“YEAR OF DIALOGUE AND NATIONAL RECONCILIATION”

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF JULIACA

TEXTILE AND CLOTHING ENGINEERING

COURSE : Flat Weaving

TEACHER :
STUDENT :
SEMESTER : SAW
DATE : 24/12/18

JULIACA-PUNO-PERU
 FLAT WEAVING
1.- History of flat weaving
2.- Artisanal looms
3.- Mapuche loom
4.- Backstrap loom
5.- Industrial looms
6.- Shuttleless looms
7.- Water jet loom
8.- Air jet loom
9.-Sprat-type loom
10.- Fundamental ligaments
11.- Taffeta
12.- Twill
13.- Satin

1.- History of flat weaving

All weaving known today has been made in ancient times by primitive weavers. Many
of the braiding attempts that are currently used have been made during the Paleolithic
era with dry materials such as vines that have encouraged humans to work with these
materials and with these interlacing techniques.
Although the loom we know today has evolved, the basic principles and operations
remain the same. Both in ancient times and today, the loom technique consists of
interweaving the warp threads with the weft threads, keeping the former rigid between
two supports and inserting the weft threads to compact them and in this way make the
fabric. As Udale states: “The warp is tightened on the loom before weaving begins; This
means that there is more “slack” in width, that is, in the sense of the plot.” (2008, p. 70).
Traditionally, the production technique for flat fabrics made on looms uses a shuttle
that transports the weft thread endlessly from one side to the other across the width of
the fabric, alternating it above and below the warp threads.
Although this process is still carried out in current production methods, in some looms
the way in which the weft threads are transported from one place to another has been
modified, leaving aside the method of transporting the weft by shuttle to give rise to
other types of mechanisms that transport the weft threads at a higher speed and with less
noise. As Udale (2008) explains, looms are currently manufactured without a shuttle,
Using air or water jets to push and move the weft thread through the warp threads at
higher speeds has also resulted in a modification produced in the weft threads.
Through the air or water jet weft insertion process, the weft threads must be cut to size,
that is, they are no longer continuous as they were in the shuttle weft transport method,
but are Cut to size according to the desired width that you want to give to the fabric.
Udale states: “The weft threads are not continuous, but are cut to size before passing
through the warp threads.” (2008, p. 70)
The ancient weaving processes were carried out on different looms depending on the
fabrics that were desired to be obtained. These looms, as can be seen in the figure, were
vertical, horizontal, or waist looms. Regardless of the orientation of the looms, the
processes and mechanisms are similar.

As explained by Hollen et al. (1993) Today, backstrap looms are still used in many
countries for hand weaving, this technique required keeping the warp threads taut by
fixing one of the supports to a tree or pole and the other to a ribbon that fits around the
hips of the weaver, who performed the work kneeling or sitting. The weft threads were
inserted above or below the warp threads with the help of fingers. Later, these threads
began to be inserted with the help of a shuttle that was passed through the raised warp
threads.
With the industrial revolution, several changes occurred in the tools of looms in order to
achieve greater productivity. To increase the speed of the process and separate the warp
threads in a more practical way, they were fixed to wooden bars that could be raised and
in this way separate half of the threads.
Once the insertion of the weft was completed with the help of the fingers and later by
means of a shuttle, the fabric was compacted by the action of a comb.
In the production of flat fabrics, the warp performs a lifting and lowering movement
using a device called heddle meshes. As explained by Hollen et al. (1993) a heddle is a
frame in which the meshes are attached, and these are wires with holes in the center
through which the threads pass. Each warp thread passes through a hole in a mesh.
Therefore, there are as many meshes as there are warp threads and they are held by two
or more heddles.
The figure shows the flat weaving process that begins when one of the heddles is raised.
Through this action, the threads that make up the warp create a shed, that is, an opening
in the shape of a quadrangular prism, through which the weft threads pass, using a
shuttle that transports the thread through it. Finally, a comb is activated that tightens the
weft thread on the fabric to achieve a firm weave. The comb is a set of wires that are
arranged on a frame, and the spaces between them are called teeth. A more detailed
description of the flat weaving process carried out on looms is proposed below.
2.- Artisanal looms
There are various types of artisanal looms depending on their shape, their layout and
the fabrics to be made. As Alvarado (2006) explains, in the horizontal or low-heddle
loom the warp threads extend parallel to the floor, with the weaver standing behind
them. As the fabric is woven, it is rolled at one end, while the warp is unwrapped at the
other end. The heddles separate the even warp threads from the odd threads.
Another type of artisanal loom is the vertical or high heddle loom. This consists of a
rectangular frame that keeps the warp fixed, which allows you to see the entire work
because it does not roll up as it is woven. A variant of this type is the triangular loom. In
both types the warp is held by nails that are located on the sides of the looms. Likewise,
Jara and Pineda Serna (2010) explain that among the variations of the loom are the high
and low heddle loom, the box loom and the circular loom. The box loom, as the same
authors explain, has one or two sets of boxes and can weave more than one weft. This
process allows the production of velvets and corduroys. While the circular loom has a
vertical warp arranged in a cylindrical shape with horizontal heddles that operate
radially. In this type of loom, the shuttle makes a continuous circular movement
producing a tubular fabric.
3.- Mapuche loom
The Mapuche loom is the simplest of the types of artisanal looms. This type of loom is
called a frame loom and has been used in the past by the Mapuches. As Lobos (2008)
explains, Mapuche weaving is made on a loom with a structure that is as simple as it is
effective. As can be seen in figure 11, the Araucanian loom consists of a simple
rectangular frame, in which four sticks hold the threads that will constitute the warp,
and between them slide reeds or rods that serve to collect and tighten the warp. plot as
its preparation progresses. This loom uses a type of flat wood to tighten the weft.

