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Pakistan History Compiled Quick Revision Notes
Pakistan History Compiled Quick Revision Notes
Pakistan History Compiled Quick Revision Notes
Notes
Muslim Reformers
Shah Waliullah (1703-1762):
Who:
● Lifespan: 1703-1762
● His real name was Qutb-ud-Din Ahmed
○ He was given the title Shah Waliullah due to his piety
● His family was extremely religious and pious:
○ His father, Shah Abdul Rahim, was in Aurangzeb’s court and was involved in the
writing of the Fatwa-e-Alamgiri. He also founded the Madrassa Rahimiya
○ His mother, Tallal Arshad, was a renowned Muslim scholar
● After the death of his father, he started teaching at the Madrassa in 1718
● In 1724, he went to Arabia for Hajj
○ He stayed there for 8 years as he was studying under Shaikh Abhu Tahir
● He wrote 51 books on Islam, the most famous being Hujjat Allah al-Baligha and Izalat-
Ahkfa
Contributions:
Translation of the Quran:
● He translated the Quran into Persian
○ His sons later translated it into Urdu
● Due to this, it was now accessible to the whole population whereas earlier only
educated scholars who knew Arabic could read it
○ Thus, everyone could know of the basic commandments and implement them
into their everyday lives
As a Social Figure:
Muslims were in a shattered state and needed someone to unify them. He was that leader
● He wrote 51 books (23 in Arabic and the rest in Persian) interpreting Islam
○ This was done in an attempt to provide a unifying interpretation of Islam and the
caliphs to oppose sectarianism and unite the populace
■ The unanimously acceptable definition of Caliphs was provided in his
book Izalat al-Khafa' an Khilafat al-Khulafa
● He ensured that he was a role model for Muslims by deepening his knowledge of the
Quran, Hadith, Fiqah, and Tasawut from a young age
● He promoted:
○ Social justice and equity (adal and tawazan). especially for peasants
Opposition to Marathas:
● He rallied forces against the Marathas to protect Muslim sovereignty
○ He wrote to all Muslim nobles
○ He persuaded Ahmed Shah Abdali, the ruler of Afghanistan, to intervene
● Due to this, the Marathas were defeated at the Battle of Panipat
Importance:
Accessibility:
● He made Islamic works accessible to a large chunk of the population by translating the
Quran into Persian
○ Thus, this helped eradicate the non-Muslim policies as Muslims had direct access
to the book which affirmed or denied them
● His books also provided the common people an interpretation of Islam and its principles
Identification of Problems:
● He realized and promoted the rhetoric that the Mughal empire was declining due to a
neglect of Islam
○ This could be seen in the administrative deficiencies caused by carefree rulers
and the ambitious populace who exploited others to take advantage of this
● He realized how sectarianism was destroying the unity of Muslims and took steps to
provide a central interpretation of Islam
Importance:
● He promoted unity by gathering a force for a common cause
○ This willingness of scholars to die for this cause also inspired those who were not
able to join it
● He freed oppressed Muslim states
○ The defeat of Ranjit Singh in the Battle of Ankora in 1826 is an example of this
● His movement was unprecedented - it was the first time Muslim forces in India had ever
attempted to free themselves for foreign oppressors
○ Due to this, it was an inspiration for all Muslims and is even viewed by some as
the predecessor of the Pakistan Movement
Importance:
● He united the Bengali people, increasing their political strength
○ Now that they were aware of their rights, they could fight for their social and
political status more effectively
● He encouraged Muslims at a time when they were demoralized and downtrodden
● He brought about a spiritual revival in East Bengali Islam
○ Impure practices were removed
Minor Characters:
Mian Mohsin-ud-Din Ahmed (1819-1860):
● He was Haji Shariatullah’s son
● He continued to work on the position of Muslims in East Bengal by:
○ Dividing the area into circles which had their own Khalifas who were responsible
for the social and spiritual welfare of the people
○ He, alongside the peasants, opposed the Hindu and British landlords’ excessive
taxes
○ When his opposition to taxes faced backlash, he took an even harsher line by
threatening Jihad
Potential Questions:
Four Marks:
Who was Shah Waliullah/what did he do:
Seven Marks:
Why did Shah Waliullah attempt to revive Islam:
What was the Importance of Shah Waliullah/why did they have such a major impact:
What was the importance of Barelvi/his Jihad Movement/why did he have such a major impact:
What was the importance of Haji Shariatullah/his Faraizi Movement/why did he have such a
major impact:
Ten/Fourteen Marks:
Was ____________ more important for the revival of Islam in the subcontinent during the 17th
and 18th century?
Mughal Empire
Aurangzeb (1618-1707) and His Policies:
Who:
Four Mark Question:
● Lifespan: 1618-1707
● He assumed power as the Mughal Emperor in 1658 after defeating Dara Shiko and
imprisoning his father
● He was deeply religious, appointing a council of theologians to produce the Fatwa-al-
Alamgiriya, a book of Islamic law
● He ruled for nearly fifty years, dying in 1707
Rise to Power:
● In 1657, his father fell ill. Seeing an opportunity to seize power, a struggle arose
between his four sons
○ While Shah Shuja and Murad had coins of themselves minted, Dara Shiko was
the most popular
● By 1658, his father recovered and told them not to fight
● Aurangzeb responded by defeating the imperial army (led by Dara Shiko) and
imprisoning his father, thus taking power
Policies:
Intolerance to Hindus:
● Persecuted Hindus of North India
● Added Jizya tax
● He destroyed Hindu temples such as those in Khandela, Udaipur, Chittor, and Jodhpur as
they were "associated with imperial enemies"
○ https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1093/jis/11.3.283
○ On the other hand, he did finance the building of a few
● Semi-autonomous Hindu states such as that of the Rajputs were crushed
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Constant Warfare:
● Instead of negotiation with rebels, preferred to crush them
○ This led to him being away from the capital from extremely lengthy periods of
time. For example, the Marathan war occupied his attention for 26 years.
● He expanded the empire to the north, fighting a tough campaign against the Pathan
tribes in the NWF.
○ Due to this, the empire reached its peak size during his time
Austere Measures:
● Censors were introduced to regulate public morals
● The consumption of alcohol was banned
● Singing and dancing at court was banned
● The maximum length of beards was established
Economic:
● Taxation was very high due to:
○ The expensive military campaigns he carried out
○ His building of extravagant palaces such as the Pearl Mosque
● On top of this, Hindus had to pay Jizya tax in replacement for military service
● Traders, however, were benefited by the abolition of some local taxes
● The mansabdari system was introduced, under which nobles were given the right to
collect taxes and relay them back to the emperor
○ They were required to keep armies
Constant Warfare:
● These diverted his attention causing him to be away from the capital for years at the
end during a time when the communication technology was extremely limited
○ Thus, he found out about rebellions and important events quite some while after
they occurred
○ Furthermore, it also took time for his orders to reach the capital, placing strain
on the administration
● The weapons and military provisions required also placed a strain on the treasury
Religious Intolerance:
● Hindus were not treated very kindly:
○ Their temples were destroyed
○ Jizya tax was implemented
○ Semi-autonomous Hindu states such as that of the Rajputs’ were crushed
● Due to this, he lost the support of a large chunk of his population, the Hindus
○ This divided his empire, making it harder to govern
Austere Reforms:
● In the intention of working on the morals of the populace:
○ Censors were introduced
○ Forms of entertainment such as alcohol and dancing in court were banned
● These were extremely unpopular in the citizens of the empire, leading to dissatisfaction
Administrative:
Vastness of the Empire:
● Due to the size of the empire, it was difficult to communicate with the limited
technology they had.
○ Thus, it took months for orders to be relayed
○ It also took time for vital information, such as that of rebellions, to reach the
emperor’s ears
Economic Problems:
● Government spending and taxation had to increase due to:
○ The failure of the mansabdari system
○ The lavish spending of the emperors
○ The military expenses due to the constant warfare against external and internal
forces
○ The costly wars of succession
● Again, this made the people even more discontent
Aurangzeb’s Policies:
● See Above
● Mention his intolerance to Hindus, lavish spending, and constant warfare
Military:
Declining Military Expertise:
● Due to the empire’s initial success, the Mughals became overconfident in their military
strength and stopped investing in it.
Potential Questions:
Four Mark:
Who Was Aurangzeb?:
● See above
Seven Marks:
How was Aurangzeb Responsible for the Decline of the Mughal Empire:
● See above
10/14 Marks:
Was _____ the most important reason for the decline of the Mughal Empire after Aurangzeb:
● See heading ‘The Decline of the Mughal Empire’
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British Expansion in
India
The East India Company:
What:
● The East India company was a private group of merchants in Britain
○ They were backed by Queen Elizabeth, who gave them permission to set up shop
in 1600
● The East India Company entered India during their third voyage in 1608, docking at
Surat in Gujrat
● In 1612, the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir, allowed them to set up a factory and trading
port in Surat
○ In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe went to the court of Jahangir, and secured permission
for the company to set up more factories. Thus, factories were set up at
Ahmedabad, Broach and Agra by 1623
● By the end of the 17th Century, the East India Company claimed full sovereignty over
Madras
Political Reasons:
Initially, the British goals in the area were largely economic. However, seeing the declining
Mughal Empire, they started to get more politically involved, too.
● The Decline of the Mughal Empire:
○ After Aurangzeb, his successors were increasingly ineffective, spending more and
more time in leisure and less in actual ruling
○ Due to this, power was centralized, with many more rebellions. The economy
declined, too
○ This made India much more prone to invaders such as Ahmed Shah Abdali. This
power vacuum attracted Britain, due to which they used their superior
technology to annexe the area
● Competition with other colonizers:
○ At the time, there were many European powers involved in the area such as the
British, Dutch, French, and Portuguese
Bengal:
Black Hole Tragedy
● In 1756, the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud Daulah, was convinced by the French to attack
the EIC base in Calcutta.
○ This was done as the British wouldn’t stop fortifying the city due to the Seven
Years War, a global conflict fought between Britain (and its allies) and France
(and its allies)
● Once he did so, he trapped all British POWs in a small, airtight room overnight.
○ Most of them died.
● This was known as the Black Hole Tragedy
Battle of Plassey:
● In 1757, Robert Clive arrived with a force of ~3000 EIC soldiers, and fought with the
Bengalis in the Battle of Plassey
○ The Nawab was aided by some French troops
● On 23rd June, at ~8:00, the battle began
○ After 3 hours, there was little progress. However, during rain, Nawab Siraj-ud-
Daulah’s gunpowder was drenched, due to which his artillery was rendered
ineffective
Battle of Buxar:
● In 1764, Mir Jafar’s son, the Nawab of Oudh and Shah Alam II rose together to try to
defeat the British
○ This battle was called the Battle of Buxar. The British army was led by Hector
Munro
● Although they outnumbered the British (~40,000 to 7,072) they were still not able to
win
○ Shah Alam's army was the first to surrender
● As a result, the EIC increased their influence on Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Oudh
○ Due to this, British came under virtual control of East India
Robert Clive:
● He was vital in the establishment of the British in India, winning:
○ The Battle of Arcot, which gave British control of the Carnatics
○ The Battle of Plassey (and later Buxar) which gave the British control of Bengal,
Bihar, Orissa, and Oudh
○ The Battle of Pondicherry, which gave him control of the French port at
Pondicherry
● He was made the Governor of Bengal after the Battle of Plassey
Titu Mir:
● He was a Bengali freedom fighter who Built a bamboo fort in Bengal
In 1784, the British government passed the Indian Act (also called the Pitt's India Act) and took
direct control of Indian possessions. While the EIC still continued to trade, it lost most of its
administrative powers
Terms:
● The directors were left in control of commerce and as political executants
● A Board of Control was set up, the President of which was the virtual minister of India
○ The dispatches to India by the directors could be vetoed, altered, and dictated by
the board
○ It had 6 members - Secretary of State (Board President), Chancellor of the
Exchequer, and Four Privy Councillors
○ This essentially subjugated the private directors to the British government
● There was to be a parliamentary inquiry before each 20-year renewal of the company’s
charter
● Civil and military officers were to disclose all their property in Britain and India within
two months of their entry into the company
● The Governor-General’s was appointed and their council’s strength was reduced to
three members.
○ One of the three would be the Commander-in-Chief of the British Crown’s army
in India.
○ The Governor General was given more power in matters of war, revenue, and
diplomacy. They were given control of three presidencies
○ However, due to the haziness between the company’s and government’s powers,
the Governor was forced to make many sporadic decisions in favour of one or
the other.
Other Measures:
● A police force and legal system were set up on British lines
● A professional civil service was introduced in which Indians were not allowed to apply
Mysore Wars:
Personalities:
Haider Ali:
● He was born in 1722 and died in 1782
● Due to his military prowess, which he continuously proved in battles such as the
Carnatic Wars and the Capturing of Bangalore (1758), he rose up the ranks of the army,
garnering more and more troops
○ Eventually, in 1759, he was awarded the title ‘Nawab of Mysore’ due to his
military achievements
● He was exiled from Saringapatam by Khande Rao
○ He rallied an army, which he used to surround Saringapatam and defeat Khande
Rao
○ He declared himself ruler of Mysore and eventually Sultan
● He upgrading Mysore’s military, and expanding south, fighting the Marathas
○ He was also the prime source of opposition to the British
Tipu Sultan:
● Tipu Sultan (1750-1799) was Haider Ali’s son and succeeded him as the ruler of Mysore
● Due to his military valour, he was known as the ‘Tiger of Mysore’
● He reformed Mysore’s administration, pioneering rocket artillery and introducing new
coins, calendars, and revenue-collecting systems
● He led the Mysore army after his father died in the Second Mysore War
Nizam of Hyderabad:
● Before the war, the Nizam of Hyderabad had entered an alliance with the British
○ Due to financial necessity under which he gave up the Northern Sirkars in return
for some British troops
● He allied with the Marathas to invade Mysore
○ However, by the time he did so, a Maratha-Mysore peace treaty had already
been achieved.
○ Instead, the Nizam of Hyderabad allied with Haider Ali to invade the Carnatics
(the Eastern Coast), where Haider Ali had a long-standing conflict with Nawab
Muhammad Ali of the Carnatics
Marathas:
The Marathas were quite a formidable force in India who controlled Delhi, the capital of the
Mughal Empire
Subsidiary Alliances:
● In 1782, the first Marathan war was ended by signing a subsidiary alliance with the
Marathas.
○ A subsidiary alliance is an alliance that basically meant giving up one's
sovereignty to the British.
○ They would have to give them land and money in return for protection.
● The rulers who did not sign it were most likely to be defeated in battle; the rest became
British puppets.
Administrative Policies:
After taking over Delhi, they started taking interest in the administrative affairs of India.
However, they did not declare themselves rulers so that the public would not panic, which
could lead to rebellions
Social Reforms:
● Language:
○ The official language was changed into English in 1835
○ Until then, Persian had been used as the main language
○ This brought people into contact with British books
● Education:
○ Co-educational, English schools were introduced in which Christianity was taught
○ This was implemented due to the British (especially Thomas Babignton Macaulay
the British PM’s) belief that British culture was superior to Indian culture
● Laws against local religious customs were implemented, such as suttee and parda
○ Suttee was a Hindu culture in which widows were burned to death after their
husband died
■ This was first done in Bengal in 1829 and then implemented throughout
the country by Lord Bentinck
■ According to some accounts, there was actually little opposition to this
○ Parda was a religious veiling
● Female infanticide:
○ This was declared to be murder in 1795
○ However, this quite difficult to enforce
● Upper classes had to become Anglicized
Technological:
● Railways and roads were made for multiple reasons:
○ Trade
■ Railways allowed for the cheap transport of raw materials to the ports for
export
Economic:
● Lower classes lost businesses as, due to the fact that British goods had no duty on them,
they were preferred by the local population-crippling local industries like the handloom
industry with imported textiles from Britain
○ People were also forced to grow raw wool, which had to be supplied to the
British. Skilled sewers were forced to work in factories
Annexation of Sindh:
Invasion of Afghanistan:
● By the early 19th century, the British were concerned about Russian expansion.
● Therefore, they annexed Afghanistan to protect it
○ At first, they had hoped that Ranjit Singh would aid them in this by assuring him
that Afghanistan would remain independent
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○ However, when he didn;t extend his support, the British went ahead on their
own
● In 1841, a rebellion in Afghanistan meant that all but 1 of their 4000 troops in the area
were killed
● Therefore, to restore their lost honour, and for other reasons, they looked towards
Sindh
Invasion:
● However, they could not invade without an excuse.
○ Sindh was ruled by Amirs who had signed a subsidiary alliance with Britain in
1809.
■ They had been a bit hostile to the British during their campaigns in
Afghanistan, for which the British wanted to punish them. This could
potentially be used as a reason for the British annexation of Sindh
○ Thus, they provoked the Amirs to such an extent that they attacked the British
Residency in Sindh in 1843
■ This was done partially by seizing and destroying the desert fortress of
Imamgarh
● The British (led by Sir Charles Napier) took the whole of Sindh in response in 1843
○ The outcome of this expansion was essentially decided in 1843 in the Battle of
Miani, where 2800 British troops defeated 20,000 followers of the Sindhi Amirs
● The resident, Sir James Outram, criticized this action and so started a famous
controversy.
○ The governor-general Edward Law, earl of Ellenborough, was recalled, but Sindh
remained British.
○ Source: https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Miani
Scientific Border:
● NWF was annexed in order to fin a ‘scientific and natural frontier of British India’
○ It was based on natural geography
○ It played a part in defending British territory from outside forces
○ It would help them with their relations with Tribal Territory, safeguarding
Northern India from the non-stop tribal raids and warfare
● The border was drawn in 1893 and called the Durand Line after an agreement with
Afghanistan’s Amir Abdur Rahman
Analytical Questions:
Why was Britain able to Conquer India?
British strengths:
● Trading Bases:
○ Three trading bases far away from each other, due to which if one fell, the others
would still remain
○ These
● Military
○ They had an excellent army which had modern weapons
■ They were able to defeat three combined forces at Buxar due to this
○ Due to the fact that they had the largest empire in the world, they could easily
avail external reinforcements, such as while they were taking over Lahore
○ They had capable military generals
■ Dalhousie, Clive, Sir Charles Napier, Warren Hastings
● They were rich and resourceful
○ Due to the British’s global empire, they had a lot of money which could be
invested in the EIC
○ Furthermore, the EIC was also prevented from failing by the British Government,
which was only possible due to the large amount of money it had
● Strategies:
○ They were able to create craters amongst Indians. Due to this, they were able to
use Indians against Indians
■ Gulab Singh helped them annex Lahore
■ The Nizam of Hyderabad was used to defeat both the Mysores and
Marathas
■ There are many more examples of this
○ Their usage of subsidiary alliances
■ Most princely states were annexed using this
Indian Weaknesses:
● Lack of Unity:
○ Due to the cultural differences, there was a lack of unity
Failures
● 1757- Battle of Plassey
○ Robert Clive became the governor of Bengal and a puppet ruler was established
there
○ This increased their military revenue and gave them a permanent foothold in
India
● 1764- Battle of Buxar
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○ Trading rights in Oudh achieved
● 1799- Fourth Mysore War
○ Mysore, the prime point of Indian resistance, was defeated
● 1803- Delhi annexed
○ The Mughal Emperor lost his military and executive power
● 1818- Marathas defeated
○ Southern India was completely defeated
● 1843- Annexation of Sindh
○ Expansion into Eastern India
● 1846- Lahore annexed
● 1849- Punjab and NWF annexed
○ Eastern India completely defeated
● 1852- Doctrine of Lapse introduced
○ The fact that they were able to implement such a policy shows their dominance
http://www.san.beck.org/2-10-Marathas1707-1800.html
1857
Reasons:
Political:
British Expansion:
● Local Nawabs and their populace were angered when their lands where annexed by the
British.
○ This sudden change of leadership was not liked
● The expansionist policies of Lord Dalhousie, which reached their climax when he
established the Doctrine of Lapse, were also disliked
○ Under this policy, territory could be confiscated if its ruler was incompetent or
died without a direct heir
○ Several Nawabs and Princes were angered when they lost their pension/land:
■ Nana Sahib, the ruler of Kanpur, lost his pension since he was Baji Rao’s
adopted son
■ Rani Laxmi Bai's (who was married to the Maharaja of Jhansi) adopted
son, Damodar Rao, was deprived of his title and Laxmi Bai was not
allowed to be his regent, instead being told to exit the castle and being
given a pension. This is the reason for her famous slogan: “"Main apni
Jhansi nahi doongi”
■ Other states siezed included Oudh, Sitara, Jaitpur, and Baghat
○ The Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, was also deprived of his title and told to
exit his castle, which angered the Muslim populace
● Due to this:
○ Local rulers felt the need to protect their land
○ The British were seen as greedy imperialists
Invasion of Afghanistan:
● After their failed invasion of Afghanistan, doubt was cast as to how powerful the British
actually were
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○ Due to this, there were rumours that the War of Independence would be able to
bring British rule to and end, an exact century after they had established their
foothold in the subcontinent during the Battle of Plassey
● Indian soldiers were unhappy to fight in it, creating disloyalty amongst soldiers
○ Hindus were unwilling to leave india to fight
○ Muslims soldiers were reluctant to fight against their Muslim brothers in
Afghanistan
Economic:
Land Policy:
● During the Mughal era, lands were transferred from generation to generation without
any exchange of paperwork
○ However, under the new British policies, documentary proof of ownership of
land was required
● Many farmers were expelled from their lands when they were unable to present papers
○ This destroyed rural economies and left many citizens unemployed and agitated
Mistreatment of Indians:
● Heavy taxation was imposed on people already struggling to make money
○ This was not helped by the fact that they lost the patronage they received from
the Princes when the Princely States were annexed
● There was resentment at the lack of opportunities Indians received in the ICS, which
contributed to the unemployment created by the disbanding of armies and destruction
of industries/seizing of land
Socio-Religious:
Religious Changes:
● The British imposed various reforms without thought to local opinion.
○ For example, suttee, infanticide and parda were banned and widows were
allowed to remarry.
