Received: 10 July 2023 | Revised: 13 September 2023 | Accepted: 10 October 2023

DOI: 10.1002/htj.22959

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Performance evaluation of ecofriendly

R1234ze(E) refrigerant in an automotive air
conditioning system

Yogendra V. Kuwar

Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of

Technology, Surat, Gujarat, India
Correspondence
Yogendra V. Kuwar, Sardar Vallabhbhai
National Institute of Technology, Surat,
Gujarat 395007, India.
Email: yvk@med.svnit.ac.in
Abstract
A mathematical model for an air conditioning system
used in five‐seater cars is developed with R1234ze(E)
and R134a refrigerants, consisting of real system
geometry like an evaporator, compressor, condenser,
and thermostatic expansion valve. The mathematical
model includes refrigerant properties, heat transfer,
and pressure loss correlations for two‐phase and single‐
phase regions. The performance parameters of a
system like evaporator cooling duty, condenser heat
loss, compressor power, refrigerant flow rate, and
compressor volumetric efficiency obtained from a
mathematical model are validated with the results of
an experimental facility developed with R134a. The
uncertainty analysis performed for the testing facility
showed below 11% deviation. The simulation and
experimental results showed an overall 10%–15%
difference. It is found that the experimental cooling
capacity with R134a and numerical cooling capacity
with R134a show a 4%–12% variation, experimental
cooling capacity with R134a and numerical cooling
capacity with R1234ze(E) show a 7%–20% variation,
and numerical cooling capacity with R134a and
numerical cooling capacity with R1234ze(E) show a
5%–15% variation for the given range of compressor
speed (500–1500 rpm), and condensing temperature
(26–45°C). The study concluded that R1234ze(E) could

472 | © 2023 Wiley Periodicals LLC. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/htj Heat Transfer. 2024;53:472–494.

KUWAR | 473

potentially replace R134a because it has similar

thermophysical properties and an average performance
difference of up to 10% with R134a. Due to the
limitations of the electric motor used to drive the
compressor, tests in the current study were conducted
at modest compressor speeds (500–1500 rpm). Future
research will focus on experiments with high compres-
sor speed (in the range of 1500–4000 rpm) and R1234yf
and R1234ze(E) refrigerants for performance evalua-
tion of automobile air conditioning systems.

KEYWORDS
GWP, louver fins, R1234ze(E), R134a, swash plate compressor

1 | INTRODUCTION

Global warming at present is a significant challenge for the world. The phenomenon was
discerned from the postindustrial period of 1850–1900 due to mortal ventures and fossil fuel
blazing. To curb global warming, precisely due to refrigerants, the European Union passed a
regulation 2006/40/EC.1 This regulation covers passenger and light commercial vehicles as
they are prone to failure and leakage due to vibrations in road running conditions. The most
common refrigerant used in the present vehicle air conditioning systems is R134a, which has
a global warming potential (GWP of 100 years) of approximately 1400 compared to CO2. The
directive aims to enforce the use of fluids with a GWP lower than 150 values in the mobile
system. Therefore, refrigerants R1234yf and R1234ze(E) have appeared as favorable
candidates for refrigeration due to their advantageous properties. Mohanraj and Abraham2
identified 20 suitable refrigerants for R134a replacement in automotive air conditioning
systems (AACS), out of which HFO like R1234yf and R1234ze(E) is the best options due to
their lack of sustainability of trifluoroacetic acid formation. Table 1 compares the three
refrigerants, R134a, R1234yf, and R1234ze(E).3 The refrigerant R1234ze(E) has a lower
boiling point of −19°C than R134a with −29°C. Thus, its use is often limited to cool fluid
boxes and relatively low‐temperature implementation. Also, R1234ze(E) is proclaimed
noncombustible. Nevertheless, it is solitarily valid for transportation and storage. Prabakaran
et al.4 reported that HFC refrigerants like R32, R152a, and R161 are unsatisfactory as they do
not follow environmental protocols. Therefore, suitable synthetic refrigerants are suggested to
replace R134a, such as R12234yf and R1234ze(E). When used as a refrigerant, that is, at
relatively higher temperatures, it is mildly flammable, the same as R1234yf, but safe when
used in an AACS because the working temperature of the system does not exceed the fire
point of the refrigerant. McLinden et al.5 screened 56,000 molecules for favorable
characteristics for low GWP, identified 1200 candidate fluids, and reduced the number to
62. Refrigerant R1234ze(E) is one of the candidates with suitable properties and very low
GWP. Alhendal et al.6 investigated energy and exergy analysis for low GWP refrigerant to
ensure the replacement of R134a in the mobile air conditioning system. The study reports
474 | KUWAR

