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Technological Institute of Ciudad Madero

MECHANICAL DRAWING

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DATE : 02/10/20

STUDENT : CARLOS URIEL ESCOBAR MARTINEZ
REGISTRATION :190914
 Index

History of drawing...............................................................................................................3
Drawing rules...................................................................................................................4-6
paper size..........................................................................................................................6-9
Margins...........................................................................................................................9-12
Types of engineering drawing lines.............................................................................12-15
Dimensioning rules ......................................................................................................16-19
Orthogonal projection...................................................................................................20-22
Types of cuts................................................................................................................23-26
Types of sections..........................................................................................................26-30
DEFINITIONS.............................................................................................................30-33
Settings.........................................................................................................................33-36
Tolerance......................................................................................................................37-40
Interchangeability.........................................................................................................40-44
Types of finishes..........................................................................................................44-47
Assembly......................................................................................................................47-50
Exploded view..............................................................................................................50-52
Mechanical, electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering symbols.......................53-55
 History of drawing

Technical drawing in ancient times

Statue of the Sumerian king Gudea (The architect)

The first manifestation of technical drawing dates back to the year 2450 BC, in a construction
drawing that appears sculpted on the statue of the Sumerian king Gudea, called The Architect,
and which is found in the Louvre Museum in Paris. In this sculpture, in a schematic way, the
plans of a building are represented.
From the year 1650 BC dates the Ahmes papyrus. This Egyptian scribe wrote, on a papyrus
measuring 33 by 548 cm, an exposition of geometric content divided into five parts that cover:
arithmetic, stereotomy, geometry and the calculation of pyramids. In this papyrus an
approximate value is given to the number π.
In the year 600 BC, we find Thales, a Greek philosopher born in Miletus. He was the founder of
Greek philosophy, and is considered one of the Seven Sages of Greece. He was
knowledgeable in all the sciences, but became famous for his knowledge of astronomy, after
predicting the eclipse of the sun that occurred on May 28, 585 BC. It is said that he introduced
geometry to Greece, a science that he learned in Egypt. His knowledge helped him discover
important geometric properties. Thales left no writings; The knowledge we have about it comes
from what is told in Aristotle's metaphysics.
From the same century as Thales, is Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher, whose doctrines
influenced Plato. Born on the island of Samos, Pythagoras was educated in the teachings of
the early Ionian philosophers, Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, and Anaximedes. He founded a
movement with religious, political and philosophical purposes, known as Pythagoreanism. This
school is credited with the study and layout of the first three regular polyhedra: tetrahedron,
hexahedron and octahedron. But perhaps his best-known contribution to the field of geometry
is the hypotenuse theorem, known as the Pythagorean theorem, which states that "in a right
triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the "catetos."
In the year 300 BC, we find Euclid, a Greek mathematician. His main work, "Elements of
Geometry", is an extensive mathematical treatise in 13 volumes on subjects such as: plane
geometry, incommensurable magnitudes and the geometry of space. He probably studied in
Athens with disciples of Plato. He taught geometry in Alexandria, and founded a mathematics
school there.

Archimedes (287-212 BC), notable Greek mathematician and inventor, who wrote important
works on plane and space geometry, arithmetic and mechanics. He was born in Syracuse,
Sicily, and educated in Alexandria, Egypt. He invented ways to measure the area of curved
figures, as well as the surface area and volume of solids bounded by curved surfaces. He
showed that the volume of a sphere is two-thirds the volume of the cylinder that surrounds it.
He also developed a method to calculate an approximation of the value of pi (p), the ratio
between the diameter and circumference of a circle, and established that this number was 3
10/70 and 3 10/71.
Apollonius of Perga, Greek mathematician, called the "Great Geometer", who lived during the
last years of the 3rd century and the beginning of the 2nd century BC He was born in Perga,
Pamphylia (now Türkiye). His greatest contribution to geometry was the study of conical
curves, which he reflected in his Treatise on Conics, which was initially composed of eight
books.

Technical drawing in the modern era

It is during the Renaissance, when technical representations acquire true maturity, such as the
works of the architect Brunelleschi, the drawings of Leonardo de Vinci, and many others. But it
was not until well into the 18th century that there was a significant advance in technical
representations.
One of the great advances is due to the French mathematician Gaspard Monge (1746-1818).
He was born in Beaune and studied at the schools of Beaune and Lyon, and at the military
school of Mézières. At the age of 16 he was appointed professor of physics in Lyon, a position
he held until 1765. Three years later he was professor of mathematics and in 1771 professor of
physics at Mézières. He helped found the Polytechnic School in 1794, where he taught
descriptive geometry for more than ten years. He is considered the inventor of descriptive
geometry. Descriptive geometry is what allows us to represent the three-dimensional surfaces
of objects on a two-dimensional surface. Today there are different representation systems that
serve this purpose, such as conical perspective, the system of bounded planes, etc. but
perhaps the most important is the dihedral system, which was developed by Monge in his first
publication in 1799.
Finally, it is worth mentioning the Frenchman Jean Victor Poncelet (1788-1867). He is
responsible for the introduction into geometry of the concept of infinity, which had already been
included in mathematics. In Poncellet geometry, two lines either intersect or intersect, but they
cannot be parallel, since they would intersect at infinity. The development of this new
geometry, which he called projective, was captured in his work "Traité des propietés
projectivas des figures" in 1822.
The last great contribution to technical drawing, which has defined it, as we know it today, has
been standardization. We can define it as "the set of rules and precepts applicable to the
design and manufacture of certain products." Although the Chaldean and Egyptian civilizations
already used this concept for the manufacture of bricks and stones, subject to pre-established
dimensions, it was at the end of the 19th century, in the midst of the Industrial Revolution,
when the concept of standard began to be applied in the representation of plans and the
manufacture of parts. But it was during the First World War, faced with the need to supply the
armies and repair weapons, when normalization acquired its definitive impetus, with the
creation in Germany in 1917, of the German Committee for Normalization.
 Drawing rules

Normalization is a collective activity aimed at establishing solutions to repetitive situations. In particular, this activity
consists of the development, dissemination and application of standards. Which has a determining influence on the
industrial development of a country, by enhancing relations and technological exchanges with other countries.
Standardization offers society important benefits by facilitating the adaptation of products, processes and services to the
purposes for which they are intended, protecting health and the environment, preventing obstacles to trade and facilitating
cooperation.
Technological

The standards offer a common language of communication between companies, the Administration and users and
consumers, establish a socioeconomic balance between the different agents that participate in commercial transactions
and are a necessary pattern of trust between client and supplier. They are based on the results of experience and
technological development. They are approved by a recognized national, regional or international standards body.

Standards are technical documents that contain technical specifications for voluntary application. The word norm from the
Latin "normun" means etymologically:

The objectives of standardization can be specified in three:

 The economy , since costs are reduced through simplification.
 Utility , by allowing interchangeability.
 Quality , since it allows us to guarantee the constitution and characteristics of a certain product.

These three objectives bring with them a series of advantages , which we could specify in the following:
 Reduction in the number of types of a certain product . In U.S.A. At one point, there were 49 sizes of milk bottles. By
voluntary agreement of the manufacturers, they were reduced to 9 types with a single mouth diameter, obtaining a saving
of 25% in the new price of containers and closing lids.
 Simplification of designs , by using already standardized elements in them.
 Reduction in transportation, storage, packaging, files , etc. with the corresponding impact on productivity.

CLASSIFICATION OF STANDARDS

Independent of the aforementioned decimal classification of the standards, another broader classification can be made,
depending on the content and its scope of application:

Depending on their content , the rules can be:

 Fundamental Standards of General Type , to this type belong the standards related to formats, line types, labeling, views,
etc.
 Fundamental Technical Standards are those that refer to the characteristics of the mechanical elements and their
representation. These include standards on tolerances, threads, welding, etc.
 Materials Standards are those that refer to the quality of materials, with specifications of their designation, properties,
composition and testing. To this type would belong the standards relating to the designation of materials, both metallic,
steel, bronze, etc., as well as non-metallic, lubricants, fuels, etc.
 Dimension standards for parts and mechanisms , specifying shapes, dimensions and admissible tolerances. Shipbuilding
standards, machine tools, pipes, etc. would belong to this type.