○ These were considered unwanted interference into Indian local customs
● The propagation of Christianity
○ It was the only religion taught in schools
○ If one was not Christian, they could not inherit land
○ Missionaries, many
○ Due to this, many thought that if the British were allowed to rule, they would not
be allowed to practice their own religions
Westernization:
● Western technology and education was introduced. These were unwanted interference
○ The schools were western and co-educational. The teaching of the bible was
compulsory in them
○ Western technology was introduced (e.g railways, roads and telegraphs)
● Indians did not like the fact that English had replaced Persian as the official language
○ Muslims saw it as an attack on their culture
Military:
Disbanding of Armies:
● When places were annexed, the smaller armies of those states were disbanded and not
accepted into the British Army
○ This created mass unemployment
Discrimination:
● Higher ranks were reserved for British officers. Indian officers were considered inferior
and were given lower salaries
○ This is despite the fact that they were excellent fighters who had proven their
valour time and time again
● Lower wages for the Indian soldiers
Events:
Meerut:
May 1857, the start of the war
● Mangal Panday killed a superior officer while on parade, thus starting the revolt. He was
imprisoned and publicly executed
● 85-90 men refused to use the gun in another contingent. They were stripped of their
uniform and imprisoned. In response to this, their comrades stormed the jail the free
them
● Following this, they sacked Meerut and killed their superior officers
● They then marched to Delhi and captured it, killing any British officer they found
○ Bahadur Shah II was freed and declared leader of the revolt. He was a symbol of
unity
● The revolters then took over Mathura, Kanpur, Ihani, Allahabad and Lucknow. They now
effectively ruled the upper province of modern-day Uttar Pradesh, then known as
‘United provinces of Agra and Oudh’
Delhi:
● Sir John Lawrence came and defeated the revolters there after a four-month long siege.
● He was helped by 2000 reinforcements from Gulab Singh. Some say that these were
pivotal and the battle could not be won without them.
● Bahadur Shah II surrendered but his two sons and one grandson were brutally murdered.
Their heads were presented to him as a lesson
○ He was then exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1862
○ Bahadur Shah Zafar was quite a famous poet who produced some of his best
works while in exile
Kanpur:
● Sepoys led by Nana Sahib captured the land and imprisoned British officers. At first, he
had promised that he would give them a safe passage out if they surrendered. However,
he killed them all; not just the men, but the women and children too.
● The British retook this region
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● He, with the help of Tattya Topi, took the region again.
● He was wrecked again by the British. He disappeared after this.
Nana Sahib:
● Nana Sahib (1824-?) was a Marathan aristocrat
● He was the adopted son of Baji Rao. As he was adopted, he was denied leadership of
Kanpur and his pension was removed due to the Doctrine of Lapse
○ He sent an envoy to plead his case but it failed. Due to this, he had a personal
vendetta against the British
● He led the revolt at Kanpur
● He disappeared in 1857 once the British had recaptured Kanpur
Jhansi:
After Lucknow fell in September, this was the main centre of opposition
● The Rani of Jhansi (Laxmibai) had a personal vendetta against the British for not letting
her rule
● With the help of Tattya Topi, she defeated the British and took control of the region
● She also trained an army of women.
● She was defeated soon afterwards, partly because one of her generals betrayed her in
battle. She died while fighting on the battlefield disguised as a man.
After pockets of opposition were eliminated, and the war officially ended in August 1858.
Analytical Questions:
How successful was the War of Independence?
Successes:
● Kanpur
● Jhansi
● Meerut
● Initially Delhi
● It became a source of patriotic symbolism later
Failures:
● Everything was retaken
○ Meerut
○ Delhi after a four-month long siege
○ Kanpur, twice
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○ Jhansi, due to a betrayal
○ All other pockets of opposition, including Lucknow
● After this, the British were able to tighten their noose on India
Lack of Coordination:
● Due to a lack of communication, revolters were not sure what was going on in other
parts of India
● The British were well organised and coordinated
○ They even spread rumours about Indian defeat to make people lose hope
Resources:
● Indians had no weaponry, food, money, material or reinforcements
○ There was no arrangement for the training of soldiers, either
○ They fought only with primitive weapons and what they had captured
○ Local merchants were also unwilling to finance them
● The British, however, had practically unlimited money and resources
○ If there were any shortfalls, new troops could be shipped from across the sea
Leadership:
● Novices were in charge of armies
○ There were only a few good leaders: Nana Sahib, Bakht Khan, and Tattya Topi
■ Rani of Jhansi was capable but not good
● The Indian’s lack of a common leader also meant that they were not unified under one
person
● They had excellent generals
○ John Nichols
Effects:
Proclamation of 1858:
● The British said that they would
○ Not interfere in the religious beliefs of the people
○ Pay due regard to ancient property rights and customs
○ Abide by all treaty obligations
○ Agree to no further territorial acquisition
○ Guarantee the right to appointments in public service
■ However, in practice, they hardly followed any of this
British Rule:
● The governor-general was replaced with a viceroy, who was responsible with the
running of India. He had over 1000 ICS members to help him administer the country
○ The first viceroy was Lord Kenning
● A Secretary of State for India was appointed, who was responsible for the government
of the nation
● Only puppet rulers were allowed to rule
● The EIC was abolished and Queen Victoria replaced Bahadur Shah II as the royal family
of India
● They ran India in such a way that was only beneficial for the British. For example, duty
was completely abolished on foreign goods.
Rise of Opposition:
● The lack of opportunities for Indians led to wide-spread criticism in local newspapers.
○ In response to this, the British passed the Vernacular Act of 1878, which
censored newspapers
■ Under it, publishers could be told not to print any material and their
papers could be confiscated
■ Many editors were jailed
■ It was withdrawn by Lord Ripon after much opposition
○ That same year, they passed the Arms Act which prevented Indians from owning
weapons
● In 1907, a Sikh in Germany gave a scathing speech on British rule
● Nationalist ideas rose
○ In 1866, Bose founded a society for the promotion of nationalist feeling
○ In 1867, the yearly Hindu Mela was started
Overall Assessment:
Beliefs (general):
● The poor status of Muslims was because they were treated as second-class citizens by
the British and Hindus
● The Muslim community had to accept that the British were their new rulers
○ Muslim position could be improved if they adopted a more positive approach
towards the British. Otherwise, the Hindus would continue prospering and they
would continue declining
● He wanted to see an improvement in the Muslims’ economic, social, political and
religious fortunes
● The political awareness of Muslims had to be raised in order to make them aware of
their threat to their position from the Hindu’s cooperative approach to the British
Aims:
● Improve relations between the Muslims and British by removing British doubts about
Muslim loyalty and Muslim doubts about British intentions
● Improve the social and economic position of the Muslims by encouraging them to
receive Western education and take up posts in civil service and army
● Increase the political awareness of Muslims in order to make them aware of the threat
to their position from the Hindus and their policy of cooperation
Importance:
● He worked tirelessly to restore relations with the British, particularly after the WoI when
they were convinced that Muslims were not trustworthy.
○ His writings helped change their view of Muslims and reduce their doubts of
Muslim loyalty.
● He played a major role in bringing about a Muslim revival.
○ Because of the Aligarh Movement, Muslims came to value education and
developed a greater feeling of self-worth
○ The educational institutes he set up taught many future Muslim leaders such as
Liaquat Ali Khan
● As Hindus were working to take advantage of Muslim’s bad relations with the British, he
presented the Two-Nation Theory and argued against the INC in order to emphasise the
threat of their rhetoric to Muslims.
○ This led to increased political awareness amongst Muslims
○ This is why Sir Syed can be called ‘The Father of the Pakistan Movement’
War of Independence:
● Muslims were not guilty for the WoI and thus were being wrongly prosecuted
● Instead, he believed the British government’s actions instigated. This view was
presented in his pamphlet “The Causes of the Indian Revolt”, which highlighted:
○ The lack of representation of Muslims in government posts
○ The mismanagement of the Indian army
○ Forcible conversions to Christianity
Religious Differences:
● He believed that Muslims and Christians misunderstood each other’s religion, which was
a cause of hostility
○ He tried to clarify this by explaining the nature of Islam and Christianity and how
the two religions weren’t as far apart as presented
● He also wanted to do away with the belief that the British were foreign invaders who
wanted to convert everyone to Christianity
War of Independence:
● He penned a pamphlet ‘Asbab-e-Baghwat-e-Hind’ (Essay on the Causes of the Indian
Revolt which shifted the blame of the revolt from Muslims to British mismanagement.
As said before, it highlighted:
○ The lack of representation of Muslims in government posts
○ The mismanagement of the Indian army
○ Forcible conversions to Christianity
● This pamphlet converted to English and distributed in the British parliament, where it
was highly read
○ While some took it as an insult, it was certainly kept in mind during the making
of future policies
● He also wrote ‘The Loyal Mohammadens of India’ in 1859
○ This highlighted Muslim efforts to aid British women and children during the War
of Independence
Religious Reconciliation:
● Christian Attitude to Muslims:
○ He defended Muslims in his essay ‘Loyal Mohammedans on India’
■ In this, he was angered by British disrespect to Indians and suggested
that they should be consulted during the making of policies
○ He wrote essays on the Prophet to clarify misconceptions the British had and
accusation that he was a warmonger etc.
■ This was catalyzed by his reading of a negative account of the Prophet’s
life a fellow scholar wrote - “The Life of Muhammad” by Sir William Muir
● Muslim Attitude to Christians:
○ He wrote a book (Tabyin ul Kalam) in which he pointed out the similarities
between Christianity and Islam
○ He wrote “Ahkam-e-taam-e-Ahle-Kitab:, in which he told Muslim ulemas that it
was fine to have their lives adjusted educationally and socially by other followers
of the book (Christians)
● He established the British Indian Association to increase cooperation between the two
parties
Opening of Schools:
● Opened two schools:
○ One in Ghazipore in 1864
○ One in Muradabad in 1859
● In 1875, he opened the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental School in Aligarh. It was later
changed to the MAO College in 18777 and the Aligarh University in 1930.
○ This college offered both Western and Indian education, though Islamic
education was also provided.
○ It was set up on the English public school system which he observed during his
travels to the nation
○ It became much more than an educational revolution; it became a symbol of
Muslim unity that produced many of the future leaders of Pakistan
Political Services:
Why did Sir Syed try to improve the political status of Muslims in the subcontinent?
Democracy:
● He believed that a traditional democracy would not work in India as Muslims would not
have enough representation and thus would continually be oppressed
○ Thus, reserved seats for Muslims which were filled via separate electorates were
needed
Participation:
● Muslims should protect their interests and counter INC propaganda by participating in
politics themselves
○ They should do this in Muslim parties which would not manipulate them to anti-
Muslim causes
How did Sir Syed try to Improve the political status of Muslims:
Two Nation Theory:
● At first, he thought that everyone living in India was Indian and that Urdu was their
language
● However, after the Hindi-Urdu controversy in 1867, in which Hindu organizations
protested that instead of Urdu, Hindi should be the national language, his opinion
changed
○ They disliked Urdu because it was established during the time of the Mughals
and thus associated it with that empire.
● Due to this, he realized that in reality, there were two different nations living in one
country and should, therefore, be treated differently.
○ He discussed this idea for the first time in 1868 with Lord Shakespeare
● He also started defending Urdu literature, founding ‘Anjuman-e-Tariki-e-Urdu’, which
worked for the protection of Urdu
INC:
He countered the growing influence of the INC
● When Congress was formed, it originally was supposed to represent the views of all
communities in India.
○ However, it soon became apparent that it was a Hindu-dominated body working
to establish Hindu superiority
● This party asked for democracy.
○ Sir Syed opposed because there were four times as many Hindus as there were
Muslims and they would thus win every election, with Muslims having no
representation at all
● They also asked for competitive examinations for appointment in the government office.
○ This would not work because Muslims were generally uneducated and would
thus have an unfair disadvantage, so he asked for seats to be reserved until the
Muslims got sufficient education
Century
Formation of the Indian National Congress:
● In 1883, the Indian Association suggested the formation of a body that represented
Indian views to the British
● The same year, Allan Octavian hume wrote a letter to the graduates of Calcutta
university calling on them to take the lead in setting up a national political organization.
○ He followed up this letter by setting up the Indian National Union (which had
branches in several cities) with the approval of Viceroy Lord Dufferin
● In December, the first conference was called in Bombay.
○ At the same time, a second conference was held in Calcutta
● In 1885, it officially became the Indian National Congress.
● In 1886, it stated that its aim was to promote the welfare of citizens and India by
educating the public and convincing the British government to end unfair practices
● At its beginning, the INC was keen not to offend the British; it followed the Queen’s rule
well.
Failures:
● It became a nationalist, Hindu majority party by the 20th century
● It opposed the partition of Bengal
○ Declared 16th October 1905 a day of mourning
○ Protested and attempted an assassination
● They started the Swadeshi movement
● Played a pivotal role in partition
● Gained a large role in the Indian Civil Service
● Later, they also started to demand self-rule which meant they wanted maximum
representation in the government and wanted to make policies. As a result, the British
began to ignore the Indians and the INC.
Social:
● Cultural Differences:
○ The people of East Bengal spoke a different language than those from West
Bengal
○ West Bengalis considered themselves superior to their Esat Bengali counterparts
● Muslim Development:
○ At the time, Muslims were severely underdeveloped
■ Most were uneducated farmers
○ The partition of Bengal presented the opportunity to provide them a province of
their own
○ This would also help improve their relations with Muslims, which would help
them politically
Political
● Countering the growing influence of the INC:
○ The rising popularity of the INC concerned the British, who felt they might
become an unstoppable force
○ By giving muslimst a separate province, they hoped Muslims would be
encouraged to become a political entity themselves
○ Improving their relations with Muslims would also subjugate a part of the
populace, stabilizing British rule
● According to the Hindus, this was a part of their “Divide and Conquer” policies
Hindus:
They reacted negatively and performed every type of boycott and protest possible
● Protest marches and anti-partition speeches, articles, and papers
○ 16th October 1905, the day when the partition came into affect, was declared a
“Day of Mourning” and a national tragedy
● Assassination attempts
○ Against the future viceroy Lord Minto
○ Derailed a train containing the governor of Bengal
○ Muslim leader- Nawab Salimullah
● Swadeshi movement
○ People were told to stop using British products in favour of local products
○ British cloth was burned
● Titles were returned and government jobs were resigned
● British schools and colleges were boycotted
● British reaction to this:
○ In response to this, the British passed the Press Act of 1906 which censored
newspapers.
○ They also arrested hundreds of protesters and editors of Anti-British magazines
(Including Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak)
○ They developed the Muslim League
Muslim League:
Simla Deputation:
● The Simla deputation was a Muslim deputation to the Indian Viceroy, Lord Minto, who
was currently on vacation in Simla
● It had 35 members
● It was headed by Sir Agha Khan in 1906
● They presented several requests to the Viceroy, including reserved seats for Muslims,
the right of separate electorates, and the appointment of Muslim judges
● The Viceroy assured the Muslims that their rights would be protected under his
administration
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Why it was sent:
● They had recently been given a province of their own; this was a gesture of thanks to
the British in an attempt to improve their relations
● To counter the propaganda of Congress by assuring the British that they were not part
of the protests and that they were capable of running a province
● To raise political demands
○ Right of separate electorates
■ Following the Two-Nation theory
○ ⅓ seats should be reserved for Muslims
■ This was greater than the Muslim population, who made up only 25% of
the Indian population. However, it was necessary as 33% was necessary
to oppose a bill being passed
Importance:
● Showed that the attempts of Sir Syed had been successful
○ Now, relations between Muslims and the British were mended as the British
accepted Muslim demands for separate electorates and reserved seats’
● The communal rivalry between Muslims and Hindus now existed on a constitutional
level
● Showed that many Muslims now believed they should be treated separately from
Hindus
○ This led to the creation of ML and the Pakistan Movement
Partition of Bengal:
● It was important to have a Muslim party to represent the populace of East Bengal, who
were now much more politically important due to their separate province
● The INC was also presenting a lot of propaganda against it, even starting violent
movements such as the Swadeshi Movement
○ The ML was set up to oppose to propaganda being presented against the
partition of Bengal
○ It was also created to assure the British that Muslims were not taking part in
such protests
Reforms:
● The imperial council was enlarged by adding more Indians (16 → 60 members)
○ Pros- more representation
○ Cons- The majority of members were still British officials
● Central Legislative Council was enlarged- 60 new members were added
○ Pros - Powers were given to the members to debate and discuss the importance
of the topic. They were also able to raise questions on key political issues
○ Con- the powers given to Indians were only advisory, they had no actual
executive authority. No discussions on foreign policy or on relations with the
princely states were permitted.
○ Note - though, in the textbook, it is written that the Central Executive Council
was enlarged, most other sources say that the Legislative Council was enlarged
so take that as you will
● Provincial councils were enlarged to 50 members in large provinces and 30 members in
smaller provinces
○ Pros- increased Indian representation
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○ Cons- British maintained control by maintaining the majority.
■ Also, most of the authority was in the hands of the provincial governor,
who was nominated, not elected
● Muslims were given separate electorates and ⅓ seats in the councils
○ Pros- the British government accepted the Two-Nation theory
■ They were showing interest in the protection of rights of the minority
○ Cons- Hindus and Congress opposed this; it was called a communal division
■ They also objected to Muslims being given a disproportionate amount of
seats in the parliament
● On the suggestion of Morely, Lord Minto appointed the first Indian into his Executive
Council
○ Pros - Representation
○ Cons - Muslims heavily opposed the fact that a Hindu, S.P. Sinha, was appointed.
They suggested that two members should be elected
■ The next time, a Muslim was appointed
● Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian affairs
● Voting was to be indirect and through a very limited franchise
○ Pros - democracy for the first time
○ Cons - There was an extremely limited franchise and members were not voted
directly
Hindu Reaction:
● Other than criticizing and rejecting the reforms, the INC, in their annual meetings,
passed a resolution condemning the separate electorates between 1910-1915 and
1917-1935
○ They said that it was an attempt to sow the seeds of distrust
○ They didn’t sign it in 1916 due to the Lucknow Pact
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■ Despite this, they still claimed to be representative of all Indians
Reasons:
● Separate electorate and ⅓ seats for Muslims
● Indians were not granted self-rule
○ For example, the Legislative Council had little executive authority
● Lack of representation
○ For example, the British retained their majority in the Imperial Council
Demands:
● The member of elected seats on the council should be increased (Indians must have a
majority in the government council)
● Bills passed by the majority must be implemented and accepted as law
● Rights of minorities must be protected
● Adequate provincial autonomy must be given
● Muslims should be given ⅓ of the seats in the central government
● Voting rights for all
● Separation of the executive and judicial wings of the government
● No bill shall be passed in the council related to any community unless ¾ of the same
community in the council approved to it
Importance:
● The Lucknow Pact was important for the future of Muslims because it marked the first
acceptance by Hindus of the Two-Nation theory.
● This also marked the beginning of cooperation between Hindus and Muslims. Two
opposing sides were willing to come together against a common enemy
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○ This posed a great threat to British rule
● Due to this meeting, self-rule was popularized in Muslims. This marked a change in
Muslim opinion towards self-rule and foreshadowed that they would start working for it
Reasons:
● A constitutional reform was due
○ Every ten years, constitutional reforms were to be introduced
● To announce what they had promised after the Lucknow Pact
○ When they had seen that conditional support for WW1 was being offered, they
offered the Indians self-rule
● To give Indians more representation in parliament and give them some measure of
responsibility for the state of their country
● Win the support of Indians
Terms:
Central Legislative Council:
● The Central Legislative Council was divided into two councils under a system known as
‘Bicameral Central Legislature’.
○ The Upper House was known as the Council of State
Council of Princes
● The Council of Princes, which had 108 members who represented the Princely States,
was set up
● Its aim was to allow them to discuss matters of importance
○ However, as they had no actual executive power, some did not even bother to
attend, regarding it as a ‘talking shop’
Rejection:
● Both the INC and ML both condemned it, calling for self-rule
○ Gandhi called it ‘inadequate, unsatisfactory, and disappointing’
Rowlatt Act:
● In 1917, a committee was set up by Justice Rowlatt to investigate revolutionary actions
in India and recommend ways to stop them.
● They submitted their report in 1918. However, it was not implemented immediately, as
they hoped that the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms would be enough to quell the
Indians.
● This act, also known as the Anarchial and Revolutionary Crimes Act of India, later
became part of the Defense Act of India
Suggestions:
● Arrest without warrant
● Detention without bail
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● Right of provincial government to order people where to live
● Gatherings of 5 or more people in public places was to be banned
Backlash:
● There were many protests against this as it seemed to go against central principles of
British justice- trial by jury and safeguards against illegal imprisonment.
● Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council and Gandhi launched a mass
protest (hartal).
● However, despite the opposition, the Viceroy still implemented this
Analytical Questions:
Was ___ the most important reason that led to the breakout of violence in India
in 1919? Explain your answer. [14]
● MCR
○ See reasons for its rejection
● Rowlatt Act
○ Cite its terms
● Amritsar Massacre
○ Give a brief account of the event and the failure of the Hunter Committee
● Arrest of Muslim leaders during and after World War 1
○ Those asking Muslims not to help in WW1 were arrested.
■ Thousands were arrested during and after the war
● Self rule was not given to Indians even though:
○ It was promised
○ Indians fought for the British
○ There was support for Indian self rule in the Parliament
Failure:
● The Morley-Minto Reforms were well intentioned but the councils that were enlarged
could only give advice, with power remaining in the hands of the British. The Indians
objected to this as they wanted more say in their affairs
● The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms disappointed the Muslims and Hindus as they had
hoped for greater concessions. Central government reserved sweeping powers for itself
with only minor concessions for the locals. As the Indians had supported the British
during WW1 they felt that the British government should reward this by giving them
more responsibility in running their own affairs
● The Rowlatt Act of 1919 followed the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms and increased the
resentment of the political parties by including the right of arrest without a warrant and
detention without bail. This was to cause great unrest
Protection of Islam:
Preservation of Muslim Political Importance:
● If the Caliphate, the major Islamic institution, fell, Muslims would lose political
importance throughout the world
○ “Every instance of a collapse of the Muslim powers of the world is bound to have
an adverse influence on the political importance of our community” Maulvi Fazl-
ul-Haq
○ “If Turkey is conquered that will be a great grief, for she is the last of the great
powers left to Islam. We are afraid that we shall become like the Jews, a people
without a country of our own” Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
● Muslims feared that the British were trying to reduce Indians’ political power by
creating conflict between them and Hindus
○ Due to this, there were calls for Hindu-Muslim unity, which were acted upon
during the Khilafat Conferences
Hijrat Movement:
● A call for migration was given to the Muslim populace. India was also declared as Dar ul
Harb by Fazl ul Haq and Abul Qari and Muslims were told to migrate to Afghanistan,
where their religion was safe
Reasons:
● Since culture, religion and language were the same
● It was the nearest bordering Muslim country
● Muslims were promised religious freedom and vast, fertile, farmable land
Failure:
● Many people living near the border in NWF and Balochistan immediately migrated as
they didn’t have much distance to travel.