TABLE 1 Comparison between R134a, R1234yf, and R1234ze(E).2

Parameters R134a R1234yf R1234ze(E)
ODP 0 0 0
GWP (100 years) 1400 4 7
Boiling point (°C) −26 −29 −19
Critical temperature (°C) 100.95 95 109.4
Critical pressure (bar) 40.6 33.85 36.35
Latent heat of vaporization (kJ/kg) 216.96 181.93 195.42
Liquid density (kg/m3) 1376.7 1263.1 1293.4
3
Vapor density (kg/m ) 5.2593 5.9826 5.7124
−6
Liquid viscosity (Pa s) ×10 378.67 307.31 342.94
−6
Vapor viscosity (Pa s) ×10 9.7793 9.9635 10.436
Isobaric liquid specific heat (kJ/kg K) 1.2806 1.1899 1.2541
Isobaric vapor specific heat (kJ/kg K) 0.79420 0.81287 0.81762
Isochoric liquid specific heat (kJ/kg K) 0.84817 0.80701 0.84989
Isochoric vapor specific heat (kJ/kg K) 0.68841 0.71975 0.72705
−3
Surface tension (N/m) ×10 15.436 13.559 14.824
Molecular weight (kg/k mol) 102.03 114.04 114.04
Toxicity Non Non Non
Flammability Non Mildly Mildly
Safety group A1 A2L A2L

that out of the various candidates, R1234yf and R1234ze(E) are best suited for replacement for
R134a. It is observed that R1234ze(E) shows the highest COP and exergy, and R1234yf
thermal performance is very close to R134a. Gaurav and Kumar7 performed a computational
analysis to find drop‐in replacements for R134a in vehicle air conditioning systems. Thirty‐
one refrigerants (pure substances and mixtures) are considered for analysis. It is reported that
the low flammability mixture R134a/R1234yf/R1234ze (40%/22%/38% shows a similar
performance to that of R134a due to the same volumetric capacity and cooling capacity.
An experimental study of the vapor compression cycle was carried out by Mota‐Babiloni
et al.8 for R134a, R1234yf, and R1234ze(E) with the inclusion and exclusion of internal heat
exchanger (IHX). They found that without IHX., R1234yf had between 3% and 5% lower
volumetric efficiency, and R1234ze(E) had 5%–12% lower volumetric efficiency.
They also reported that, on average, a reduction in cooling capacity was 9% and 30% for
R1234ye and R1234ze(E), respectively. The COP reduction was 3%–8% for R1234yf and 2%–8%
for R1234ze(E). Diani et al.9 reported the similarity in heat transfer coefficients of R1234ze(E)
and R134a. However, friction pressure gradients were found to be much higher. The refrigerant
R1234ze(E) shows lower heat transfer coefficient values than R134a. Also, this refrigerant is
found to have higher frictional pressure gradients compared to conventional refrigerants.
R1234ze(E) performs similarly to R134a when used with 25% IHX effectiveness and 43%
KUWAR | 475

increased compressor size. Sethi et al.10 performed a performance evaluation of the vending
machine refrigeration system. It is found that R1234yf had similar efficiency and cooling
capacity to R134a, while R1234ze(E) was estimated to have a 25% lower power at the same
efficiency. The conceptual investigation approximated that R1234yf has similar pressure
characteristics to R134a, but R1234ze(E) operates lower than R134a. Based on thermodynamic
fluid properties, R1234yf was assessed to have comparable performance to R134a, while a 25%
reduced cooling capacity was expected from R1234ze(E) with similar efficiency. They finally
concluded that a bigger compressor was required for R1234ze(E) to achieve the power of R134a.
The system reported a reduced efficiency due to a high‐pressure drop. It can be reduced by
minor changes such as a larger diameter suction pipe and the number of refrigerant circuits in
the heat exchanger. Direk and Soylu11 evaluated the effect of IHX using R1234ze(E) in mobile
air conditioning systems and reported that when no IHX was used, compressor power for
R1234ze(E) was found to be 19% less than that of R134a and was reduced to 14% when IHX was
used. The cooling capacity was higher for R134a by 27% than R1234ze(E) and reduced to 20%
when IHX was used. COP difference was improved by 4% for R1234ze(E) when IHX was used.
Kondo et al.12 found that the flammable range of R1234ze(E) is highly affected by humidity, as
in excess moisture, fluorine atoms of R1234ze(E) speed up the combustion by reacting with
hydrogen from water. Kuwar and Narasimham13 developed a steady‐state mathematical model
of a small‐capacity AACS working with R134a and R1234yf and verified the experimental
results with R134a. The study showed that the R1234yf could replace the R134a without
altering the system design and components. Deviran et al.14 have done a simulation for an
AACS with R1234yf and R134a for two conditions: one is constant cooling capacity, and the
other is for fixed refrigerant mass flow rate. It is reported from the analysis that the overall heat
transfer coefficient for R1234yf is 18%–21% less than R134a, and the pressure drop for R1234yf
is 22%–24% smaller than R134a. In constant cooling conditions, the COP of the system is
1.3%–5% lower than R134a; in fixed mass flow rate, it is 18% higher than R134a. Prabakaran
et al.15 compared the experimental performance of R1234yf and R134a with an intermediate
heat exchanger in a mobile air conditioning system—the 12% performance enhancement
observed with the implementation of suction line heat exchange at lower compressor speed. At
high speed, the performance was observed to be decreased. Mota‐Babiloni et al.16 reviewed
refrigeration, air conditioning, and heat pumps to investigate the equivalent warming impact.
The study identified that no perfect index gives complete information regarding the
environmental effect of warming. Several factors govern the warming influence of refrigerants
on environments. Still, TEWI is a practical approach for warming impact determination in the
case of refrigeration, air conditioning, and heat pumps. From the literature review, it is clear
that finding new low GWP refrigerants for AACSs is essential for global warming from an
environmental point of concern. The present study compares R134a and R1234ze(E) for the
performance evaluation of AACS experimentally and numerically. The computer simulation
codes are developed for refrigerants for R134a and R1234ze(E). The correlations for actual
volumetric efficiency were obtained by experimental curve fitting, where the swash plate
compressor model was developed for 72 operating conditions. The properties of refrigerants are
imported in simulation code from N.I.S.T. standard REFPROP database 23 Version 9.0 using
MATLAB R2017b coding software. The refrigerant side and airside heat transfer and pressure
loss correlations are selected from various open literature to best suit the given geometry of
AACS. The ultimate objective of the study is to check the practical feasibility of R1234ze(E) that
can be used in the same AACS used for R134a by observing system behavior with R1234ze(E).
476 | KUWAR

