HAZARDS OF PETROLEUM

FLAMMABILITY
 When petroleum is ignited, it is the Gas that burns as a visible flame.
 The quantity of Gas given off by petroleum liquid depends on its
volatility.
 Petroleum gases will burn only when mixed with air in certain
proportions. If there is too little or too much petroleum gas, the mixture
cannot burn.
 The limiting proportions are known as the Lower Flammable Limit and
Upper Flammable Limit respectively. These limits vary according to the
different components of petroleum gases.
 For gas mixtures from petroleum liquids that are likely to be encountered
in normal tanker trades, the overall flammable range is from a minimum
Lower Flammable Limit of about 1% gas by volume in air to a
maximum Upper Flammable Limit of about 10% gas by volume in
air.
 As petroleum liquid is heated, the concentration of gas in air above it
increases. The temperature of the liquid at which this concentration
reaches the Lower Flammable Limit is known as the Flashpoint.

GAS DENSITY
 The gases from most petroleum liquids are heavier than Air and Inert
Gas.
 These density differences diminish as the gases are diluted with air.
Flammable mixtures usually contain at least 90% by volume of air and
consequently have densities almost indistinguishable from that of air.

TOXICITY
 Toxicity is the degree to which a substance or mixture of substances can
harm humans.
 Toxic substances can harm humans in three main ways:
- by being swallowed (ingestion);
- through skin contact; and
- through the lungs (inhalation).
 Toxic substances can have local effects such as skin or eye irritation, but
can also affect more distant parts of the body.
WAXY CONTENT OF FEW GRADES
 Continued uncertainties in the availability of existing crude
supplies have placed additional significance on the production and
transportation of the difficult-to-handle waxy, high pour point
crudes.
 The low sulfur content of many waxy types of crude makes them
even more desirable from an environmental standpoint.
 However, numerous flow problems are related to the normal
handling of waxy crudes:
(1) Temperature must be maintained substantially above the pour
point to permit crude handling,
(2) Transportation costs tend to be much higher because of special
pumping and heating requirements, and
(3) Waxy components are deposited in pipelines and storage
tanks, which then must be pigged or scraped.

STATIC ACCUMULATION
Static accumulator oil
 An oil with an electrical conductivity of less than 50 picoSiemens/metre
(pS/m), so that it is capable of retaining a significant electrostatic charge.

Static electricity
 The electricity produced by movement between dissimilar materials
through physical contact and separation.
 Static electricity presents fire and explosion hazards during the handling
of petroleum and during other tanker operations such as tank cleaning,
dipping, ullaging and sampling.
 Precautions as per ISGOTT must be taken.
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS (MSDS)
 IMO Resolution MSC.150 (77) adopted in June 2003 urges governments
to ensure the supply and carriage of Material Safety Data Sheets for the
cargoes.
 This MSDS should be based on the format as suggested by the
Resolution.
 It is the responsibility of the Supplier to provide a Tanker that is to load a
cargo or bunker fuel with a Material Data Safety Sheet (MSDS) before
loading commences.
 The MSDS should indicate the type and probable concentrations of
hazardous or toxic components particularly H2S and Benzene.
 Provision of an MSDS does not guarantee that all of the hazardous or
toxic components of the particular cargo or bunkers being loaded have
been identified or documented.
 Absence of an MSDS should not be taken to indicate the absence of
hazardous or toxic components.
 Operators should have procedures in place to determine if any toxic
components are present in cargoes that they anticipate may contain them.
 It is the ship’s responsibility to provide the receiver with an MSDS for
the cargo to be discharged.
 The ship must also advise the terminal and any tank inspectors or
surveyors if the previous cargo contained any toxic substances.
 FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM
ADB - Hydrocarbon gas/air mixture (No Inert Gas Content)
CDE – Flammable Envelope
C – Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) (1% by volume)
D – Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) (10% by volume)
E – Minimum O2 required for combustion (~11% by volume)
Note
EXPLANATION OF FLAMMABILE RANGE
DIAGRAM / FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM
LINE AB
 The line AB represents the condition when no inert gas is
present in the mixture and there are purely air and hydrocarbon
gas vapours (arising out of the oil stored in the tank).
 Line AB and the flammable range in this condition is the
straight line between C and D on the line A and B. Anything
above D and below C is safe.
 The region towards the left hand side of the line AB represents
inert gas addition.
 Tilt of line towards left is because of relative decrease in
Oxygen content when Hydrocarbon content is increased.
FLAMMABLE ENVELOPE
 A hydrocarbon gas/air mixture would only be flammable when
the respective percentages of hydrocarbon gas and oxygen lie
within the FLAMMABLE ENVELOPE.
 On left side of line AB, as the inert gas content increases, the
oxygen & hydrocarbon content reduces. Accordingly, the
flammable range decreases in proportion with it. The lower
flammable range progresses along the line CE while the upper
flammable limit decreases rapidly along the line DE. Finally
both these lines merge at point E.
 Thus, when there is about 11.5% oxygen by volume, the
flammable range ceases to exist due to insufficient O 2 to support
combustion.
THE LOWER AND UPPER FLAMMABLE LIMITS
 LFL & UFL of oil cargoes carried in tankers can, for general
purposes, be taken as 1% and 10% by volume respectively
NON-FLAMMABLE AREA
 The areas outside “flammable envelope” are safe with respect to
flammability. They are marked as “inert”, “too lean” or “too
rich”
INERTING
DEFINITION OF INERTING
OR
(REASON FOR INERTING)
 It is the process of introduction of Inert gas into a tank with
purpose of reducing its Oxygen content well below 8%
 Inerting will keep vapour/air mixture outside the flammable
range.

INERTING OF LOADED TANKS W.R.T. FLAMMABILITY

DIAGRAM
 It is evident from Flammability diagram that as inert gas is
added to hydrocarbon gas/air mixtures, the flammable range
progressively decreases until the oxygen content reaches a level
of about 11% by volume, when no mixture can burn.

 The figure of 8% by volume of oxygen allows a safety margin

as specified in ISGOTT.

 As the inert gas content increases, the flammable limit mixture

changes as indicated by the lines CE and DE which finally
converge at point E.

 In already Inerted tank, gas/air mixture will follow typical path

of “F” to “H” while remaining out of explosive envelope.
REFER SEPARATE NOTES FOR PROCEDURES FOR INERTING
INERTING OF EMPTY TANKS W.R.T. FLAMMABILITY
DIAGRAM :
1. When inerting empty tanks that are gas free, inert gas is
introduced through the distribution system while venting the air
inside the tank to the atmosphere.