● The Muslims of Sindh, however, had a longer distance to travel. They carried with them
all they could and left the rest behind/sold it. By the time they reached, the Afghani
government had turned hostile and refused to take any more refugees as:
Khilafat Conferences:
There were two in 1919 and one in 1920
First Conference:
● The first one was called in Delhi to try to convince the British to keep their promises
about maintaining the Turkish Empire.
○ They resolved to send a delegation to Britain
Khilafat Delegation:
● Muslims sent a delegation to Britain to remind Lloyd George to remind him of his
promises.
○ The British PM responded negatively, saying that as Germany and Austria had
received justice, they would, too.
● The delegation consisted of Muhammad Ali Jauhar, Maulana Shaukat Ali Jauhar,
Maulana Abdul Bari, and Maulana Fazl ul Haq
● However, while the conference was still in Britain, the treaty of Sevres was announced
Treaty of Sevres:
● Allied powers took control of the Ottoman empire. Different parts would be given to
various countries
● Allied powers took control of finances and the army
● Its terms were made public before it was signed, which sparked protests in India
● It was signed by the Allied Powers and Turkey in 1920
● Indians were concerned about this as:
○ Indians were partly responsible for it as they had fought against them
○ Thus, great opposition to the British was kickstarted
Second Conference:
● In the second meeting, Gandhi joined the movement.
● They also added the objective of self-rule (swaraj) into this so that they could
collectively work for these causes.
Non-Cooperation Movement:
● In 1920, Gandhi started a non-cooperation movement
● Many actions against the British government were taken during this, including:
○ Burning of British cloth and the encouragement of hand-spun/woven Indian
cloth
○ Titles were returned
○ Resignations of jobs:
■ Teachers leaving Indian schools and setting up their own institutions
■ Lawyers leaving their practices
■ Eventually, even the police and military officers quit
○ Refusal to pay taxes
Elections of 1920:
● Elections were held in 1920 for the councils. Due to the non-cooperation movement,
both the ML and the INC boycotted it
● A faction of Congress defied this and contested it. They, called the National Liberals,
won a few seats. Soon, it was realised that they were neither popular nor powerful in
influencing the British to enforce self-rule. Thus, they were proven useless
Moplah Uprising:
● Mowplahs were Arab traders who settled on the Western coast (Malabar)
○ Some traded, some were landowners, some worked under Hindu landlords
● Hindu landlords tried redistributing their land, which led to the annexing of some
Mowplahs, which led to a conflict
○ Mowplahs killed a few Hindu landlords in this uprising; some British policemen
were also killed.
○ Therefore, the British sent a regiment and killed 4000 Moplahs and arrested
thousands
● Hindus and Congress criticized the killing of Hindu landlords.
○ After saying that Muslims killed Hindu landlords, Hindus started killing Muslims
○ This dismayed Hindu-Muslim unity, which was badly needed
Elections of 1923:
● In 1923, the Congress participated in the elections under the name of the Swaraj Party.
○ The Muslim League did not participate as they were still in the Khilafat
Movement
● After they won, there was a major change in their policy. Congress started criticizing:
○ The right of separate electorates for Muslims
Hindu Extremists:
● By 1924, Muslims were not on good terms with the British or Congress. The Muslim
League was alone, with neither Congress nor the British looking to protect Muslims.
During this time, the activities of extremist Hindu groups upset Muslims
○ Forceful conversions
○ Planned attacks
○ Mass killings
○ Abductions
Arya Samaj
● Founded in 1877, it was a Hindu extremist group
● It had strongholds in western and northern India
● Aimed to purify Hinduism from impure practices
○ Aimed to reconvert Hindus who had converted to Christianity
● Power agent for the spread of educational and social reforms
● It carries out militant activities that strained Hindu- Muslim relationships
Hindu Mahasabha:
● In Punjab, HIndu Sabhas had been involved in politics in Punjab since the 1890s
● 1923: Congressman Pandit Mohan Malaviya brought a number of them to form a
political party- the Hindu Mahasbha
● It contested the elections first in 1926
● It had little influence till 1947, when the charismatic U.D. Savarkar became president
○ He was later accused of the assassination of Gandhi in 1948
Failures:
● Muslims could not achieve their basic aim- to protect the Caliphate
● Economic losses to Indians due to the non-cooperation Muslim
○ They left their schools and jobs
○ Hijrat Movement
● The end of the movement negatively affected Hindu-Muslim unity, leading to more
communal riots
● As the major Muslim institution fell, Muslim power globally took a blow
Proposals:
Muslims would call off demands for a separate electorate if the following terms were accepted:
● ⅓ of seats in Central Legislature to be reserved for Muslims through electorates
● Sindh should be given full provincial status
● All British reforms should be extended to Balochistan and NWFP
● Seats given to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal should be proportional to the number of
Muslims given there
Why:
● To discuss the protection of Muslims
○ This was especially important in the context of rising Hindu terrorists
● Reconcile between Hindus and Muslims
○ Nehru said that the largest barrier to Hindu-Muslim unityunity was the Muslim
demand for separate electorates
● Raise, highlight and clarify Muslim demands
Importance:
● It was very important for Muslims as it led to the demand of more provinces for
Muslims to balance the Hindu provinces
● This was the first time Muslims gave up their right of a separate electorate conditional
to other points
Simon Commission:
● A seven-member British commission was sent by the Conservative Government headed
by Sir John Simon reached India in 1927.
Terms:
● Federal form of government
● Scrapping the system of diarchy
● Accepting the rights of a separate electorate for Muslims
● Rejecting the idea of ⅓ seats for Muslims
● Rejected the idea of separating Sindh from Bombay to make a new province
● Increased the number of Indians in the government council
● Increased voting rights for Indians
Reasons:
● They were sent two years earlier than expected to assess the working of the MCR and to
see if the MCR was accepted by Indians.
● To recommend amendments in the MCR before their expiry to make them acceptable to
Muslims
● It was sent two years early as the Conservative Party feared that they would lose the
elections to the Liberals, due to which they were sent earlier than expected to keep the
Labour Party (who were more sympathetic and likely to give concessional reforms) away
from the constitution
Rejection:
● The commission was opposed by Indians. It was welcomed by protest marches and
slogans: “Go Simon, go home”, “India’s uninvited guests”
● Congress fully rejected it
○ Gandhi called it an insult to the national character of Indians
● A part of the Muslim League, headed by Mia Muhammad Shafi, was in favour of it
○ Shafi suggested that they work with them to see what they suggested, then to
accept or reject it
■ Jinnah, however, believed that as it was the same group who had given
them the MCR, there was no point cooperating with it, especially because
it had been sent early to give strict reforms
Reasons:
● Indians knew that it had been sent by Conservatives, not the Labour Party
Nehru Report:
● Once the Simon Commission had failed, questions were raised as to why it was sent in
the first place if it was so obviously going to be unsuccessful
○ However, while the British acknowledged the dissatisfaction, they did not amend
anything, instead putting forth the question of whether Indians were united
enough that they could form a constitution themselves
○ For example, Lord Birkenhead, the Secretary of State for India, said in the House
of Lords “…let them [Indians] produce a constitution which carries behind it a fair
measure of general agreement among the great peoples of India...”
■ This put the ball in Indian court- it was a challenge to them to unitedly
present a reform draft
● An All-Parties Conference was set up in India by the INC in 1928 in response to the
challenge
○ A committee was made headed by Motilal Nehru. His son, Jawaharlal Nehru, was
the secretary of the committee. The two Muslim members were Shoaib Quraishi
and Sir Ali Imam. One Sikh and one Scheduled Caste Hindu was also present
○ They were assigned the task to design a constitutional report accepted by all.
■ They were told ‘to consider and determine the principles of the
Constitution of India along with the problem of communalism and issue
of dominion status.’
○ 5/9 of the members signed it- all four Hindus and one Muslims
■ The rest rejected it as there was not enough protection for minorities
● More information here:
○ https://www.constitutionofindia.net/historical_constitutions/nehru_report__m
otilal_nehru_1928__1st%20January%201928
Suggestions:
● Dominion status for India
● Federal form of government.
Proposed Amendments:
● These reports left Muslims dissatisfied as:
○ There was hardly any Muslim input into it - Sir Syed Imam Ali attended only one
meeting as he was ill and Shoaib Qureshi refused to sign the report
○ It did not follow the Delhi Muslim Proposals - separate electorates were rejected
and adequate reconciliation was not given
○ Not enough consideration were made for Muslim rights
● Although it did not provide protection to Muslims, Jinnah did not immediately reject it.
He suggested a few reforms:
Jinnah’s 14 Points:
● In January 1929, the ML met in Delhi, where Jinnah presented his 14 points, a
constitutional solution
● Muslims agreed that the 14 points should be the basis for any further discussions with
Congress. It was accepted by the conference in March ‘29
Terms:
● The form of the future constitution should be federal, with the residuary powers vested
in the provinces.
● A uniform measure of autonomy shall be guaranteed to all provinces.
● All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the
definite principle of adequate and effective representation of minorities in every
province without reducing the majority in any province to a minority or even equality.
● In the Central Legislature, Muslim representation shall not be less than one third.
● Representation of communal groups shall continue to be by separate electorates:
provided that it shall be open to any community, at any time, to abandon its separate
electorate in favor of joint electorate.
● Any territorial redistribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in any way
affect the Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and NWFP provinces.
● Full religious liberty shall be guaranteed to all communities.
● No bill or resolution shall be passed in any legislature if three fourths of the members of
any community in that body oppose the bill.
● Sindh should be separated from the Bombay Presidency.
● Reforms should be introduced in the NWFP and Balochistan on the same footings as in
the other provinces.
● Muslims should be given an adequate share in all services, having due regard to the
requirement of efficiency.
● The Constitution should embody adequate safeguards for the protection of Muslim
culture, education, language, religion and personal laws, as well as for Muslim charitable
institutions.
Reasons:
● Nehru report failed to protect Muslim rights
● Jinnah proposed amendments incroporated the DMP, which the Congress had refused
● He wanted to protect the rights of Muslims in future constitution
Importance:
● Formed basis of future negotiations
● Furthered the awareness that Hindus and Muslims should form a separate nation
○ This shaped the basis of a desire for a separate homeland
● Made clear that living with Hindus under one constitution is no longer a possibility for
Muslims as their demands are very different from Hindus, who were not ready to
provide protection for Muslims
● Revived the Muslim League and directed them in a new way
The princes declared that they would join a No consensus could be developed as to the
future federation of India as long as their structure of the federation. It was not
rights were recognized decided whether there would be a
strong/loose centre
A federal type of government was approved As the INC, the largest party in India, did not
for India attend, it was difficult for significant progress
to be made
Provincial autonomy was approved, with the No decision could be made as to weightage
system of diarchy abolished in the provinces and separate electorates
They all agreed to give Sindh the status of a The subcommittees formed to deal with
full-fledged province matters of minorities were largely
unsuccessful, partially due to the death of
Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar, who was a
part of all of them
● The main reason for its failure was the absence of Congress
Clauses
● Most political prisoners and property seized by the government were released
● Gandhi agreed to call off the non-cooperation movement
● The government lifted all bans against the Congress
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● Gandhi gave up his demands for independence as long as he was granted self rule
Successes Failures:
Due to this Gandhi-Irwin Pact, the INC Since the Labour Party had lost power, Britain
attended the meeting was less keen to take an agreement
Sindh and NWFP would be given provincial Gandhi took a hard line and refused to listen
status to minorities, claiming that he represented all
of India.
In response, the minorities formed a
minorities group, claiming to represent 56%
of India
Communal Award:
● The British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, saw himself as ‘a friend of the Indians’
and thus wanted to help resolve their issues
○ After the failure of the 2nd RTC, he announced the Communal Award in August
1932
● It gave the rights of separate electorate to all the minority communities in the country
● The principle of weightage was also applied.
Terms:
Provincial:
● It introduced a federal form of government which allowed provincial autonomy through
a representative government in the provinces
● The number of provinces increased from 8 to 11
○ Sindh was separated from the Bombay Presidency
○ Orissa was separated from the Bihar Presidency
○ NWFP was formally made a province
Federal:
● Central legislature was bicameral (similar to the MCR). It had two levels:
○ The Upper House/Council of State
■ In the upper house, there were elected Indians from provinces and
nominated princes. There would be 260 total members, 156 from the
provinces and 104 from the princely states
○ The Lower House/Legislative Assembly
■ There were 375 total members, 250 of whom were elected and 125 were
nominated provinces
● The head of the central government was called the Governor-General instead of the
Viceroy
○ According to the numbers above, Indians could make any laws they wanted to.
They countered this by increasing the power of the governor-general, allowing
him to:
■ Veto any law
■ Pass any law
■ Dismiss the whole constitution
● A System of Diarchy at the Centre was implemented
○ Reserved Subjects (which were controlled by the Governor-General):
■ Defense, Finance, and Foreign Policy
● The voter franchise was increased by 5x from 5-25% of the total population
○ Now, 35 million could vote
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● There were separate electorates for Muslims and Sikhs
○ Untouchables were given Separate Electorates and voting rights
Reaction:
● It was opposed on all sides in India
● Nehru called it a “Charter of Slavery” and said that it had too many safeguards that it
was like “a machine with strong brakes but no engines”
○ In other words, he believed that instead of actually giving Indians enough rights,
they had added too many clauses that allowed the British to take them away
● Jinnah said it was “thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad, and totally unacceptable”
Importance:
● It was an important point in the move towards independence as it:
○ Provided the basis for negotiations which resulted in the British leading India
○ Parliamentary systems had been set up which gave Indians more representation
● Provincial governments were free to come up with their own policies
○ This was, however, counteracted by the increased power of the Provincial
Governor
● Indian power was increased:
○ Indians were allowed to make any laws they wanted
■ This was counteracted by the increase of power of the governor-general
○ The voting franchise was increased (to 25%)
● The system of diarchy was removed from the provinces
○ It was, however, added to the centre
Failures:
● Unlike the Nehru Report, it contained no bill of rights
● While Indians were given some power, the British gave themselves the authority to take
the wheel back whenever they wanted to
○ The Governor-General’s and Provincial Governor’s powers were increased too
much
● It contained no preamble, due to which it was unclear as to what British attitude
towards Indian Dominion Status was in the future. For the present, India was not given
it
Elections of 1937:
● Due to the Act of ‘35, elections were held on provincial bases
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Manifestoes:
Muslim League:
‘The main principles on which we expect our representatives in various legislatures to work will
be:
i) that the present provincial constitution and proposed central constitution should be replaced
immediately by democratic full self-government
ii) and that in the meantime, representatives of the Muslim League will utilize the Legislatures
in order to extract benefit out of the constitution for the uplift of the people in the various
spheres of national life’
● It was for provincial autonomy and the protection of minorities
INC:
‘Every party and group that stands aloof from the Congress organization tends, knowingly or
unknowingly, to become a source of weakness to the nation and a source of strength to the
forces ranged against it. For the fight for independence a joint front is necessary.’
● They were for self-rule (Swaraj)
● They also said that they were contesting just to show their popularity and spread; the
decision as to whether they would take the government would be taken later. This is
because, in the RTC. they claimed that they spoke for 85% of the Indian populace
Results:
INC:
● Out of 1771 general seats, they got 750 (40%) of the seats
● They had an absolute majority in 5 provinces
● They were the largest party in 4 provinces
○ They were in power in 9 provinces
○ They joined the coalition in 2 (Sindh and Assam)
● The INC refused to set up their government till the British met their demands:
○ The provincial government would not use their special power in legislative affairs
as they knew there would be problems in rights of minorities
○ Many discussions took place, and eventually, the British government consented
in a verbal agreement. After a 4 month delay, the INC finally formed their
ministry
Muslim League:
● Out of 486 Muslim seats, they won 109, most of which were from Muslim minority
Provinces
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● Punjab: They won 1/96 seats. The Unionist Party of Punjab, later headed by Khizar Hayat
Tiwana, got a majority in alliance with the INC.
● They won 0 seats in Bengal
● They won a few seats in UP, a Muslim minority province. Here, they wanted to be part
of the coalition government. To discuss it, they held a meeting with the INC, in which
Sardar Abdur Rab Nishbar, representing the ML, met Molana Abul Kalam, representing
the INC
○ The following demands were presented:
■ The ML members who won seats were to join the INC
■ They would take orders from INC
■ The ML’s parliamentary board in UP would be dissolved.
○ As this was incredibly disrespectful, they rejected it
Muslim League:
● Successes:
○ This was their first major election, which helped unify the party after the internal
split of the 1930s
○ Gave them experience as to how to contest elections, which led to
improvements in organization and planning
Congress Rule:
● Congress had ministries in 9 provinces for 2.5 years
○ This time was crucial in the history of Hindu-Muslim relations
○ Hindu racist anti-Muslim policies measures introduced by the INC resulted in the
severe worsening of relationships between the two parties
Policies:
Bande Matram:
● This was a song that degraded Muslims and their religion
○ It was written by a Bengali novelist, Bantam Chatterie
● It urged non-Muslims to expel Muslims, suggesting that India (Hindustan) was for
Hindustan only, strengthening Hindu nationalism
● INC members insisted on commencing the day with a recitation of the song
● It was adopted as the national anthem and was to be recited before the start of official
business
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Warda Sceme:
Under the Warda Scheme, an educational policy, the following were implemented:
● Religious teachings were ignored
● Hindi was made the national language
○ It was made the medium of education
● Spinning cotton by hand, a symbol of Hindu nationalism, was included in the curriculum
○ This skill was now useless due to the industrial revolution
● Students were told to pay respect to Gandhi’s portrait during assembly
General:
● Azaan was forbidden
● Attacks were carried out on mosques
● Beef was forbidden and punishment was inflicted for slaughtering crowds
● Noisy processions were carried out near mosques during prayer and pigs were
sometimes pushed into masjids
● Anti Muslim riots: Muslims were attacked and their houses were set on wire
○ Many Muslims believed that filing complaints was useless as decisions were
always made against them
Reactions:
Muslim Opinion on:
● Bande Matram:
○ It degraded Muslims and their religion
○ It urged Hindus to expel Muslims from ‘Hindustan’, suggesting the country was
for Hindus only
● Wardha Scheme:
○ This inculcated and propagated Hindu beliefs in the youth, due to which it was
an attack on Islamic culture
Importance:
● Communal riots highlighted the Hindu-Muslim divide
● Muslims realised it would be wrong to expect fair treatment from Hindus after
independence
Day of Deliverance:
● In 1939, Britain announced that they, and India, were at war against India.
● When they refused to listen to Congress demands for independence in exchange for
help in the war, the INC abdicated government
● Following the abdication of the government by the INC, the Muslim League called a Day
of Deliverance across the subcontinent in order to celebrate the end of Congress Rule
● Muslims around India were thankful as Congress tyranny had ended, and they
celebrated after Jinnah told them to
● The Hindus were deeply offended by this, with the INC commenting on how little
Muslims and Hindus agreed on
Description:
● Regions in which muslims are numerically a majority as in the North-Western and
Eastern zone of India, should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the
constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign
● It was inspired by Sir Syed’s Two Nation Theory, Allama Iqbal’s Allahabad Address, and
Rehmat Ali’s Pamphlet
August Offer:
What:
● In August 1940, Lord Linlithgow made Indians an offer on the behalf of the British
parliament to:
○ Expand the Executive Council of the Governor General to include more members
from political parties
○ To set up an advisory council comprising of members from the Indian Princely
States
○ To set up a council to decide a new constitution for India with due regard for
minorities after the war had ended
■ All of this was if they helped the British in World War 2
○ It ended up as a failure since Congress and ML both rejected it.
Lord Linlithgow:
● He was born in Britain in 1887
● He was a unionist politician and colonial administrator
● He was the governor-General of Australia
● He presented the August offer to India in 1940
Why:
● The British government was in need of Indian assistance in the war. However, this was
not being given as:
○ The INC was demanding complete transfer of power to Indians
○ The ML wanted partition of India
Cripps Mission:
What:
● In 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps came to India to win its support on the war issue (3 points)
● They offered:
○ Post war dominion status in India
○ To allow the elected legislature to draft the future constitution
○ To allow provinces to opt out of the future constitution
■ This was known as the Non-Accession Clause
○ The new legislature was to be elected immediately after the war.
○ Defence of India, Finance, and Foreign Policy would remain in the hands of the
British Government, and the Finance Minister shall be a British National
Importance:
● British weakness was seen
● Non accession clause was an important step in acceptance of separation
● Hindu-Muslim diametrically opposing views highlighted
● British began to realize more and more how independence was the only feasible option.
Gandhi:
● Mahatama Gandhi was an Indian politician born in 1869
● He was the President of the Indian National Congress
● He was a political ethicist in support of peaceful protests
● He launched the Quit-India Movement
Reactions:
● The Muslim League referred to it as ‘blackmail’.
○ They feared that it would lead to the INC gaining complete control of India
○ Jinnah referred to it as ‘Divide and Quit India’ as he wanted Hindu-Muslim
settlement first but the opposite was occuring
● The British immediately imprisoned all Congress leaders and declared it an illegal party
○ Thousands of protesters were arrested
Importance:
● Showed the British that India:
○ Couldn’t be made without the support of Indians
○ Was ungovernable in the long run
■ This raised the question as to how power would be transferred
● It placed the demand for complete independence on the British Government
● It united the Indian people against British rule
● It kept the INC united through the trials that followed - they were able to organize
protests even when all leaders were imprisoned
Importance:
● Until now, the INC had refused to negotiate with the ML on an equal footing. Now, it
was forced to do so
● The INC, by negotiating possible terms of a partition, was accepting the ML’s claim that
it spoke for Muslims, thus going against its own claims that it spoke for all Indians
● By speaking intelligently and assertively, Jinnah proved that he was the most capable
Muslim leader. These properties helped him deal with Muslim problems, especially in
Punjab, with a firm hand
Lord Wavell:
● He was a Britisher born in 1883
● He was appointed the Viceroy of India
● He was Field Marshall of the British army
● He led the Simla Conference
Terms:
● The Viceroy’s Executive Council would be immediately reconstituted and the number of
its members would be increased.
● In the Council there would be equal representation of high-caste Hindus and Muslims.
● All the members of the Council, except the Viceroy, member-controlling defense and
the Commander-in-Chief, would be Indians.
● An Indian would be appointed as the member for Foreign Affairs in the Council.
However, a British commissioner would be responsible for trade matters.
● The defense of India would remain in British hands until power was ultimately
transferred to Indians.