Depending on their scope of application, the standards can be:

 International . The standards issued by ISO, CEI and ITU-International Telecommunications Union belong to this group.
 National . They are those written and issued by the different national standardization organizations, and in accordance with
the recommendations of the relevant international and regional standards. This is the case of the German DIN standards,
the Spanish UNE, etc.
 Regional . Its scope is usually continental, as is the case of the standards issued by CEN, CENELEC and ETSI.
 Company . They are those freely drafted by companies and that complement national standards. In Spain, some of the
companies that issue their own standards are: INTA (National Institute of Aerospace Technology), RENFE, IBERDROLA,
CTNE, BAZAN, IBERIA, etc.

paper size
Paper formats and graphic elements used in technical drawing

A format is a standardized support or structure, that is, governed by certain standards or canons
for the realization of a drawing or activity within it.

As has already been seen before, in technical drawing it is impossible to draw architectural projects
in real size since dimensions would be required that would make any planimetry in that size
illegible. Furthermore, unlike artistic drawing, this is of an “objective” type, so standards are required
in this regard and one of these are the paper formats that we use in our drawings.

What are paper formats based on?

The Standard formats are based mainly on the formats defined in 1922, in the DIN 476 standard (
Deutsches Institut für Normung or German Institute for Standardization ). This set of
standards in turn has been the basis for its international equivalent, the ISO type standards
(International Organization for Standardization ) which has been adopted by most countries,
although in countries such as the United States and Canada, other standardization systems exist in
parallel.

Who determines paper formats?

The International Organization for Standardization or ISO (from the Greek isos meaning
"equal"), born after the Second World War (February 23, 1947), is the organization in charge of
promoting the development of international manufacturing, trade and communication standards for
all industrial branches with the exception of electrical and electronics. Its main function is to seek
the standardization of product and safety standards for companies or organizations at an
international level. In Chile, the person in charge of defining the formats is the National Institute of
Standardization (INN) through the so-called Chilean Standards (NCh).

What is the main idea of the format?

The idea is simple, and is based on the idea of making better use of paper to waste as little as
possible.

A manufactured sheet of paper measures 1 square meter and the measurement of its sides is in
such a proportion that dividing it in half along its length, each of the halves continue to have the
same relationship between their sides as the original sheet. In this way, when a paper size is
required, the manufacturer can cut and send the material without fear that the rest will be useless
or, failing that, because they want to take advantage of it, they will have to store it indefinitely in
their warehouses until chance allows the rest to be shipped.

Thus, the sheet of size 1 square meter is called A0, the following divisions that reduce its surface to
half of the previous one, are successively called A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, A7 and A8, wanting
thereby indicating the number of cuts from the original sheet, thus helping to get an idea of the total
surface.

Inevitably there may be some losses or defects in the cut that are considered within tolerance. For
example, the A4 format, being the 4th cut, should have a surface of: 10000/42= 625 cm2, however
this measures: 624.54 (210×297.4).

Paper sizes according to ISO standard

Format To series B series C series To series B series C series

 (mm) (mm) (mm) (inches) (inches) (inches)

1000 × 33.11 × 39.37 × 36.10 ×

0 841 × 1189 917 × 1297
1414 46.81 55.67 51.06

23.39 × 27.83 × 25.51 ×

1 594 × 841 707 × 1000 648 × 917
33.11 39.37 36.10

16.54 × 19.69 × 18.03 ×

2 420 × 594 500 × 707 458 × 648
23.39 27.83 25.51

11.69 × 13.90 × 12.76 ×

3 297 × 420 353 × 500 324 × 458
16.54 19.69 18.03

4 210 × 297 250 × 353 229 × 324 8.27 × 11.69 9.84 × 13.90 9.02 × 12.76

5 148 × 210 176 × 250 162 × 229 5.83 × 8.27 6.93 × 9.84 6.38 × 9.02

6 105 × 148 125 × 176 114 × 162 4.13 × 5.83 4.92 × 6.93 4.49 × 6.38

7 74 × 105 88 × 125 81 × 114 2.91 × 4.13 3.46 × 4.92 3.19 × 4.49

8 52 × 74 62 × 88 57 × 81 2.05 × 2.91 2.44 × 3.46 2.24 × 3.19

9 37 × 52 44 × 62 40 × 57 1.46 × 2.05 1.73 × 2.44 1.57 × 2.24

10 26 × 37 31 × 44 28 × 40 1.02 × 1.46 1.22 × 1.73 1.10 × 1.57

Margins
To make a technical drawing we cannot use the entire format; For reasons of
usefulness and aesthetics, we must delimit a useful surface for the execution of the
layouts. In addition, it is necessary to set a delimited area that allows us to include all
the information about said drawing.
In the image above you have an A4 format with these areas delimited.
MARGINS .
According to the UNE 1-026-83 standard, in each format the drawing area is limited by
a blank rectangular margin, around the entire format, whose dimensions will be
defined according to the format:
 In small formats, up to A4, the margin is 5 mm.
 In larger formats, starting from A3, the margin will be 10 mm.
If the drawing is to be archived, a space must be provided that allows for stapling or
perforation, therefore a left margin, different from the previous ones, of 20 or 25 mm
must be drawn on the format.

BOX .
Technical documents designed from A0 to A4 format must include a title block or box,
formed by a rectangle subdivided by other parallelograms.
 The dimensions of the box will depend on the margins applied to each format, and
may not exceed 185 mm long by 277 mm high.
It is placed in the lower right part of the format, to allow its visibility, and facilitate
reading in the same direction as the drawing, regardless of whether it is going to be
folded or not.
In the left image you have two box models with their normalized dimensions.
Labeling areas.

Using the labeling box we can identify the technical document, as well as know
other supplementary data, for this the label is divided into two areas: the
identification area and the supplementary area.
 Types of engineering drawing line

Lines in technical drawing are used for different purposes such as providing specific
information for designers, manufacturers, technicians, architects, etc. These lines are a
type of language among technicians, that is why they are normalized and we must
know how to interpret them. At the bottom of the page you have an exercise in the
form of a game to check what you have learned after reading the page.

The combination of the types of lines with their normalized thicknesses has the
objective of achieving the best contrast between them and making the
interpretation of a drawing easier .

The types of lines to be used in technical drawing are specified in the UNE 1-032-82
standard, equivalent to ISO 128. In the image below we have all the lines that are
used, but in general, we have the following types of lines:

- Thick Line : For visible contours and edges.

- Fine Line : Dimension lines, auxiliary dimension lines, axis lines and hatching lines.

- Fine Stroke and Point Line : For Axes of revolution and Symmetries.

- Fine line strokes : Contours and Hidden Edges.

- Freehand fine line : Limits of partially interrupted views or cuts.

The width ratio between thick and thin lines must not be less than 2 (double
or half) and the width of the line must be chosen from the following range:

0.25mm – 0.35mm – 0.5mm – 0.7mm – 1mm – 1.4mm and 2 mm.

It could also be 0.18mm but it is not usually used because it is too fine.

The fine, medium and thick lines within a drawing or plane must always have the
same width , logically each one its own width.

Look at the following image where you will see all the lines used in technical drawing,
their shapes and widths:
 The lines of the cuts in figures must have an inclination of 45º.

When obtaining views, it is common that one type of line can overlap another type.
For example, maybe a solid line is in the same place as a hidden one. What happens
then?