4.- Backstrap loom

Another type of artisanal loom is the aforementioned backstrap loom, also known as a
primitive loom. This primitive loom continues to be used today on the northern coast
and throughout the Andean zone of Peru, where, for example, in Incahuasi, one of the
districts of the province of Ferreñafe, 25 artisans from the district come together to
weave on backstrap looms with sheep wool dyed with natural dyes. These artisans make
very colorful and cheerful typical costumes, as well as blankets, sashes, bibs, bags,
saddlebags, rugs, among others, inspired by nature and the landscape. The tools used for
the backstrap loom have different names depending on the location in which it is used,
however, in all the places where this technique is used, all the looms have the same
structure.
An example of this is the Jacaltenango backstrap loom in Guatemala, named this way
because of its location. As can be seen in figure 12, this loom has several tools that
make the fabrics through its operation.
5.- Industrial looms
Today's industrial looms do not present major discrepancies in terms of processes and
tools compared to artisanal looms. The main difference between them is in the speed of
manufacturing textiles and in some additional elements, such as mechanisms to stop the
loom if something is working incorrectly. An example of this could be that the weft or
warp breaks or that the shuttle does not reach the end of the journey. However, several
innovations have been made for several centuries.
Developments and advances in looms have focused on the invention of devices to
separate the warp and produce more complicated weaving designs, the use of computers
and electrical control systems, and faster methods of inserting the weft.
For their part, Mata de Grossi and Silva Otero (2005) explain that the first innovation
that the loom has undergone was the shuttle or flying bobbin by John Kay in 1733, this
invention doubled the performance of the hand loom. However, the first mechanized
loom was patented by the British Edmund Cartwright in 1786. This loom was taken as
the way forward to continue perfecting it.
6.- Shuttleless looms
Shuttleless looms have been invented in order to replace them with another mechanism
that transports the weft more quickly. As explained by Hollen et al. (1993) in simple
looms a flying shuttle is directed from one end to the other by means of blocks on both
sides of the machine.
Because the speed with which the shuttle passes from one side to the other is limited,
for some time now manufacturers have been looking for a way to replace it in order to
increase the speed of weaving.
Over the years, different types of shuttleless looms have been developed that achieve
higher weaving speeds and reduce noise levels, which is a factor of great importance for
operators.
Jara and Pineda Serna (2010) describe different types of shuttleless looms. One of them
is called Weft Insertion by Balbe, this type of loom transports the weft by means of
metal bands with unilateral clamps. A variation of it is the so-called Dornier System or
espadín loom, this process uses two bilateral clamps. Each clamp runs halfway through
the warp where one delivers the weft to the other, this allows the weaving speed to be
doubled. Another type of loom without a shuttle is the one that inserts the weft by water
jet. This mechanism is found in the Eliter and Prince looms. Finally, the air jet weft
insertion system can be found on the Kowo and Investa looms.
On the four types of shuttleless looms mentioned above, the weft threads are measured
and cut leaving a border along the length of the fabric. This edge is often melted to form
a selvedge if the threads are thermoplastic, or the ends are folded and inserted into the
fabric.