2 | THEORETICAL DES IGN A ND A N A L Y S I S O F A A CS

Figure 1 shows the schematic of the AACS test rig, and Figure 2 shows the experimental setup
developed for the study. A three‐phase induction motor with a variable frequency controller
drives the swash plate compressor at various rotational speeds.
The belt‐pulley mechanism is used to connect the compressor and motor. The power
consumption rate of the compressor is measured with the help of a meter used for electric grid line
measurement. The condenser, variable speed fan, and electrical heating coil are placed inside the
metallic duct along with the thermocouples at the inlet and outlet of the condenser. The electric
heating coil makes the air hot before entering the condenser. By controlling the knob of the
rheostat, the temperature of the air can be controlled before entering the condenser. Variable‐speed
fan allowed to flow the air inside the duct. The evaporator, heater (500‐W filament bulbs), fan,
anemometer, and humidity sensor are placed inside the evaporator duct. Humidity sensors are
used to measure the temperature and relative humidity of air at the inlet and outlet of the
evaporator. The specifications of the condenser, compressor, and evaporator are given in Table 2.

FIGURE 1 Schematic diagram of an automotive air conditioning system experimental setup.

F I G U R E 2 The actual experimental facility of an automotive air conditioning system (AACS) experimental
setup. (A) top view. (B) Components of AACS.
KUWAR | 477

TABLE 2 Specification of various components of the experimental facility.

Compressor The number of cylinders = 5, bore = 25 mm, stroke = 17 mm,
clearance factor = 0.01 m, and transmission and motor efficiency is
85% each.
Condenser Material: Brazed aluminum, fin: louvered fins with 25 louvers of
0.1 mm thickness, louver angle 18°, Channel: 25 in each pass,
channel area 1.2 mm × 1.2 mm, frontal area 30 cm × 30 cm
Evaporator unit (evaporator and Material: Brazed aluminum, fin: louvered fins with 30 louvers of
thermostatic expansion valve) 0.1 mm thickness, louver angle 18°, Channel: 22 in single pass,
channel area 3 mm × 3 mm, frontal area 15 cm × 15 cm. The
expansion valve is a thermostatic type in which the temperature‐
sensing bulb is provided at the outlet of the evaporator.
Electric motor Three‐phase induction with star connection, capacity: 1.1 kW, voltage:
415 V, ampere: 2.8 A, frequency: 50 Hz, RPM: 1500, efficiency: 75%
Frequency converter drive The speed variation from 500 to 1400 rpm with a minimum difference
of 5 rpm.
Thermocouples K type (Chromel‐Alumel), range of −180°C to 1350°C with an
accuracy of ±0.1°C and resolution of 1°C.
Pressure gauges Mechanical dial gauges type, range 0–21 kgf/cm2 with a 0.5 kgf/cm2
resolution.
Digital tachometer Laser type, range: 60–100,000 rpm, accuracy: ±0.05%, resolution:
0.1 rpm up to 999.9 rpm and 1 rpm above 1000 rpm, display: five
digits, seven segment bright red LED, operating
temperature: 0–60°C.
Anemometer Range: 0–140 km/h, accuracy: ±3%, resolution: 0.3, display: LED
display screen, operating temperature: −10°C to 50°C and
40%–85% humidity.

