EPISODE 2

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

"Only by investigating you

learn to investigate."
CARLOS SABINO

2.1. Research concept

Research is the fundamental concept of this work and to specify it the

following definitions have been chosen:

"Generically, research is a human activity aimed at discovering

something unknown." (Sierra Bravo, 1991, p.27).
"Research can be defined as an effort undertaken to solve a problem, of
course, a problem of knowledge." (Sabino, 2000, p. 47).
"Research is defined as an activity aimed at solving problems. Its
objective is to find answers to questions through the use of scientific processes.
" (Cervo and Bervian, 1989, p. 41).

Therefore, the research involves:

a) The discovery of some aspect of reality.

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b) The production of new knowledge, which may be aimed at increasing the

theoretical postulates of a certain science (pure or basic research); or it may
have immediate application in solving practical problems (applied
research).

They are activities other than scientific research:

– The design of an instructional program, or a study plan.
– The development of information systems.
– Plans or projects of an economic, social, or technological nature.
– Proposals of any kind. Except, logically, the research proposals.

However, in the previous cases, research must be present when the aim is
to arrive at a diagnosis of needs, or when the objective is to test the
effectiveness of the plan, program or project. In summary:

Scientific research is a methodical and systematic process aimed at

solving scientific problems or questions, through the production of new
knowledge, which constitutes the solution or answer to such questions.

From now on, the terms research and study will be considered
equivalent .

Regarding the types of research, there are many models and various
classifications. However, the important thing is to specify the classification
criteria (see Appendix D).
In this sense, they are identified:
– Types of research according to level
– Types of research according to design
– Types of research according to purpose

However, regardless of their classification, they are all types of

research, and since they are not exclusive, a study can be placed in more than

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one class.
For example, a research can be explanatory and field at the same time.
As well as, any other research could be classified as exploratory-descriptive
documentary level.

2.2. Research levels and designs

The level of research refers to the degree of depth with which a

phenomenon or object of study is addressed.

According to the level, the research is classified into:

2.2.1. Exploratory investigation

Exploratory research is one that is carried out on an unknown or

little-studied topic or object, so its results constitute an approximate vision
of said object, that is, a superficial level of knowledge.

According to Selltiz (1980), exploratory studies can be:

a) Aimed at the most precise formulation of a research problem

Given that there is a lack of sufficient information and prior knowledge
of the object of study, it is logical that the initial formulation of the problem is
imprecise.

In this order of ideas, the exploration will allow us to obtain new data
and elements that can lead to formulating the research questions more
precisely.

b) Conducive to the formulation of a hypothesis

When the object of study is unknown, it is difficult to formulate hypotheses
about it. The function of exploratory research is to discover the bases and
collect information that allows, as a result of the study, the formulation of a
hypothesis.

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Usefulness of exploratory research

– It serves to familiarize the researcher with an object that until now was totally
unknown (Selltiz et al., 1980 ).
– It serves as a basis for the subsequent carrying out of a descriptive research.
– It can create interest in other researchers in the study of a new topic or
problem.
– As stated above, it can help clarify a problem or conclude the formulation of a
hypothesis.

Examples:
– The first research on AIDS, carried out at the beginning of the 80s. Because it
is a new disease, its causes or modes of transmission were not known.
– The research currently being carried out on the planet Mars, in which there is
still much to discover.

2.2.2. Descriptive research

Descriptive research consists of the characterization of a fact,

phenomenon, individual or group, in order to establish its structure or
behavior. The results of this type of research are located at an intermediate
level in terms of depth of knowledge.

Descriptive research is classified into:

a) Independent variable measurement studies:
Its mission is to observe and quantify the modification of one or more
characteristics in a group, without establishing relationships between them .
That is, each characteristic or variable is analyzed autonomously or
independently. Consequently, in this type of study no hypotheses are
formulated , however, the presence of variables is obvious.

" Descriptive studies measure the variables independently and even

when hypotheses are not formulated, such variables appear stated in the
research objectives."
(Arias, Fidias; 1999).