Importance:
● The British government realised the importance of Muslims in the future of India
Results:
Muslim League:
● They won all 30 seats in the Central Legislature that were reserved for Muslims
● They won 87% of the seats reserved for Muslims in the Provinces (446/495)
○ Punjab: 79/86 Muslim seats
○ Bengal: 113/119 Muslim seats
○ Sindh: 28/35 Muslim Seats
○ NWFP: 17/36 Muslim seats
● They made ministries in two provinces:
○ Bengal, where Hussain Shaheed Suharwrdy was made the chief minister
○ and Sindh
■ In Punjab, even though they were the single largest party, the UP, INC,
and Akalis made a coalition to form the government
Importance:
● The results of this election marked the ending of the days when the ML could be ignored
as they confirmed Jinnah’s two claims:
○ The ML was the sole representative of Muslims
○ Most of them want a separate Muslim state.
● The results of these elections revealed how divided India had become, which was
proven due to the fact that the ML and the INC, with their directly opposing manifestos,
had won most of the Muslim and non-Muslim seats respectively.
● It made the Pakistan Resolution much more viable by revealing its support and how
relevant it was in the current social conflict
Plan:
Long-Term:
● There would be no Pakistan in a post-British India. Instead it would be divided into three
groups of provinces:
○ Hindu Majority Provinces:
○ Muslim Majority Provinces
○ Bengal and Assam
● Each group of provinces would have provincial autonomy and would be able to draw up
its own constitution.
● The foreign affairs, defence, and communication of the country would be managed by a
Central Indian Union.
Short-Term:
● An interim government would be set up in which all positions would be held by Indians
● Any party that accepted the Plan would be invited to make up the interim government
Reactions:
● At first, Jinnah and the Muslim League accepted it.
○ However, Nehru then announced that after the British left, he would not be
bound to this plan.
■ This wasn’t even his whole party’s position and Gandhi did scold him
quite a lot over this. It seems like one foolish man was able to ruin the
future of United India
○ This destroyed any confidence the ML had in the INC, causing them to reject the
plan. Thus, the Plan was dropped
Reasons:
● To show Muslim solidarity and power to the British and INC
● The ML feared that the British might pull out prematurely, leaving the Muslims to suffer
under the hands of the Hindu Majority
● To make their demand for independence even more clear
Importance:
● The Calcutta massacres caused the worsening of the Hindu Muslim Relations, making
the Partition even more likely
● British gained a physical, not numerical, sense of the Muslim power and solidarity
● The ML was now preparing for the final struggle for independence
Reasons:
● To ensure a peaceful transfer of power
● The failure of the interim government
● The riots in Punjab, the vies for independence, and the protests
● After WW2, British were too weak to run an Empire
● Gandhi had failed, now, there was a power struggle between Jinnah and Nehru
○ Jinnah wanted independence, Nehru a combined constitution
Preponement:
● Due to the Punjabi massacres and communal riots, the British felt the need to prepone
the transfer of power from June 1948 to 1947 in order to prevent a Civil War on June
4th
● However, there were still quite a few problems left to be solved:
○ There was still a need to draw boundaries between Muslim and non-Muslim
areas
○ The issue of princes had to be resolved - what was to happen if they went
against the wish of the people when deciding which country to join?
○ How would assets be divided?
○ Pakistan’s relationship with Britain still had to be resolved - although India’s first
Governor General was to be Mountbatten, Jinnah was to be Pakistan’s
Violence in Punjab:
● For quite a few months before March, there was agitation in Punjab, with the Muslim
League criticizing the Hindu and Sikh government
● The UP’s proximity to the British government was a major source for their power in
Punjab. Thus, when the British announced their plan to leave, they quickly lost most of
their prestige
○ Sir Khizr Hayat decided to resign on 3rd March
Radcliffe Award:
● One issue that couldn’t be resolved by 15th August was the border between the two
countries
○ Originally, Rehmat Ali presented a border which consisted of a very divided
Pakistan, with dozens of Muslim enclaves inside Hindu India. Because it was
completely stupid and impractical, no-one paid any attention to this nutcrack
● Mountbatten appointed Sir Radcliffe to head a Boundary Commission to establish the
new borders (particularly in Punjab and Bengal)
○ He had four assistants, two from the ML and two from the INC
● The decision of the Boundary Commission (known as the Boundary/Radcliffe Award)
was announced on 16th August.
Pakistan Movement:
Do you agree that during World War 2, there was no significant progress towards
independence? Give reasons for your answer.
● No significant progress
○ Failure of the Cripps Mission
○ Arrest of Congress leaders during Quit India campaign
○ Failure of Simla Conference
■ All parties agree that an Executive Council should be formed
○ Failure of the Gandhi Jinnah Talks
■ This could also be seen as a success - the INC were now willing
● Some Significant Progress
○ End of Congress tyranny
○ Pakistan Resolution
○ Cripps Mission
■ This showed that the British accepted the need to protect the minorities
○ Quit India Campaign
■ Shows that Congress was taking radical action
○ By the end of the war, British withdrawal was inevitable
○ Simla conference proposals:
■ The British acted according to the two nation theory
● Conclusion
○ It appears that no real progress had been made as the Cripps Mission and Simla
Conference had been unsuccessful. However, underneath this apparent failure
was progress. Both the Muslims and HIndus had come to see that British rule
must end immediately, and the British were beginning to realize this, too.
British-India Relationships:
● August Offer
○ Rejected by Indians
● Cripps Mission
○ A post dated cheque on a failing bank
● Quit India Movement
○ Failure to win independence
● Simla Conference
○ An agreement could not be reached
● Cabinet Mission Plan
○ Direct Action Day and the Great Calcutta Killings
Rehmat Ali
Muhammad Ali Jinnah:
Who:
● He was born in 1876 in Karachi
● At the age of 15, he went to London to study law
○ While in England, he attended debates at the House of Commons
● He returned to Karachi in 1897, where he established a highly successful practice
● He started his political career in 1906 by joining the Congress
● He never joined the ML till it started working towards self-rule
○ Before, it was basically a puppet party
● In 1913, it joined the Muslim League but remained a member of the Congress
○ He took upon himself the responsibility of bringing the two parties together
■ Due to this, he was given the title of ‘Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity
in India’
Achievements:
It is best to study them while going over the other units. Here I will outline some of his efforts
● Hindu-Muslim unity:
○ Lucknow Pact
○ Continued efforts till Nehru Report, and the ‘Parting of Ways’
● 14 Points
○ Formed the basis of further negotiations
● Voluntary self-exile to London, for he felt that that was the ‘centre of gravity’ where
most changes were to occur
○ Permanent lifetime president of the League when he returned
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● First Round Table Conference
● Reformed the league
○ United it
● Rejected Cripps Mission
● Gandhi-Jinnah talks
● 1st Governor-General of Pakistan
○ More about his post-partition efforts in the post on Post-Partition Problems
● Women’s rights
Allama Iqbal:
Who:
● Poet, philosopher, and active political leader
● Born in Sialkot in 1977
● Joined Sialkot Mission School and got a degree in 1897
● In 1927, he was appointed General Secretary of the Muslim League Sir Muhammad Shafi
group
● In 1930, he was invited to preside over the Allahabad address
● He died in 1938 and was buried outside the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore
Allahabad Address:
See 1927-1939
Importance:
● He was the first Muslim leader to suggest the partition of the subcontinent on the basis
of the Two-Nation Theory.
● He united Muslims by giving them a guideline
○ He was called the father of the ideology of Pakistan. His views acted as an
inspiration to Muslims who were uncertain as to how to defend their religion
and culture by giving them a clear-cut objective
● It was his ideas that were further built upon to form the Pakistan movement
○ He was an inspiration for other Muslim leaders
■ His ideas were included in Rahmat Ali’s Pakistan Scheme (1933)
■ His ideas were the base for Jinnah’s Pakistan Resolution (1940)
● His poetry was a source of inspiration for the Muslims of India that kindred a sense of
nationhood and motivated them to work hard to achieve their goals
● Iqbal was the one who convinced Jinnah to rejoin politics in 1934.
Beliefs:
● In order for Muslims to become a viable, independent community they must first reform
politically
● Muslims should unite to survive in what he believed was an increasing hostile India
● Muslims should have a separate homeland
His contributions:
● In 1933, he and some fellow students produced a pamphlet called ‘Now or Never’, in
which he argued in favour of partition and gave the name Pakistan to this new Muslim
state that would be formed
○ “Are we to live or perish forever?”
● He was the first person to use the name Pakistan for the separate homeland
● He wanted a separate federation of Muslim states with independence
● He criticized plans to abandon Muslim communities in Delhi as well ass accepting a
divided Bengal
○ When the Viceroy came in 1947 with his plans for the partition, Jinnah and
Nehru immediately accepted it. He didn’t push for more as his doctor told him
that he was ill and would soon die. If he died with the negotiations incomplete,
they would never end
● In many respects, he was ahead of his time. His vision of the future was adopted in the
long-term by 1940 by the Muslim League
Jinnah, 14 Points:
Past Paper Answer:
Jinnah’s 14 Points of 1929 set out the demands of future negotiations with Congress and/or the
British Government. These demands were also to form the basis of Muslim League’s demand
for a separate Muslim homeland. It argued that Hindus and Muslims were two separate nations
and won much British approval for such a view. However, he also achieved much more. After
the 1937 elections, Jinnah set out to reform the Muslim League at grass root level and, as a
result, membership had grown significantly by mid-1938. Without this growth, the League
would have struggled to be recognised by the British as a powerful player in Indian politics, and
hence the fortunes of the Pakistan Movement would have possibly failed to bear fruit when it
did. Jinnah used the Lahore Conference in 1940 to ensure that the Muslim League would only
accept a solution to the sub-continent which ensured partition. This was called the Pakistan
Resolution. He also opposed the proposals of the Cripps Mission that saw Dominion status for
the sub-continent. In doing so he helped ensure the British realised the need to protect Muslim
interests. Although the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks of 1944 broke up without agreement, Congress was
left in no doubt that the League was an important organisation that spoke with authority on
behalf of many sub-Continent Muslims. Due to continued pressure from the League and Jinnah,
the 3 June Plan of 1947 announced that separate states would be set up – India and Pakistan.
● Formed basis of future negotiations
● Furthered the awareness that Hindus and Muslims should form a separate nation
○ This shaped the basis of a desire for a separate homeland
● Made clear that living with Hindus under one constitution is no longer a possibility for
Muslis as their demands are very different from Hindus, who were not ready to provide
protection for Muslims
● Others:
○ Rejuvenated the ML
○ Opposed the Cripps Mission, showing India the importance of Muslims
○ Everything else
Pakistan faced several problems after separation. This document shall discuss them and how
Pakistan/Jinnah attempted to solve them
Kashmir Issue:
● The Hindu Nawab of the land, Hari Singh, wanted independence, even though his 78%
Muslim population wanted to join Pakistan
○ Lord Mountbatten pressured him to take a decision to join either state, to which
Maharaja asked for more time for deliberation. During this time, the Indian and
Pakistani governments were asked to sign a ‘standstill agreement’, to which
Pakistan agreed but India disagreed
● During this time, the local population started to pressure the Nawab to join Pakistan
○ In an effort to sway him, they held a massive protest in August ‘47, due to which
the Nawab panicked and started firing on the Muslims, killing hundreds in a
matter of seconds
○ A local Barrister, Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim, set up the Azad Kashimr
government and began to wage guerilla warfare against the Nawab
● By October, the War of Kashmir had started, during which Pathan tribesmen from NWFP
invaded the valley in order to avenge the deaths of their fallen comrades
○ They defeated the Nawab’s troops and reached the gates of the capital of
Kashmir
○ Due to this, the Nawab had to flee to Jammu, where he signed the instrument of
accession in order to gain Indian support in the war.
● In the end of October, India began to airlift troops to the capital, and launched an attack
on the tribesmen
○ Pakistan was about to send troops in their defense, but the british General
Gracey refused, due to which Jinnah proposed a ceasefire and plebiscite.
● In 1948, India took the matter to the security council. The government requested a
ceasefire and withdrawal of troops so that a fair plebiscite could be held
Economic Issues:
Underdevelopment:
● Pakistan was mostly made up of underdeveloped states with little industry.
○ Although Karachi had a modern port, most provinces were on the borders of the
subcontinent and thus did not avail the benefits of industrialisation under British
India as the central states.
○ It was an extremely rural country, with ~90% of the population living in the
countryside. There were only 8 towns with a population >100,000
● Pakistan had an agricultural economy which did not produce enough of a surplus to
industrialize
○ Furthermore, Pakistan received few factories, getting only 14 cotton factories
and 0 Jute factories (of which it produced 70% of the world’s supply)
○ In fact, Pakistan received only 10% of registered factories, 6.5% of industrial
workers, 5% of the electrical capacity, and 10% of the mineral deposits
● Pakistan had an electricity issue.
○ Due to the division of Punjab, many of Punjabi electricity supplies had been
disrupted
○ While India had 30-40 million KW of hydroelectric power Pakistan only had ½ a
million
● Transport:
○ Pakistan got railway engines that needed constant repair due to their use in the
second world war
○ Pakistan only had 14000 miles of roads
■ There were no ample roads in any province but Punjab
○ Pakistan got only 2 sea ports - Karachi and Chittagong
● Communication:
○ Pakistan only had 3 radio stations and no TV channels
○ There was a shortage of telephones and post offices
Division of Assets:
● It was agreed that the assets of British India would be divided on the ratio of 17:5 - 17 to
India and 5 to Pakistan according to their relative sizes and populations
Military Assets:
● Pakistan was in need of armed and military forces/equipment in order to ensure its
security, as illustrated by the Kashmir Crisis
● Britain reluctantly agreed to divide the armed forces 36% to 64% between India and
Pakistan
○ The army personnel were given freedom to join whichever country they wanted,
due to which Muslim regiments went to Pakistan and Hindus to India. This split is
illustrated by the following table:
Pakistan India
Armoured Divisions 6 14
Artillery Divisions: 8 40
Infantry Divisions: 8 21
○ However, most of the Pakistani soldiers were lowly ranked, due to which there
was an absence of officers.
■ Pakistan needed 4,000 officers for it’s 150,000 unit strong army.
● Military supplies:
○ Pakistan received 0 of the 16 ordnance factories, which was an issue
○ India was supposed to give Pakistan the following military equipment:
■ 160,000 ton Ordnance stores, 172,667 ton engineering stores, 1461 soft
vehicles, and 249 armoured vehicles
○ However, due to the conflict in Kashmir, Pakistan received only
■ 23,225 ton Ordnance stores, 1128 tons engineering stores, 74 soft
vehicles, and no armoured vehicles,
● Many of which were old and worn
Socio-Political Issues
Administrative:
● While India inherited from the British government buildings and officials, Pakistan had
none of these
○ Their ministers were people who had political experience and had worked to
gain popularity among the people
○ Pakistan lacked even the most basic supplies such as furniture and stationary
● In Pakistan, the Constituent Assembly consisted mostly of landlords with little political
experience
○ They had little influence in the urban areas, drawing most of their support from
the rural areas
○ Due to this, Pakistan lacked the administrative and governmental machinery to
run the affairs of a new country - Jinnah would need to find a capital, and good
officials in order to run an efficient government
● While half of the population of Pakistan was in East Pakistan, the majority of
government and army leaders came from West Pakistan.
○ Due to this, feelings of provincialism began to rise, with there being tension
between East and West Pakistan
Provincialism:
● Pakistan was mainly made up of five different groups:
○ The Pakhtuns in the north
○ The Balochs in the west
○ The Sindhis in the south
○ The Punjabis in the north-east
○ The Bengalis in the east
Language of Pakistan:
● Pakistan has a very diverse populace, with the populace of each province having
different languages, cultures, and lifestyles.
● There were 52 languages spoken at the time of independence
○ Bengali was spoken by the highest percentage of the population, due to which
Bengalis got angry
■ 56% spoke Bengali while 44% spoke Urdu
■ In February 1950, East Pakistan launched a movement to state Bengali as
the national language
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● During a student protest vying for it, 4 students were killed
NFWP:
● NWFP was a conquered part of Afghanistan, due to which they held close ties with the
nation
● NWFP’s most popular political party was the ‘Red Shirts’ who wanted to be
independent/join Afghanistan
○ When the Durand line was drawn, there was much anger
His Aims:
● He had three main principles for the development of Pakistan: Unity, Faith, and
Discipline
● He wanted Pakistan to be a “Progressive Democracy” based on brotherhood and
equality
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○ It was not to be a bureaucracy but ‘in the hands of the people’
● The four pillars he wanted to work on were Economic and Industrial Challenges,
Education, Defense, and Social and Political Uplifting
Miscellaneous:
● He chaired Cabinet meetings and was the President of the Constituent Assembly
Hussain Suhrawardy
Khawaja Nazimuddin:
● Khawaja Nazimuddin was a Bengali politician, conservative figure, and one of the
leading founders of Pakistan
● He was the first Bengali leader and the second Governor-General and Prime Minister
● He was born into an aristocratic family in Bengal in 1894, and studied at Aligarh
University and later Cambridge University
● When he returned, he started his political career in the Muslim League, championing
the cause of Bengali education
● He was the first prime minister of Bengal from 1943-45, becoming its chief minister
from 1947-48. After Jinnah’s death, he became the second Governor-General on 14th
September 1948
○ Seeing Liaquat Ali Khan’s ability, he stepped back and allowed him to run the
country
Contributions:
LAK during Quaid’s life:
● He helped him solve the riots and refugee problem and in the setting up of an effective
administration
● He established the groundworks for Pakistan’s foreign policy.
● During his tenure, India and Pakistan agreed to resolve the dispute of Kashmir in a
peaceful manner
○ Via the UN, a ceasefire was implemented in January 1948, and it was decided
that a plebiscite would be held
Liaquat-Nehru Pact:
● The safety of religious minorities was again put in danger during late 1949 and early
1950, due to which it looked like India and Pakistan were to fight their second war
● Due to this, Liaquat made a statement emphasizing the need to find a solution,
proposing a meeting between the Pakistani and Indian heads of state in order to find
out how to end the communal riots and tense situation
● Nehru and Liaquat met in Delhi on April 2nd 1950, discussing the matter in detail for 6
days, following which an agreement was signed which was a bill of rights for the
minorities of India and Pakistan
○ It was signed in an effort to improve the relationship between Pakistan and India
Making of A Constitution:
● Pakistan was still running on the Government Act of 1935, which was undesirable as it
had many flaws, such as the large amount of power given to the Governor-General
○ Due to this, his main task was to draft a new constitution acceptable to all. To
meet this task, a Constituent Assembly was set up
■ The Constituent Assembly set up a Basic Principles Committee of 25
members to define the principles on which the constitution was to be
based
● The Objectives Resolution:
○ On 12th March 1949, the BPC submitted and got passed its first report, the
‘Objectives Resolution’
■ The new constitution was to be based on the principle of democracy,
freedom, equality, tolerance, and social justice as enunciated by Islam
■ All measures would be applied to enable Muslims to live according to the
teachings of Islam
■ Minorities would be free to practice and profess their religion freely
■ Protection would be provided to minorities against social injustice
■ Fundamental rights would be guaranteed
■ The legal system would be independent of government control
● They attempted to please everyone - minorities and East
Pakistanis by the protection of their rights and the Islamic
fundamentalists by including references to Islam.
● The Draft Constitution:
○ The same committee later presented the draft constitution on 28th September
1950
■ A Bicameral Legislature was recommended, with the two houses having
equal powers
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● The Upper House was to have 100 members and was to be
elected indirectly by provincial ministers
● The Lower House, with 400 members, was to be directly elected
■ The president was to be elected by the joint session of the two houses
■ Urdu was recommended as the national language
■ The Head of State could abrogate the constitution and issue ordinances
■ A religious oversight board was suggested in order to make sure the laws
followed Islam
○ It was rejected due to various criticisms by different people:
■ East Pakistanis were extremely annoyed by the equal representation of
East and West Pakistan in the assembly, citing their larger population
(54%) as a reason, saying that they would become a colony of West
Pakistan
● They also disliked the application of Urdu, instead of Bengali, as
the national language
■ Islamic Fundamentalists complained that the constitution lacked an
Islamic appearance
■ Provincial politicians didn’t like the power given to the head of state and
the federal government, fearing that it would lessen their own powers
Economic Policies:
● Even during the war, Pakistan and India were large trade partners, with India accounting
for 56% of Pakistan’s export and 32% of Pakistan’s import
○ This continued until 1955-6
Problems:
The Accession of Princely States
● India invaded Hyderabad while Pakistan was still recouping after the death of the first
Governor-General (more information in the previous document)
● There was lots of tension between Pakistan and India due to the Kashmir Issue
● The resolution of this has been discussed in the previous document. Furthermore, the
Liaquat Nehru Pact was signed in order to improve relationships between the two
countries
Refugee Crisis:
● There was a large influx of refugees, as described in the previous document
● In order to solve it:
○ The Central Refugee Council had been set up
Assassination:
● While he was working on a revised constitution, Liaquat Ali Khan was assassinated
● The assassination took place in Rawalpindi on 16th October 1951 by a former
intelligence agent, Saad Akbar
○ It is unknown as to who was behind the plot
● He was given the title of Shaheed-i-Millat
Ghulam Muhammad:
● Malik Ghulam Muhammad was a notable Chartered Accountant
● He was the first Finance Minister of Pakistan from August ‘47 till October ‘51
● After Liauqat’s death, he convinced Khawaja Nazimuddin to step down as Governor-
General to become the Prime Minister
● He served as the third Governor-General of Pakistan from October ‘51 till August ‘55
Contributions:
Revised Report of the Basic Principles Committee 1952:
● This revised report was presented by Khawaja Naimuddin on 22nd December 1952. It
suggested that:
○ The head of state be Muslim
○ The Central Legislature was to consist of two wings - the House of Units and the
House of People
■ The House of Units will have 60 members from East Pakistan and 60 from
West Pakistan.
■ The House of People was to have 400 members with 200 elected
members from each wing
○ Religious minorities were to have representatives at national and provincial
levels
○ The cabinet was to be responsible for National Assembly
○ A committee of Islamic experts would be chosen by the head of state to ensure
that all laws conformed to Islam
○ The assembly shall decide an official language
● Criticism:
○ The equality of representation was unpopular in East Pakistan as they believed
they should have a larger representation due to their greater population
○ It was feared that the Religious Advisory Board would have too much veto power
○ The issue of the national language was still unsolved
■ Due to this, in January 1953, the proposals were withdrawn
Foreign Relations:
● MGM represented Pakistan as its Governor-General during Queen Elizabeth II’s
coronation in London during 1953
Problems:
Food Shortages:
● There was a drought in 1953, due to which there were food shortages. These were
made worse by the fact that, since the Korean war had ended, jute prices and demand
in the global market fell
● Thus, Pakistan was forced to take foreign aid from America, who agreed to donate a
million tons of wheat. However, due to mismanagement, even more (640,000 tonnes)
had to be imported
Civil Unrest:
● Bengali Movement:
○ East Pakistanis believed that Bengali should be set as the national language as
the majority of the population (56%) spoke it.