Some Line Placement Rules :

- Continuous lines (visible edges and contours) have priority over hidden and central
lines (axes of revolution and symmetries).
 Dimensioning rules

In drawing, the detail has to be sharp and precise, it must be executed with the

appropriate technique and with skill, this means that the lines must have brilliance and

vigor, sharpness is a habit that must be acquired and that can only be achieved with

the orderly management of equipment, materials, and working in an appropriate place.

We can achieve the above mentioned with dimensions, but what is a dimension? A

dimension is a tool in technical drawing that tells us the measurement of a situation of

the project to be carried out, these dimensions must be used in such a way; that

anyone can quickly and concretely interpret the work measurements.

In order to properly define our construction plan for an architectural project or

assembly of a piece, it is recommended to follow certain basic dimensioning rules,

which are the following:

 The dimensions of a project must correspond to its final dimensions of the

manufacturing or construction process, that is, a project limited with measurements

ready to work on by anyone who knows how to interpret plans and dimensions.

 The dimensions must be totally feasible , visible and interpretable, so that the

distances and measurements of the completed project can be easily and effortlessly

deduced.

 Duplicate dimensions must be avoided , due to the confusion that an excess of

figures can cause a misreading of the project. Duplicate dimensions are those placed

in different views but that indicate the same dimension of the same object.

 The exterior and interior dimensions must be separated in the project, if the

drawing is small they can be made on the same plane, but taking care that they do
 not overlap each other, if the drawing is very large with a large amount of details

they will have to be done on two different planes.

 If we are dimensioning a small piece and therefore need to put exterior and

interior dimensions on the same plane, we will ensure that both are separated,

otherwise it will have to be separated into two planes.

 Each dimension will not be delimited more than once, on the plane, and must be

done on the view that best defines the shape of dimension to be delimited.

 The dimensions must be chosen and indicated in the drawings , taking into

account the manufacturing, construction and function operations, hence the great

interest for the designer or draftsman to know these operations in depth to arrive at

a correct dimension.

 The dimensions must be in such a way that they can be read from below or

from the right , remember that when we design our plans we have to present the
 final product to our clients and therefore we must make sure that it is

understandable even for people who They lack technical knowledge of dimensioning

rules.

 The dimensions of those shapes that result from the manufacturing or

construction process should not be limited ; remember that it is not a good

practice to fill our view with unnecessary dimensions.

 To make a correct dimension, you must begin by analyzing the dimension

dimensions and once these are placed, set the situation dimensions.

 The dimensions refer to the size of the shapes or basic elements such as prisms,

cylinders, cones, etc. that constitute a piece. The location dimensions are those that

indicate the positions of said basic elements, one in relation to the others, in the set

of pieces. In the following figure, the dimensions are marked with a D and the

situation with an S.

 The dimension lines must have a distance of 10mm from the edge and 7mm

from the parallel lines of the dimension. The elevation figures are superimposed on

the elevation line and alternate. Dimension lines can be interrupted to insert the

figure, only if there is little space.

 For architectural plans, we recommend distributing the dimensions into groups

of different plans. In the plan of footings and levels it would be the first group of

dimensions, perimeter walls and axes would be the second group of dimensions, the

internal construction and design measurements would be the third group. of

dimensions and the fourth group the external measurements of the building.

 The dimension lines are arranged parallel to the dimension to be dimensioned,

they are fine and continuous, the figures are located on the dimension line.

 The dimension figures express the dimensions in millimeters . If the figures

refer to dimensions in centimeters or meters, when some special reason requires it,

they will necessarily have the indication cm or m behind the figure. If the dimensions

are given in another unit of measurement, this must be indicated.

 Orthogonal projection

DEFINITION

Orthogonal projection is the representation system that allows us to draw an object located in
space in different planes.

NATURE OF ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION

One of the main objectives of Technical Drawing (specifically the so-called “mechanical drawing”) is
the preparation of manufacturing plans for mechanical parts of the most varied shapes. To achieve
this, it is necessary to graphically represent the different shapes that these pieces present.
A photograph or a pictorial drawing shows the object as it appears to us as observers, but not as it
is, since the image is affected by perspective. Such a graphic representation cannot fully describe
the object, no matter which direction it is viewed from, since it does not show the exact shapes and
sizes of the various parts. Photographs are not always feasible because the object must be made
before it can be photographed. Furthermore, both in photography and in a pictorial drawing, you
cannot see the internal details of the object.
In industry, a complete and clear description of the shape and size of the object to be
manufactured is needed to be certain that the object will be manufactured exactly as intended by
the designer. In order to provide this clear and precise information, several systematically arranged
views are used. This system of views is called orthogonal projection or multiple view projection.

PROJECTION THEORY

If we place an observer according to the six directions indicated by the arrows, we would obtain the
six possible views of an object.

These views have the following names:

View A: Front view or elevation
View B: Top or plan view
View C: Right or right side view
View D: Left or Left Side View
View E: Bottom View
View F: Rear view

There are three main projection planes: horizontal, vertical and profile. These planes intersect each
other at right angles forming the first, second, third and fourth angles or quadrants. Technically an
object can be projected into any of these quadrants.

To arrange the different views on the paper, two variants of orthogonal projection of equal
importance can be used:
- The projection method of the first dihedral, also called European (formerly, method E)
- The third dihedral projection method, also called American (formerly, method A)
In both methods, the object is assumed to be arranged within a cube, on whose six faces the
corresponding orthogonal projections of the same will be made.

The difference is that, while in the European system, the object is between the observer and the
projection plane, in the American system, it is the projection plane that is between the observer
and the object.

Once the six orthogonal projections have been made on the faces of the cube, and keeping the
face of the elevation projection (A) fixed, we proceed to obtain the development of the cube,
which, as can be seen in the figures, is different depending on the system used .
The development of the projection cube provides us, on a single drawing plane, with the six main
views of an object, in their relative positions.
In order to identify in which system the object has been represented, the symbol that can be seen
in the figures, and that represents the elevation and left side view of a truncated cone, must be
added to each of the systems.

The first quadrant projection is mainly used in Europe. In the USA, as is the case with the ASA
(American Standard Association) system, they make the third quadrant projection more practical,
this is because when the views of an object projected in the third quadrant are lowered on the
vertical plane, all views appear in their natural position.
In this unit we will work in the American ASA system; This does not mean that we downplay the
importance of the European DIN system (Deutche Industric Normen), the reason is that the vast
majority of technical drawing texts that we find in our environment use the American system,
however the European system has been worked on. widely in our country.
When you want to indicate the projection method, the ISO (International Standards Organization)
projection symbol must be placed in the lower right corner of the drawing.
 Types of cuts

Due to the great variety of pieces and with different possibilities of hidden areas, we find different
types of cuts that are aimed at clearly representing the characteristics of the pieces.

In order to make these representations, the different types of cuts appear. Let's look at some
examples:

Distribution

 Total cut .
 Half cut .
 Cutting by parallel planes .
 Cut by separate parallel planes .
 Cut by successive planes .
 Twist cutting .
 Partial cut or break .
 Total cut

 The total cut is that produced by a plane along the entire piece.
 Half of the piece is removed.

This type of cut is recommended on two occasions:

 When a second view is necessary to complete the necessary dimension.

 When the second view is necessary since the section view is not enough to have a clear idea of the
piece and its function.

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Half cut
 The semi-cut, also called half-cut or quarter-cut, is what is produced on a symmetrical piece, leaving
half a cut and the other without a cut.
 A quarter is eliminated.
 In this type of cut, hidden edges will not be represented, in order to make the representation clearer.
 When an edge coincides with the symmetry axis, the edge prevails.
 Whenever possible, the exterior elements of the piece will be delimited on one side, and the interior
elements on the other.
 When the piece is represented with the elevation and plan, the section is represented in the
elevation and to the right.

 When the part is represented with elevation and profile, the cut is represented in the elevation at the
bottom.

This type of cut is recommended on two occasions:

 When details are seen in each of the parts, which would not be determined in a single view with
another type of cut.
 When this type of cut represents a notable saving in work, because the visible external part is easier
than the cut part.