The thermocouples and pressure gauges are placed at various locations on the refrigerant flow
circuit for temperature and pressure measurements of refrigerants. The compressor assembly,
condenser duct, evaporator duct, and other instruments are placed on the metallic frame structure.
This frame structure holds the system components and supports the system against vibrations. The
refrigeration effect of a system can be obtained by energy balance at the evaporator as,

̇ = ṁ a (ha,evp,in − ha,evp,o ).
Qevp (1)

Moist air enthalpy can be calculated from a humidity sensor. The mass flow rate of air can
be calculated by taking the product of air density, evaporator duct cross‐sectional area, and
velocity of air measured by an anemometer. The rate of heat rejection of a system can be
obtained by energy balance at the condenser as,

̇
Qcond = ṁ a (ha,cond,o − ha,cond,in ). (2)

Dry air enthalpy can be calculated from the temperature obtained by thermocouples. The
mass flow rate of air can be calculated by taking the product of air density, condenser duct
478 | KUWAR

cross‐sectional area, and velocity of air measured by an anemometer. The power consumed by
the system can be obtained by energy balance at the compressor as,

̇ ∆E
Wcomp = η η . (3)
t tran motor

Transmission and motor efficiency are 85% each, as provided by the manufacturer. The
mass flow rate of refrigerant can be calculated by the heat balance between the refrigerant side
and airside at the evaporator and condenser. Then, the average of the mass flow rates obtained
from the evaporator and condenser is taken. The mass flow rate from the evaporator side is,

̇ Q̇
evp
ṁ r = . (4)
(h r,evp,o − h r,evp,in )

3 | N U M E R I C A L SI M U L A T I O N AN D A N A L Y S I S

3.1 | Airside heat transfer and pressure loss

Air flows over the louvered fin passages in the evaporator and condenser of AACS. Figure 3
shows the louvered fin and channel arrangement used in the evaporator and condenser. Air
flows within the louvered fins in a wavy flow pattern, which enhances the heat transfer rate.
Water films are not involved in the condenser surface because the surface temperature of
the tube wall is always more significant than the dew point temperature of moist air. The dry
surface heat transfer coefficient is taken from Park17 as,

jcp,a Ga
ho = , (5)
Pr 2/3
a

FIGURE 3 Louvered fin and mini channels arrangement in automotive heat exchangers.
KUWAR | 479

j factor given by:

 F C4  Fd C5  LL C6   Fh C7  F   L p 

3  h
         × 1 − th    ,
 L p   Fp  FL   Tp   L p   Fp 
C8 C9

        
j = C1 jRe jlow jlouver α C2 N CL.B. (6)

[C + C11 cosh(Fp / L p −1)]

jRe = Re LP10 , (7)

 −1
 L p     
= 1 − sin  θ  cosh C12 ReLp − C13   ,

 Fp  
 NL.B.Fp  
F
 
d
jlow (8)

 Fd    
 
  Fp
= 1 − C14 tan θ   
 cos 2π  
− 1.8 .
   L p tan θ 
  
   
jlouver (9)
NL.B.Fp

Fanning f factor for the dry finned surface is

 Fp  D3   D5   D7   D8
D2    sin(θ + D4 ) 1 − Fh   Ll  ×  Fth   Fh  ,
     L p   Fp 
Tp   F1 
D6

 Lp      
f = D1 fRe N L.B. (10)

 Fp  9
fRe = ReLp  + D10 Re Lp11 th p .
D

 p
[D (F / F )]
(11)
L

The terms and constants involved in Equations (6)–(11) are given by Park and Jacobi.17
In the case of the evaporator, the surface temperature is less than the dew point
temperature of moist air. Therefore, a thin water film forms on the surface of the evaporator.
The presence of this water film will change the air‐side heat transfer coefficient. Park and
Jacobi18 proposed the wetted surface airside heat transfer coefficient for louvered fin as,

jw Gc bf
ho, w = , (12)
Pr 2/3
ma

 L p a3 a5   a6   a 7
  sin(θ ) a4  Ll   Fd   Fh  ,
a2 
   F   F   T 
 Fp   h  p  p 
jw = a1 Re Lp (13)

where bf the slope of the air saturation curves and Prma is Prandtl number for moist air.
The correlation for wetted surface efficiency is given by

ηo,w = 1 − Afin (1 − ηfin,w )/ Ao , (14)

tanh(m w Ff /2)
ηfin,w = , (15)
(m w Ff /2)

2h o
m2 = , (16)
Kfin Fth
480 | KUWAR

m2bf
m2w = . (17)
cpma

The correlation for wetted surface friction factor is given by,

 L p   F 
fw = b1 + b1 Re bLp3   sin(θ )b5  h  .
b4 b6

 Fp   Tp 
(18)

Park and Jacobi18 gives the terms and constants for Equations (12)–(18).