○ However, Khawaja Nazimuddin refused, repeating Jinnah’s statement that Urdu
would be the national language
○ Protests were held against this decision. In one student protest organized by the
University of Dhaka in February 1951, 8 students were killed, which further
worsened relations between the two wings.
● Anti-Ahmadi Movement:
○ Ulamas believed that Ahmadis were not Muslims and should therefore be
genocided - I mean mass murdered in a very not-genocidey way
Creation of a Constitution
● On 7th October 1953, Bogra presented his scheme, known as ‘Muhammad Ali’s
Formula’, which was a modified version of the Basic Principle Committee’s report
○ The Central Legislature was to comprise of two houses with equal powers
■ The Upper House was to have 50 members, out of which 10 would be
from East Pakistan and 40 from West Pakistan
■ Out of the 300 members of the lower house, 165 were to be from East
Pakistan and 135 from West
○ If the head of state was from West Pakistan, the PM was to be from East
Pakistan, and vice versa
○ The President was allowed to dissolve the houses if they were unable to resolve
their differences
● Reaction:
○ They were met extremely positively, as it was thought that it would lead the
closer integration and cooperation between the two wings
Problems:
● Anti Ahmadi Movement:
○ Chief Zafarullah, an Ahmadi, was dismissed as foreign minister in 1954 (as he was
joining the UN as a judge), which sparked violence
● Lack of food
○ Haha communism=no food lol
Constitutional Crisis:
● Bogra had been placed at Prime Minister as Ghulam Muhammad believed he would be
easy to dominate. However, Bogra turned out to be more rebellious than he could have
foreseen
New Cabinet:
● MGM was furious, and on 24th October 1954 declared a state of emergency and
dissolved the assembly, saying that it had lost the trust of the people
● He imposed press censorship and promised to hold new elections ‘soon’. In the
meantime, he created a new cabinet with 8 bureaucrats
○ Ayub Khan, Iskander Mirza, Hasan Sohrawardy, and 5 others formed the new
cabinet
Maulvi Tamizuddin:
● On 7th November 1954, Malvi Tamizuddin Khan, the Speaker of the dissolved assembly,
contested the dissolution of the Sindh High Court
● He argued that:
○ The dissolution had been illegal
○ The new members shouldn’t have been appointed since they were non-
Assembly members
● The court ruled in favour of him in February 1955
○ They declared the MGM’s making of a new Cabinet had been vague as no
provisions for such an occasion were mentioned under the Government of India
Act 1935
● MGM appealed to the Federal Court, which ruled in May that he had the right to dismiss
the Assembly ‘if he was satisfied the situation demanded it’
○ He said that such there were no provisions for the making of a new Cabinet as
such for it had been assumed the National Assembly would function properly
■ Thus, this set the precedent for anyone to seize power as long as they
said they were acting in the best interests of the country
○ They also advised that he hold a general elections
Next Elections:
● On 21st June 19, elections were held after eight months without a democratic
government
● There were to be 80 seats in the Constitution, divided as such:
○ 40 from East Pakistan
○ 21 from Punjab
Contributions:
‘One Unit’ Scheme:
● What:
○ It was first proposed by Muhammad Ali Bogra in 1954 that all areas of West
Pakistan be integrated under one administrative system
○ The West Pakistan Act was passed on 30th September ‘55
■ It was implemented on October 5th 1955 by Iskander Mirza
○ The unified province of West Pakistan formally came into existence on 14th
October 1955
● Arguments in Support:
○ Administration of a single province was more efficient and cost-effective
■ Unification would ensure administrative efficiency and promote
economic development
○ A single province would bring an end to the difference, prejudice, and rivalry
amongst the provinces
■ Iskander Mirza believed that the unification would increase harmony and
patriotism
○ Two single provinces would make it easier to establish a constitution for Pakistan
○ Most prominent politicians and bureaucrats were from West Pakistan - typically
from the most developed province of Punjab. They feared that if East Bengal
gained a majority, they would potential rapidly develop at the expense of the
West Wing
■ The One Unit Scheme prevented them from gaining a majority due to
their numerical majority
● Opposition:
○ The provincial politicians were upset for they feared they would lose power
Constitution of 1956:
● Iskander Mirza’s primary task for Chaudhary Muhammad Ali was the making of a
constitution and the passing of it was an important landmark in his constitution
● Pakistan passed its first constitution on 29th February 1956, and it was formally
enforced on 23rd March
● It tried to find a compromise between both wings
○ In order for the United Front to drop their objections to the equal seats, they
made Bengali an official language
○ The Constitution was declared the Islamic Public of Pakistan in order to please
the Maulvis
● Despite its new constitution, Pakistan kept its membership in the British Commonwealth
● It lasted two years until Marshall Law was established
Terms:
● The new constitution had 234 articles which were divided into 13 parts and 6 schedules
● General:
○ Independence of judiciary
○ The name of the country was to be the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
○ All citizens were to have equal rights
○ Powers were to be divided amongst the Centre and the Provinces.
■ The powers were divided into 3 lists: The Federal List, the Provincial List,
and the Concurrent List
Assessment:
● It pleased the Islamic scholars by:
○ The President was required to be a Muslim
○ He was to set up an organization for Islamic research in order to set up an Islamic
society
■ However, it could only give recommendations
● Power of the president
○ While they could appoint the Prime Minister, they would have to take a vote of
confidence
○ Furthermore, he could no longer remove the Prime Minister
● Assembly:
○ They recognized the concept of unity by dividing the seats equally, introducing
the principle of parity
● Summary:
○ It was a written and flexible constitution
○ It advocated the fundamental rights of the individual while giving the President
the power to remove them in emergency situations
Criticism:
● Minorities disliked the fact that the President had to be Muslim and that Pakistan was
declared an Islamic republic
● The Muslim League had advocated for separate electorates in order to protect the rights
of minorities, such as Hindus (who, due to their distribution in East Bengal, could control
142 out of 309 seats before independence. It is unclear as to how many seats they could
get after independence).
○ Under a separate electorate, they would be entitled 70 seats, but this
constitution rejected that, adding to the frustration of many East Pakistani
politicians
● East Pakistan was unhappy that they were given equal seats instead of a majority due to
their larger population
Replacement:
● He had no desire to be a puppet and thus pressed hard against Mirza for authority
● He revived controversy over the One Unit Scheme and the question of Separate
Electorates
○ West Pakistan was for the One-Unit Scheme (as it prevented East Pakistan from
gaining a majority) and for Separate Electorates (which would result in as much
as 142 of 309 East Pakistani seats being controlled by Hindus
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○ East Pakistan and Hussain Suhrawardy was against the One Unit Scheme and
Separate Electorates
● In order to gain popularity, he unsuccessfully tried to remove the economic disparity
between East and West Pakistan and to alleviate the food shortages in the country
○ However, the fact that he wasn’t a complete puppet for corporations and
bureaucrats enraged Iskander Mirza, who punished him severely.
○ The central bureaucracy fought to save the One Unit Scheme, and Businesses in
Karachi lobbied against his decision to donate most of the 10 Million Dollar
International Court of Arbitration aid to East Pakistan and to set up a National
Shipping Corporation
○ Iskander Mirza, supported by these corporations and power-hungry bureaucrats,
demanded he resign
■ At first, Suhrawardy suggested a vote of confidence be taken from the
Assembly to prove that he had at last their confidence, showing his
shrewdness. Iskander refused, for he knew it would fail
○ However, eventually, under threat of Dismissal, he resigned on October 10, 1957
Possible Questions:
Who was Liauqat Ali Khan? [4]
Who was Khawaja Nazimuddin? [4]
What was the Liaquat-Nehru Pact? [4]
Explain Liauqat’s achievements as the first Prime Minister of Pakistan. [7]
What was the Basic Principles Committee? [4]
What was the Objectives Resolution? [4]
Why was it so difficult to make a constitution by the end of 1950? [7]
What was the revised report of the Basic Principles Committee? [4]
Why was the revised report of the Basic Principles Committee rejected? [7]
What was the Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act? [4]
What was the Rawalpindi Conspiracy? [4]
Describe the Constitutional Crisis of 1954-55. [4]
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How successful was the One-Unit Scheme? [14]
Describe the Constitution of 1956. [4]
Which of the following Contributed the most to Pakistan’s Domestic policies between 1948-58?
(Three Pakistani Leaders will be listed here) [14]
Seize of Power:
Reasons for Martial Law:
● Political instability:
○ As there had been so many Prime Ministers in such rapid succession, Ayub felt it
was necessary for the army to take control until the situation calmed down
● Failure of the Constitution:
○ East Pakistanis disliked the constitution of 1956 for they wanted more seats in
the government, leading to increased tension
● Ambitious Politicians:
○ Iskander, who had lost the support of most politicians, was alarmed by Hussain
Suhrawardy pushing the political leadership of Bengal and Punjab against him
● He, along with Iskander Mirza and other bureaucrats, took control of the nation on
October 7th 1958 under the pretense that they were tired of the inefficient leaders but
really in order to advance their own power.
○ He became the Chief Martial Law Administrator
Reforms:
Political:
Basic Democracy System:
● The Basic Democracy Order was passed on 26th October 1959 as:
○ The current political system had been tarnished by corruption and malpractice
○ A new system had to be introduced which people could actually understand
○ Ayub wanted more power
● Power System:
○ President:
■ Appoints Provincial Governors
■ Appoints PDAC members, ⅓ of them which must be chairmen of local
committees)
○ Provincial Governors:
■ They ran the provinces
■ However, they had to obey the President and carry out PDAC rulings
○ Provincial Development Advisory Council (PDAC) (East/West Pakistan)
Constitution of 1962:
● Ten days after he was elected, on 17th February 1960, Ayub Khan appointed a
commission to draft the new constitution
○ It was headed by Justice Shahab-ud-Din
○ It presented its report on 6th May 1961 and was approved by Ayub immediately,
thus ending the (official) martial law
○ Even though Ayub claimed it combined “democracy with discipline” it really just
set up a presidential form of government by giving him even more power
■ Furthermore, major landlords dominated the elections by coercing or
bribing people in order to influence the results
● Terms:
○ President:
■ The President could not be removed unless impeached
■ The President nominated the cabinet from members of the National
Assembly
■ The President nominated the heads of the judiciary
■ He could pass any laws he wanted
■ He had emergency powers
Presidential Elections:
● In January 1965, the Presidential elections were held.
○ Ayub Khan who was nominated by the Convention Muslim Leage, a party he
helped form
○ Even though he had believed the opposition were divided, they together put
forward Mohtarma Fatima Jinnah as their nominee
■ Their main demand was that the direct elections should be replaced with
indirect elections
● Ayub Khan won the elections, getting 64% of the votes
○ They were rigged, however - only BD members who owed their influence to his
system were allowed to vote
○ As it was clear to everyone how unfair they were, the opposition challenged the
results
○ Riots broke out in Karachi and East Pakistan during which 10 people were killed
○ They ruined his reputation in East Pakistan - many Bengalis had supported
Fatima Jinnah and became even more unhappy with his reign
Economic:
Agricultural:
● Aims:
○ Make Pakistan’s agriculturally self-sufficient in order to free money for the
import of industrial resources
○ Prevent food from becoming more expensive (by increasing supply), which
would require a rise in wages and thus reduction in industrial profit
○ Modernize the agricultural process
○ Make private farms more efficient
○ Eliminate the monopoly of big landlords
● Land Reforms:
○ Large landowners:
■ Many acres of land were owned by large landowners, which was a
problem as, often, these landowners didn’t know much about farming
■ Furthermore, they were mostly run by tenants, who worked on many
farms and thus had little incentive to be productive
■ Lots of land was also wasted as it was set aside for large mansions
Industrialization:
● Aims:
○ To create the opportunity to important machines from abroad
○ Private investment would be encouraged by making the country politically stable
○ The working class had to remain discipline without demanding extra resources
● Opposition:
○ Landlords didn’t like them as it caused them to lose political and economic
power
○ The common people didn’t like them as it replaced them as workers
○ Furthermore, all that would be seen in the short term was inflation due to
increased foreign spending. The benefits would be seen later
■ However, Ayub could ignore this as he was a dictator
● Factors necessary for industrialization:
○ Educated and employable about force
○ Finance for investors
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○ Sources of raw material and food must be available
■ The prices of these inputs must remain stable
○ There must be a demand/market for the goods
○ Infrastructure such as roads, electricity, phones, and banks
○ Administrative efficiency and political stability in order to make investors
comfortable in investing in the long term
● Foreign Policy:
○ Loans from Western countries, especially USA, Germany, and UK were taken
○ An economic union was formed with Iran and Turkey (the Regional Cooperation
for Development)
○ An Export Bonus Scheme was set up under which exporters could keep 40% of
their profits directly
● Domestic:
○ Development of Markets:
■ The Princely states of Kalat, Swat, Dir and Hunza were dissolved and
brought directly under the control of the government
■ Tariffs were kept on imports in order to encourage local production
○ Industries were given tax holidays for 5 years
○ The PIDC was set up which was easy to get loans from
■ It set up textile mills, sugar mills, paper mills, jute factories, fertilizer
factories and shipyards
○ The NIT was set up in order to encourage people to have small savings
○ The prices of industrial goods were stabilized by relaxing control over industrial
investment
○ Oppression Transfer of Profits from East Pakistan
■ East Pakistan had a monopoly on production of jute. Instead of investing
the profits in them, they were stolen by West Pakistanis
■ Taxes on East Pakistan
● Results:
○ An average of 7% GDP growth per year
○ While production did rise, most of the profits were taken by a small amount of
people
■ In 1968, 22 West Pakistani families controlled 66% of Pakistan’s industrial
assets and 80% of Pakistani banking and insurance companies
○ Unemployment still rose every year
○ Most of the profits were in West Pakistan, with East Pakistan being neglected
completely
Problems:
● Some were too progressive and were not accepted by the general populace
● There were too few institutions to make sure they were properly implemented
● There were too few resources to implement the reforms
● Some religious groups were resistant to the reforms as it challenged their traditional
beliefs and thus threatened to make the government unpopular
● The government was not in power long enough to implement the reforms
● The government did not wish to challenge the status quo when it directly benefited
them
Rights of Women:
● As women were treated as second class citizens, family laws were introduced to protect
their rights
○ Polygamy was banned except in certain cases - before a man remarried, he had
to get consent from his firt wife
○ The number of wives and divorce was regulated - all marriages and divorces had
to occur through the government
○ The minimum age for marriage was 16 years
Education Reforms:
● In 1958, a commission was set up to review the existing education system.
● It recommended the remaking of the syllabus and making primary education free and
compulsory till 8th grade
● It recommended a three year degree course opening of technical colleges and emphasis
on religious education
● Technical and vocational institutes were formed to train labour in East and West
Pakistan
Others:
● Civil and Criminal Law:
○ A grandchild now had equal right to inherit from his grandfather if his father had
died
○ The Jirga Court was held where the crime took place in order to investigate the
occurrence - this helped relieve pressure from the judiciary
○ Petty crimes would be taken to village elders in a system called Panchayat
○ Young or mentally challenged individuals would be sent to probation officers
with adequate psychology training
● Medical facilities:
War:
● Due to the failure of the guerilla warriors, Pakistan directly invaded Indian Kashmir on
1st September, trying to cut off the road that led to India, initiating the warfare.
● In retaliation, on 6th September, India invaded Lahore.
○ As Pakistan had not expected them to do so, the area was scarcely defended -
most troops were in Kashmir
■ This, however, does not mean that Ayub Khan was a bad military dictator,
who shouldn’t be field Marshall as he has literally no experience - he was
actually playing 5D mind chess by not doing well
○ The defense of a few armed units prevented the city from being completely
annexed
■ Due to this, India launched a second major offensive in Sialkot, but it was
largely stopped
● Foreign Involvement:
○ US and UK stopped supplying arms to both sides, which affected Pakistan more
as they were more dependent on Western aid for their military material
○ China was ready to step in if India was winning. They also exerted diplomatic
pressure on India
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○ In 1966, the Russian Prime Minister Kosygin organized the peace treaty
● After 3 weeks of fighting, both nations were so weak that they agreed to a ceasefire
Tashkent Declaration:
● The Russian Prime Minister organized the meeting of Indian PM Lal Bahadur and Ayub
Khan in Tashkent
● An agreement was signed to:
○ Refrain from resorting to armed clashes
○ Settle differences via peaceful mediation
○ Withdraw their forces to the position on 5th August
● It contained no reference to Kashmir as:
○ India wasn’t as weak as Pakistan had though they’d be
○ Pakistan was reliant on Western aid
● As Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the then foreign minister, opposed to signing (as he knew that a
half-hearted agreement would be unacceptable for the Pakistani public), he was sacked
and the majority of the failings of the war came onto him
○ He then became one of Ayub’s greatest opposers
Political Reforms:
● The political system heavily discriminated against East Bengalis:
○ They were ousted from all decision-making processes
● They also liked not the fact that the new capital was in West Pakistan
● People were discontent with the undemocratic vote-rigging
Educational Reforms:
● Due to their scale, they did not produce the desired results
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● Many of the protests against Ayub were planned by students and labour unions
Family Laws:
● Islamic Fundamentalists opposed it, calling it un-Islamic
Agartala Conspiracy:
● In 1966, Mujib-ur-Rehman, a popular Bengali leader, was arrested for making provoking
and seditious speeches, which was very double-plus ungood for him
● He was released but then again arrested in December 1967, supposedly for his
involvement in the overthrow of the Government with Indian assistance
○ He was released after pressure by politicians
○ He was later invited to attend round table conferences with Ayub Khan
Possible Questions:
Who was Ayub Khan?
Why did Ayub Khan come to power in 1958?
How did Ayub Khan achieve power?
What was the Basic Democracy System?
Describe the Agricultural/Industrial reforms of Pakistan.
How successful was ayub khan in introducing economic reforms in Pakistan?
Explain why Ayub Khan called the years 1958 to 1969 a ‘Decade of Progress.
Medical facilities were improved and attempts were made to control the population through a
family planning programme. Economic growth was enabled through industrial developments
funded by loans from the West. Agricultural reform meant an increase in agricultural
production. He also tried to deflect increased criticism of his government by highlighting the
reforms which in the main only benefited the wealthy
Independence of
Bangladesh
Who:
● Yahya Khan was born on 4th February 1971 in Peshawar
● He received education from the Punjab University in Lahore, following which he joined
the Indian Army
○ He became a brigadier at the age of 34
● He played an active role in Ayub Khan’s military dictatorship
○ He was involved in the planning of Islamabad
○ He was the head of the Pakistani forces in Kashmir during the war of ‘65
○ He was promoted to the Chief of Army Staff in 1966
○ When Ayub Khan seceded power, he handed leadership to Yahya Khan
Political Reforms:
Legal Framework Order (LFO):
● After assuming power, Yahya abrogated the constitution of 1962, banned all political
activities, and dissolved the national and provincial assemblies and cabinets, thus
declaring martial law
○ However, since he wanted to bring back democracy for the reasons listed below
■ Basic Democracy had not been a success
■ There would be a properly elected government
■ The ‘One Unit’ scheme had not worked, due to which a provincial form of
government should be returned to
○ Thus, he overturned the One Unit Scheme and the constitution of 1962 and
resumed normal political activity
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● In March 1970, he issued the Legal Framework Order, an interim constitution which laid
the ideals for future constitutions, which was meant to guide the transfer of power to
civilians. It recommended:
○ A parliamentary and federal form of government
○ Islamic character of the constitution
○ Direct and free election to the federal and provincial legislature
○ To guarantee fundamental rights to all citizens
○ Independence of judiciary
● It laid the structure via which the elections were to be held on the principle of ‘one man,
one vote’. The seat distribution was to be as followed:
○ 82 General and 3 reserved seats in Punjab
○ 27 General and 1 reserved seat in Sindh
○ 18 General and 1 reserved seat in NWFP
○ 4 General and 1 reserved seat in Balochistan
○ 7 General seats in FATA
■ It also defined who could run
■ The elected assembly would be dissolved if it was unable to frame the
constitution in 120 days
○ 300 national seats, with 13 reserved for women and 162 for East Pakistan
Political Disparity:
● Underrepresentation:
○ Less than 20% of the armed forces were from East Pakistan
○ Most Governor-Generals and Prime Ministers were from West Pakistan
■ Whenever there were Governor-Generals and PMs from different wings
the West Pakistani would take charge
○ Most powerful politicians were from West Pakistan
■ One reason for this is that conservative landlords who could control the
farmers en masse were largely the people in power
● Governmental Policies:
○ Common Disagreements:
■ East Pakistani politicians wanted their larger population to enable them
to form the government via a representative form of elections
● This dissatisfaction was expressed in the making of the Draft
Constitutions, the Basic Principles Constitution, the One-Unit
Scheme, and in the Constitution of 1962
○ Iskander Mirza:
■ Hussain Suhrawardy was dismissed when he actually did something good
for East Pakistan by setting up a National Shipping Corporation there
because that was money not going into the hands of West Pakistani
monopolists
○ Ayub Khan’s Reign:
■ The capital was always set in West Pakistan - first in Karachi and then in
Islamabad
● East Pakistanis believed that due to its large population Dhaka
should be the capital
■ The EBDO was used largely to disqualify East Pakistani politicians
■ The constitution of 1962 was seen as a ploy to legitimize army
dictatorship
● It gave large amounts of power to the West Pakistani President
● They disliked the lack of a role they had and the censorship
● They let out this discontent at Ayub’s policies after he’d left via
many protests for their rights
○ Mujeeb was not allowed to take government despite winning the elections
Results:
● The Awami League was the largest party, winning 160 of the 162 seats allotted to East
Pakistan
○ The PPP, on the other hand, only won 81 seats of the 138 West Pakistani seats
(just 58% - they weren’t as dominant as they are portrayed)
○ This presented problems:
■ The Awami League could control the entire government on their own
■ The Awami League had won on a programme of decentralization
● A weakened Pakistan would be weaker with regards to India
● The centre wouldn’t have enough funds to run
■ It would divide the administrative and social aspects of the two wings of
the country
Following Events:
● In January 1971, Yahya met with Mujib and called him ‘the next President’ in an attempt
to dissuade him from forming the next government
○ He stuck to his ideals, however
○ Bhutto also met him at the end of January, but they were to no avail either, as
neither side backed down
● In February 1971, PPP announced that they would not take their seats unless Mujib
reached
○ In response, Mujib launched a non-cooperation movement
○ Governmental and educational institutions were forced shut, taces were not
paid, shops and factories were not opened - essentially, all governmental activity
ceased to exist
○ Bangladeshi freedom fighters also emerged, such as the Mukhti Bahini, which led
mass demonstrations. Mukhti Bahini:
■ Its name means “liberation force”
■ It was a guerilla army trained by India
■ It fought against the oppressive Pakistani forces in 1971
■ It operated the Independent Bangladesh Radio Station
● Due to the unrest, Yahya, on Bhutto’s demand, postponed the meeting of the National
Assembly he had arranged on 3rd March, just two days before it was to be held
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○ In retaliation, Mujib immediately demanded:
■ Lifting of martial law
■ Transfer of power to elected representatives
○ Bhutto also got involved, declaring that he would break the legs of those
politicians who went to the assembly in Dhaka.