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Cutting by parallel planes

 It is made in pieces with elements (to be cut) arranged in parallel.

 It adopts a broken path, passing the cutting plane through the different elements that you want to
define.
 The cutting plane is represented with an axis line (line and point), highlighted with two thick
strokes at the end of the line and at plane changes.
 The section (elevation) is represented as if it were a single plane.

This type of cut is recommended :

 When we need to define different internal parts in a part that are located parallel to the projection
planes.

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 Cutting by separate parallel planes

 It is a cut similar to the previous one

 The cutting plane is not unique, but we find

several different cutting planes parallel to the projection planes.
 In the section view (elevation) they are represented as different sections separated by an axis line
(stroke – point) and indicated by the corresponding letters.

This type of cut is recommended :

 When the part of the piece drawn in section is small compared to the rest of the piece.

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 Cutting by successive planes

 It is analogous to cutting through successive planes, but is applied when the interior shapes are not
aligned parallel, but oblique.
 …..

This type of cut is recommended :

 When the part of the piece drawn in section is small compared to the rest of the piece.

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Twist cutting
 It is analogous to cutting through successive planes, but is applied when the interior shapes are not
aligned parallel, but oblique.
 It is drawn as if the two cut surfaces were in the same plane, in such a way that one of the two
rotates until it coincides with the other.
 The cut view has a different length than the body.

This type of cut is recommended :

 It is used for pieces that have holes and details in different planes that form angles equal to or
greater than 90 degrees.
 When the part of the piece drawn in section is small compared to the rest of the piece.

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Partial cut or break

 If the interior shapes are located in a small part of the

piece, it is not necessary to represent it completely in section. In this case, it will be enough to limit
the cut to the area where the interior shapes are found. This type of cut is called BREAK or
PARTIAL CUT.
 A piece of the piece is removed.
 Types of sections

Types of sections

We have already seen what cuts are and what

sections are.

Just as in the cuts, we also find different types of sections depending on their applicability. Let's
look at some examples:

Distribution

 Folded section with displacement .

 Folded section without displacement .
 Successive sections .
 Auxiliary sections .

Folded section with displacement

 We will draw this type of section as close as possible to the piece.

We will draw them with a thick solid line and we can place them in different ways:

 In the normal projection position, close to the view and linked to it by an axis line (stroke and dot).
Fig. TO.
 In a different position than that of the projection, in this case having to indicate and identify it,
according to established standards. Fig. b.

This type of section is recommended when it is anticipated that the dimensioning of a lowered
section may overload the drawing with lines in the representation.

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Folded section without displacement

They are representations of a specific part of the piece that we will draw on the same axis or original
area.

We will draw its contour with a fine solid line, as well as the hatching of its surface.

No indication or identification will be used.

This type of section is recommended in large pieces, when we only intend to represent a small
detail of them.

We can also use them to indicate the thickness of ribs in cast parts.

Go up

Successive sections
 We can draw this type of section in the extension of the piece, or separately, depending on the
configuration of the drawing itself or the best understanding of it.

When we have a piece like the one in the figure, its configuration recommends making several
successive sections, which will be represented according to the options:

 Option 1 . Separate successive sections of the piece.

 Option 2 . In the extension of the piece.

Auxiliary sections

In this figure we can see that with the views made, the piece is practically defined in the absence of
some small details. To clarify these details we will turn to the auxiliary sections.
 Adjustments and Tolerance

The wonders of tolerances and fits

Tolerances and adjustments are two technical drawing concepts that will always inform the path to
be taken by the designer.

What happens when we want to replace a mechanical part of the car and our car is already ten
years old? The answer begins with the tolerances and adjustments that the mass manufacturer of a
car model that is no longer manufactured as is has to respect.

Produce in series over the years to replace parts in washing machines, dryers, mobile phones, hard
drives, vehicles or locks. It implies having the tolerances and adjustments well-tuned so that the
new pieces penetrate and can be adjusted in that same gap.

Now, this does not mean that two industrially and mass-produced pieces are perfectly equal. Since
the machines are not perfect or working in a chain. Always at the level of measurements in microns
there are important variations. So much so, that two parts may have a tolerance and fit at a
maximum point or a minimum point, while other parts may have to be scrapped.

If you thought that only nature produces cherry tomatoes of different sizes, we have just discovered
a truth and that is that the mass production of artifacts also produces elements with defects and not
useful.

Tolerances
If a mass manufacturing measure is affecting the part, we are talking about dimensional
tolerances . This means that you expected a diameter to be 45 centimeters, but 46 centimeters
does not work for you. Like when you buy some shoes.

What is affecting the dimensional tolerance is the measurement of the shoe itself, a measurement
of 46 cm does not fit your leg size of 45 cm and these measurements are being called functional
dimensions, since they are affecting the length or Maximum measurement in length and width for
your shoe fits the size of your leg into the size of the shoe.

When the measurement affects the position or shape of the artifact we are talking about geometric
tolerance . Imagine that your ear grows in the place of your nose and your nose grows on your
forehead. It is not viable to be a standardized human being.
Settings
When you are placing the phone case you are making two movements that you may not think of in
terms of technical drawing, although you are really doing it. Well, to make an adjustment you need
an axis and try to match the case with the mobile phone, you will have looked for the x axis and the
Y axis that will allow you to insert the mobile phone as a solid into the hole designed in the case.
This is what is known by default as a male and female element pairing relationship. You decide who
is who.

Shaft and Hole in Tolerances was born from the concept of pairing a hollow cylinder with a solid
cylinder and since there is a relationship of mathematical revolution it has remained so named. So
even if you are thinking of a rectangular case and a rectangular mobile phone, there is that axis and
that hole that bases the fit of the two pieces.

Every axis is always represented with a lowercase letter and its relative letters in uppercase.

If we had to define Fit, we would be talking about the difference between the measurements of two
pieces before assembly and that they can be coupled. The example of the case and the mobile
phone is very useful.

Dimensions
. What do you understand by “dimension”? dimension is a numerical value that defines and
expresses: length or angle

. dN or DN? If we are expressing “dN” it is because we are referring to axes as a limit measure and
if we are expressing “DN” it is because we are referring to the dimension of a hole as a limit
measure.

. of or OF? The expression “of” and “DE” define the real value of the dimensioned piece.

. DM or DM? where “dm” is the minimum measurement of a shaft and DM is the minimum limiting
dimension for holes.

It is very important to learn these definitions to begin to enter the world of adjustments and
tolerances that we have to learn to calculate to apply to industrial design.
 Interchangeability
ADJUSTMENTS AND TOLERANCES INTERCHANGEABILITY: Characteristic of
a manufacturing system in which all the parts obtained respond to the
requirements set in advance. Conditions: Specify tolerances and implement
manufacturing methods that ensure compliance with them. Economy of raw
materials: smaller quantity of rejectionsIncreased productivityEconomy of
corrective labor: manual touch-ups and adjustments on the seating surfaces
are avoidedEase of assembly: there are no difficulties because the part is
within tolerance. The operation can be systematized and/or
automatedADVANTAGES1

2 Steps in the normalization of Measurements, Tolerances and Adjustments

The considerable advantages resulting from standardizing the construction
criteria led to its application being extended. The ISA adjustment standards
emerged, and currently the ISONORMS of COMPANIES COUNTRIES
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDIZATION govern