2. This operation is continued until the oxygen content throughout

the tank is not more than 8% by volume.

3. Air/IG mixture will follow x-axis(Oxygen Axis) from 21%

value to another value under 8%.

TOPPING UP

DEFINITION OF TOPPING UP
OR
REASON FOR TOPPING UP :
The introduction of inert gas into a tank that is already in the inert
condition with the object of raising the tank pressure to prevent
any ingress of air is called Topping up.

TOPPING UP OF LOADED TANKS W.R.T.

FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM
Thus location of gas/air mixture does not change on the
flammability diagram during Topping up.
 GAS FREEING
DEFINITION OF GAS FREEING :
 It is the process of introduction of fresh air into the tank in order
to bring up Oxygen level to 21% and at the same time reducing
content of other toxic gases to acceptable minimum level.

 Thus, Gas freeing is the process of creating normal atmospheric

conditions inside the tank wherein oxygen level is 21%.

 Purging is done prior gas freeing to keep out of Flammable

Envelope.

GAS FREEING W.R.T. FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM :

 When an inert mixture, such as that represented by point F, is
diluted by air, its composition moves along line FA and enters
the shaded area of flammable mixtures; this means that all inert
mixtures in the region above line GA (critical dilution line) pass
through a flammable condition.

 However, since purging is done prior gas freeing, the mixture

composition moves from “F” to “H” first. Thereafter, when
fresh air is introduced, dilution line will remain below critical
dilution line GA and will not enter Flammable Envelope.

REFER SEPARATE NOTES FOR PROCEDURES FOR GAS

FREEING
 PURGING

DEFINITION OF PURGING
 Purging is introduction of inert gas into a tank already in the
inert condition.

 The object is to further reduce content of oxygen and/or

hydrocarbon volume.

 As per ISGOTT, tank is said to be purged when the HC content

falls to 2% HC or less.

 The Purging can also be called as dilution with additional inert

gas.

PURGING W.R.T. FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM / REASON

FOR PURGING :

 Purging enables to move a mixture, such as that represented by

“F” to another safe state like “H” which will remain well clear
of the “Flammable Envelope” even if fresh air is subsequently
introduced inside the tank for gas freeing.

 Purging is also carried out after discharge operation to avoid

vapour contamination with next grade of cargo to be loaded.

REFER SEPARATE NOTES FOR PROCEDURES FOR PURGING

 VARIOUS PIPELINE SYSTEM ON BOARD TANKERS

1. RING MAIN SYSTEM ( as done in class)

DETAILS :

1. It is generally of a square or circular layout.

2. It is used mostly on product tankers, as segregation of cargo is required.
3. The system is expensive because more piping and extra number of valves are used.
4. However if the vessel is carrying many grades of cargo, the advantages compensate for
the extra cost of the original outlay.

2. DIRECT LINE SYSTEM: (as done in class)

DETAILS :

1. This is the simplest type of pipeline system which uses fewer valves
than the others.
2. Direct line system. Used mainly on crude and black oil tankers
where separation of oil grades is not so important.
3. It takes oil directly from the tank to the pump and so reduces
friction. This has an affect of increasing the rate of discharge, at the
same time improving the tank suction.
4. It is cheaper to install and maintain than the ring main system
because there is less pipeline length and with fewer valves less
likelihood of malfunction.

The disadvantages over the ring main system :

1. Line washing is more difficult. Since there is no circular system and
the washings must be flushed into the tanks
2. The system has fewer valves which make pipeline leaks difficult to
control
3. As the system lacks versatility, there is problem with line and valve
segregation
4. This system provides the vessel to carry as many grades as there
are tanks. The disadvantage is the cost factor having a multitude of
pumps on board.

FREE FLOW SYSTEM : (as done in class)

1. This system is usually found on large crude carriers, where the
cargo piping is not used for the discharge of cargo.
2. Instead, gate valves are provided on the bulkheads of the tanks
which when opened; allow the oil to flow freely in the aft most
tank and into the COP.
3. The advantages of this system are primarily the cost factor, it
allows for fast drainage and efficient means of pumping the
cargo tanks. Disadvantages are of single crude being shipped.

4. INDEPENDENT SYSTEM: ( as done in class)

1. This layout is not very common in the tanker trade but is quite
normal on chemical ships.
2. There are some Product Tankers that have been fitted with this
system especially those fitted with submersible pumps inside
each cargo tank.
3. This is a single line servicing an individual tank through an
independent pump that could be either a submersible pump or a
deep well pump.
INERT GAS SYSTEM
 DEFINITION OF INERT GAS
 It is a gas which contains insufficient Oxygen to support combustion.

FUNCTIONS OF INERT GAS

 Properly functioning Inert Gas system is required to maintain cargo tanks in a
non-flammable condition.
 Inert Gas System must deliver Inert Gas with Oxygen content below 5% by
volume.
 Oxygen content of the tanks must not exceed 8% by volume.

MAIN COMPONENTS OF IG SYSTEM

 Flue gas source (Boiler or IGG)
  Scrubber
 IG Blowers
 IG Pressure regulating valves
 Deck Seal
 IG Non-return valve
 Deck Isolation valve
 PV Breaker
 Mast riser (optional)
 Branch lines leading to individual tank
 PV Valve(s) inside each cargo tank.

PASSAGE OF IG FROM SOURCE TO CARGO TANK

 Flue gas isolating valves are located at the boiler/IGG uptake points, through which
pass hot, dirty gases to the scrubber and demister.
 Inside scrubber & Demister, the gas is cooled and cleaned before being piped to
blowers.
 Blowers deliver the gas through the deck water seal, the non-return valve and the
deck isolating valve to the cargo tanks.
 A gas pressure regulating valve is fitted downstream of the blowers to regulate the
flow of gases to the cargo tank.
 Liquid-filled pressure vacuum breaker is fitted to prevent excessive pressure or
vacuum from causing structural damage to cargo tanks.
 Inert gas deck main runs forward from the deck isolating valve for the length of the
cargo deck. From this inert gas, main, inert gas branch lines lead to the top of each
cargo tank.

FUNCTION OF INERT GAS SCRUBBER

 The scrubber cools the flue gas and removes most of the sulphur dioxide and
particulate soot by ensuring direct contact between the flue gas and the large
quantities of sea water.
 In the scrubbing tower the gas moves upwards through downward flowing water for
maximum contact between gas and water.
 At the top of the scrubbing tower, water droplets are removed by one or more
demisters.

FUNCTION OF INERT GAS BLOWERS

 Blowers deliver the scrubbed flue gas to the cargo tanks
 At least two blowers are required.
 Combined capacity of Blowers is at least 125 per cent of the maximum discharge
capacity of the ship.