○ Due to the strikes, General Tikka Khan was appointed as CMLA and the provincial
governor was recalled
● Yahya and Bhutto met Mujib in Dhaka on March 15th, returning on the 25th after
reaching no solution
● On March 23rd, Resistance Day was celebrated by East Pakistan, which catalyzed
Operation Searchlight
Operation Searchlight:
● In an attempt to quell East Pakistani resistance, Operation Searchlight was launched
● They believed that if the killed enough (3 million people) the rest would subjugate to
them
● Under it, Mujeeb was arrested and censorship was imposed
○ 58,000-3 MILLION Bangladeshi civilians were brutally genocided and 10 million
fled to India
Events:
● On 31st March, India declared its support for the people of Bengal, hoping to weaken
Pakistan’s central government
○ They began training the Mukhti Bahini
■ Its name means “liberation force”
Instrument of Surrender:
● The instrument of surrender was signed on December 16th. It was a written agreement
that enabled the surrender of the armed forces in Dhaka
● It enabled the end of the war of 1971
● Lieutenant-general Niaza (martial law administrator of East Pakistan) and General
Aurora (join commander of the Indian and Bangladeshi forces) signed it
● Following it, India took 93,000 Pakistani soldiers as POWs
Rise to Power:
● Following the disastrous war with India, Yahya resigned
● As Bhutto was the most popular politician in Pakistan according to the Elections of 1930,
he was given power
○ On 18th December 1971, he became the first civilian CMLA
● As he was not a military man, he immediately took steps for the democratization of
Pakistan and the controlling of the army
Policies:
Political:
Controlling of the Military:
● 29 high officials were removed in his first four months
○ This included the head of the Air Force and the Commander in Chief of the army
○ General Tikka Khan was appointed as the Chief of Army Staff
● Martial law was lifted in 1972
● The Federal Security Force was set up in October 1972
○ It was a government-controlled military force to aid the police
■ Thus, the need for military intervention was reduced
○ However, as time went on, Bhutto used it as his own private militia to subdue
opposition
Constitution of 1973:
● In April 1972, martial law was lifted and a committee led by Hafeez ud din Peerzada was
appointed for the creation of the next institution
○ On 14th August 1973, the new constitution (which relied heavily on the
constitution of 1956) was implemented
● Power Structure:
○ President:
■ His power was reduced severely - he had to sign all Presidential order
from the PM
○ Prime Minister:
■ He had emergency powers and the power to make Presidential Orders
■ He could appoint the Chief Justice
■ He could advise the President to suspend the assemblies
○ Cabinet:
■ It could advice the PM
○ Two Houses:
■ The Senate contained memebrs from the Provincial Assembly
■ The National Assembly composed of 200 members
■ They could draft legislation
■ A 75% majority was required to amend the constitution
○ Provision for ‘Islamic’ Parties:
Economic:
Industrialization and Nationalization:
● There were plenty of economic problems (such as the 25% inflation) in the country, due
to which he wanted to implement nationalization to solve them. He thought this policy
would:
○ Channel investment into industrialization and control outputs
○ Raise the workers’ living and owrking conditions
■ This included provisions for cheap housing
○ Allow workers to set up unions
○ Redistribute the concentrated wealth
○ Generate wealth for other governmental reforms
○ Gain urban support fo the PPP
● Steps:
○ Nationalization of steel and cement industries in 1972
■ Setting up of the first Steel Mill in 1973
○ The banking industry was nationalized in 1974
○ The flour, rice, and cotton mills were nationalized
○ In all, 70 major units were placed under the control of the Federal Ministry of
production
● Problems:
○ Lack of skilled labour resulted in a loss of efficiency as capable owners were
replaced with inadequate, often corruptly-placed civil servants
○ Due to the large amounts of coordination required, the system was bogged
down by bureaucracy
○ International instability:
■ Declining demand due to the global recession
■ Rising oil prices due to the Arab-Israel war of 1973
○ Labour problems:
Agricultural:
● Reforms:
○ Limits were placed on individual, not familial land ownership:
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■ Irrigated land: 12.5-250 acres
■ Unirrigated: 12.5 - 500 acres
● These were half the limits set by Ayub
○ Surplus land was sold to tenets for greater efficiency and to prevent the next
tenet from evicting them
■ They could not be evicted without reason, either
○ These land reforms only targetted Punjab, not Sindh, where he owned his
father’s stolen land
● It fell victim to many of the problems Ayub’s reforms faced, however:
○ With land caps:
■ Land was transferred to family members
■ Lack of political will to implement it
■ Incomplete records
■ Infertile land was relinquished for a higher cost than it was worth
■ Corruption and bribes in implementation and enforcement
○ With tenet rights:
■ Weak social position in tenets in contrast to landlords’ strong social and
political influence made it harder for them to take advantage of the
reforms
■ Premptive evictions
■ Lack of finance for lawsuits to fight corruption
■ Corruption to transfer land own paper while retaining ownership
Social:
Educational:
● Aims:
○ To eradicate ignorance
○ To provide education to all
○ To ensure the curriculum met Pakistan’s social, economic, and political needs
○ Uniformity of education in each institute of Pakistan
○ Development of self-confidence and potential/personality of each student
○ The development of a ‘Pakistani’ culture, identity, and national pride
● Steps:
○ According to an Article 37 of the constitution of 1973, the government was to
provide free and compulsory education to all
○ Missionary schools were set up in Sukkur
○ 1820 schools, 346 madrassas, and 155 colleges were set up in Sindh
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○ Sindhi was made compulsory in Sindh
○ School curriculum was revitalized
○ Private schools were nationalized
○ Free primary and compulsory education till grade 10
● Problems:
○ Lack of efficient administrators
○ Only 13% of the education budget was allocated to primary schools
○ Social kickback:
■ People didn't place importance on it as:
● Girls weren’t allowed to attend due to cultural restrictions
● Parents couldn’t afford the loss of earnings
■ Lack of teachers
■ Decline in quality of private education due to the increase in students
■ Schools were too strict, due to which the dropout rate was high
■ Education takes time to implement
Healthcare:
● Pakistan had many healthcare problems:
○ High infant mortality
○ Low life expectancy
● In order to solve this:
○ Rural Healthcare Centres and Basic Healthcare Units were set up in rural and
urban areas
■ RHCs were to serve 60,000 people
■ BHUs were to serve 20,000 people
○ The sale of medicines under brand names/patents in pharmaceuticals were
banned
○ Training colleges for doctors and nurses were set up
■ Once qualified, doctors had to work fo the government for a year so that
they could be assigned to rural areas
■ Entry was to be on merit
● Outcomes:
○ Standard and availability of medical services incrased
○ Medicines became cheaper
○ Fake medications flourished
Foreign Policy:
Simla Agreement:
● In the aftermath of the war of ‘71, 93,000 PoWs were held in Bangladesh and India
○ To deal with this situation, ZAK and Mrs Indira Gandhi met from 28th June - 2nd
July 1972 in Simlah
● On 2nd July, an agreement was signed that:
○ Prisoners of War were to be released
○ 5191 square miles of captured land were to be returned
○ The Kashmir problem wouldn’t be solved via international intervention such as
the UN
● Importance:
○ Bhutto didn’t give up the claim that Pakistan spoke for Kashmir
○ He reduced the dependence on the army by making future conflict less likely
○ He improved pakistan’s international status by portraying it as peaceful
○ He increased his popularity by bringing back captured PoWs
Nuclear Program:
● In 1974, India carried out nuclear tests in Rajasthan Desert
● In response, the Pakistan Nuclear Program was initiated
● On 24th June 1972, 50 scientists were gathered
● Help was sought from foreign countries:
○ China and North Korea
○ A Dutch centrifuge firm
● The program was carried on by Zia ul Haq
Miscellaneous:
● He toured 22 countries to explain his foreign policies
○ This included China and the USSR
● SEATO:
○ He left SEATO when Western countries recognized Bangladesh
● USA:
○ By improving public view of Pakistan there, he could now avail their economic
aid
● Remittances from foreign workers increased substantially
Downfall:
Elections of ‘77:
● Bhutto, thinking he had the support of the masses, announced elections in 1977
● The opposition formed the PNA (Pakistan National Alliance)
○ It consisted of 9 parties
○ It promised to:
■ Bring back the prices of 1970
■ Enforce Nizam-e-Mustafa
○ They were headed by Asghar Khan, who said that they would not accept the
results, which would supposedly be rigged
● Due to the support the PNA gained, restrictions were placed on public meetings
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● In the elections, PPP gained a majority of 155 seats
○ The PNA, which only got 36 seats, rejected it
Ensuing Events:
● A nationwide campaign against PPP was held
● To crush these, the FSF and rangers were involved
○ Negotiations were also initiated under which Friday was declared a national
holiday, the sale of alcohol was restricted, and the banning of parties was
restricted
● On 19th April, Pakistan was placed under martial law
○ Due to the dire situation, the PNA and its supporters were arrested
○ Negotiations with a PNA delegation ensued
● Due to the deadlock, the army, which Bhutto himself had called, took advantage of the
situation and launched ‘Operation Fairplay’
Operation Fairplay:
● On 5th July, there was a military coup
● Bhutto and other major political leaders were arrested that night
● It was led by Zia ul Haq
● Three days later, the constitution and assemblies were assemblied
Consolidation of Power:
● At first, he said, that within 90 days, he would hold new elections
○ This was completely fake, however - in reality, he wanted to keep power for as
long as he could
● Therefore, in order to retain power, he started crushing the opposition, most
importantly the PPP
○ He declared their government corrupt (without evidence) and also accused
Bhutto of a murder on shaky grounds
■ A White Paper was issued which criticized the actions of the previous
government
● Lastly, saying that he wanted to implement accountability and islamization in the
country, he cancelled the upcoming elections
○ This was done after Bhutto had been declared not guilty in the Ahmed Qusuri
case so that he could be called in again
Miscellaneous:
● Blasphemy:
○ Blasphemy against the Prophet was punishable by “death, or life imprisonment
and shall also be liable to fine”.
Political:
Balochistan:
● During Bhutto’s time, situations in Balohcistan worsened significantly
● In order to deal with this:
○ He disbanded the Hyderabad Tribunal, under which members of the NAP were
prosecuted
○ Military operation in the area was stopped
○ Amnetsy was declared for all who gave up their arms
Majlis-e-Shoora:
● Instead of setting up a parliament, he set up a Majlis-e-Shoora in February 1982
○ This was a lame way to respond to the demands for a new election
● It had no actual power, instead just being a debating body
● Furthermore, all 350 members were to be nominated by the President, due to which it
was clearly unrepresentative
○ Only 20 members - 5.7% - of the members were to be women
Civil Service:
● The civil service was brought under military control
● He filled many posts with military officers
○ A fixed quote of military men was to be transferred into the Civil Service
Academy every year
● Thus, he provided career opportunities for his supporters
● By 1982, 40% of Pakistan’s ambassadors were military men
● It is interesting to not that he earlier condemned Bhutto for filling the Civil Service with
his own supporters and then proceeded to do the same.
Referendum of 1984:
● On 1st December 1984, Zia announced that his government would hold a referendum
Social:
Rights of Women:
● As women were encouraged to stay him, only 5.6% of women were in employment
● The Hudood Ordinances were terrible, as said before
● Only 20 members - 5.7% - of the members were to be women
● In response to this, several women’s right organizations were formed, the most notable
being the Woman’s Action Forum
● However, the represntation of women in the NA was increased to 20% in 1985
Censorship:
● In 1984, all students’ unions were banned
Economic:
Denationalization:
● Many industries were returned to their former owners or were sold to new investors
● To confirm that nationalization wouldn’t occur again, laws were passed that industries
could only be nationalized in exceptional circumstances with fair compensation
● A few industries remained nationalized but were reformed to make them more efficient
● Interest free loans were given to farmers
● The existing policy was reformed such that bank’s customers shared both profits and
losses with each other
● There were 50,000 Pakistanis working abroad - they sent home ~$4 Billion per year
Results:
● The Growth rate of the GDP was 6.2%, amongst the highest in the world
Foreign:
The ‘Afghan Miracle’:
● On 25th December 1979, the Societ Union invaded and occupied Afghanistan in order to
prop up the government of President Mohammad Daud Khan
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○ This was in the backdrop of nationwide protests due to the leftist government’s
new reforms
○ Capitalist Western countries overlooked Zia’s human rights violation when he
became a frontline state against Societ Agression
○ As long as he was on their side, they did not care how autocratic or merciless he
was - a very nice image of consistency which we should all strive to maintain in
our social interactions
● Why Zia got involved:
○ To protect Pakistan’s sovereignty - The Soviet Union’s ultimate aim was to invade
Pakistan for its warm water ports
○ To improve Pakistan’s foreign image and avail aid
○ To aid Muslim brothers in Afghanistan.
● Fighting:
○ The Afghans had long been excellent guerrilla warriors for centuries, even
managing to kick back the British forces in the 1800s
■ The mountainous areas were also difficult for Russia to invade
○ Due to this, Soviet Russia had captured most urban centres while the
mujahideen roamed free in the countryside
■ This led to Soviet bombing of civilians, many of which fled across the
border
○ Pakistan provided military and economic assistance to these guerilla warriors,
giving preferential treatment to the Islamic fundamentalist Gulbaddin Hikmatyar,
who was a Mujahideen leader
■ The long border was extremely helpful for this
■ Madrassas were also set up in Pakistan to brainswash people into killing
and murder. This sure won’t backfire…
● As Pakistan was the sole base for anti-Soviet activities in the region, they availed
unconditional economic and military support
○ Economic aid - at first, the US President Carter only offered $400M, which Zia
termed as ‘peanuts’. When Ronald Reagan took office, however, this changed
substantially. :
■ USA offered $1.6 billion in 1981 over 5 years
■ Further 1.5 Billion Euros were also availed at low interest
■ In 1986, an agreement for 4.2 Billion Dollars’ worth of military and
economic aid was signed
○ Military:
■ An arrangement was made for the purchase of forty F-16 fighter aircraft.
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■ Zia was able to increase the military budget
■ He built up an effective military force that was able to sell military
assistance to other countries, becoming the second largest supplier of
military manpower in the developing world
○ Pakistan was also established as a leading country in world politics
India:
● Khalistan Issue:
○ Sikhs in Indian Punjab demanded liberation due to oppression by the Indian
government, which included:
■ Demolition of the golden temple
■ The Sikhs in the temple, who were supposedly plotting against the
government, had to face the Indian army
○ The Indian government, led by Indira Gandhi’s son, Rajiv, accused Pakistan of:
■ Supporting the Sikhs militarily
■ Having a hand in the assassination of Indira Gandhi in 1984 by her Sikh
guards
● Siachen Glacier Issue:
○ In 1977, an Indian colonel led a team of climbers to the Siachen Glacier
■ In 1981, he, Narinder Kumar, returned and walked its full length
○ Pakistan realized India’s occupation of the area when they found a discarded
Indian cigarette packet
■ When Pakistan moved up the glacier, they found 300 Indian soldiers who
had dug into the mountain tops
○ In 1987, Pervez Musharraf led an assault to gain control of Bilafond La Pass
● Whullar Bank Issue:
○ India was illegally building dams on the River Jhelum
● Cricket Diplomacy:
○ Due to the fighting in Siachen glacier (and the testing of nuclear bombs by India
in the Rajhastan Desert), tensions were extremely strained
○ Due to this, in February, Zia flew to India to watch a cricket game with the Indian
PM
○ Due to this, India agreed to call of the mobilization of its army
○ It was called by the press ‘cricket diplomacy’
‘Afghan Miracle’:
● Mentioned before
Rescindment of Aid:
● By 1988, the cold war was ending as the worlds’ superpowers looked to end their
differences
○ The more relaxed Gorbacev had come to power in 1985
● Thus, in April 1988, Gorbacev signed a peace treaty wherein he agreed to withdraw
from Afghanistan
○ In return, America was told not to support the mujahideen
● Now that they were no longer as necessary, the foreign aid started to reduce
Assassination:
● On 17th August 1988, Zia flew from an army base in Southern Punjab
○ There were 31 people on board, including the US ambassador and senior officials
of the Pakistan Army
● 2 and a half minutes after it took off, the Bahwalpur control tower lost contact with it
○ For the next two minutes, it flew turbulently
○ Finally, it plunged and hit the ground and exploded
● An investigation was led into it by the Air Force Board of enquiry, it was ascertained that
it occurred due to sabotage
Nawaz Sharif
Benazir’s First Term:
Who:
● She was the daughter of former Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto
● She was under house arrest while Bhutto was being tried and hung in 1981
● In 1984, she went on exile to London
○ There, she had no intention of returning or getting involved in politics
● However, in 1985, she returned for the funeral of her brother, Shanawaz, who was
poisoned
○ During this, she was arrested for participating in anti-government rallies
○ After she was released, she again went into exile
● When Zia ended martial law in 1986, she returned to Pakistan and became the co-
chairman of PPP (alongside her mother)
○ She then began campaigning for fair and free national elections and for Zia to
resign
Rise to Power:
● If President dies, chairman becomes the acting President
○ Thus, Ghulam Ishaq Khan became President
● In October 1988, elections were held, during which PPP was the single largest Party and
a majority in Sindh
○ This was in spite of her utter lack of political experience - she won due to her
surname, Bhutto, only
○ When Ghulam Ishaq Khan asked her to become president, she needed to form
an alliance (with the MQM) since she didn’t have an overall majority
● She faced strong opposition from:
○ Islamic extremist parties who believed women should not be President
○ The Islami Jamhoori Ittehad, led by Nawaz Sharif (who was incredibly rich, due to
which he had opposition to the Bhuttos), which had a majority in Punjab
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Policies:
Aims:
● Moving away from Zia’s pro-Islamic policies
○ She wanted a country that was first democratic and second guided by Islamic
principles
● Restoring political freedoms
● Introducing social and health reforms
Foreign Policy:
● She again entered the commonwealth
● South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC):
○ She held the fourth SAARC in December 1988 in Islamabad
○ Relationships between Pakistan and India improved
○ 3 peace agreements were signed between Pakistan and India
■ They wouldn’t bomb each other’s nuclear installations
■ They would uphold the terms of the Simlah Accord
■ A hotline telephone link was set up
○ However, tensions increased when she started using tougher language in
support of the Kashmiri Mujahideen
● USA:
○ She visited its President, George Bush, and other government officials in 1989
Unions:
● The ban on trade unions was lifted
○ It had been enforced by Bhutto due to mass labour protests, some of which were
led by militant unions
● She restored student unions
Miscellaneous:
● Political prisoners released
● She took the first steps towards rural electrification
● A woman’s Bank (First Women’s Bank) was opened
● Women were recruited into the police and appointed as High Court Judges and Civil
Service Positions
Bank of Punjab:
● Nawaz Sharif established it in 1989
● Even though the provinces were allowed to do so, the PPP called it treason
● However, people thought she was in the wrong due to:
○ Poor roads and schools
○ The failure of the Pakistan Railways to provide wagons to move scrap iron from
Karachi to Lahore
Economic:
● She could not deliver on her promises due to the opposition in the senate
● Unemployment was high
● Inflation increased
● The population rose, crippling the health and educational facilities
Drugs:
● Due to the “Afghan ‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘Miracle’’’’’’’’”, there was plenty of drug trafficking
● This led to growing drug abuse, which she was unable to contain
● Drug dealers and smugglers with automatic weapons ran free in some parts of the
country
Sindh:
● During Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s time, Sindh had been a stronghold as:
○ He had reserved posts in the government for Sindhis
○ He had made Sindhi a compulsory subject
● However, during Benazir’s time, the MQM rose
○ These were Urdu-speaking migrants who opposed separate rights for Sindhis
● Though at first, they formed a coalition, it was broken in October 1989 due to the fact
that she hardly shared any power
○ Furthermore, she could not deliver on her promise to protect the rights of all
inhabitants of Sindh, not only Sindhis
Balochistan:
● The Balochi National Assembly was dissolved by the Governor on the advice of the CM
within two weeks of the government coming into power
○ IJI blamed PPP for this, though Benazir denied any knowledge
● The Balochistan High Court declared the dissolution illegal and restored the assembly in
January 1989
Dismissal:
● Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismissed the government under the eight amendment due to
corruption, incompetence, and inaction
● Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi, the leader of a coalition opposed to the PPP was asked to form a
caretaker government till elections in October 1990
Reasons:
You can list most of the stuff from the problems, this is just from the past papers:
● She was criticised by many for the alleged corruption of her husband Asif Ali Zardari and
PPP leaders were suspected of being involved; this tainted her own reputation.
● She came into confrontation with provincial governments especially as she had to work
in a coalition with the MQM which was a party that represented Muslims who had
migrated from India to Pakistan and settled in Sindh. This angered many PPP members
in Sindh.
● Violent protests throughout Pakistan led to the MQM leaving the coalition and joining
with the opposition which meant that her majority was gone.
○ Further violence and deaths led to her dismissal because she and her
government were blamed for the breakdown of law and order.
Policies:
The Shariat Bill:
● In 1991, the Shariat Bill was passed
○ According to it, the Quran and Sunnah were to be the law of the land as long as
they did not go against the existing laws
○ It did not allow women to run
● Reactions:
○ Opponents disliked the increased role of Islam
■ Benazir did not allow it to go through
○ Fundamentalists were disappointed that it did not go further
● However, there were little actual changes due to this.