3.2 | Refrigerant side heat transfer and pressure loss

The refrigerant's two‐phase flow (vapor + liquid) occurs in the evaporator and condenser
channels. Boiling and condensation heat transfer mechanisms govern the evaporator and
condenser, respectively. Several correlations are available in the open literature to predict the
heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop in two‐phase flow. The boiling heat transfer
coefficient for two phases, the refrigerant side for the evaporator, is taken from Shah's
correlations19,20 because of their accuracy and wide range of applications,

hr , TP = f (Co, Bo , Frle ), (19)

q″
Bo = , (20)
Gilv

 1 − x 0.8  ρv 

Co =     ,
 x   ρl 
0.5
(21)

G2
Frle = , (22)
ρl2 gDh

1.8
Ψcb = , (23)
C 0.8
o

If Co > 1 and Bo > 0.3 × 10−4 , Ψnb = 230, (24)

B0 < 0.3 × 10−4 , Ψnb = 1 + 46B 0.5

o . (25)

If 0.1 < C0 ≤ 1, Ψbs = F B 0.5 −0.5

o exp 2.74C o . ( ) (26)

If C0 ≤ 0.1, Ψbs = F B 0.5 −0.15

o exp 2.47C o . ( ) (27)
KUWAR | 481

For convective boiling Ψs is the greater of Ψcb and Ψnb, Ψcb . Ψs > Ψnb for nucleate boiling.
Where x is the quality of the refrigerant q″ is heat flux, G is refrigerant mass velocity, ilv is latent
heat, ρv vapors density, ρl is liquid density, Dh is the hydraulic diameter of the channel, and g is
the gravitational acceleration.
Shah's21 correlation calculates the two‐phase heat transfer coefficient for condensation in
small channels.

 
 3.8x 0.76 (1 − x )0.04 

= hL  (1 − x ) + ,
 
 
hr , TP 0.5
(28)
pr0.4

where pr is reduced pressure and hL is heat‐transfer coefficient assuming all mass to be flowing
as liquid and given by the Dittus–Boelter equation,

0.023Re 0.8 0.4

L Pr l kl
hL = , (29)
Dh

where ReL is the Reynolds number assuming all mass flowing as liquid, Prl is the Prandtl
number of liquid, and kl is liquid thermal conductivity. In boiling and condensation, two‐phase
flow and pressure drop occur in small channels involving three terms for friction, gravitational,
and acceleration effects. Correlation for determining the pressure drop is taken from Carey.22
 2 2 2


 dP  =  dP  − [(1 − α) + αρ ] g sin Ω − d  G x + G (1 − x ) .
    
dz  αρv (1 − α ) ρl 
2

 dz   dz fr
v (30)

Void fraction (α ) is calculated according to Zivi23 and (dP / dz ) fr is the friction pressure drop
given by Zhang and Webb.24
1
α= ,
ρv 2/3 (31)
1+ ( )(
1−x
x ρ1 )
 
 dP  flo G 2   P −0.94  P −1.44 −1
  = 2  
 (1 − x ) + 2.2x    + 2.6x (1 − x )    .

 dz fr ρ l D h   Pc   Pc  
2 2 0.8 0.25
(32)

The single‐phase flow may be sub‐cooled liquid and superheated vapor in the condenser
and evaporator. Petukhov's correlation is used for the heat transfer coefficient for superheated
vapor.
The equation for turbulent flow is as follows:

 k v ,
 
( f /2) ReD Prv
− 1  Dh 
hr , SP = (33)
1.07 + 12.7( f /2)1/2 ( Pr 2/3
v )
f = (1. 58InReD − 3. 28)−2 , (34)
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where ReD is Reynolds number for hydraulic diameter, Prv , the Prandtl number for vapor, and f
is the friction factor. For subcooled liquid, the Dittus–Boelter equation is considered for the
heat transfer coefficient in Equation (29). The Pressure drop for superheat flow of vapor in
small channels is taken from Webb.25

dP 1 G2
=f . (35)
dz Dh 2ρv

3.3 | Overall heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer

The overall heat transfer coefficient for the evaporator and condenser consists of three thermal
resistances: air‐side convection, conductance due to the tube wall and fin portion, and
refrigerant‐side convection. As discussed earlier, the water film affects the performance of the
evaporator surface; therefore, the overall heat transfer coefficient with the wetted surface is
derived for the given evaporator geometry based on the process provided by Threlkeld.26
1 b′i b′i t cpma
= + + . (36)
UA h r Ai k t At,m ηo,w h o,w Ao

3.4 | Compressor with fixed stroke and swash plate design

For the swash‐plate compressor in the present study, the clearance factor is 1% of displacement
volume. The correlations are obtained for the compressor by experimental data involving the
linear curve fitting for 72 operating conditions. A similar method was used by Darr and
Crawford27 in their compressor mathematical modeling. These correlations are a linear
function of compressor speed. In compressor operation, some power is lost due to internal
moving parts. These losses consist of both mixed convection and radiation heat transfer. In
estimating the frictional energy loss from the surface of the compressor to the surroundings, the
mixed convection heat loss is determined based on the correlations of Chen and Armaly.28

3.5 | Total equivalent warming impact TEWI index

TEWI is defined as the sum of the impact of global warming due to the amount of refrigerant
released through leaks plus that of carbon dioxide generated in the power plant by supplying
electrical energy to the equipment through its lifetime. The procedure for finding the TEWI for
the considered experimental setup of AACS is followed by.29

TEWI = Direct GWP + indirect GWP,

Direct GWP = GWP × L × n + GWP × m × (1 − α),
Indirect GWP = n × E × β.