FUNCTION OF NON-RETURN DEVICES

 The deck water seal and mechanical non-return valve together provide the means of
automatically preventing the backflow of cargo gases from the cargo tanks to the
machinery spaces.

PV BREAKER
 PV Breaker requires little maintenance.
 Will operate at the required pressure only if they are filled to the correct level with
liquid of the correct density
 Normally, suitable freshwater/glycol mixture should be used to prevent freezing in
cold weather.
HIGH VELOCITY PRESSURE VACUUM VALVES
Designed efflux velocity of at least 30 m/sec
PV Valves are at least 2 mtr high and located at least 10 mtrs from any
accommodation air intake.
Note : Flame speed varies from 7.5 m/sec in air to 20m/sec in pipes.
DECK WATER SEAL UNITS
 A proper functioning deck water seal is the automatic device which permits inert gas
to be delivered to the deck main but prevents any backflow of cargo gas, even when
the inert gas plant is shut down.
 Backflow of gas could result in Hydrocarbon gases from the cargo tanks reaching the
boiler, leading to an explosion.
 It is vital that a supply of water is maintained to the seal at all times, particularly
when the inert gas plant is shut down.
 In addition, drains should lead directly overboard and not pass through the machinery
spaces.
 Heating coils system is required to prevent water from freezing when ship operates in
sub-freezing conditions.

TYPES OF DECK WATER SEALS

Deck water seals are of following three types :
1. Wet type seal,
2. Semi-wet type seal, and
3. Dry type seal

WET TYPE DECK WATER SEAL

CONSTRUCTION
1. It consists of a chamber semi-filled with water
2. Two pipes for inlet and outlet of flue gases
3. Two small pipes denote inlet and outlet for sealing water.
4. There is a demister pad to remove water droplets from gas.
WORKING
1. This is the simplest type of water seal
2. When the inert gas plant is operating & inert gas is being delivered to
cargo tanks, the gas bubbles through the water from the submerged inert
gas inlet pipe
3. But if the tank line water is pressed up into this inlet pipe, It will prevent
backflow

DRAWBACK
1. Water droplets may be carried over with the inert gas which could
increase corrosion. A demister should, therefore, be fitted in the gas
outlet from the water seal to reduce any carry-over.

SEMI DRY TYPE DECK WATER SEAL

CONSTRUCTION
1. It consists of a separate holding chamber.
2. Two pipes for inlet and outlet of flue gases
3. Two small pipes denote inlet and outlet for sealing water.

WORKING
1. When the inert gas plant is operating & inert gas is being delivered
to cargo tanks, Inert gas flow draws the sealing water into a separate
holding chamber by venturi action, thus avoiding or at least reducing
the amount of water being carried over.
2. But if the tank line water is pressed up into this inlet pipe, It will
prevent backflow

DRAWBACK
1. Water droplets may be carried over with the inert gas which could
increase corrosion.

DRY TYPE DECK WATER SEAL

CONSTRUCTION
1. It consists of a chamber and a DROP TANK.
2. Two pipes for inlet and outlet of flue gases
3. Automatic valve control system
Note : This seal totally eliminates any water carry over and uses
automated valve control to deliver water to the seal in case there is
any back flow.
WORKING
1. The water is drained from the chamber when the Inert gas plant is
operating & inert gas is being delivered to cargo tanks.
2. The Chamber is filled with water when the inert gas plant is shut
down.
3. Filling and drainage are performed by automatically operated
valves which are controlled by the levels of the water seal and drop
tank and by the operation of the blowers.
DRAWBACK :
1. The risk of failure of the automatically controlled valves that may
render the water seal ineffective.
METHODS OF GAS REPLACEMENT
Following three operations involve replacement of existing gas
inside cargo tanks:
(a) Inerting
(b) Purging
(c) Gas-freeing

In each of these replacement operations, one of two processes can

predominate:
(a) Dilution, which is a mixing process
(b) Displacement, which is a layering process
 DILUTION

 The dilution theory assumes that the incoming gas mixes with
the original gases to form a homogeneous mixture
throughout the tank.
 As a result, the concentration of the original gas decreases
progressively.
 The conditions required for such a process to happen ideally are
high incoming velocity of the gas so that the jet could reach
the bottom most portions of the tank.
 Thus minimum numbers of tanks are used simultaneously
while using dilution.
 Thus for dilution method, the points for entry and exit of the
gas are both located towards the top of the tank.
 Figure 2 Figure 3
Note :
 Figure 2 shows an inlet and outlet configuration of the dilution
process and illustrates the turbulent nature of the gas flow
within the tank.
 Figure 3 shows typical curves of gas concentration against time
for three different sampling positions.
DISPLACEMENT
 Displacement method requires the presence of a stable
horizontal interface between the top of the tank so that the
light gas entering from the top can push the heavier gas out
from bottom of the tank.
 Hence, this method requires a low velocity of gas entry.
 This method also requires that outlet pipe suction must be
located somewhere towards the bottom of the tank.
 Thus several numbers of tanks can be used simultaneously
while using Displacement method.
 Figure 4 Figure 5

Note :
 Figure 4 shows an inlet and outlet configuration for the
displacement process, and indicates the interface between the
incoming and outgoing gases.
 Figure 5 shows typical curves of gas concentration against time
for three different sampling levels.
PRINCIPAL ARRANGEMENTS ON BOARD TANKERS:

 One feature that should be common to all is the location of the

inlet and outlet points such that efficient gas replacement can
take place throughout the tank.
 Several arrangements are possible. A particular ship design may
incorporate more than one arrangement also.
 However, there are following three principal arrangements :

Arrangement Inlet point Outlet point Method used

I top top dilution

II bottom top dilution
III top bottom displacement or dilution
 LOADING OPERATION ON TANKERS
GENERAL CHECKLIST
 Loading plan will be prepared by Chief Officer and discussed
with all concerned including Duty Officer during pre-arrival
meeting.
 Duty Officer will ensure he understands the plan thoroughly.
 Duty Officer will confirm with Chief Officer that pre-arrival
checks as per company procedures have been carried out
satisfactorily.

PRIOR COMMENCEMENT OF LOADING CHECKLIST

 Duty Officer will ensure that checks as per company specific
“pre-cargo operations checklist” have been complied with.
 Duty Officer will confirm all designated duty hands are at their
stations.
 Duty Officer will double check that valves have been lined as
per cargo plan.
 Duty Officer will ensure that all “Anti-Pollution” gears and
measures are in place.
 Duty Officer will attend hose connection operation.
 Duty Officer will double check that access means for shore
personnel is in compliance with rules/regulations.