3 Summary of the ISA Standards

Definitions referring to cylindrical pieces that fit together. The most
common cases are SHAFTS AND HOLESNominal measurement (DN): the one
stated in the drawingsActual Measurement: the one found in the piece by
measurement (≈)Tolerated measurement: composed of DN and the allowable
differencesMeasurements Limits: values between which the measurement
can vary real. They are recorded in the plansMaximum Measurement
(Dmax): the largest of the limit measurementsMinimum Measurement
(Dmin): the smallest of the limit measurementsUpper Difference (DS): DS =
Dmax - DNLower Difference (DI): DI = Dmin - DNTolerance (T) : TA and TE:
hole and shaft tolerancesZero Line: reference line of the DS and DI
differences (corresponds to the nominal measurement DN, whose difference
is zero)HOLEZERO AXISLINEZero lineDNDS  0DI  0DS=0DS  0DI=0DS  0DI
 0T = Dmax – Dmin

4 General Definitions
Adjustment, seat or coupling: General name for the relationship between 2
fitted pieces, a consequence of their differences in measurement before
fittingCylindrical fit: involves cylindrical fitted surfacesFlat fit: “““ flatOuter
PieceInner PieceSimple FitMultiple FitIntermediate PiecesSimple fit:
includes 2 fitted surfacesMultiple Fit: “to more than 2 fitted surfacesOuter
piece (Female, hole): surrounds one or more fitted piecesInner piece (Male,
shaft): wrapped by one or more fitted pieces

5 SetSet (J): difference between the inner (real) measurement of the outer
piece (p. e.g.: hole) and the exterior (real) measurement of the interior piece
(axis), when said difference is positive.JJmaxJminMaximum clearance:
Jmax = Dmax A – Dmin EMinimum clearance: Jmin = Dmin A – Dmax E

6 TighteningIt may happen, according to the destination or purpose that the

adjustment has to fulfill, that the maximum measurement of the hole is
required to be less than the minimum measurement of the shaft before
fitting. In this case, it is said that there is a tightening between both pieces.
Tightening (A): when the difference between the measurements (real),
inside the outer piece (hole) and outside the inner piece (axis), is
negative.AAminAmaxEl Assembly must be carried out under pressure, or by
temperature (heating the outer piece or cooling the inner one), ultimately
leaving a radial pressure between both pieces, after the fit has been
produced.  A = -JMaximum tightening: Amax = Dmin A – Dmax E = -
JminMinimum tightening: Amin = Dmax A – Dmin E = - Jmax

7 Undetermined Settings
Types of AdjustmentsA first classification recognizes three types of
adjustments:Mobile AdjustmentsThey always have play (before and after
fitting). The particular case of Jmin = 0 is included. They can give play or
tightness, depending on the values of the actual measurements of the
pieces that compose them. They always have tightness before fitting.
Indeterminate AdjustmentsPressed Adjustments

8 Undetermined Settings
JmaxAmaxCase 1Case 2Case 1: presents Amax > JmaxCase 2: presents
Amax < JmaxAn indeterminate adjustment should not be adopted when
there must be relative movement between the pieces, nor when power must
be transmitted without using elements that prevent relative rotation (key,
spine, stud) It adopts an indeterminate fit when the assembly must
simultaneously meet the following requirements: The parts must allow
disassembly without deterioration of their contact surfaces The allowable
eccentricity is small

9 Setting Schemes of the 3 types

MobilePressedIndeterminate with a tendency to Play:J >
AIndeterminatewith a tendency to Tighten: A > JTA TECase 2Case
1Indeterminate

10 Normalized settings T = Ut . i D in [mm]

(geometric mean of the field of nominal measurements)D1 and D2: extreme
measurements of the fieldSystematic series of adjustments with various
clearances and tightnessesEach series contains zones of normalized
nominal measurementsEach zone consists of 16 IT qualities (accuracies):
IT1 to IT16 (ISA standards)“ IT “: IT01, IT0, IT1 to IT18 (ISO standards)Each
IT quality has a tolerance associated with it, referring to the loose
partInternational tolerance unit “i”: basis for calculating tolerancesA
number “Ut” was set for each IT quality ” of units “i”, from which the value
of the tolerance “T” arises, such as:T = Ut. Yo

11 Fundamental Tolerances
For the IT5 and IT18 qualities, the Ut of each grade is 60% greater than the
previous oneQuality IT5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18ToleranceT = Ut.
i7i10i16i25i40i64i100i160i250i400i640i1000i1600i2500iFor the most precise
qualities IT1 to IT4, T = K (1+0.1D) is applied, with K=1.5 – 2 – 2.8 and 4
respectively)IT01 to IT1: small precision mechanics, optics and
watchmakingIT1 to IT4: gauges and mechanical parts of extreme precision
IT5 to IT11: for parts coupled together, reserving 5 and 6 for precise
manufacturing with fine grinding; 7 for normal accuracies obtained by
grinding, reaming or broaching and fine turning; 8 obtainable with good
cutting tools and machine tools (not applied to fixed or forced couplings); 9
for ordinary mechanics; 10 for ordinary mechanics and 11 for roughing
operations on very coarse machines and in general where they do not work
together. Usual applications for the different qualities

12 Tolerance Zone + DS DI T DNZero line Tolerance zone Space between

the lines that represent the maximum and minimum admissible limits for the
dimension. It is defined by the magnitude of the tolerance T and its position
relative to the Zero Line, which depends of the upper and lower
differencesMaximum limitMinimum limit

13Positions of Tolerances
MobileIndeterminatePressedPressIndeterminateMobile

14 Single Hole and Single Shaft Systems

It is possible to freely couple axes and holes whatever their positions with
respect to the zero line, but it is more convenient to use the Single Hole or
Axis Systems: Single Hole System (SAU): position H  DIA = 0Single Axis
System (SEU): position h  DSE = 0NOTATION: order in which the
adjustment data is indicated:DN – Pos. Hole – Quality Hole – Pos. Axis – Axis
QualityExamples: H7/r6 (Single Hole System)13 E9/h8 (Single Axis
System)Zero LineH h

15 Differences DS and DI Note: Differences DS and DI increase with DN

AXES “a” to “h” have =DS for all qualities IT“ “ “m” “ “zc” “ =DI “ “ “ “ with
DI=0 for “k” (except IT  8)“ “ “ js” have DI and DS equidistant from LC (DS =
-DI)“ ““j” have DI and DS not equidistant from LC (DS  -DI) HOLES “A” to “H”
have =DI for all qualities IT“ ““K” to “ZC”, are governed by other rules“ ““JS”
have DI and DS equidistant from LC (DI = -DS)“ ““J” have DI and DS not
equidistant from LC (DI  -DS) Mostly the position, for each letter, has a fixed
value for the shortest distance to LC (DS or DI as the case may be),
whatever its IT quality. It is summarized below:Note: DS and DI differences
increase with DN

16 Kinds of MOBILE Settings (h with A, B, ……., H) SEU

(H with a, b, ……., h) SAUUNDETERMINED (h with Js, J, K, M, N) SEU(H with
js, j, k, m, n) SAUPRESSED (h with P, ……… , ZC) SEU(H with p, ……....., zc)
SAUCLASES

17 Mobile Settings (types)

Shafts(DS)Holes(DI)Jmin [  m] (DIA = -DSE)a A265 +1.3 D (up to 120 mm)3.5
D (over 120 mm)b B.85 D (up to 160 mm )1.8 D (more than 160 mm)c C52
D0.2 (up to 40 mm)95 + 0.8 D (more than 40 mm)d D16 D0.44e E11 D0.41f
F5.5 D0.41g G2, 5 D0.34Small clearance (G): exact guidance (J grows little
with DN)Medium clearance (F, E, D):  Friction losses,  chap. load, (J grows
more with DN)Wide play (C, B, A): Smooth running, min. losses due to
friction, (J grows  with DN) Sliding (H): Manual, or non-continuous
mechanical movements (Jmin=0)

18 Characteristics of Moving Adjustments for friction bearings)

Based on hydrodynamic theory, the optimal adjustment value must be
established, considering a variety of factors:1. Optimal play so that liquid
friction is minimal2. Appropriate oil film thickness, to cover surface
roughnessSpecific pressure admitted in the bearingTo this end, before
selecting the final adjustment, the following must be known:The DN of the
bearingNumber of revolutionsLength of the bearingLubricant used, viscosity
and its variation with temperatureSpecific pressure and temperature of the
regime Type of support: Ball-joint Sellers, with fixed bushing, with oil wedge,
etc. Lubrication and/or cooling system Bearing and shaft materials
Roughness Type of load (constant, variable or sudden) and shaft bending