○ For example, when the Federal Shariat Courts asked for measures to be taken
about interest on loans, no action was taken
Economic Liberalization:
● He privatized 89 state-owned enterprise
○ The included telecommunications, shipping, and electricity
○ Profits and prices rose = loot and plunder
● Large scale projects to stimulate the economy were launched
○ The Barotha Hydro Power Project
○ The Gwadar Miniport
● Financial:
○ Government banks were successfully privatized
○ Exchange controls of foreign currency were lifted so that now, private money
exchange could occur
● Common Labourers:
○ A self-employment scheme was introduced which was later called the Yellow
Cab Scheme
■ Under it, many taxes were imported
■ People were given easy loans in order to buy them
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○ A minimum wage of Rs 1500 was introduced from July 1992
● Effect:
○ Foreign Investment:
■ Foreign private investment up to 1997 totalled $3.5 Billion
■ Three foreign funds worth $58 million were set up for investment in the
equities of the company
■ The stock market was bullish - increased from 393->764. This was a rapid
increase of 93%
○ Few of the loans were repaid
○ More negative effects discussed below
Motorway:
● Aims:
○ He wanted to build a fast transportation network to central Asia, where
countries had recently become independent from Russia
○ He wanted to provide alternatives to already overburdened roads
○ He wanted to connect major cities
○ Stimulate rural economies
● It was extremely expensive and was supposed to cost 989,000,000,000
● It did have some success:
○ The M2 was completed in 1997
○ It was the first major motorway in South Asia that connected Lahore and
Islamabad
● However, the project suffered continual delays
○ Eventually came to a temporary stop under Musharraf
Security:
● Kalashnikov Culture’s Effect:
○ It was part of the culture in many rural areas to carry guns
■ This was made easy due to smuggling of weapons across the Afghan
border as the result of Zia’s policies
○ Because of it, bombings, kidnapping, and robberies were commonplace
■ Even foreigners were not safe
○ It was a special problem in Sindh
○ By 1999, Pakistan had as many as 4 million heroin addicts
● Attempts to curb it:
Foreign Policy:
● Pressler Amendment:
○ The US stopped all aid to Pakistan under the Pressler Amendment
○ This was due to the secret development of nuclear weapons and the Nuclear
Power Institute
○ This continued despite the involvement in the Gulf War
● The Gulf War:
○ Four days before Bhutto was removed, the Gulf War was initiated
■ Iraq had annexed Kuwait, which they claimed was their property
■ The US-led an international coalition against them
○ Pakistan joined the US coalition against Iraq
■ US air forces and naval units allowed to refuel with this policy
■ A token battalion was sent to defend the holy places in Saudi Arabia
○ However, many people sympathized with Iraq
■ Due to this, there were protests over Pakistan’s involvement in the affair
Division of Resources:
● National Finance Certificate Awards:
○ According to the needs, demands, and size of the province, they received a
section of the national budget:
■
○ Effects:
■ It is why Punjab is more developed than other provinces
■ This created a problem with Balochistan as they were given only 5%
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● Division of Water:
○ In order to solve the water conflicts
Problems:
Economic Problems:
● High government spending
● Reduction in overseas aid
● Decrease in remittances
● There was a rise of strong business groups, which increased the wealth gap
● A huge increase in unemployment due to downsizing of now privatized industries
Corruption:
● Privatization:
○ The programme was largely controlled by favoured insiders
○ There was a lack of competition in bidding for the institution
○ There were accusations of favouritism in the sale of industrial and banking units
● Industrialization:
○ It focused mainly on KPK and Punjab, Nawaz Sharif’s native provinces
■ Due to this, he was accused of corruption
○ He was also accused of obtaining permits to build factories for himself
Sindh:
● He had a conflict with the MQM there
○ They were accusing him of corruption due to the fact that Sindh did not receive
much aid
● In order to curb their power, Operation Cleanup was launched
○ A large number of soldiers were deployed in Sindh against the MQM
■ Evidence of torture and large weapons dumps were found
Others:
● He was accused of the death of Asif Nawaz
● It was difficult to promote his economic and religious ideas at the same time
Dismissal:
● In the backdrop of unrest in Sindh, Ishaq Khan dismissed Nawaz Sharif for the peace of
the country and due to corruption and economic mismanagement
○ However, the Supreme Court ruled against this action
○ Due to this, both Ishaq and Nawaz resigned
■ Ishaq replaced by Wasim Sajjad
■ Nawaz Sharif was replaced by Moeen Qureshi and elections were
announced in October 199
Policies:
Change of President:
● Farooq Ahmed Leghari was appointed as President by the PPP
○ He promised to but failed to remove the 8th Amendment
Women:
● She had many plans for the rights of women:
○ She planned to set up women’s police stations
○ She displayed concern for women’s social and health issues
● However, there was little actual legislation passed
Economic:
● She raised 42 Billion dollars from the privatization of national assets
● She availed 20 Billion dollars from foreign investment
● Due to this, the trade deficit was reduced
Problems:
Political Opposition:
● After Benazir Bhutto installed her government in KPK, Nawaz Sharif instigated the train
march
○ In 1994, he travelled from Karachi to Peshawar
○ Large crowds gathered along the way to listen to his critical speeches
■ In response, several opposition leaders were arrested, but that only riled
them up
○ Throughout September and October 1994, he organized massive strikes
■ He criticized her for nepotism
Economic:
● The US had still imposed a financial embargo due to the Pakistani nuclear weapons
programme
● Privatization was opposed by biased governmental officials
● Statistics:
○ 30% decrease in the value of the rupee
○ Growth slowed to 4% from 6
○ Large scale manufacturing to 2.3 from 8
● The rich statistically improved while the poor became even worse
United Bank:
● Benazir Bhutto attempted to privatize the United Bank to get some capital for the
struggling
○ However, offers for the bank were extremely low
● Eventually, she tried to sell it to an apparently Saudi based company
○ Stopped when accusations of corruption and that actually a group of Pakistani
businessmen
Instability in Sindh:
● Violence in Sindh was at its peak, due to which something needed to be done
○ The MQM reached out the Bhutto and asked to form an alliance on her terms
○ However, she refused and launched Operation Blue Fox
● Operation Blue Fox was the second such operation which aimed to eradicate MQM
○ Under it, thousands of majority-Urdu speaking people were killed or gone
missing
Political Instability:
● Dismissal of Judges:
○ The Supreme Court dismissed 20 judges, including 3 women, appointed by
Benazir’s government
■ In response, it is alleged that efforts were made to intimidate the Chief
Justice
○ The government’s refusal to carry out this decision caused a crisis
● The Removal of the CM of Punjab:
○ Manzoor Wattoo, the CM of Punjab, was removed for governing in an
independent manner
Family Feuds:
● She had a conflict with her mother over who would control the PPP
Military
● In 1995, Benazir Bhutto was worried that military officers were planning to overthrow
her in a Coup d’etat
○ The conspirators had obtained weapons from tribal areas
● A tip from intelligence Agencies resulted in the arrest of 36 army officers and 20 civilians
in Rawalpindi
○ A court-martial was formed
○ All of the officers were jailed by 1996
Dismissal:
● Despite his initial promises to revoke the 8th Amendment, he used it to dismiss Benazir
Bhutto in 1966
● Army units stationed at key points in Islamabad to prevent a conflict
● Soldiers arrested Asif Ali Zardari
Reasons:
● List any of the problems above
● Economic difficulties
● The inefficiency of the government
● The rights of the people had not been maintained
Policies:
Constitutional Amendments::
● 13th Amendment:
○ The President could no longer dissolve the assembly without being advised to do
so by the Prime Minister
○ He could no longer remove the Prime minister
● The 14th Amendment - The Anti-Defection Bill:
○ Members of the assembly could not change power
○ This prevented the opposition from growing too strong or him from being
removed in a no-confidence vote
● The 15th Amendment:
○ The PM had all authority for religious laws
○ This was passed in reaction to Musharraf’s increasing power
Nuclear Tests:
● Pakistan successfully conducted the first nuclear tests in Chaghai Hills
Economic Reforms:
● He aimed to pay off loans ad launched the National Debt Programme
○ Many remittances were sent for this purpose
○ However, no loan was paid off due to corruption.
● M2 motorway between Islamabad and Lahorecompleted. It was extremely ambitious
and facilitated the transport of goods
○ However, there were misgivings as to whether this would ever be profitable due
to the lack of traffic
● Bait ul Maal:
○ A zakat committee was set up
○ However, nobody actually received money due to corruption
● He tried to improve accountability in the government, reprimanding some high-profile
people
Problems:
Supreme Court:
● In order to reduce the Supreme Court’s power, he tried to reduce from 17 to 12
members
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○ The Chief Justice, Sajjad Ali Shah (who was appointed by Benazir Bhutto and was
critical of Nawaz Sharif) asked him to reinstate the 5 judges
○ In response, Nawaz Sharif told the National Assembly to dismiss him
● In 1997, Nawaz Sharif’s supporters stormed the Supreme Court when he was being tried
for corruption
○ The CJ and other judges had to flee for his safety
○ It could only be controlled by police with batons and tear gas
● In December, President Leghari resigned
○ He was appalled by the measures taken by the government and wanted to
dismiss it but no longer could due to the 13th Amendment
○ This was after he had been asked to dismiss Sajjad Ali Shah
● The Chief Justice was dismissed
○ Rafiq Ahmad Tarar, a retired judge nominated by PMLN took oath in Dec 1997
Censorship:
● Journalists who were critical of his government were arrested
○ For example, Nawaz’s secret police kidnapped Najam Sethi in 1997 who was
working with a group investing Nawaz Sharif’s corruption
■ He was released only due to international protest
● Newspaper editors were intruded upon with unexpected tax inspections
Nuclear Power:
● In May 1998, India tested its nuclear devices in Rajasthan
○ 2 weeks later, 6 nuclear devices tested in Balochistan
● Effects:
○ The US and other nations imposed sanctions on Pakistan
■ This is partially because neither of the nations signed the Non-
Proliferation Treaty
■ It was not helped by the refusal to hand over Osama bin Laden
○ Investor’s confidence was undermined
■ Due to this, the government froze foreign currency in Pakistani accounts
to prevent people from moving it out of the country
○ Despite the claims of the government, that area was in fact inhabited.
Balochistan to this day suffers from diseases such as cancer due to the radiation
from this testing
Economic:
● Due to corruption:
○ No loans were actually paid off
○ The Zakat committee was useless
Dismissal:
● When the previous CoAS, Karamat, asked for a position in the National Security Council,
he was forced to resign
○ He was replaced by Musharraf, who later overthrew the government in a
military coup
Kargil:
● Musharraf, without Nawaz’s or even the air force’s knowledge, dropped troops in
Siachen Glacier, which India had recently illegally occupied. Reasons:
○ Siachen glacier overlooked an important pass in India which would let Pakistan
know when Indian troops were gathering
○ They wanted to remind the world that the grievances in Kashmir hadn’t been
settled
○ They wanted to preempt any Indian attack
○ There are several official documents which outline the fact that Nawaz Sharif
knew not of this scheme
■ The fact that the Air Force didn’t get involved is proof in and of itself
● The Pakistani troops there fought valiantly, downing 3 Indian air crafts despite the
Pakistani aircraft not being informed
○ However, as many as 4000 of their men were killed, and this would soon be
more if India fully mobilized
○ However, due to international kickback, Musharraf denied that he had sent any
troops there, saying they were Kashmiri activists
■ They were left there to die, with some Indian reports outlining that they
were so abandoned that they were forced to eat grass
● When Nawaz Sharif put the blame on Musharraf, saying he knew not of it, Musharraf
stages a military coup
○ When Musharraf was returning from Sri Lanka, they tried to detour and arrest
him
Relations
India:
Reasons for Conflict:
Heritage:
● Many members of the INC, and many Indians to this day, believe that Pakistan should
never have come into existence
● During the partition, there was communal violence instigated by both sides, which there
is still a reason for hatred
Partition:
● Accession of Princely States
○ Mention Hyderabad and Junagadh
● Conflict over the borders
● Distribution of resources
Allies:
● Pakistan has largely allied with the US and India with the Soviet Union
○ As those two nations are enemies, this aggravates Pakistan and India’s relations,
too
● During the Afghan War, Pakistan was supporting the insurgents while India was allied
with Russia
Wars:
● War of 65 and 71
● Simlah Agreement: Pakistan had to refuse to take Kashmir to the UN
Kashmir:
● Yes.
Sikh Movement:
● See below
Problems at Partition:
Refugees:
● After the partition, there was a large-scale migration from Pakistan to India and vice
versa
○ During this, there were many instances of communal violence
● In order to prevent further violence, in April 1950, Liaquat Ali Khan signed an agreement
with Nehru called the Minorities Pact
○ According to it, both countries promised to provide protection and freedom to
minorities in the hope of preventing further migration
● While the flow of people did ebb, it didn’t stop completely as:
○ People did not trust the government to fulfil their promises
○ They realized that even if they were protected, minorities would not have the
same level of opportunities as the majority
Resources:
● The unsavoury nature with which Pakistan and India dealt with the transfer of resources
(mentioned earlier) created a rift between the two nations
○ Pakistan was suspicious at India reluctance to release their assets
● Water resources have also created a huge problem
○ India owns the parts of Kashmir which contain the headworks to important rivers
which flow into Pakistan
○ On 1st April 1948, India cut off water supplies from the headworks it controlled,
which was a huge threat to pakistani agriculture
○ Due to this, the Indus Water Treaty was signed with the World Bank as a
supervisory, which guaranteed Pakistan a 10-year water supply, as discussed
earlier
The other conflict is the Kashmir conflict, which includes a variety of events which I shall list
later
1950s:
● Little progress was made, during this time, with the situation remaining tense as ever
● India tried to integrate their portion of Kashmir into their nation in 1954-5
○ Pakistan appealed to the UN Security Council, which protested this action
● In 1957, the UN released a declaration re-confirming that Kashmir was disputed
territory and that its future was only to be decided by a plebiscite supervised by the UN
○ As of 2021, no plebiscite has been taken
India-Sino Relations:
● Seeing the aid Pakistan was receiving from the US, India signed a friendship pact with
China in 1954
● However, in 1962, India and China went to war over the position of the border
○ China advanced to where it believed the border should be and declared a
ceasefire
● After this, India began a rearmament programme
War of 1965:
● Reasons:
○ Seeing how easily India had been defeated by China, Pakistan though it would be
easy to capture the whole of Kashmir
○ Unresolved misgivings remained over the status of Kashmir and the War of 1948,
which Pakistan wanted to avenge
War of 1971:
● On 31st March, India declared its support for East Pakistan and started training the
Mukhti Bahini, East Pakistani freedom fighters
● On 3rd December, Pakistan attacked India
○ India retaliated soon, launching an offensive by land, air, and sea. Pakistan was
unable to fight back due to the lack of foreign aid (China was threatened by
Russia not to help) and geographical difficulties whereas India had the full
support of the USSR
○ After only 14 days, Pakistan, having lost the entirety of East Pakistan and 5619
square miles in West Pakistan, had to resign
Zia ul Haq:
● When Zia ul Haq came to power, he became extremely involved with the war in
Afghanistan
○ Due to this, the Kashmir issue was not touched upon and relations remained
peaceful
● Sikhs:
○ In the 1980s, there were uprisings in the Sikh community in Punjab, who wanted
a separate homeland
○ In October 1984, Mrs Gandhi was assassinated by Sikhs
○ Her son, Rajiv, took over as PM and accused Pakistan of supporting the Sikh
movement and the assassination of his mother
■ Even though Zia declared a day of national mourning for Indira, relations
still deteriorated
● Due to this, by 1987, relations had deteriorated so much that the countries were close
to war
○ In order to intimidate Pakistan, India also initiated exercises (“Brasstacks”) in
Rajasthan
○ This conflict was resolved via ‘cricket diplomacy’ - Zia ul Haq flew to India to
watch a cricket match, meeting many Indian leaders (including Rajiv) while he
was there.
Nuclear Power:
● In 1970, Pakistan did not sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
● In 1974, India carried out nuclear tests in Rajasthan.
○ Hearing rumours of this, Pakistan had started to develop nuclear weapons in
1972 and launched the KANUPP that year
● It is believed that Pakistan had nuclear capabilities since 1985 but kept this quiet till
1998 so that foreign aid wouldn’t be cut off
● In May 1998, India tested five nuclear devices in Pokhran
○ A few weeks later, Pakistan tested its own devices in the Ras Koh Hills, saying
that they had “settled the score” by giving its own citizens cancer by testing it in
a location too close to civilian areas
● The UN Secretary-General asked both sides to sign the Comprehensive Test Treaty Ban
○ Both nations refused but announced later that year that they were stopping
nuclear testing
Siachen Glacier:
● Siachen Glacier, the ‘world’s highest battleground’ is a glacier on the Line of Control that
is supposed to be no-man’s land
○ It is a symbol of control and also gives you view of the enemy’s gathering troops
if you capture it
● In 1981, Pakistan, finding Indian officers already in the area, themselves, too dug in
○ Since then, India and Pakistan are believed to spend 500 million USD/year to
prevent enemy forces from occupying it
○ There has also been regular fighting, which have cost up to 5000 soldier’s lives
● In 1984, under Operation Meghdoot, India seized control of the area
○ After that, many attempts were made by both nations to establish a foothold in
the nation
● In 1999, the Kargil conflict took place
○ During this, the Pakistan army, disguised as Kashmiri guerillas, crossed the
border and infiltrated the Kargil-Dras sector.
■ They aimed to block off the supply to Indian soldiers in Siachen
○ This was an extremely secretive operation - not even the head of the air force
knew about it
■ It is controversial as to whether Nawaz Sharif was aware of this.
According to some accounts given in the coup “From Kargil to the Coup:
Events that Shook Pakistan”, Nawaz was told of the plan extremely
vaguely on a map that didn’t even have the Line of Control
Failures:
● Conflict over distribution of resources and water
○ Event though the Indus Water Treaty was signed, it has been violated multiple
times
● War of ‘47-’48
● Indian efforts to inculcate Kashmir into their territory ‘54-’55
● War of ‘56
● War of ‘71
● Sikh unrest, Indira Gandhi’s assassination, and accusations of Pakistani involvement in
the affair
● Kashmir uprisings in the 1990s
○ Failure of the Foreign Secretaries to reach an agreement 1994
● Kargil Conflict
How Successful have Pakistan and India been in solving the Kashmir Crisis?
Successes:
● In 1948, Pakistan and India decided the borders between East Bengal and Assam
● UN declares Kashmir a disputed territory in 1957
● Tashkent Agreement
● Kashmir Issue remains quiet during Zia’s reign due to Afghan war
● Non-Nuclear Aggression Agreement
Failures:
● War of 47-48
● India tries to integrate Kashmir in 54 and 55
● War of 65
● Kashmiri uprising in 1990
● Kargil conflict
USA:
Reasons for Alliance:
For Aid:
● The US was a global superpower with an extremely advanced economy
● Pakistan aimed to take advantage of this for aid, which was necessary in order to
develop its military and industrialize
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Ideological:
● Like the US, Pakistan believed in a free, private economy
● Pakistan is advantageous for US to oppose communism in the area, such as during the
Afghanistan conflicts
Religious:
● Many believe that Islam is anti-communist religion. This is important since Islam has a
huge influence in Pakistan
● The Soviet Union was considered anti-religion
○ Many prominent communist philosophers are against religion. Karl Marx: “Die
Religion ... ist das Opium des Volkes” (Religion … is the opiate of the masses)
Events:
Post-Partition:
● Initially, Pakistan was a bit alarmed by America’s attitude as:
○ The US took several years to send an ambassador to Pakistan
○ America often talked about the need for unity between Muslims and Hindus
● As Liaquat Ali Khan was frustrated by American abstinence from the formation of an
alliance, he accepted an invitation to the USSR in 1949
○ Following this, he immediately received an invitation, which he accepted and
visited the US in 1950
○ A Pakistani Embassy was then established in the US
Treaties:
● In contrast to India’s attitude, Pakistan was incredibly prepared to join US alliances for
aid
● In May 1954, Pakistan and America signed a Mutual Defence Assistance Agreement
● In September 1954, Pakistan joined SEATO. More information below
● In 1955, Pakistan joined the Baghdad Pact, which was later changed to CENTO. More
information below.
Afghan Miracle:
● In December 1979, Russia invaded Afghanistan
○ America, needing Pakistan, put aside any hesitations over Zia’s policies and gave
Pakistan huge amounts of aid in return of their military support
● Aid received:
○ Initially, $400 million were offered to Pakistan, but those were rejected,
○ After this, $1.6 billion were offered over 5 years and a further $1.5 billion loan at
low rates of interest to enable Pakistan to buy modern US weapons
■ Due to this, Pakistan became a leading military nation
○ India objected to the aid, but they were not listened to
○ A further $4.2 billion worth of military and economic aid was signed in 1986
○ Pakistan was the third largest recipient of American aid at the time
● However, after the Soviet Union backed out, US aid reduced heavily
1988-1999:
● When Benazir took power, Pakistan aid was heavily reduced as:
○ The Afghan Crisis had ended
○ Under the Pressler Amendment (1985), the US could only supply aid to nations
without nuclear weapons (though this had been ignored during the Afghanistan
Crisis.