COMMENCEMENT OF LOADING
 Duty Officer will ensure initial flow to be minimum and
preferable by gravity.
 All pipelines must be checked to confirm no leakages.
 Duty Officer will ensure cargo is received in nominated tanks.
DURING LOADING OPERATION CHECKLIST
 Duty Officer will ensure that checks as per company specific
“during cargo operations checklist” have been complied with.
 Duty Officer will ensure that all “Anti-Pollution” gears and
measures remain in place.
 Duty Officer will take regular rounds.
 Duty Officer will attend to topping off and ballast/de-ballast
operations under instructions of Chief Officer.
 Duty Officer will regularly check ullages/quantities of tanks
 Duty Officer will inform Chief Officer whenever he reaches a
critical stage.
 Duty Officer will monitor drafts as per instructions from Chief
Officer.

COMPLETION OF LOADING
 Duty Officer will reduce rates well in time.
 Duty Officer will keep watch on topped off tanks.
 Duty Officer will attend hose disconnection operation.
 Duty Officer will ensure that all valves have been shut on
completion of loading operations.
 DISCHARGING OPERATION ON TANKERS
GENERAL CHECKLIST
 Discharging plan will be prepared by Chief Officer and
discussed with all concerned including Duty Officer during pre-
arrival meeting.
 Duty Officer will ensure he understands the plan thoroughly.
 Duty Officer will confirm with Chief Officer that pre-arrival
checks as per company procedures have been carried out
satisfactorily.

PRIOR COMMENCEMENT OF DISCHARGING

CHECKLIST
 Duty Officer will ensure that checks as per company specific
“pre-cargo operations checklist” have been complied with.
 Duty Officer will confirm all designated duty hands are at their
stations.
 Duty Officer will double check that pumps and valves have
been lined as per cargo plan.
 Duty Officer will ensure that all “Anti-Pollution” gears and
measures are in place.
 Duty Officer will attend hose connection operation.
 Duty Officer will double check that access means for shore
personnel is in compliance with rules/regulations.

COMMENCEMENT OF DISCHARGING
 Duty Officer will attend manifold during commencement of
discharge.
 Initial discharge rate to be slow.
 All pumps/pipelines must be checked to confirm no leakages.
 Ensure cargo is leaving from correct tank.
DURING DISCHARGING OPERATION CHECKLIST
 Duty Officer will ensure that checks as per company specific
“during cargo operations checklist” have been complied with.
 Duty Officer will ensure that all “Anti-Pollution” gears and
measures remain in place.
 Duty Officer will take regular rounds.
 Duty Officer will attend to discharge/stripping and ballast/de-
ballast operations under instructions of Chief Officer.
 Duty Officer will regularly check ullages/quantities of tanks
 Duty Officer will inform Chief Officer whenever levels in cargo
tanks reach a critical stage.
 Duty Officer will monitor drafts as per instructions from Chief
Officer.

COMPLETION OF DISCHARGING
 Duty Officer will reduce rates well in time.
 Duty Officer will keep watch on emptied tanks.
 Duty Officer will attend hose disconnection operation.
 Duty Officer will ensure that all valves have been shut on
completion of loading operations.
 GAS METERS USED ON BOARD OIL TANKERS
CATALYTIC FILAMENT COMBUSTIBLE GAS (CFCG) INDICATOR, FLAMMABLE
GAS MONITOR or EXPLOSIMETER
This equipment is used for measuring hydrocarbon gases up to 100% LEL.

Operating Principle
1. The sensing element of a CFCG Indicator is a catalytic metal filament heated by
an electric current. The CFCG scale is graduated in % LFL.
2. This meter relies on the presence of oxygen (minimum 11% by volume) to
operate efficiently and for this reason flammable gas monitors should not be used
for measuring hydrocarbon gas in inert atmospheres.
3. When a mixture of hydrocarbon gas with air is drawn over the filament, the gas
oxidizes on the hot filament and makes it hotter. This increases the resistance
and the change of resistance provides a measure of the concentration of
hydrocarbon gas in the mixture.
4. The difference in temperature compared to the compensator element is shown as
% LFL.
 Measure
ment Procedure
1. The detailed instructions from the manufacturer should be followed while taking a
measurement.
2. Instrument is initially set at zero with fresh air.
3. A sample is drawn into the meter by means of a rubber aspirator bulb or a pump.
The reading is taken when the pointer has ceased to rise on the scale.
4. During operation, it is important to check instrument and sample lines for
leakage, since the ingress of air would dilute the sample giving false readings.

Note :
 The response of the instrument to concentration higher than 100% LEL is that
the needle initially deflects to the maximum on the scale and then falls back to a
reading near zero. Continuous observation of the needle is necessary to avoid
overlooking this kind of response.

Instrument Checks/maintenance Procedures:

1. This meter requires the following checks before use:

a. Zero check
b. Span check
c. Battery check

2. Calibration kit is available on board. It includes a mixture of hydrocarbon

gas in air (such as 50% LEL butane in air).

3. Filters must be cleaned regularly.

4. At intervals set by manufacturer, the instrument should be sent ashore

for shore calibration. Typically, shore calibration is done annually.

NON-CATALYTIC HEATED FILAMENT GAS INDICATOR (TANK SCOPES)

1. A Tankscope is a device used for measurement of hydrocarbon gas content in a sample of given
atmosphere.
2. This instrument is meant for measuring the hydrocarbon vapor in inerted atmospheres.
3. The reading is only in percentage of the volume of the hydrocarbon vapor
4. This instrument is not as sensitive as the explosimeter.

Operating Principle
1. The sensing element of this instrument is a non-catalytic hot filament.
2. It works on the same principle as that of an explosimeter except that the gas does not
oxidize inside the sample chamber.
3. There is an alteration in the temperature of the heated filament due to composition of
surrounding gases which determines the rate of loss of heat from the filament, and
hence its temperature and resistance.
4. The change in the resistance of the sensor filament is shown by a deflection on
the meter.
5. The meter gives a direct reading of % volume hydrocarbons.

Caution :
1. The non-catalytic filament is not affected by gas concentrations in excess of its
working scale. The instrument reading goes off the scale and remains in this
position as long as the filament is exposed to the rich gas mixture.