Typical carbon dioxide emission from a small passenger car is 2.2 kg/L of petrol. Taking the
density of petrol as 0.74 kg/L, calorific value as 45,800 kJ/kg, and average brake thermal efficiency
as 25%, the brake energy produced per liter of petrol is 8473 kJ/L or 2.35 kWh/L. Therefore
β = carbon dioxide produced per kWh is 0.936 kg/kWh. Taking the combined transmission and
mechanical efficiency of the compressor as 0.7, refrigerating capacity as 3.5 kW, and COP of the
KUWAR | 483

system as 3.0 for R134a and 2.7 for R1234ze (as from our calculations, the COP of R1234ze is about
10% less that of R134a), the power drawn by the compressor from the engine is 1.8 kW for R134a
and 1.85 kW for R1234ze. Considering that the vehicle in question is a vehicle for hire, the number
of hours of operation per day will typically be 10 h, or the number of hours of operation per year is
3600 h/year. Therefore E = energy consumption by the compressor per year is 6480 kWh and 6660
for R134a and R1234ze, respectively. Other quantities are a charge m of 0.2 kg, leakage rate L as
0.02 kg/year, mean time n between AC system failures as 5 years, and recycling factor α as 0.75. For
the considered data, the TEWI of R134a is 3.052 × 104 kg CO2, and for R1234ze(E) is 3.11 × 104 kg
CO2. Thus, the increase in the indirect global warming impact of R1234ze due to its lower
performance is compensated by the reduction in direct global warming impact due to low GWP
value, and the TEWI is maintained at about the same value as that of R134a.

4 | PERFORMANCE E VALU ATION O F

A I R‐ CONDITIONING SYSTEM

MATLAB R2017b programming for the considered AACS simulation included two codes for
R134a and R1234ze(E). The governing correlations for the swash plate compressor, condenser,
expansion valve, and evaporator are the same in each code, but the thermodynamics and
transport properties differ. The code was executed twice, once for each refrigerant. The
geometrical inputs include the geometry of the compressor [bore (25 mm), stroke (17 mm), and
a number of cylinders (5), the geometry of the evaporator and condenser (tube dimensions,
louvered fin dimensions, passages dimensions, and overall dimensions), and the geometry of
the piping connecting the compressor, condensor, and evaporator. The operational variable
inputs include compressor speed, discharge pressure, condensing air velocity and temperature,
dry and wet bulb temperatures at the evaporator intake, air velocity at the evaporator inlet, and
beginning suction pressure value. The simulation outputs are refrigerant flow rate, actual
volumetric efficiency, compressor power, evaporator cooling capacity, and condenser heat loss.
The step‐by‐step execution of the code for a given input yields the intended result. The
thermophysical properties of refrigerants are loaded from standard REFPROP software into the
simulation code. In the algorithm, there are two iterative loops, one for calculating the actual
value of suction pressure for the whole code and the other for each iteration of the first loop.
The second iteration of the loop involves calculating the heat transfer rate and pressure drop for
a single evaporator and condenser element. Element is the only discretely identical component
of the evaporator and condenser. Once each element's solution converges, the second
succeeding element computation is carried out. This procedure is ongoing for all constituents.
Thus, the elemental heat transfer rate and pressure drop are determined for each element and
the sum of all elementary heat transfer rates and pressure drops yields the overall heat transfer
rate and output pressure. Once the suction pressure has been computed, it must correspond to
the experimental pressure value; consequently, the first loop iterates until the desired suction
pressure is achieved. The flowchart for simulation is shown in Figure 4.

5 | RESULTS A ND DISCUSSION

The refrigerant flow rate for a fixed angle swash plate compressor is developed in a similar way
as developed by,27
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FIGURE 4 Flowchart for simulation code.