19 Undetermined Settings (types)

Light fixed (js, j): frequent disassembly, minimum effort.DIE fixed by
experienceMedium fixed (k): average disassembly frequency, better
concentricity, greater effortHard fixed (m,n): occasional disassembly,
optimal concentricity, maximum effortDIE =

20 Pressed Settings (types)

p axis: 5.6 D0, s axis: 0.4 D + IT IT7Y axis: 2.0 D + IT7Z axis: 2.5 D + IT7r
axis: geometric mean between p and sDIE1. In press2. Heat. External piece
(shrinkage fit)3. Cool Int. piece (adjustment for expansion)4. Combination of
the previous methodsFactors that the designer must consider, which
influence the Adhesion strengthLength and thickness of the hubSolid or
hollow shaftMod. Elastic i Lim. Narrowing of shaft/hub materialsSurface
quality of the fitting partsLubrication during assemblyOperating
temperatureChoice of pressed fitStress to be transmitted  Allowable
materialAminAmaxStrength. Adh. requiredPressed Settings (types)

21 Medium Play and Tightening DSA = +74µm DIA= 0 DSE = – 30µm DIE = –
0.076µm
Let's consider an Example: Mobile Setting 70 H9 / f 8 From the tables of
normalized ISO settings arise And the limit measurements are: Then, the
respective average measurements are: Therefore: Average Play (mean J) =
70.037 – 69.947 = 0.090mm = 90  mThe same value would have arisen from:
Jmax + Jmin = (DSA - DIE) + (DIA - DSE) = J averageDSA = +74µm DIA= 0DSE
= – 30µm DIE = – 0.076µmHole: 70.000 and 70.074 mmShaft: .924 and 69.970
mmDiameter medium (Hole): .037 mm Medium diameter (Shaft): .947
mmKnowledge of the Jmedium is of great interest, it gives the order of
magnitude of the most frequent real game. The operator will avoid rejection
of pieces by seeking to achieve medium diameters (equidistant from the
limits). The value of the Jmedium is important in the choice of the tolerance
zone for real cases. Similarly, the Average Tightening (average of the
limiting tightenings for pressed fit), is calculated by: A medium = (Amax +
Amin) / 2The mobile adjustments They have Jmax and Jmin, the pressed
ones have Amax and Amin, which is why they give respectively J average
and A average. What happens with the indeterminate settings?

22 Medium Play and Tightness in Undetermined Settings

For indeterminate adjustments, there may be both play and tightness. The
extreme possibilities will be: Jmax and Amax. The average value may give
play or tightnessWhen Jmax > Amax JmediumWhen Amax >Jmax
AmediumCalculation mode:Jmax – Amax2 ≷ 0JmediumAmediumProbabilities
in mass production of parts  value Jmedium  % of sets with Play  % of
sets with Tightness  Medium value

23 Adjustment Tolerance (TA) TA = (DS – DI)A + (DS – DI)E = TA + TE

Definition: difference between the limit clearances or between the limit
clamps:For Moving Fits: TA = Jmax – JminFor Pressed Fits: TA = Amax –
AminFor Indeterminate Fits: TA = Jmax + AmaxIn addition, it is also the sum
of the tolerances of the hole and the axis:TA = (DS – DI)A + (DS – DI)E = TA +
TENote: TA has the same value for all adjustments that have the same IT
qualities, even if the positions of their tolerances differ (since their TA and
TE are equal)Examples: (TA=101  m for 50 H9*/f8 and 50J8/js9; TA=64  m
for 50F8/u7, 50H8/f7 and 50 H8/h7)The TA value reflects the precision of the
fit, for example be the sum of the T's of both pieces. When choosing an
adjustment based on the required limit clearances, it is easily calculated
(TA) and the T's and their positions for the pieces are determined (with their
ISO notation).
24 Choice of Quality and Position of Tolerance Zones
In principle, for reasons of economy, we aim for the widest possible Ts. If
through analysis or experimental verification, it appears that they are
technically inappropriate, we will move to narrower Ts. Verifying batches of
parts, it is found that the most frequent real values are around half of the
field. of toleranceQualityPosition of the tolerance zonesThe clearances and
tightnesses are also around the values Jmedium or MediumThe quality for
each part and the positions between its Ts must be treated togetherThe
clearances or tightness limits are essential, which affect the operation of
the adjustment, they allow us to know the adjustment tolerance TA, and
from there TA and TE are derived. COMMON PROCEDURES Search for
information (from various sources): Recommended adjustments in ISO, DIN
and ISA standards for known applications, Extrapolation of analogous
cases, own or external antecedents of proven results in similar
mechanisms. .Experimental evaluation: testing of prototypes under the
operating conditions provided for in the design.

25 Examples of Information Search(1) and Experimental Evaluation(2)

(1) As it is a mechanism that appears as an example of application in the
standards within the recommended adjustments, it is adopted directly (2)
Select a mobile adjustment for a shaft and a bearing that must operate in
service conditions not comparable with previous knownIt is decided to test
prototypes with different clearance values, within a range that is considered
appropriate to evaluate the behavior. It is finally determined that the
adjustment must have Jmax=80  m and Jmin=20  m. With these data, the
adjustment tolerance is calculated: Jmax – Jmin = TA = TA + TE How are TA
and TE determined? One criterion: distribute TA in equal parts for shaft and
hole Another criterion: assign 1 or 2 quality grades to the hole IT is coarser,
due to the greater degree of difficulty in its manufacturing and control.
Taking into account both criteria, it can be stated that: TA ≥ TEFrom the ISO
tables, an adjustment will be sought that complies with that relationship.

26 General considerations for choosing Settings

Manufacturing machined parts requires using precision degree technologies
directly related to IT qualities, which in turn depend on DNA. When choosing
the quality of a mobile adjustment, the following are considered: the
required precision, and the wear of the parts in service, which affects their
duration. accepts as the limit of use for the hole, the dimension of the DS of
the same letter, but of the next coarser IT, and for the shaft the dimension
of the DI of the next coarser quality. This is justified because a (new) shaft-
hole pair that has the value Jmax is accepted without hesitation and is
assigned a certain useful life;  There would be no reason not to grant a
useful life extension to parts that have already “twinned” their seating
surfaces in service. Furthermore, it is logical to assume that when choosing
the adjustment, Jmax and Jmin were taken with a margin to cover
unforeseen events. It is advisable to choose the T according to the
availability of P-NP and tools. of the workshop, and rationalize the No. of the
most frequent T and DN zones, to minimize the No. of P-NP and thus
manufacturing expenses. Once an available adjustment option has been
found, it is advisable to adapt to it, even to the slightest detriment of the
adjustment. desired, avoiding increasing work and measurement tools in the
lower frequency settings.