Measurement Procedure
1. The following checks are done to ensure the proper working of the instrument:
a. Zero check
b. Span check
c. Voltages check (battery check)
2. Thereafter, a sample is drawn into the meter and reading is taken only when the
meter pointer comes to rest on the scale.
COMBINATION HC DETECTOR METERS
1. Some Models like NP237 & GX 8000 from R.K Instruments, actually combines two
detection methods in a single device.
2. They have a portable hydrocarbon gas indicator which uses the
catalytic detection principle to respond to flammable gases up to the
lower explosive limit (0-10% LEL / 0-100% LEL),
3. They also have a thermal conductivity indicator which uses the cooling
effect of hydrocarbon gas to produce reading up to 100% vol (0-20%
vol / 0-100% vol).
4. Both detection methods employ the wheatstone bridge measurement
principle and use the same batteries, meters and sampling system.

Measurement Procedure :

1. Measuring VOL% (Red Scale): Turn the switch to <<100 VOL%>>.

Start measuring until the needle indicates less than 20% VOL. Then,
turn the switch to <<20 VOL%>> and continue measuring. When the
measurement is below 1% VOL, change to the LEL scale.
2. Measuring %LEL (Black Scale): turn the switch to <<100% LEL>>.
Start measuring until the needle indicates less than 10% LEL. Then,
turn the switch to <<10% LEL>> for measuring below 10% LEL.

OXYGEN ANALYSERS
Oxygen analyzers are normally used to determine whether an atmosphere
is Inerted (Oxygen less than 8%) or safe for entry(Oxygen content 21%).

The three most common types of Oxygen analysers use following sensors:
 Paramagnetic sensors,
 The electrolytic sensors and
 Selective chemical absorption liquids.

Principle of Oxygen analysers with Paramagnetic Sensors

 These meters work on the principle that oxygen is strongly
paramagnetic whereas most other common gases are not.
 In this way, the presence of oxygen can be determined in a wide
variety of gas mixtures.
 Paramagnetic type of oxygen analyzer has a sample cell. In this
device, a lightweight body is suspended in a magnetic field. When a
sample gas is drawn through the cell, the suspended body experiences
a torque proportional to the magnetic susceptibility of the gas. An
equal and opposing torque is produced by an electric current passing
through a coil wound around the suspended body. The equalizing
current is a measure of the magnetic susceptibility of the sample, i.e.
related to its oxygen content.

Procedure for usage:

 Before use, the analyzer should be calibrated using Nitrogen for a zero
check.
 Thereafter use fresh air at 21% oxygen for span check.
 Put the sampling hose into the test area and watch the meter. Take a
reading after a few minutes.
 When testing is over, remove the sampling hose from the test area
and allow the instrument to draw in fresh air for at 1 minute or until
the reading is steady on 21%.

Maintenance:
  The filter should be cleared or replaced when an increase in sample
pressure is required to maintain a reasonable gas flow through the
analyzer.
 The same effect is produced if the filter becomes wet due to
insufficient gas drying.

Note (For reference Only):

Principle of Oxygen analysers with Electrolytic Sensors :
 Electrolytic Sensors determine the oxygen content of a gas mixture by
measuring the output of an electrolytic cell.
 In this device, oxygen diffuses through a membrane into the cell causing
current to flow between two special electrodes separated by a liquid or gel
electrolyte.
 The current flow is related to the oxygen concentration in the sample, and
the scale is arranged to give a direct indication of oxygen content.

Principle of Oxygen analysers with Selective Chemical Absorption

Liquids :
 Selective Chemical Absorption Liquids are used in this type of analyzer.
 A known volume of sample gas is brought into contact with a liquid that
absorbs oxygen causing a volume change in the liquid.
 The relationship of this volume change to the original volume is a
measure of the oxygen content of the sample.
 The use of this type of analyzer for checking the condition of the ullage
space in a loaded compartment is not recommended because of the effect
of high concentrations of hydrocarbon gases on the reagents.

Paramagnetism:
 Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism whereby the paramagnetic
material is only attracted when in the presence of an externally applied
magnetic field.
 These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material
does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is
removed.
 Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some unpaired
electrons, and from the realignment of the electron paths caused by the
external magnetic field.

Personal Oxygen Monitors

 Personal Oxygen Monitors employ an electrolytic sensor.
 They automatically provide an audible and visual alarm when the
atmosphere becomes deficient in oxygen so as to give the wearer
adequate warning of unsafe conditions.
 The monitors to be tested at regular intervals as per Manufacturer’s
instructions.
CHEMICAL INDICATOR TUBES:
 Chemical Indicator Tubes are used to measure very low concentrations
of toxic gases on board tankers.
 The detector tube is like a vial filled with reagent that will react with the
specific chemical / gas to give a visible indication of the concentration of
that gas.
 An extension hose is provided to measure the concentration of vapor
present at a different height.
 We have to insert the hose with the pump and the tube is connected to
the other end of the hose.

Use of the Apparatus:

 To use the chemical indicator tube, the seals at each end of the glass tube
are broken.
 The tube is inserted in a bellows-type fixed volume displacement hand
pump.
 Check the number of strokes required for making the measurement. (n =
x masked on the tubes) Where x = No. of pump strokes required.
 Hold the pump between the thumb and index finger so that the end-of-
stroke indicator and the stroke counter are facing the user.
 Squeeze the pump till it cannot be squeezed any further and then release
it until the bellows are fully expanded.
 When the end-of-stroke indicator appears, squeeze the pump completely
again. Repeat until the number on the stroke counter corresponds to that
given in the Instructions for Use of tube.
 A colour change occurs along the tube and the length of discoloration,
which is a measure of the gas concentration, is read off a scale integral
with the tube.

Note :

 There are different tubes for Inerted and Gas free condition.
 Errors can occur if several gases are present at the same time.
MULTI GAS DETECTORS
 These meters are ideal for any environment requiring multi-gas
monitoring.
 Multi Gas Detector simultaneously monitors typically up to four gases:
Must Gases :
o 0 to 100% LEL Hydrocarbons
o Oxygen (Typical range : 0 to 25%)
and normally any one / two of following toxic gases :
o Carbon monoxide (Typical range : 0 to 1000 PPM) (TLV : 25 PPM)
o Hydrogen sulphide (Typical range : 0 to 500 PPM) (TLV : 10 PPM)
o Sulphur dioxide (Typical range : 0 to 150 PPM) (TLV : 0.25 PPM)
o Carbon dioxide (Typical range : 0 to 50,000 PPM) (TLV : 5000 PPM)
o Chlorine (Typical range : 0 to 50 PPM) (TLV : 0.50 PPM)
o Nitrogen dioxide (Typical range : 0 to 100 PPM) (TLV : 3 PPM)
 Multi Gas Detectors automatically recognize all installed sensors and
displays instantaneous readings on the easy-to-read LCD display.
 Display for corresponding gas is not shown if the corresponding sensor is
not working.
Typical features of Multi Gas Detectors :
a) Plug-in sensors,
b) Audible and visual alarms,
c) Easy one-button calibration and
d) High reading memory.
e) Some Multi Gas Detectors do come with a Sampling Pump. This pump
provides the user with the benefit of both personal monitoring
applications and remote sampling necessary in confined spaces.