7.- Water jet loom

This type of loom uses a high-pressure water jet to transport the weft thread through the
warp. This operation works through a continuous feeding principle, where the weft
threads have a minimum tension, which causes the fabrics to be woven without flaws or
stripes known as barré. The weft threads are transported to measuring drums where it is
controlled that they have the appropriate length for the weaving process.
The water jet loom can use virtually any natural or artificial fiber in different deniers,
and can work at 400 or 600 passes per minute, which is two or three times faster than
the conventional loom. However, one of the drawbacks of this process is that the fabric
comes out of the loom wet and must be dried, which implies an additional cost. Faced
with this, Hollen et al. They state that: “Water-resistant substances reduce the
wettability of the yarns and help solve this problem.” (1993, p. 179).
The simplified drawing of the operation of the water jet loom seen in the figure shows
and explains how this type of loom works.
8.- Air jet loom
This type of loom, also called the pneumatic method, consists of guiding the weft by a
jet of air through a channel. Its development was in Sweden, by a textile engineer, who
had the idea of its operation while sailing and observing the short and regular discharges
that came out of the exhaust of a diesel engine. Hollen et al. (1993) explain that their
first loom provided compressed air through the use of a bicycle pump.
As in water jet looms, the weft is previously measured and is guided through a nozzle
through which a jet of air transports it through the warp. This type of loom is suitable
for short fiber yarns and can make up to 320 passes per minute.
9.- Dornier System or rapier type loom
These types of looms are usually called positive transfer looms, because they transfer
the weft through clamps that stop in the center of the loom, it is a completely controlled
process. In this mechanism, as can be seen in the figure, it uses two pairs of clamps that
act by opening, transferring the weft thread and closing to complete the pass cycle so
that at the end of the operation both return to their respective places.

10.- Fundamental ligaments

Flat fabrics have different weaves and derivations depending on the way in which the
warp and weft threads are intertwined, under certain regulations. In textiles, made
through a flat weaving process, there are three basic weaves, taffeta, twill and satin. As
Udale states: “The way the warp and weft intertwine gives rise to a great variety of
fabrics. The three main types of weave or weave construction are: taffeta, twill and satin
(or satin).” (2008, p. 70). These ligaments are fundamental, because they serve for the
formation of their derivatives, and any of them is characterized by having a regular step,
a fundamental evolution base, a square course, and a step point in each thread and in
each pass. . Likewise, as Gillow and Sentance state: “There are three basic weaves or
ways of interlacing warp and weft: taffeta, twill and satin.

These ligaments differ from each other by the shape and the number of crossings
between warp and weft that take place in each pass. (2000, p. 69).
11.-Taffeta
This type of ligament is the simplest of the three fundamental ligaments, in addition to
being the smallest in course, since it has 2 threads and 2 passes, the staggered one being
1 in both directions. Taffeta is the weave that produces the greatest yarn contraction in
the fabric. As explained by Hollen et al. (1993) this type of ligament is formed with
perpendicular threads that are arranged above and below each of them. Each warp
thread is intertwined with a weft thread. Because it is simple and easy to make, this type
of weave requires a two-heddled loom, and is the least expensive to manufacture.
The plain weave has no difference between the right side and the wrong side, unless it is
printed or has some surface finishing done. By presenting a flat surface, taffeta serves
perfectly as a background for print designs, engravings and raised or shiny finishes.

As can be seen in the figure, the plain weave is graphed by making a grid where the
black painted squares represent the warp that passes over the weft, while the white
squares represent the weft threads that pass over the warp.

Being a more compact weave, these types of fabrics tend to wrinkle more, fray less and
are less absorbent than other weaves. This type of ligament allows you to achieve
interesting effects in fabrics by implementing different fibers for the manufacture of a
textile, such as, for example, fantasy or textured ones, different sizes, high or low twist,
filament and fiber. cuts, as well as different finishes.

12.- Twill
This type of ligament presents an appearance of diagonals in relief on the surface of the
fabric. These reliefs are formed by those taken from light twills or by the vast warps of
heavy twills. These basts are the product of a thread that crosses over two or more
threads from the opposite direction. As explained by Hollen et al. (1993) each warp or
weft thread makes a sweep over two or more warp or weft threads, progressing the
interweaving of one to the right or left to form an identifiable diagonal line, called a
herringbone.
Likewise, as explained by Gillow and Sentance (2000), in this type of weave, the weft
passes alternately over two or more warp threads, under the next one and repeating the
repetition of passing over the same amount of warp threads. warp threads, being two or
more threads until reaching the end and ending with that pass. In the next sequence, that
is, upon its return, the weft will repeat the taking of warp threads, moving to the right or
left when taking each group of threads. This displacement produces a texture of raised
diagonal lines.
This type of fabric varies in the number of heddles used. The simplest twill requires at
least three heddles, and more complex twills may require up to 18 pass insertions before
repeating the design.
As can be seen in Figure 16, twill creates diagonals due to the process of interlacing the
weft with the warp and vice versa. As explained above, twill is printed in the same way
as taffeta. That is to say, the squares painted black represent the warp that passes over
the weft, and the squares painted white represent the weft that passes over the warp.