27 IT Qualities according to Manufacturing Type

List of IT qualities for some manufacturing sectors, ordered in decreasing
frequency of employment within each specialtyTransmissions: 8, 9, 11, 10,
7, 6Textile machinery: 8, 10, 9, 7, 11, 6Large mechanics: 10, 8 , 7, 9, 11,
6Small mechanics: 7, 6, 8, 5, 9Electrical machinery: 7, 8, 6, 10, 9Machine
tools: 7, 6, 5, 8Naval constructions: 9, 11, 7, 6, 8, 10Agricultural machinery:
11, 9, 10, 8, 7, 13Ball and roller bearings, their axles and supports: 6, 7, 5, 8,
9, 10, 11, 13Engines: 7, 6, 8, 10, 5, 9, 11Automobiles: 8, 7, 10, 6, 11, 5,
9Aviation: 8, 7, 11, 6, 5Locomotives: 9, 11, 8, 10, 7, 6Wagons: 9, 11, 8, 10, 7,
6

28 Choice of Adjustment System

In general, the single hole system (SAU) is preferred. It is usually easier to
adjust a shaft to size than a hole (if the holes are made by opening the
cavity with a drill bit and calibrating the measurement with a reamer, the
aforementioned difficulty is reduced) The reamers , they are manufactured
up to   100mm, they are economical only up to 50mm and are not very
versatile compared to adjustable boring bars) The factors that govern the
choice of the system are somewhat complex to be able to summarize them
briefly and even more so to give rules of general application. Basically, there
are two factors that govern the choice:  The functionality of the
adjustment  The economy Both are considered simultaneously, but the first
could exclude the second. A greater conceptual understanding is achieved
more clearly by analyzing an example of those presented in the practice.

Example (Coupling)
b USAU+ 25H7+33+17n6DN = 35mmZero Line-16h6+50F7 SC

Comparative summary SAU vs. SEU

Valid for the case of 3 settingsP- NP

Example (Modified Coupling)

BSingle HoleCombined SystemSingle
AxisMobileH7/f7FixedH7/n6F7/h6N7/h6+25H7-25-50f7+33+17n6DN = 35
mmZero LineDN < 35 mmZero Lines-7 N7-33-16h6+50F7AC adjustmentABS
adjustmentAUSEUSC
 Finish types

Finish
It is a manufacturing process used in manufacturing whose purpose is to obtain a surface with
appropriate characteristics for the particular application of the product being manufactured;
This includes but is not limited to product cosmetics. In some cases the finishing process may
have the additional purpose of bringing the product into dimensional specifications.
In the past, finishing was understood only as a secondary process in a literal sense, since in
most cases it only had to do with the appearance of the object or craft in question, an idea that
in many cases persists and is included in aesthetics. and product cosmetics.
Currently, finishing is understood as a first-line manufacturing stage, considering the current
requirements of the products . These requirements can be:
 Aesthetics: the most obvious, which has a great psychological impact on the user regarding
the quality of the product.
 Release or introduction of mechanical stresses: manufactured surfaces may present stresses
due to chip removal processes , where the surface is deformed and hardened by plastic
deformation due to the cutting tools , causing stresses in the surface area that can reduce
the resistance or even weaken the material. Material removal finishes can eliminate these
stresses.
 Eliminate fracture initiation points and increase fatigue resistance: A finishing operation
can eliminate micro cracks in the surface.
 Level of cleanliness and sterility. A surface without irregularities is not conducive to
harboring dirt, contaminants or colonies of bacteria .
 Mechanical properties of its surface
 Corrosion protection
 Rugosity
 High precision dimensional tolerances.

Surface characteristics
A microscopic view of the surface of a part reveals its irregularities and imperfections. The
features of a common surface are illustrated in the magnified cross section of the surface of a
metal part. See figure 1.1. Although the analysis here focuses on metallic surfaces, the
comments here apply to ceramics and polymers, with modifications due to differences in the
structure of these materials . The body of the part, known as the substrate, has a granular
structure that depends on the previous processing of the metal; For example, the structure of
the metal substrate is affected by its chemical composition, the casting process that was
originally used for the metal, and any deformation operations and heat treatments carried out
on the casting material.
The exterior of the piece is a surface whose topography is anything but straight and smooth.
In the magnified cross section, the surface has roughness, waviness and defects. Although they
are not observed here, it also has a pattern or direction that results from the mechanical
process that produced it. All these geometric features are included in the term surface texture.
Just below the surface is a layer of metal whose structure differs from that of the surface. It is
called an altered layer, and it is a manifestation of the actions that were mentioned when
talking about the surface, during its creation and subsequent stages. Manufacturing processes
involve energy, usually in significant quantities, operating on the part, against its surface. The
altered layer may result from work hardening ( mechanical energy), heat (thermal energy),
chemical treatment, or even electrical energy. The metal in this layer is affected by 1ft
application of energy, and its microstructure is altered accordingly. This altered layer falls
within the scope of surface integrity, which has to do with the definition, specification and
control of the surface layers of a material ( metals , most common), in manufacturing and
performance. later in use. The scope of surface integrity is usually interpreted to include the
texture of the surface as well as the altered layer located beneath it.
Additionally, most metal surfaces are covered by a layer of oxide, if it is given enough time to
form after processing. Aluminum forms a thin, dense, hard layer of Al2O3 on its surface (which
serves to protect the substrate from corrosion ), and iron forms oxides of various chemical
compositions on its surface (the oxide, which gives virtually no protection). . It is also likely
that there is moisture, dirt, oil , adsorbed gases , and other contaminants on the surface of the
part. .
fig. 1.1 Cross section of a common metal surface.

Surface texture
Surface texture consists of repetitive or random deviations from the nominal surface of an
object; It is defined by four characteristics: roughness, waviness, orientation and defects or
faults, as seen in figure 1.2.

fig. 1.2 Surface texture features.

Roughness refers to small, finely spaced deviations from the nominal surface and is determined
by the characteristics of the material and the process that formed the surface.
Waviness is defined as much larger spacing deviations; They occur due to work deflection,
vibration, heat treatment, and similar factors. The roughness is superimposed on the waviness.
Orientation is the predominant direction or pattern of the surface texture. It is determined by
the manufacturing method used to create the surface, usually from the action of a cutting tool.
Figure 1.3 illustrates most of the possible orientations that can exist on a surface, along with the
symbol used by the designer to specify them.
 Fig. 1.3 Possible orientations of a surface.
Defects are irregularities that occur occasionally on the surface; include: cracks, scratches,
inclusions and other similar defects. Although some of the defects are related to the texture of
the surface, they also affect its integrity.

Surface Roughness
The roughness of a surface is a measurable characteristic, based on deviations from the
roughness as defined above. Surface finish is a more subjective term that denotes the overall
smoothness and quality of a surface. In popular speech, it is common to use the surface or
surface finish as a synonym for its roughness.
The quality of surface roughness is managed by the following standards :
UNE 82301:1986 Surface roughness. Parameters, their values and general rules for
determining specifications ( ISO 468: 1982 ),
UNE-EN ISO 4287:1998 Geometric product specification ( GPS ). Surface quality: Profile
method. Surface condition terms, definitions and parameters ( ISO 4287:1997), and
UNE 1037:1983. Indications of surface states in drawings (ISO 1302: 1978)
The most commonly used measurement for the texture of a surface is its roughness. Referring
to Figure 1.4, surface roughness is defined as the average of the vertical deviations from the
nominal surface, over a specified length of the surface. Usually an arithmetic average (AA) is
used, based on the absolute values of the deviations, and this roughness value is known as the
average roughness .
 Fig. 1.4 Deviations from the nominal surface.
In equation form it is

Where R =arithmetic mean of roughness, m (in); y is the vertical deviation from the nominal
surface (converted to absolute value), m (in); and Lm is the specified distance over which
surface deviations are measured. An approximation of equation (5.1), given by

Where Ra has the same meaning as before; yi are the vertical deviations converted to absolute
value and identified by the subscript i, m (in) and n is the number of deviations included in Lm
. It has been said that the units in these equations are m (in). These are the most commonly
used units to express the roughness of a surface.
Today, AA is the most widely used averaging method to express the roughness of a surface. An
alternative, sometimes used in the United States , is root mean square (RMS) averaging, which
is the square root of the mean of the squared deviations over the measurement length. RMS
surface roughness values will almost always be greater than AA, because large deviations weigh
more in RMS value calculations.
Surface roughness has the same kinds of shortcomings as any measure used to evaluate a
complex physical attribute. For example, it fails to take surface pattern orientations into
account; Thus, the roughness of the surface varies significantly, depending on the direction in
which it is measured.
Another deficiency is that ripple is included in the Ra calculation . To avoid this problem, a
parameter called cut length is used , which is used as a filter that separates the waviness of a
measured surface from deviations in roughness. In reality, the cut length is a sample distance
along the surface. A sampling distance shorter than the width of the corrugation will eliminate
the vertical deviations associated with it and will only include those that are related to the
roughness. In practice, the most common cutting length is 0.8 mm (0.030 in). The measuring
length, Lm, is normally set as five times the cutting length.
The limitations of surface roughness have motivated the creation of additional measures that
more completely describe the topography of a given surface. These measurements include
three-dimensional graphical outputs of the surface, as described in the reference.