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Examples:
– Determination of the school dropout rate.
– Study on the socioeconomic characteristics of the university population.

b) Correlational research:

Its purpose is to determine the degree of relationship or association (non-

causal) between two or more variables. In these studies, the variables are first
measured and then, through correlational hypothesis testing and the application
of statistical techniques, the correlation is estimated. Although correlational
research does not directly establish causal relationships, it can provide clues
about the possible causes of a phenomenon.

The usefulness and main purpose of correlational studies is to know how a

concept or variable can behave by knowing the behavior of other related
variables. That is, trying to predict the approximate value that a variable
will have in a group of individuals, based on the value obtained in the
variable or related variables. (Hernández, Fernández and Baptista, 1998,
p.63)
Examples:
– Study on the correlation between years of study and income.
– Analysis of the correlation between intellectual performance and physical
performance.

For Hernández, Fernández and Baptista (1998), correlational research is

a modality independent of descriptive studies; however, in this text it was
decided not to consider it a research design but rather a category belonging to
descriptive research, which is supported with the following quote:
" Correlational studies are a type of descriptive research that tries to
determine the degree of relationship between variables. " (Ary, Jacobs and
Razavieh, 1989, p. 318).

2.2.3. Explanatory research

Explanatory research is responsible for finding the reasons

for events by establishing cause-effect relationships. In this sense,

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explanatory studies can deal with both the determination of the

causes (post facto research) and the effects (experimental
research), through hypothesis testing. Its results and conclusions
constitute the deepest level of knowledge.

Examples:
– Investigation of the causes that produce school dropouts.
– Study on the effects of ephedrine consumption on sports performance.
Research design

The research design is the general strategy that the

researcher adopts to respond to the problem posed. Based on the
design, the research is classified as: documentary, field and
experimental.

The research strategy is defined by:

a) The origin of the data: primary in field designs and secondary in
documentary studies.
b) By the manipulation or not of the conditions in which the study is carried
out: experimental and non-experimental or field designs.

2.3. Documentary research or documentary design

Documentary research is a process based on the search,

recovery, analysis, criticism and interpretation of secondary data ,
that is, those obtained and recorded by other researchers in
documentary sources: printed, audiovisual or electronic . As in all
research, the purpose of this design is the contribution of new
knowledge.

Next, it is necessary to specify what is meant by data, source and

document.

Data: is the unit of information obtained during the execution of an

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investigation. According to its origin , the data are classified as primary ,
when they are originally obtained by the researcher; and secondary , if they
are extracted from the work of other researchers.

Source: is everything that provides data or information. Depending on

their nature , the sources of information can be documentary (provide
secondary data), and live (subjects that provide primary data).

Document or documentary source: it is the material support (paper,

wood, fabric, magnetic tape) or digital format in which information is
recorded and preserved.

Classification of information sources

People who are not part of the sample, Alive but

that provide information in
a field investigation.
Information sources

Printed
Documentaries Audiovisual and audio only
Electronics

It is important to clarify that, even when documentary sources provide

secondary data, these in turn are classified into primary documentary sources :
original works; and secondary documentary sources : works in which reference
is made to the work of an author.

Example:

A primary documentary source is:

• The original work of John Maynard Keynes, "General Theory of

Employment, Interest and Money", published in 1936.

While a secondary source is:

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• "Guide to Keynes" , book by Alvin Hansen (1953), in which Keynes'

original work is analyzed, interpreted and criticized.

• .3.1. Types of documents or documentary sources

In addition to the division into primary and secondary sources, currently,
thanks to growing technological advancement, documents or documentary
sources can be placed in three large classes: printed, audiovisual and electronic
(APA, 2001). Based on this classification, Table 1 is presented.