USE & MAINTENANCE :

Instructions of manufacturer is to be followed for use, Calibration &
maintenance.
VARIOUS TYPES OF EXPLOSIMETERS :
There are two types of indicators available for measuring hydrocarbon gas concentrations under
lower flammable limit namely :
 The Catalytic Heated Filament Gas Indicator
 Infra Red type Gas indicators

What is the difference between Catalytic & Infrared Gas detectors?

Combustible Gas Detection
In detecting combustible gases in oil and gas, petrochemical and other applications, choosing
between the two most common gas sensing technologies used for this purpose will be critical in
ensuring a safe, reliable and cost effective solution. These technologies are catalytic combustion
and infrared. Both have advantages and disadvantages depending on an application / specific
needs.

Of the many hydrocarbons that are found in industry today, most are detectable with a catalytic
combustion sensor and many are detectable with an infrared sensor. It is important to consider
the specific compounds to be monitored as there are some that do not readily lend themselves to
detection with a general purpose infrared (IR) detector, such as hydrogen, acetylene, and aromatic
compounds, like benzene and toluene, for example.

Catalytic Detectors
Catalytic detectors are based upon the principle that when gas oxidizes it produces heat, and the
sensor converts the temperature change via a standard Wheatstone Bridge-type circuit to a sensor
signal that is proportional to the gas concentration. The sensor components consist of a pair of
heating coils (reference and active). The active element is embedded in a catalyst. The reaction
takes place on the surface of the catalyst, with combustible gases reacting exothermically with
oxygen in the air to raise its temperature. This results in a change of resistance.
There is also a reference element providing an inert reference signal by remaining non-responsive
to gas, thereby acting as a stable baseline signal to compensate for environmental changes which
would otherwise affect the sensor’s temperature.

Advantages
The major advantages of catalytic detectors:
 Robust.
 Simple to operate.
 Easy to install, calibrate and use.
 Long life with a low replacement cost.
 Proven technology with exceptional reliability and predictability.
 Easily calibrated individually to gases such as hydrogen which cannot be detected using
infrared absorption.
 Can perform more reliably in dusty & dirty atmospheres as they are not as sensitive as optics
to the build up of industrial contaminants.
 Can perform more reliably in high temperature applications.
 Are less sensitive to humidity and condensation.
 Not as significantly affected by changes in pressure.
 Can detect most combustible hydrocarbons.

Disadvantages
The limiting factors in catalytic detector technology:
 Catalysts can become poisoned or inactive due to contamination (chlorinated & silicone
compounds, prolonged exposure to H2S and other sulfur &/or corrosive compounds).
 The only means of identifying detector sensitivity loss is by checking with the appropriate
gas on a routine basis and recalibrating as required.
 Requires oxygen for detection.
 Prolonged exposure to high concentrations of combustible gas may degrade sensor
performance.
 If flooded with a very high gas concentration, may show erroneously low or no response,
and sensor may be damaged or rendered inoperable.

Infrared Detectors
The Infrared (IR) detection method is based upon the absorption of infrared radiation at specific
wavelengths as it passes through a volume of gas. Typically two infrared light sources and an
infrared light detector measures the intensity of two different wavelengths, one at the absorption
wavelength and one outside the absorption wavelength. If a gas intervenes between the source
and the detector, the level of radiation falling on the detector is reduced. Gas concentration is
determined by comparing the relative values between the two wavelengths. This is a dual beam
infrared detector.

Infrared gas detection is based upon the ability of some gases to absorb IR radiation. Many
hydrocarbons absorb IR at approximately 3.4 micrometers and in this region H2O and CO2 are
relatively transparent. As mentioned earlier, there are some hydrocarbons and other flammable
gases that have poor or no response on a general purpose IR sensor. In addition to aromatics and
acetylene, hydrogen, ammonia and carbon monoxide also cannot be detected using IR technology
with general purpose sensors of 3.4 micron specifications.

Advantages
The major advantages of IR gas detectors:
 Immunity to contamination and poisoning.
 Consumables (source and detector) tend to outlast catalytic sensors.
 Can be calibrated less often than a catalytic detector.
 Ability to operate in the absence of oxygen or in enriched oxygen.
 Ability to operate in continuous presence of gas.
 Can perform more reliably in varying flow conditions.
 Even when flooded with gas, will continue to show high reading and sensor will not be
damaged.
 Able to detect at levels above 100 % LEL.

Disadvantages
The limiting factors in IR technology:
 The initial higher cost per point. IR detectors typically are more expensive than catalytic
detectors at initial purchase.
 Higher spare parts cost.
 Gases that do not absorb IR energy (such as hydrogen) are not detectable.
 High humidity, dusty and/or corrosive field environments can increase IR detector
maintenance costs.
 Temperature range for detector use is limited compared to catalytic detectors.
 May not perform well where multiple gases are present.

Conclusion
There is clear need for both IR and catalytic detectors in industry. When making a choice, be sure
to consider the field environment and the variables in detector design. Life-cycle cost
assumptions will not hold true in all environments. The same can be said for detector mean-time-
to-repair or failure. Careful analysis of detectors, suppliers and field experience will help you to
select the best catalytic or IR detectors for your application.

Misc :
Threshold limit value - Time weighted average (TLV-TWA): average exposure on the basis of a
8h/day, 40h/week work schedule

Threshold limit value - Short-term exposure limit (TLV-STEL): spot exposure for a duration of
15 minutes, that cannot be repeated more than 4 times per day

Threshold limit value - Ceiling limit (TLV-C): absolute exposure limit that should not be
exceeded at any time

CRUDE OIL WASHING (COW)

DEFINITION
 COW stands for “CRUDE OIL WASHING”.
 During the process of COW, cargo tanks are cleaned by
means of high-pressure crude oil.
 COW reduces the quantity of oil remaining on board after
discharge.