Roughness Measurement
Visual-tactile comparators

Fig. 1.5
Elements to evaluate the surface finish of parts by visual and tactile comparison with surfaces
of different finishes obtained by the same manufacturing process.
Mechanical probe roughness meter

Assembly

Definition of Assembly Drawing

 The Assembly Plan presents a general vision of the device to be built, so that you can see
the situation of the different pieces that make it up, with the relationship and agreements
between them.

 The main function of this plan is to make assembly possible.

 All issues relating to standardization must be taken into account: drawing format, line
weights, scales, layout of views, sections, etc.
 The necessary views and sections must be drawn on the assembly plan.

 To see the interior pieces, the necessary cuts must be made to see the distribution of the
pieces.

 On the assembly drawing you must identify all the parts that make it up. That is why you
have to assign a brand to each piece. These marks are essential for the identification of
parts throughout the documentation and manufacturing process.

 Since the pieces of the set are perfectly identified, we can simplify their representation,
especially in the case of standardized or commercial elements.

 Only the necessary dimensions for carrying out or checking the assembly will be
provided in the assembly plans.
 Exploded view
It is called
assembly drawing
to the graphic representation of a group of parts that constitute a mechanism, a machine or an installation,
made in such a way that all these elements appear assembled and joined, according to their corresponding
place, to ensure correct functioning of the designed organ. In the project of any machine or mechanism,
assembly drawings are used, since in this type of drawings, the designer better appreciates the relationships
between the different parts that make up the same, giving, in turn, a real image of the projected mechanism.
It must be kept in mind that a isolated piece has no meaning; On the other hand, it does have it within the
mechanism to which it belongs. Its shape, dimensions, material, etc., depend on the set, and, ultimately, on
its usefulness.

UTILITY
In this type of drawings it is evident how multiple different elements constitute a unit, in
which the parts acquire the meaning that they lack when considered independent, allowing
us to observe the relationship between the different parts or components, and what is the
specific function of each one. design of the shape, dimensions, material and other
characteristics of each component depends on the function it must perform within the
mechanism or machine. It is essential to carry out the assembly work of the machine or
mechanism represented, since the overall drawing allows the position to be observed.
relative of the pieces, the order in which they must be coupled, the type of union between
the pieces, the distances between axes or fundamental points, position controls and
everything that can contribute to guaranteeing a correct arrangement of the pieces. It
facilitates maintenance tasks, since which, in addition to what is indicated in the previous
section, allows you to identify lubrication points, temperature control points, the need for
spare parts, etc. It provides an image that gives an idea of the operation of the machine or
mechanism represented.
Mechanical, electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering
symbols

1.- Standard UNE-101 149 86 (ISO 1219 1 and ISO 1219 2).
At an international level, the ISO 1219 1 and ISO 1219 2 standards, which have been adopted
in Spain as the UNE-101 149 86 standard, are responsible for representing the symbols that
must be used in pneumatic and hydraulic diagrams.

In this unit we will only stick to the aforementioned rule, although there are other rules that
complement the previous one and that should also be known. These are:

Rule Description
UNE 101-101-85 Pressure range.
UNE 101-149-86 Graphic symbols.
UNE 101-360-86 Diameters of cylinders and piston rods.
UNE 101-362-86 Cylinders basic range of normal pressures.
 UNE 101-363-86 Basic piston racing series.
UNE 101-365-86 Cylinders. Measurements and types of piston rod threads.
To know all the symbols in detail, as well as the representation of new symbols, the rules must
be consulted in full.
Return to index
2.- Designation of connections, basic representation rules.
The regulation and control valves are named and represented according to their constitution, so that
the number of ways (inlet or outlet orifices) is indicated first and then the number of positions.

A position.

Two positions.

Three positions.

For example:

2/2 valve

Two-way, two-position valve.

3/2 valve

Three-way, two-position
valve.

5/3 valve Five-way, three-position

valve.
 4/2 valve

Four-way, two-position
valve.

Its representation follows the following rules:

1.- Each position is indicated by a square.

2.- The pipes, the direction of flow and the location of the connections (paths) are indicated in each
box (square).

3.- The valve paths are drawn in the rest position.

4.- The movement to the working position is carried out transversally, until the pipes coincide with
the tracks in the new position.

5.- The type of control that modifies the valve position (pilot signal) is also indicated. It can be
manual, by spring, by pressure...

For example:
 The air circulates from 1 to 2

The air circulates from 3 to 4

The transverse line indicates that the passage of air is not

allowed.

The filled dot indicates that the pipes are joined.

The triangle indicates the situation of an air leak over the

valve.

The air exhaust has a threaded hole, which allows a silencer

to be attached if desired.

Complete valves:
 2/2 valve with manual activation by
control with locking and
mechanical spring return.

3/2 valve with pressure activation

and mechanical spring return.

The standard establishes the identification of the valve orifices (ways), the following standard must
follow:

It can have a numerical or alphabetical identification.

Connection designation Letters Numbers

Work connections A,B,C... 2, 4, 6 ...
Pressure connection, power supply Q 1
Escapes, returns R,S,T... 3, 5, 7 ...
Download l
Control connections X AND Z ... 10,12,14 ...

For example : The complete representation of the valves can be:

3/2 valve
piloted by
pressure.
 5/2 valve
piloted by
pressure.

Return to index

3.- Connections and measurement and maintenance instruments.

To start with the symbols, the following shows how the pipelines and measurement and
maintenance elements are represented.

Connections
Symbol Description

Pipe union.

Pipe crossing.

Hose.

Rotating coupling.

Powerline.

Muffler.
Pressure source , hydraulic, pneumatic.

Closed pressure connection.

Pressure line with connection.

Quick coupler without retention, coupled.

Quick coupler with retention, coupled.

Open line decoupling.

Closed line decoupling.

Threadless exhaust.

Threaded exhaust.

Return to tank.

Operational unit.

Mechanical union , rod, cam, etc.

 Electric motor.

Internal combustion engine.

Measurement and maintenance

Symbol Description

Maintenance unit , general symbol.

Filter.

Condensate drain , manual emptying.

Condensate drain , automatic emptying.

Filter with condensate drain , automatic

emptying.
Filter with condensate drain , manual
emptying.

Filter with impurity accumulation

indicator.

Lubricator.

Dryer.

Mist separator.

Temperature limiter.

Fridge.

Micronic filter.
Pressure gauge.

Differential pressure gauge.

Maintenance unit , filter, regulator,

lubricator. Simplified graph.

Pressure control valve , relief pressure

regulator, adjustable.

Filter and regulator combination.

Combination of filter, regulator and

lubricator.

Combination of filter, mist separator and

regulator.

Thermometer.
 Flowmeter.

Volumetric meter.

Optical indicator. Pneumatic indicator.

Sensor.

Temperature sensor.

Fluid level sensor.

Flow sensor.

Return to index
4.- Pumps and compressors.

Pumps, compressors and motors

Symbol Description

One-way flow hydraulic pump.

Variable flow hydraulic pump.

Bidirectional flow hydraulic pump.

Varialbe bidirectional flow hydraulic

pump.

Hydraulic mechanism with pump and

motor.

Compressor for compressed air.

Deposit. General symbol.

Hydraulic tank.

Pneumatic tank.