■ According to this, Bush refused to declare Pakistan nuclear free and
blocked aid to the country, stopping the sale of 28 F16 fighter jets which
Pakistan had already paid for
○ Rates of drug addiction and weapon-usage were rising heavily
● This heavily hit Benazir’s government, who took steps to mend her relations with the US
Failures:
● US provides military aid to India 1962
● US objects to Pak-China friendship
● US places embargo during 1965
Soviet Union:
Events:
Initial Relations:
● Stalin quickly invited Liaquat to visit Russia in 1949
● While Liaquat initially accepted the invitation, he declined it in favour of America
● This angered the USSR, who, by the 1950s, were clearly supporting India over Kashmir
China:
Events:
Initial Relations:
● In 1949, the CCP took power and the nationalists were exiled to Taiwan
○ India supported the new government where Pakistan opposed the Beijing
Government taking China’s seat in the UN security council
● While Pakistan did eventually accept the regime in 1950, relations were initially shaky
due to:
○ India’s positive attitude towards China
○ Pakistan receiving aid from western countries
● However, Pakistan did extend the hand of friendship to China by:
○ Supporting their entry into the UN
○ During the Afro-Asian conference, the Pakistani and Chinese Prime Ministers met
○ In 1956, Hussain Suhrawurdy visited China. Leaders of both nations visited each
other during the next several years
1960s:
● After China fought a war with India in 1962, Pakistan and China quickly formed close
bonds, partially because America supported India
○ In March 1962, they worked to resolve their border dispute, which was
completed in March 1963
■ China made concessions to Pakistan during this in the hope of getting
closer to them
● In 1963, Pakistan and China announced a series of trade agreements
○ Pakistan was given a $60 million interest free loan
○ China became the world’s largest purchaser of Pakistani cotton
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○ Pakistan claimed that China pledged to support them in conflicts against India
○ China supplied Pakistan machinery and technical knowledge for the engineering
complex at Taxila and provided electrical equipment for WAPDA
● The same year, PIA started flying to China, the first international carrier to do so
● In 1964, China made a statement in support of Pakistan’s Kashmir policy
○ In exchange for this, Pakistan supported their entry into the UN
● In the war of ‘65, China provided military aid to Pakistan and pressured India
diplomatically to not attack by accelerating the movement of its armed forces on the
Indian border
1970-1999:
● In the War of 1971, China didn’t provide much aid to Pakistan due to diplomatic
pressure from the USSR
● In February 1972, Bhutto visited China, during which:
○ China agreed to convert many of its earlier loans into grants
○ China agreed to supply military aircraft and tanks
● In 1978, the Karakoram Highway opened
○ It had been under construction since 1966 and was the first major link between
the two countries
○ It was largely financed by Chinese money and built by Chinese engineers
○ The terrain it was built on was so dangerous that it is believed that for every
kilometer of the road built, one construction worker lost their life
○ While it is said that it follows the path of the old silk road, that is probably not
true: https://www.dawn.com/news/1377055
● In 1986, Zia chose China as one of the first countries to visit after taking power
○ In 1986, Pakistan and China signed a nuclear cooperation treaty
○ China aided in the construction of the Chashma Nuclear Plant, which became
operational in 1999/2000
Failures:
● Pakistan initially opposed its entry into the UN
● China was unable to help in ‘71 due to Chinese pressure
● During the 1990s, China pressured for the resolution of the Kashmir issue, which
annoyed Pakistan
The Commonwealth:
● Pakistan chose to remain a member of the Commonwealth, meaning that it was a part
of British dominion (it had its own government but recognized the British monarch as
the head of state
● In 1956, Pakistan declared itself a republic, meaning that the British monarch had no
involvement in Pakistan
○ However, they still remained a member of the commonwealth
● At a Commonwealth meeting in 1950, the ‘Colombo Plan’ was set up to provide aid to
Pakistan
○ More than 1 million pounds were given towards the Sui gas project and wealth
Commonwealth nations made individual contributions
■ For example, Canada gave 40 million dollars for the development of
railways
● Pakistan left the commonwealth in 1971 when Britain recognized Bangladesh
Failures:
● Initial grievances due to colonial history and unfair borders
● Pakistan criticizes British involvement in the Suez Canal Crisis
● Britain refuses to get involved in the Kashmir crisis and refuses to send aid, placing an
embargo on arms during ‘65
● Commonwealth:
○ Pakistan left in 1971 when Britain recognized Bangladesh
○ Pakistan was suspended in 1999
Afghanistan:
Events:
Post-Independence:
● There was a border dispute between Pakistan and Afghanistan
○ The border was the Durand line, which had been demarcated by Durand in 1893
after a treaty with the Afghanis to secure the subcontinent from Russia. This was
viewed as illegitimate
1949-1961:
● There were a number of conflicts on the Pak-Afghan border from 1949-51, including:
○ In 1949, while pursuing miscreants who attacked the Pakistani border posts from
Afghanistan, a PAF warplane bombed the Afghan village of Mughulai
○ 1950 - Pakistan and Afghanistan have a conflict over the Dobandi area
○ 1950-51 - Afghan led Lashkars attacked Pakistan, Afghanistan declared the rebels
‘Freedom Fighters’
● A Jirga decided not to form bilateral ties with Pakistan 1949
● 1951 - Liaquat shot dead by Afghan national Said Akbar
● In March 1955, Afghans attacked the Paksitani embassy in Kabul, angered by the
amalgamation of NWFP into West Pakistan under the One Unit Scheme
○ In protest, Pakistan closed their border and cut off domestic relations
1960-71:
● Conflict over Bajaur:
○ September 1960 - Pakistan sends forces to drive back what it claims were
Afghani troops who had infiltrated into Bajaur. Afghanistan claimed that Pakistan
was fighting against local tribesmen.
○ March 1961 - Afghanistan claims that Pakistan was oppressing Pathans and
carrying out bombing raids on them
○ Later that month, Pakistan claimed that Afghani troops had attacked a few posts
in Bajaur, and, soon after deployed the air craft on the border
● In 1961, Pakistan closed their Afghani consulates and Afghanistan reciprocated by
cutting of diplomatic relations
● Afghanistan refused to join the RCD since Pakistan was a member
● The Afghani government stayed neutral in the war of 1965 even though most of its
populace was in support of Pakistan
Post 1988:
● Nawaz Sharif tried to end the conflict in Afghanistan by inviting leaders of various
factions to talks
○ The fighting still continued as, even though the Soviets had withdrawn, the
Karmal government still remained
○ The Islamabad Accord was signed by 6 factions, but a lack of a strong central
organization meant that the violence persisted
● The Kalashnikov Culture, discussed before, spread into Pakistan, with some towns such
as Sakhot copying Russian automatic weapons, making them easily available to anyone
● Benazir Bhutto decided to support the Taliban (why), which she thought was the only
force strong enough to establish stability and allow Pakistan to trade with the CAS
Republics
○ The Taliban later became a huge problem for Pakistan as most of you know
Failures:
● Territorial dispute over KPK/Pakhtoonistan
● Afghanistan votes against the Pakistan in the UN
● Afghanistan does not join trade agreement with Pakistan, signs trade transit agreement
with the USSR
● 1955 - Attack of embassy in Kabul
● 1956 - Iskander received coolly
● 1960 - Conflict in Bajaur
● Bombing raids on Pakistan due to involvement in the Afghan crisis
● Kalashnikov culture
● Benazir funds the Taliban
● Afghanistan refuses to join the RCD
Bangladesh:
Events:
● Pakistan officially recognized Bangladesh in early 1974 when their President, Sheikh
Mujib-ur-Rehman, was invited to the OIC in Lahore
● Initially, there was a problem as to how assets would be shared between Pakistan and
Bangladesh, though not to such a great an extent as there was between Pakistan and
India
○ In June 1974, when Bhutto visited Bangladesh, this issue was discussed. Mujibur
Rahman asked for over half of them, but this was dismissed as unrealistic
○ Mujib also suggested that all non-Bengalis be taken from Bangladesh - with or
without their consent - but this was not agreed to
● In 1975, Mujib-ur-Rehman was killed during a military coup.
Failures:
● Conflict over division of assets
Iran:
Events:
Pre-Revolution:
● Liaquat visited the Iran and the Shah returned the favour
● Both countries joined the Baghdad Pact in 1955
● On 21st July 1964, Pakistan, Turkey, and Iran set up the RCD
○ It lapsed in 1979 and was reestablished in 1985
● Iran tried to persuade other nations to send aid to Pakistan during the war of ‘65
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● Iran helped Pakistan put down an uprising in Balochistan in 1973
Post-Revolution:
● In 1979, the Shah of Iran was overthrown like he overthrew the previous democratically-
elected government 17 years prior. This was for several reasons:
○ The extravagant party he threw in 1971 on the 2500th anniversary of the Persian
empire
○ The lack of freedom of speech despite his promises to increases women and
human rights
○ Poor socio-economic conditions
● Though Pakistan was one of the first countries to recognize and support the new
government, relations between the two deteriorated as:
○ The new government was suspicious of the fact that Pakistan was such an
enthusiastic supporter of the Shah
○ The Iranian government was anti-American whereas Pakistan was receiving large
amounts of aid from the US
● From 1980, Iran was at war with Iraq and had little concern for Pakistan
● Some economic advancements were made:
○ A 13-member Irani delegation visited Pakistan in 1986. They agreed to mutual
cooperation in the telecommunication field
○ A two-year agreement was signed in 1987 was made for bilateral road
transportation of goods
○ In 1987, an Irani delegation visited Pakistan to make arrangements for industrial
units
Failures:
● Suspicion following the revolution
Departments:
● In the General Assembly, every nation gets one vote on an issue.
● The Security Council, with five permanent members (USA, Britain, China, Russia, and
France) and ten temporary members gets to order military action.
● The Social and Economic Council has 27 members elected by the General Assembly and
coordinates the UNESCO, ILO, and WHO. It coordinates the work of:
○ UNESCO (The UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), which aims
to promote international cooperation by agreement and the exchange of ideas
○ ILO (The International Labour Organization). This was founded in 1919 as a part
of the League of Nations to provide social justice and adequate living conditions
to the employees of the world. It holds regular conferences and sets minimum
labour standards which all members should meet
○ WHO (World Health Organization), which aims to elevate people to the highest
possible level of health.
■ It organizes cooperation between health specialists
■ It send s teams of medical experts to areas affected by natural calamities
■ It organizes conferences where experts exchange ideas, research, and
spread medical knowledge
■ Programmes are set up to promote medical health, particularly in
developing countries
■ In 1967, WHO launched a campaign to eradicate smallpox, which was
declared successful in 1979
● The Trusteeship Council supervises countries which control non self-governing countries.
It has now been disbanded.
● The international Courts of Justice have 15 judges from different countries which settles
disputes.
● The secretary-general of the UN is the chief administration officers elected by a majority
of the General Assembly who presents an annual report and budget to the General
Assembly and undertakes special missions on behalf of the UN
● UNICEF - The United Nations Children’s Fund
Pakistan’s Involvement:
● Advocacy for freedom:
○ It spoke up against the occupation of Indonesia by Holland
○ It spoke up in favour of freedom movements in countries such as Morocco and
Algiers
○ It has taken up the Palestinian Issue in the UN
● Pakistan has been elected to the security council thrice
● Benefits:
○ Acknowledgement as a member of the global community
○ The WFP provided aid for Afghan refugees and food/healthcare for women and
girls to promote primary education in rural areas
○ The World Bank was involved in the Indus Water Treaty and also provided
finance to help establish HEP and soil-reclamation prorammes
OIC:
In 1969, the holy Al-Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem was burned. The global resentment of Muslims
to this act resulted in the Rabat Conference in the Kingdom of Morocco, during which 25
Muslim states (including Pakistan) passed a resolution that declared, amongst other things, that
“Their [Muslim] Governments shall consult together with a view of promoting between
themselves close cooperation and mutual assistance in the economic, scientific, cultural and
spiritual fields, inspired by the immortal teachings of Islam.”1 It was decided during the Islamic
Conference of Foreign Ministers that headquarter were to be setup in Jeddah until Jerusalem
was liberated from Israeli control. In 1971, one of the OIC’s meeetings was held in Karachi.
During that year, Bhutto toured many nations, including many Islamic countries, to ascertain
that relations were not soured following the War of ‘71. In 1972 the first OIC charter was
adopted In 1974, a summit was held in Lahore during which allegiance was pledged to the
Palestine Liberation Organization following the Arab-Israeli war in 1973. During this, many
countries decided to give monetary aid to Pakistan, such as Iran, who gave $730 million, the
UAE, who gave 100 million pounds, and Libya, who gave $80 million
There was a conflict with India that arised due to this organization - they sent a Sikh delegate to
observe the first summit and tried to join the organization due to its large Muslim populace.
However, largely due to Pakistan, who threatened to boycott the Rabatsummit, they were not
allowed to do so.
1: https://www.oic-oci.org/docdown/?docID=4404&refID=1237
CENTO:
In 1955, Turkey and Iraq signed the Baghdad Pact (also called the Middle East Treaty
Organization (METO)), an anti-communist alliance against the USSR. Britain, Pakistan, and Iran
joined later that year. While USA never officially joined to pact, it was instrumental in getting
individual nations to participate and formed separate treaties with most involved nations. In
March 1959, Iraq withdrew from the partition and adopted a more non-aligned policy following
its coup d’etat. In response to this, the name of the treaty was changed to CENTO (Central
Treaty Organisation) and its headquarters were changed to Ankara in Turkey. Other factors to
CENTO’s decline include British humiliation following its involvement in the Suez Crisis, the
dissatisfaction Pakistan faced when the organisation refused to aid it in its wars with India in
1965 and 1971, and Turkey’s invasion of Cyprus in 1974. Eventually, in 1979, following the
revolution in Iran, Iran withdrew from the treaty on 11th March 1979. The next day, Pakistan,
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too, left. Due to this, on March 16, 1979, it was announced Turkey would call a meeting of the
pact’s council to dissolve the organization.
NAM:
Pakistan expressed desires to abstain from being used by superpowers during Bogra’s time,
when they, along with India, Indonesia, and Burma met at Bandung in Indonesia, where they
agreed to the ‘Badun Principles’ and outlined some major objectives. Furthermore, when the
Non-Aligned Movement was started by Tito of Yugoslavia, they expressed the desire to be a
part of it, but were not allowed to do so due to their membership of SEATO and CENTO. In the
Sixth Summit of the alliance in 1979, they applied for membership and were accepted.
RCD:
In 1964, Iran and Turkey set up the Regional Cooperation for Development which aims to
develop closer trade links between the three countries and for them to help each other with
industrial projects. Afghanistan did not join due to Pakistan’s presence.
In 1979, the agreement lapsed, but was reestablished in 1985.
SAARC:
The President of Bangladesh, Zia-ur-Rehman, was instrumental in the formation of SAARC
(South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) touring Nepal, Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka
from 1997 to 1980. On May 2, 1980, he proposed a framework for regional cooperation, which
had been discussed at least thrice before. The seven country’s foreign ministers met in
Colombo in April 1981. Afterwards, they met several times, till, during the conference at Dhaka
in 1983, the 7 foreign ministers (of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka) created the SAARC and launched the first Integrated Programme of
Action (IPA). The first SAARC summit was held in Dhaka in December 1985. This organization
mainly focuses to promote economic, social, and cultural growth.
Failures:
● UN:
○ No resolution to Kashmir problem - plebiscite still hasn’t been taken
● SEATO:
○ Did not provide military aid against India
○ No aid/permanent military force
● CENTO:
○ The US did not join
○ No military aid against India
● OIC:
○ Has done little actual work, just puts resolutions on paper
● Commonwealth:
○ Left in 1971 when Britain recognized Bangladesh
○ Suspended in 1999 following British military coup
Phases:
47-52: Exploration of Friendship with All
Liaquat chose to lean towards USA, creating a bitter situation between Pakistan and Russia
Non-alignment
53-62: Alignment with the West
62-71: Transition
72-79: Bilateralism
80-90: Afghan Crisis and US Ally
90-2001: Post-Cold War and Pakistan’s Dilemmas
2001-Present: Pakistan and Counter-terrorism
Role in Independence:
● Pashto played an important role in the opposition to the British rule
○ In order to preserve this heritage, steps were taken
Prevention of Decline:
● Many important works of literature have been penned in regional languages, which the
government felt the need to preserve
● Balochistan was declining and had little development before 1947
○ In order to prevent it from being lost forever, it had to be promoted
How successful has been the promotion of local languages in Pakistan been since
1947? Give reasons for your answer. [14]
https://www.gceguide.com/resources/notes/pakistan-studies/answers-of-some-selected-questions-
pakistan-studies-2059/#sec1:q2 .
Pakistan Movement:
● The Muslim League was formed partially to protect the Urdu language during the Hindu-
Urdu Controversy
● Sir Syed created the Two-Nation Theory after the Hindu-Urdu controversy made him
realise the cultural differences of the inhabitants of Pakistan
○ In fact, the Hindu-Urdu controversy is one of the major reasons for the souring of
relations between people in the subcontinent
● This is why Urdu was the language associated with the Pakistan Movement
Unifying Force:
● Due to its relation to Islam, it is a unifying force for all Muslims:
○ The translation of the Quran into Urdu is the root of this language’s relation with
Islam
○ Since then, many religious books have been written in Urdu
Development:
● A dictionary of Urdu office terms has been published
● It is the medium of instruction of many educational institutions
○ Urdu literature, political science, history, and other subjects are taught up till the
MA level in Urdu
● It is the medium for radio and television programs
● Urdu films and plays are very popular
Sindhi:
Background:
● It is an older language than Urdu, being spoken as far back as the 12th Century
○ It was spoken then in the same form as it is today
● It was written in the ‘Marwari and ‘Arz Nigari’ way of writing
○ After the arrival of Muslims, it was written in Arabic script
● It was further influenced by Turkish tribes of Central Asia who brought their Persian
language with them
● Some of its famous poets and writers include Makhdum Nuh of Hala, Qazi Qazan of
Thatta, Sachal Sarmast and Shah Abdul Latif
○ During the Soomro Persiod between 1050-1300, it was at a particularly high
quality
○ Most scholars consider its peak between 1685 and 1783
● Journals in the 19th Century such as Ta’alim Alkhashaf-o-Tauheed contributed to its
growth
Development:
● In 1948, the Sindhi Literary Board was set up
○ It printed many books and magazines in Sindhi
○ Important Sindhi Authors include Pir Ali, Faqir Nabi, and G. Allana
● Several books have been written on Sindhi folk literature
● The Bazm-e-Talib-ul-Maula was set up in 1954 to promote Sindhi literature
● A Sarmast academy has been established in the memory of Sachal Sarmast
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● A Sindhiology department has been established at the Sindh University Jamshoro
Balochi:
Background:
● This is the language spoken in Balochistan
○ Persian and Brohi are also spoken in this province
● There are two types of Balochi:
○ Sulmanki, and
○ Mekrani
● This language was brought into Balochistan by nomadic tribes which migrated from
North-West Iran
○ Since they did not settle in one place for long, Balochistan remained largely an
oral language and there was little development in its poetry and prose
○ Early Balochistani poetry consisted mostly of folk songs, with Jam Darang being
an important Balochi poet
● It was first reported outside the region in 1930 by the British traveller W. Leech in the
Journal of Asiatic Society
● Before partition, it started to decline
Development:
● Radio Pakistan Karachi began broadcasting in Balochi
● The Balochi Literary Association was set up and there are now weekly and monthly
magazines published in the language
● There has been rapid progress in modern Balochi literature, with many famous:
○ Poets: Atta Shad and Ishaq Shamin
○ Writers: Gul Khan Nazir and Azad Jamal Din
Punjabi:
Background:
● This is spoken in Punjab, the most populous province in Pakistan, and in other areas
such as Pakistani Kashmir and KPK
● It is easily understood
● It has been given various names throughout history such as ‘Masoodi’, ‘Al-Hindi’,’ and
‘Hindko’
○ In 1080, Hafiz Barkhuda was probably the first person to use the name ‘Punjabi’
to describe the language
Development:
● Punjabi literature is taught up to the MA level in the University of Punjab
● Punjabi media has been promoted and its film, theater, radio, and television is very
popular
● Muhammad Ali Faiq produced versified translations of the Quran in this language
● Ustad Daman, Sharif Kunjahi and others + their younger followers have instigated a
change in traditional patterns of Punjabi literature
Pushto:
Background:
● This is spoken by people in KPK and in northern areas of Balochistan
● It has been heavily influenced by languages such as Arabic, Persian, and Greek
Development:
● Within three years of Independence, the Peshawar University was established
● An academy for the promotion of Pashto literature was set up in 1954
○ It was initially headed by Maulana Abdul Qadir
○ It published a Pashto dictionary
● Post-graduate classes in Pashto literature have been established at the university level
in KPK
Policies:
● List problems
Ayub Khan:
● In 1958, a commission was set up to review the existing education system.
● It recommended the remaking of the syllabus and making primary education free and
compulsory till 8th grade
● It recommended a three year degree course opening of technical colleges and emphasis
on religious education
● Technical and vocational institutes were formed to train labour in East and West
Pakistan
Zia:
● Nai Roshni Schools were established, but they were discontinued by Benazir
● Islamic inclusion in education
Healthcare:
Problems:
● Lack of institutions
● Rapid increase in population
● Low life expectancy - currently 67 years; used to be 55
● High child mortality - 90/1000 births
● Malnutrition
● Reliance on traditional medication
● Low budget - only 0.75% in 1990
Policies:
Bhutto:
● Rural Healthcare Centres and Basic Healthcare Units were set up in rural and urban
areas
○ RHCs were to serve 60,000 people
○ BHUs were to serve 20,000 people
● The sale of medicines under brand names/patents in pharmaceuticals were banned
● Training colleges for doctors and nurses were set up
○ Once qualified, doctors had to work fo the government for a year so that they
could be assigned to rural areas
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○ Entry was to be on merit
NGOs such as the Edhi Foundation also play a large role in Pakistani healthcare
Islamization:
Objectives Resolution:
‘Successes’:
● Several references were made towards Islamic laws such as social justice, equality, and
religious freedoms
● Muslims were allowed to live their lives according to Islam
‘Failures’:
● Religious groups were not satisfied - they wanted Shariah
‘‘‘‘‘‘Failures’’’’’’’:
● It was rejected, partially due to fears that the religious Advisory Board would be given
veto powers
Constitution of 1956:
‘‘‘‘‘‘Successes’’’’’’:
● Pakistan’s name was changed to ‘Islamic Republic of Pakistan’
● The head of state was to be a Muslim
‘‘‘‘‘‘Failures’’’’’’’:
● Not Shariah
Ayub Khan:
Successes:
● The Muslim Family Law Ordinance was established, according to which marriages and
divorces were to be registered and minimum age limits were defined for marriages
● Women were empowered via laws regarding marriage and polygamy
‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘Failures’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’:
● The Islamic Advisory Council had no executive power
● Opposition due to women’s rights issues
‘‘‘‘‘‘Failures’’’’’’’:
● Initial allowance of the sale of alcohol
● The Advisory Board was not listened to
● The labour and health reforms weren’t implemented well
Zia ul Haq:
‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘Successes’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’:
● Under Ordinance XX, Ahmadis could be killed for blasphemy if they declared their faith
● The Federal Shariat Court was set up
● Hudood Ordinances were set up with strict punishments for thievery, fornication,
adultery, and blasphemy
● Women’s rights were torn down
○ The testimony of a women was taken half as that to a man
○ Women could be charged with adultery if they were unable to find evidence for
their rape
● Zakat and Ushr Ordinances
● Educational
○ Islamiat and Pakistan studies were made compulsory
○ Memorizers of the Holy Quran were given extra marks
○ Arabic was promoted
● Women were not allowed to appear without hijabs on TV
1988-1999:
‘‘‘‘‘‘Successes’’’’’’:
● Nawaz Sharif put forth the Shariat Bill in 1991 which restricted women in politics
● The 15th Amendment put all power of enforcement of the Shariat Bill in the PM’s hands
Failures:
● The Shariat Bill did not pass
● The 15th Amendment was only to increase his power