ADVANTAGES OF COW
 Reduced sludge accumulation
 Increased cargo out turn
 Reduced manual cleaning
 Reduced gas freeing time

DISADVANTAGES OF COW
 Increased stay in the discharge port
 Specialized man power required
 Increased work load
 Does not eliminate water washing
 Need for additional equipments
 Increases corrosion rate inside the tank

MARPOL REQUIREMENTS REGARDING COW

 Every crude oil tanker above 20,000 DWT shall be fitted
with cow system.
  All ships fitted with COW must have on board a “Crude
Oil Washing Manual” approved by the Administration.
 All ships fitted with COW must be provided with I.G
system.
 Only those cargo tanks that have undergone COW, can be
ballasted.
 Aprox. 25 per cent of the cargo tanks need to be crude oil
washed every voyage for sludge control purposes.
However, no tank need be crude oil washed for sludge
control purposes more than once in every four months

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE

EFFECTIVENESS OF COW
 Characteristics of the crude oil
o Wax content,
o Specific gravity,
 Temperature of oil
 System pressure
 Location & number of washing machines
 Shadow sectors in the tank
 Stripping effectiveness
 Nozzle rotation pitch

PARTS OF A COW SYSTEM

 Fixed washing machines
 Pumps
 Stripping system
 Piping
NUMBER & LOCATION OF WASHING MACHINES
IS GOVERNED BY THE FOLLOWING
REGULATIONS OF MARPOL ANNEX 1
 85% of the VERTICAL surface area inside a tank must be
covered by the direct impingement of the jet
 90% of the HORIZONTAL surface area inside a tank must be
covered by the direct impingement of the jet

COW CHECKLISTS

PRIOR ARRIVAL AT DISCHARGE PORT

COMMUNICATION
 Notify Terminal about your intension regarding COW.
 Terminal pre-arrival radio check list to comply with.
 Communication system on board must be tried.

EQUIPMENTS CHECK
 Fixed and portable O2 analyzing equipment tested & working.
 COW system isolated from the heater.
 Machine drive units checked.
 Valves to fixed machines shut.
 Hydrant valves blanked.
 Pressure gauges checked.
 Lines and pumps pressure tested.
 Stripping system checked

COW PLAN
 COW Plan must be prepared, discussed in pre-arrival meeting
and posted in prominent location(s).
 It must include responsibilities & job description.

WHILE AT DISCHARGE PORT

BEFORE COW
 Pre-arrival checks confirmed to be in order.
 COW plan discussed during cargo meeting between ship &
shore staff.
 Communication link within vessel & shore to be established.
 Abort conditions & Procedures to be identified.
 Fixed analyzer must be calibrated prior start of Inert Gas.
 IG system & O2 content being delivered to be in good order.
 O2 content of the tanks confirmed to be below 8%.
 Positive pressure to be ensured inside the tanks.
 Responsible person assigned to check leaks.
 Drive units of machines must be readied.
 Double check on valves & lines.
 Ullage floats, if fitted, must be housed.
DURING COW
 Responsible person stationed on deck
 Frequent check on quality of IG & record maintained.
 Prescribed wash pressure maintained.
 Frequent checks for leaks.
 Frequent checks to confirm working of machines.
 Minimum recommended trim.
 Frequent checks & monitoring of other tanks.
 Frequent monitoring of tank draining.
 Continuous monitoring of Slop tank(s).
AFTER COW
 Shut all valves
 Drain COW line
 Drain all pumps, tanks & associated pipelines.

FUNCTION OF INERT GAS DURING COW

 Properly functioning Inert Gas system is required to maintain
cargo tanks in a non-flammable condition.

 Inert Gas System must be working properly during COW and

the content of inert gas being delivered should be below 5%
by volume.
  Oxygen content of the tanks to be crude oil washed below
8% by volume has to be confirmed before washing
operations commences.

 All the cleaning tanks must have positive pressure?

(preferably more than 200mmAq)

 I.G. system, cargo tanks and openings must be tightly closed

for avoiding gas leakage to the atmosphere

TANK WASHING/CLEANING OPERATION

(Quest Type – Write short note on Tank washing operation on Tankers)
OR
(Quest Type – Write short note on Tank cleaning operation on Tankers)

ANS.
DEFINITION
It is the process by which Tanks are washed by fixed/portable machines
using cold/hot sea water or Fresh water.

REASON FOR TANK CLEANING

Tank cleaning is carried out prior following:
1. Tank Entry
2. Grade Change
3. Dry-Dock

PRECAUTIONS DURING TANK CLEANING OPERATION

Guidelines as per ISGOTT & Company specific checklists must be complied
with. The following precautions are among those taken in account:

i) BEFORE WASHING OPERATION

a) Tank washing plan must be prepared and discussed with all concerned.
b) All Concerned pumps and pipelines must be tested as per company
procedures.
c) Ensure, all scuppers are well plugged and anti-pollutions gears in place.
d) The tanks must be well inerted with Oxygen content below 8%. Gas tests
must be made at various levels.

ii) DURING TANK WASHING OPERATION

a) Before actual washing, the tank bottom should be flushed with water
and stripped. The flushing water should be drained to the tank designed
or designated to receive slops.
b) If the tank has a venting system that is common to other tanks which are
not to be washed, the tank must be isolated to prevent ingress of gas from
other tanks.

c) If portable washing machines are used, all hose connections should be

made up and tested for electrical continuity before the washing machine
is introduced into the tank.
d) Required pressure must be maintained at all times inside the wash line.

e) During tank washing, regular gas tests must be made at various levels.
Consideration should be given to the possible effect of water on the
efficiency of the gas measuring equipment.

f) The tank should be kept drained during washing. Washing should be

stopped to clear any build-up of wash water.

g) Steam should not be injected into the tank.

h) Precautions relating to sounding and the introduction of metallic

equipment should be taken as per ISGOTT.

NOTE :
In case checklists related to Tank cleaning are asked in question, please be
guided by Crude Oil washing Checklists.

PUMPS
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
WHAT IS THE PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF A
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP?
Ans.
The principle used for centrifugal pump is the
centrifugal force in the form of dynamic pressure
which is generated by rotary motion of one or more
rotating wheels called the impellers.
SKETCH LAYOUT OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
INSTALLATION AND LABEL IT.
Ans.

note

STATE THE APPLICATION / FEATURES OF

A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
 On most tankers, the main cargo pumps are
centrifugal pumps, located at the bottom of a
 pump room at the after end of the cargo
tanks.

 These may have rated capacities of

1000m3/hour on medium size tankers.

 These are powered by a drive shaft from a

turbine or electric motor located in the
engine room.

 Some smaller tankers and particularly

chemical or product carriers are fitted with
deep well centrifugal pumps in some or all
cargo tanks.