KUWAR | 485

2nVs N ηv, a
mṙ = , (37)
60vs

where n = number of cylinders, Vs = volume displaced by each cylinder, vs = specific volume at

the suction, N = rotational speed of swash plate in revolution per minute, ηv, a = actual
volumetric efficiency defined as,

ηv, a = f (rv )ηcl , (38)

where the clearance volumetric efficiency is given by,

 v 
ηcl = 1 − r  s − 1,
 vd, i 
 
(39)

where vd, i = specific volume at compressor outlet for isentropic process, r = clearance fraction. The
actual volume ratio rv found from measurements is correlated as a function of rotational speed.

f (rv ) = 0.17763 × rv + 0.022188, (40)

rv = 2.5642 × 10−6N 2 − 1.7016 × 10−3N + 2.3171. (41)

Equations (40) and (41) are correlations developed for fixed stroke, swash plate compressor
used in experimental setup for all range of operating conditions like variable compressor speed,
condensing air temperature, and velocity with 72 operating data points. The procedure given in
Darr27 is followed for developing the correlations. Figure 5 shows the volume ratio variation
with compressor speed for condenser air inlet velocity of 1.5 m/s and condenser air inlet
temperature of 30°C. Both experimental and numerical results show that with an increase in
compressor speed, there is an increase in volume ratio. In addition, it is also observed that the

FIGURE 5 Volume ratio versus compressor speed.

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numerical model for volume ratio deviates from experimental results at a higher speed.
However, the variation is within 5%–10% of experimental results. The heating of discharge
valves of the compressor due to friction and superheating of vapor at high speed is the leading
cause of variation. In small automotive compressors, the internal reciprocating part causes the
friction effect at a higher speed. This effect is not predominant in bigger stationary
reciprocating and rotary compressors. Figure 6 shows the volumetric efficiency variation with
compressor speed. Both experimental and numerical results show an increase in actual
volumetric efficiency with an increase in compressor speed. Since real volumetric efficiency is a
product of volumetric clearance efficiency and f (rv ), it can be concluded that there is more
increase in f (rv ) then decrease in clearance volumetric efficiency (ηcl ). It is also observed that

FIGURE 6 Volumetric efficiency versus compressor speed.

FIGURE 7 Mass flow rate versus compressor speed.

KUWAR | 487

the numerical model for actual volumetric efficiency deviates from experimental results at a
higher speed. However, the variation is within 10% of the experimental results.
The same variations were observed with R1234yf.9 Figure 7 shows the interpretation of the
refrigerant mass flow rate with compressor speed for condenser air inlet velocity of 1.5 m/s and
condenser air inlet temperature of 30°C. Both experimental and numerical results show an
increase in the mass flow rate of refrigerants with an increase in speed. In mass flow rate, the
density and viscosity of refrigerant play an important role in flow in mini channels. One of the
reasons for variation in mass flow rate for different refrigerants is their differing properties.
Furthermore, it is observed that there is no significant variation in heat loss of the compressor
to the environment with the speed of the compressor. Figure 8 shows the variation in the
energy consumption rate by the compressor with condenser air inlet temperature for a
compressor speed of 1000 rpm and condenser air inlet velocity of 1.5 m/s. Both experimental

FIGURE 8 Compressor work versus compressor speed.

FIGURE 9 Condenser heat loss versus condensing air temperature.

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and numerical results show no significant variation in compressor power with condenser air
inlet temperature. Also, both experiments and numerical results suggest that the rate of energy
consumption by the compressor increases with an increase in compressor speed. In small
automotive compressors, the effect of friction between the internal reciprocating parts is higher
at higher speeds. Figure 9 shows the condenser heat rejection rate variation with condenser air
inlet temperature for a compressor speed of 1000 rpm and condenser air inlet velocity of 1.5 m/s.
Both experimental and numerical results show a decrease in condenser heat loss with increased
condenser air inlet temperature. Also, both experiments and numerical results suggest that the
condenser heat loss increases with an increase in speed due to a rise in the flow rate of refrigerant.
The numerical and experimental results for the condenser heat rejection rate agree at a low
compressor speed relative to a high compressor speed. Figure 10 shows the variation of evaporator
capacity with condenser air inlet temperature for a compressor speed of 1000 rpm and condenser

F I G U R E 10 Refrigeration effect versus condenser inlet air temperature.

F I G U R E 11 Refrigeration effect versus speed of compressor at (Va,cond,in ) = 1.5 m/s and (Ta,cond,in ) = 30°C.
KUWAR | 489

F I G U R E 12 Comparison of evaporator cooling capacity with Jabardo et al.22

TABLE 3 Comparison between experimental and numerical values of various outputs.

