PROPELLERS (HPF):

In ships with diesel engines as the only propulsion system, the use of HPF is only possible
when said engines have large power margins which are much larger than for HPC. In any
case, when sufficient motor torque is available at any time, the HPF has adequate
maneuverability when applied to large electric motors.

However, there are some disadvantages when operating astern, the true leading edges of
the blades are the trailing edges and with the modern design of oblique blades, these

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induce much larger end loads than when they work forward. Therefore, the RPM or torque
must be limited so that the propeller does not bend.

The difference in efficiency is between 5% and 7% between both types of propellers. This
difference is related between the propulsion force and the speed of the ship. It is when the
propeller works at its exact design point for a design condition of the ship.

In summary, the number one key is in the design and manufacturing process and in the
commitment with which the best perfection and an optimal result of the final product is
constantly sought.

Key number two is integration, design is nothing if the material is poor or if the
manufacturing does not conform to the design.

It is therefore essential that in the first phase of the project an integrated team analyzes the
propulsion system, the choice linked to the hull lines, the options regarding the layout of
the engine, the influence of noise and vibration levels and the problems of manufacturing
that can affect the design.

Any of these first decisions directly affect costs, there are very few manufacturers of naval
propellers, they are designers and manufacturers. Its integration with the team that
projects the design of the vessel is a key element to achieve success at the lowest possible
cost.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Educano. Educano. [Online] http://www.educando.edu.do/articulos/estudiante/la-
revolucin-industrial/.

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2. Angel Franco García. Angel Franco García. [Online]
http://angelfrancogarcia.blogspot.com.es.

3. Author. OCW. OCW. [Online] www.ocw.upc.edu.

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