 While both of these pump types operate on

centrifugal force principles, their operation is
quite different

STATE THE PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED

WHILE USING A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
 The pumps must be carefully checked before
starting to ensure that their chambers are full of
cargo.
 Keep discharge valve fully shut before starting the
pump.
 Increase the rpm gradually and open the discharge
valve.
 Confirm no unusual rise in the temperature of
pump or its casing. Also Confirm no vibrations.
 As discharge proceeds, it is important to maintain
a good trim by the stern so that the pump inlet
remains below the cargo suction inlet.
 Cargo officer must know the height of the ship's
bottom framing and slow down the pump while
there is still a meter of cargo above that level.
 The pump speed control and the pump discharge
valve can then be manipulated to maintain pump
suction and cargo flow until the tank is nearly
empty.
 Main cargo pumps should not be used to drain the
tank. The stripping pumps are provided for that
purpose.
 Vapour/air extraction device, if fitted, should be
operational when the cargo level is low and
continued till Cargo pump is finally stopped or
changed over to next tank.

DEEPWELL PUMPS
 Deep well pumps are centrifugal pumps designed to
be mounted in the cargo tank.
 They have a special application in product/chemical
carriers, where each tank is fitted with a dedicated
pump. This improves the flexibility of the
chemical/product carrier and minimizes the possibility
of contamination.
 Because the number of pumps is larger, the individual
pumps themselves are smaller and individually require
less power.
 With a deep well pump installation, the need for a
pump room is eliminated, along with the hazards and
complications of that space.
 The more common method of evacuating the deep
well is with an air or nitrogen purge system. The gas
is piped through a small-bore line at the base of the
pump and pushes the contents up the main discharge
riser.
 When a cargo tank is being stripped (or drained) with
a deep well pump, the pump cycles as its self-priming
function is activated, dropping speed and pitch as it
fills with liquid and then increasing in speed and pitch
as is loses suction and drops the contents of its
discharge column back into the well to re-prime itself.
 Pump speed should be reduced when stripping (if
speed control is available). If the pump is powered
hydraulically, it can be regulated to any speed desired
to permit maximum cargo recovery.
RECIPROCATING PUMP
DEFINITION :
 Reciprocating pumps are those which cause the
fluid to move using oscillating pistons, plungers or
diaphragms.

 These pumps are also called positive displacement

pumps because they are fitted with a system of
suction and discharge valves to ensure that the
fluid is displaced in a positive direction.

APPLICATIONS :
 These are small capacity (say 100 to 250 m 3/hour
capacity) pumps which are used for stripping of
lines, pumps and tanks.

 Though rated capacity is less, they can handle

very high pressures
WORKING PRINCIPLE :
The working principle can be explained by considering
below reciprocating pump :
 Assume that the intake side of the pump is
connected to a supply of liquid.

 When we move the piston to the right, lower

pressure is created in the chamber formed by the
piston. Higher pressure on the fluid outside the
chamber forces fluid in through the inlet port and
fills the chamber.

 Moving the handle forward in the opposite

direction forces the fluid out. A check valve at the
inlet port prevents flow there and, since the fluid
must find an outlet somewhere, it is forced out
through the discharge port.

 The check valve at the discharge port prevents the

entrance of fluid into the pump on the subsequent
suction stroke.

 The back-and-forth movement of the piston in the

pump is referred to as reciprocating motion and
this type of pump is generally known as a
reciprocating-type piston pump
PRECAUTIONS WHILE USING A
RECIPROCATING PUMP
• The pump should be started against partially open
delivery valve.

• The pump should never be started or operated

against closed delivery valve.

 Close monitoring of strokes must be done to

prevent damage to the pump.

 Pump must not be operated above its rated

discharge pressure

 Pump shafts must be regularly lubricated if auto

lubrication system is not functional.

 OOW must be standby to stop the pump when

stripping operation is nearing completion.
COMPARISION BETWEEN THE
CENTRIFUGAL AND RECIPROCATING
PUMP.

Ans.

Centrifugal Pump Reciprocating

Pump
1. Flow is smooth 1. Flow is intermittent
2. Compact and 2. Comparatively needs
Need less space more space
3. Initial cost is less 3. Initial cost is 4 to 5
times more.
4. Easy Installation 4. Installation is
Difficult.
5. Low maintenance 5. High Maintenance
6. Requires Priming 6. Does not require
Priming
 CARGO EDUCTOR

WORKING PRINCIPLE
 The Eductor works on Bernoulli’s principle.

OPERATION/FEATURE OF EDUCTOR
 Eductor is operated by the drive fluid entering through the
pressure nozzle, producing a high velocity jet. Drive pressure is
normally between 8 to 10 kg/cm2.
 This jet action creates a vacuum in the suction line, which
causes liquid to flow up the body of the Eductor where it gets
mixed with the drive fluid.

USAGE ON BOARD TANKERS

 Eductor are used to empty tanks, pumps and pipelines.
 Medium size tanker are fitted with educator of rated capacity of
100 to 300m3/hour.
PRECAUTIONS WHILE USAGE
 When shutting down an Eductor, the suction valve should
remain open as this prevents the Eductor creating a vacuum on
the suction line.
 If the Eductor drive pressure falls below the designed operating
pressure, the Eductor suction valve should be closed to prevent
any backflow of the driving liquid into the tank.

ADVANTAGES
 Eductors have a low initial cost
 Eductors are self-priming
 Eductors have no moving parts
 Eductors are easy to install
 Eductors require little or no maintenance
 SCREW PUMP
WORKING PRINCIPLE
 A screw pump is a positive displacement pump that use one or
several screws to move fluids or solids along the screw(s) axis.
 Screw rotates in a cylindrical cavity, thereby moving the
material along the screw's spindle.
 There may be single, double or triple screw type pumps but
each ‘screw pump’ operates on the same basic principal of a
screw turning to isolate a volume of fluid and convey it.

DESIGN
 The individual turns of the screw seal a set volume of fluid by
direct contact, with the stator.
 The stator has a shape that corresponds to the outside surface
of the screw.
 The interference fit between the screw or pumping element
and the flexible stator create a unique pump design that can
handle a variety of fluid characteristics, including high levels of
solids and variable viscosities.
 However, the interference fit creates a need for lubrication and
cooling of the stator material.

COMPARISION BETWEEN SCREW PUMP & CENTRIFUGAL

PUMP
 Compared to centrifugal pumps, positive displacements (PD)
pumps have several advantages.
 The pumped fluid is moving axially without turbulence which
eliminates foaming that would otherwise occur in viscous fluids.
 They are also able to pump fluids of higher viscosity without
losing flow rate.
 Also, changes in the pressure difference have little impact on
PD pumps compared to centrifugal pumps.