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 Fi Box
PRINTED SOURCES AUDIOVISUAL AND AUDIO- ELECTRONIC SOURCES
WRITTEN DOCUMENTS ONLY SOURCES Documents on the Internet
Non-periodical publications Audiovisual documents - websites
- books (bibliographic sources) - films - online periodicals: newspapers,
- brochures newsletters, magazines
- documentaries
- theses and degree works - non-periodical online publications:
- videos
- promotion jobs books, reports, theses
- videoconferences
- research reports - documents obtained via email
Newspaper publication Audio recordings - gopher menu
-press (newspaper sources) - speeches - news groups and discussion forums
- scientific magazines - interviews Digitized documents
-newsletters - statements - files on hard drive
DOCUMENTS OF FIGURES - telephone conversations or - files on CD
OR NUMERICAL DATA person - files on floppy disk
PERIODIC PUBLICATION Databases
- statistical reports - institutional
- socioeconomic reports - commercial
- yearbooks
- memories and accounts
GRAPHIC DOCUMENTS
- Photographs
- printed reproductions of works of art
- illustrations
- atlas
- maps and plans

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2.3.2. Types of documentary research

Documentary research can be carried out at an exploratory, descriptive
or explanatory level and is classified as:

a) Monograph
It consists of the broad and deep development of a specific topic. Its
result is a report commonly called a monograph .
Example: Study on the oil industry in Venezuela (1974-2004).

b) Studies measuring independent variables from secondary data

It is based on the use of documents containing figures or numerical data
previously obtained and processed by official organizations, archives,
public or private institutions, etc.
From the analysis of these secondary data, important conclusions can be
drawn related to the behavior or current state of demographic, social or
economic variables.
Example: Study on poverty in Latin America.

c) Correlational from secondary data

Like the previous modality, it is based on consulting documents with
figures or quantitative data, but once the values of the variables under
study are identified, the correlation between them is determined. In this
case, the researcher is not the one who measures the variables , hence the
secondary nature of the data.
Example: Study on the correlation between the number of unemployed and the
number of crimes.

2.3.3. Suggested stages for documentary research

1. Search and exploration of sources: printed and electronic (Internet).
2. Initial reading of the available documents.
3. Preparation of the preliminary or tentative scheme.
4. Data collection through evaluative reading, signing and summary.
5. Analysis and interpretation of the information collected based on the
preliminary scheme.
6. Formulation of the final outline and development of the chapters.

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7. Writing the introduction and conclusions.
8. Review and presentation of the final report.

2.4. Field research or field design

Field research is that which consists of collecting data directly from

the subjects investigated, or from the reality where the events occur
(primary data), without manipulating or controlling any variable , that is,
the researcher obtains the information but does not alter it. the existing
conditions. Hence its non-experimental research nature.

Of course, secondary data is also used in field research, especially those

from bibliographic sources, from which the theoretical framework is developed.
However, the primary data obtained through field design are essential for
achieving the objectives and solving the problem posed .
Field research, like documentary research, can be carried out at an
exploratory, descriptive and explanatory level.
According to Ramírez (1999), field research can be extensive , when it is
carried out on samples and entire populations (census); and intensive when it
focuses on particular cases, without the possibility of generalizing the results.
Sabino (2000) includes the following in the field designs: – Survey
– Dashboard
- Study of cases
– Ex post facto
Furthermore, it is pertinent to include the census as a different field
design from the sample survey.
2.4.1. Survey
The sample survey or simply survey is a strategy (oral or written) whose
purpose is to obtain information:
a) About a group or sample of individuals.
Example: query made to a group of subjects about their personal,
socioeconomic data, customs, tastes, preferences, expectations, etc.
b) In relation to their opinion on a specific topic.
Example: Opinion poll in which respondents are directly consulted

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consumers about the quality of a product.

Of course, the information obtained is valid only for the period in which
it was collected since both characteristics and opinions may vary over time.
This is why the survey is also called a cross-sectional design or transectional
design .
It is important to note that in the extensive literature on scientific
methodology, the survey has been defined in various ways: as a method, as a
design, or simply as a technique. Therefore, in order not to confuse the student,
in this work, the survey is considered a technique typical of field research
design.

2.4.2. Panel
It consists of a series of successive measurements, carried out in the same
group and at regular intervals, to observe the variations that occur in the results
over time. Hence its name as longitudinal design .
A panel can be a survey that is applied to the same sample, but in
different periods. A typical example is electoral surveys that are applied from
time to time in the same community.

2.4.3. Study of cases

In principle, a case is understood as any object that is considered as a
whole to be studied intensively. A case can be a family, an institution, a
company, one or a few individuals.
Since a case represents a relatively small unit, this design investigates
exhaustively, seeking maximum depth.