Approximate minimum and maximum percentage difference
Experimental R134a Experimental R134a Numerical R134a
and numerical and numerical and numerical
System outputs R134a % R1234ze(E) % R1234ze(E) %
Volume ratio 1–5 1–5 1–2
Mass flow rate 5–12 7–15 4–10
Volumetric efficiency 5–8 8–10 2–5
Evaporator capacity 4–12 7–20 5–15
Condenser capacity 5–12 6–15 5–10
Compressor work 4–12 5–15 4– 11

air inlet velocity of 1.5 m/s. It is observed that evaporator capacity varies more significantly for
compressor speed than condenser air inlet temperature, as shown in Figure 11. Figure 12 shows
the validation of experimental results of evaporator capacity with Jabardo.30 The plot shows that
the experimental data agree with Jabardo's data. The percentage variation of different parameters
is shown in Table 3.
Uncertainties for various quantities of interest are determined with a standard reference
like Holman's “Experimental Methods for Engineers.” The uncertainties for cooling capacity
and COP are ±0.0368 kW and ±0.0268, respectively. Experiments are also performed for
considered operating conditions to examine the repeatability of the results. Figure 13 shows the
error for experimental repetition based on standard deviation (σ = (x i − µ)2 / N − 1 , where x i
is individual observation, µ is mean and N is number of observations). It can be seen that the
experimental runs have reasonably good repeatability within 10% variation.
490 | KUWAR

F I G U R E 13 Error bars for experimental data.

6 | CONCLUSIONS

In this work, numerical simulation is carried out with R134a and R1234ze(E). The
experimental and numerical outcomes are in rational acceptance with one another, with a
maximum deviation of 15%. Furthermore, a numerical comparison model for both refrigerants
suggests that most results differ by 10%. The outcomes display that the evaporator range for
R1234ze(E) is less than that of R134a due to R1234ze(E)'s lower latent heat of vaporization. The
variation between experimental and simulation is higher at higher compressor speed than at
lower compressor speed. This is because at higher speeds, the effect of compressor valve
heating and compressor shell heating is dominant due to more mechanical friction between
moving parts of the compressor. This heating effect is very common in low‐capacity system
compressors as compared to high‐capacity system compressors. Thus, this study concludes that
the R1234ze(E) is a good candidate for replacing R134a in AACSs due to similar performance
characteristics and low GWP potential. It is also supposed that the AACSs running R134a can
be directly charged with R1234ze(E) without significant design modifications. However, the
compressor needs to change the lubricating oil suitable for R1234ze(E).

NOMENCLATURE
Q̇ rate heat transfer rate, kW
̇
Wcomp power consumption by compressor, kW
U overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 K
A area, m2
Bo boiling number
b′i air saturation curve slope at inner wall temp, J/kg K
bf Slope of the air saturation curve between the fin tip temp and outer wall temp, J/kg. K
cp Isobaric specific heat, J/kg. K
cv Isocoric specific heat, J/kg K
Co convectional number
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D diameter, m
E three‐phase energy consumption, kWh, energy consumption by the compressor per
year in kWh for TEWI
fo dry airside friction factor
fw wet air‐side friction factor
flo friction factor for liquid alone
Fth Thickness of fin, m
F r le Froude number for louvers
FD fin depth, m
Ff fin pitch, m
Fh fin height, m
G area mass velocity, kg/m2 s
Gc air area mass velocity, kg/m2 s
g acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
h o,w wet surface heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 K
h specific enthalpy, J/kg
ho dry heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 K
jw Wet surface Colburn j factor
j dry surface Colburn j factor
k thermal conductivity, W/m K
L Refrigerant leakage rate per year, kg
Lp louver pitch, m
m refrigerant charge in kg for TEWI
ṁ a air flow rate, kg/s
ṁ r refrigerant flow rate, kg/s
N rotational speed of the compressor, rpm
n number of cylinders, mean time between failures of the AC system in years
p pressure, bar
Pr Prandtl number
rp pressure ratio
r clearance factor
rv volume ratio
Re Reynolds number
t time (min) or tube wall thickness, m
tt tube wall thickness, m
Tp tube pitch, m
Tw tube width, m
T temperature, °C
V velocity m/s
W humidity ratio, kg/kg of da
x dryness fraction

GREEK SYMBOLS
η efficiency
β carbon dioxide emission per kWh for TEWI
v Specific volume, kg/m3
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ρ density, m3/kg
α void fraction, recycling factor for TEWI
θ louver angle, degree

SUBSCRIPT
a air
av average
act actual
cond condenser
cl clearance
d discharge
disp displacement
da dry air
evp evaporator
ele element
F fictitious
f fluid
fin fin
fr frontal or friction
fg fluid‐gas
g gas
h hydraulic
i isentropic
in inner or inlet
l louver or liquid
L.B. louver bank
lw liquid ‐water
ma moist air
motor motor
mix mixture
m mean
o outer or outlet
p pitch
r refrigerant
rad radiation
s suction, swept
shell shell
tran transmission
tube tube
th thickness
txv thermostatic valve
tip tip
v vapor or volume
w work or water or wet
wv water–vapor
KUWAR | 493

ORCID
Yogendra V. Kuwar https://orcid.org/0009-0007-4214-1900

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How to cite this article: Kuwar YV. Performance evaluation of ecofriendly R1234ze(E)
refrigerant in an automotive air conditioning system. Heat Transfer. 2024;53:472‐494.
doi:10.1002/htj.22959