Unlike plain weave, twill has a front and back. Hollen et al. (1993) explain that, if on
the right side there are hems in the warp, on the reverse side there will be floats of the
weft, in the same way if the diagonal goes to the right on one of its sides, on the other
side it will go to the left. On the other hand, in this type of weave, and also unlike
taffeta, the fabric is not as compact, causing the threads to have greater freedom.
13.- Satin
This type of weave, also called Satin, is obtained by making a warp hem on four weft
threads, interlacing the fifth weft thread with a weaving progression of two to the right
or left. Or, as explained by Hollen et al. (1993) making a bast with the weft thread, on 4
warp threads and interlacing the fifth warp thread with a progression of interlacings of
two to the right or to the left. The satin weave is the third basic fabric that can be made
on a simple loom. This type of weave has, due to the way the threads are arranged
across the surface of the fabric, a shiny appearance and a soft heel. This fundamental
property of satin or satin allows fabrics made using this type of ligament to be used for
running due to the slippage they produce on other garments.
As can be seen in the figure, the graphic representation is carried out in the same way as
the previously mentioned ligaments. Therefore, warp threads that pass over the weft are
plotted in black, while weft threads that pass over the warp are plotted in white.

Another characteristic of the satin weave is that the fabrics have a right and wrong side.
Likewise, due to the number of cross-links that occur in this type of ligament, the
tissues obtained are flexible and resistant to wrinkling. As a disadvantage, this type of
fabric allows the threads to slide and the fabrics to fray.
The different types of existing looms, both artisanal and industrial, have allowed us to
understand that the textile that will be manufactured can be produced on any type of
artisanal loom.
On the other hand, the survey of industrial shuttleless looms has made it possible to
understand that the textile that will be manufactured as a contribution to the Project
cannot be carried out using air jet or water jet shuttle looms if it is industrialized.
Mainly, it would be impossible to carry out the industrial production of the textile to be
made, on the shuttleless loom with a water jet mechanism due to the moisture
absorption of the material to be worked with, and therefore the difficulty which would
be the drying process.
However, this same survey of looms with another weft transport mechanism such as the
already mentioned air jet, water jet and finally sprat type, have suggested the possibility
of industrial production of the textile to be manufactured, through the rapier mechanism
loom called the Dornier System or rapier type loom.
Finally, another significant contribution of this chapter has been the fundamental
ligaments that flat weaving production has. Because the twill and satin weaves require
more than two heddles to produce a textile, the plain weave will be mostly taken into
account to make the designs of the fabrics that will be produced to make the prototypes.
This is mainly due to the fact that the production of a plain fabric is simpler due to not
having access to the type of looms required for the production of a twill or satin fabric
that has the necessary dimensions to be able to make the desired prototypes.
CONCLUSION
The different types of existing looms, both artisanal and industrial, have allowed us to
understand that the textile that has been manufactured can be produced on any type of
artisanal loom, whether backstrap, horizontal or vertical. Likewise, the research and
development of the fundamental plain weave ligaments have allowed us to understand
that the plain weave is the simplest to make because it only requires two heddles, unlike
twill and satin, which are required for their manufacture. more than two heddles. This
has been of great importance for the production of the fabrics with which the prototypes
were made, since, not having access to a loom with more than two heddles, taffetas have
had to be made that have the dimensions and qualities necessary to the preparation of
the prototypes that have been made. In this way, it was possible to understand that, by
mixing materials and their thicknesses, using the comb to adjust the fabric more or less,
taffetas with different structures can be achieved, that is, more rigid or more flexible
with a thicker fabric. closed or more open.
On the other hand, the survey of industrial shuttleless looms, also carried out during the
development, has allowed us to understand that the textile that has been manufactured
as input could not be carried out using air jet or water jet shuttle looms in case to be
industrialized. Since, as has been mentioned in the conclusion, it would be impossible to
carry out the industrial production of the manufactured textile, on the shuttleless loom
with a water jet mechanism due to the moisture absorption of the material with which it
has been worked. , and therefore how difficult the drying process would be. However,
this same survey of looms with another weft transport mechanism such as the already
mentioned air jet, water jet and finally the loom called System Dornier or espadín type,
have hinted at the possibility of industrial textile production through the use of the
rapier mechanism loom.
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