2.4.4. Ex post facto or post facto

It means after the fact. These designs seek to establish the causes that
produced an event, logically, after they have occurred. Therefore, there is no
manipulation of the cause or independent variable. Example:
A significant group of students fail in the mathematics subject. Once the
final grades have been obtained, the causes that caused the majority of the
group to fail can be investigated. When determining causes, ex post facto
investigation is located at an explanatory level.

2.4.5. Census

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Unlike the sample survey, the census seeks to collect information about
the entire population. This is how national censuses have the purpose of
obtaining data from all the inhabitants of a country. A census can also be
applied to the total population of a region, or to the total members of an
organization. Its main limitation is the high cost involved in its execution.

2.5. Experimental research or experimental design

Experimental research is a process that consists of

subjecting an object or group of individuals to certain conditions,
stimuli or treatment (independent variable), to observe the effects
or reactions that occur (dependent variable).

Regarding the level, experimental research is purely explanatory , since

its purpose is to demonstrate that the changes in the dependent variable were
caused by the independent variable. That is, the aim is to precisely establish a
cause-effect relationship.

Unlike field research, experimental research is fundamentally

characterized by the manipulation and control of variables exercised by the
researcher during the experiment. Example:
In field research, a researcher observes the academic performance of a
group and the factors that affect it. However, the researcher does not control
any factor since he cannot intervene in the students' family or socioeconomic
matters. In this case, no strategy that could affect student performance is
applied either.
In experimental research, on the contrary, the researcher subjects a group
of students to a certain strategy (manipulates the independent variable), to
observe the effects on their performance (measures the dependent variable).
Likewise, it controls factors by selecting homogeneous groups in terms of their
initial performance and socioeconomic conditions (intervening and extraneous
variables).

Nomenclature of experimental designs

G: group of subjects

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O 1 : pretest or initial measurement

X: stimulus or treatment
O 2 : posttest or final measurement
Ge I: intact experimental group
Gc I: intact control group
Ge A: randomly assigned experimental group
Gc A: randomly assigned control group

2.5.1. Basic experimental research designs

a) Preexperimental: As the name indicates, this design is a type of test or

trial that is carried out before the real experiment. Its main limitation is the
lack of control over the process, so its scientific value is very questionable
and defeasible.
A basic pre-experimental model is the pretest-posttest design with a
single group :

Application of the pre Sti application mule or Application of the posttest

test or initial treatment or final measurement
measurement
g Or 1 x Or 2

b) Quasi-experimental: this design is "almost" an experiment, except for the

lack of control in the initial formation of the groups, since since the
subjects are not randomly assigned, there is no certainty regarding the
homogeneity or equivalence of the groups. , which affects the possibility of
stating that the results are a product of the independent variable or
treatment. The groups referred to are: the experimental group (Ge), which
receives the stimulus or treatment (X); and the control group (Gc), which
only serves as a comparison since it does not receive treatment.
A typical quasi-experimental model is the pretest-posttest design with
two intact groups, that is, previously formed, so there is no guarantee of
similarity between both groups.

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Cluster intact experimental pretest treatment posttest

Cluster control intact pretest ----------- posttest
Ge I Or 1 x Or 2
Gc I Or 1 Or 2
-----------

c) Pure experimental: unlike previous designs, in the pure experiment

all factors that could alter the process must be controlled. This model meets two
fundamental requirements: use of comparison groups and equivalence of the
groups through random or random assignment (Hernández et al., 1998). It must
also be subject to the following criteria:

– Internal validity : it consists of guaranteeing that the effects or results are a

product of the independent variable or treatment and not of other factors or
intervening variables that must be controlled.
– External validity : refers to the possibility of generalizing or extending the
results to other cases and under other conditions.
A classic experimental model is the pretest-posttest design with two
equivalent groups, assigned randomly or at random, which is presented below:

Experimental group (randomly pretest treatment posttest

assigned)

pretest ----------------- posttest

Control group (randomly assigned)

Ge A Or 1 x Or 2
Gc A Or 1 ---------------- Or 2

It is important to note that there are other pure experimental designs,

however they are not discussed in this book, due to the introductory nature of
the work.

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