‘Anevalstion aio sds tn onidr he advange andthe imitans of he mdel Mods of DNA ae very weil in ‘hwing how a osha anda igen bas fam a uclectid They als show bow he mses nk together to fora de stuctre wih he sugar phos foing thesis ofthe air andthe itrogenns bass Foring th ‘gsc elds Tee dmesional mods ve the ded “nena tht thy can sos how the nr wists fo fm, the double el. Two-dimertional aout jis model have the adage thatthe vo stad ofthe mode can beesty ‘part to show the procs of DNA eplion. “Thus making a model of section of DNA fan important tool in making the stuctueof DNA easier understand ving pod visualisation of how ech components {he moleule The mel can then be sed ste tsi for Farther knowidge about DNA, eg, bow DNA can epi to fom two Wena double lx molecules andthe moe! Shows the gnc coding which Swed to manufacture a ticulr polyp and poten. Since pei determine the diferent apperance and type ‘fel fond nth body and als determine the reactions, that ocur in ells enzymes are proteins), a etn of DNA, (ene) determines Your appearance and phenotype 4. Compare the stuctr ofthe DNA molec ia prokaryote and eukaryotic call ify some ways in which DNA can be represented in models 3, Whatare some features that must be shown in 8 ‘model of DNA. 14, Whatisthe triplet code? ‘5 Doll tplt codes specify a particular amino ae? Explain your reasoning 6. (@)_ Which code i ured in genetics in definitions and to identify aio is? (6). What isthe relationship betweon this code and the DNA code? 7. Draw a simple filly labeled diagram ofa part of DNA molecule showing eight tase pais. 4. The able shows the percentage of adenine, guanine, «stsin and tymine in sis of DNA saps Discuss how this data shows an important eau of the DNA molecule. ° 2. 13. 14 15. ‘6 ”. 16 thas ben found that cells fom tures consi, ‘on average DNA with 30% adenine. From this information, ho’ much guanine would you expect find inthe average tute el? Give an advantage anda disadvantage of making three-dimentional models of DNA. Explain why scientists construct model such asthe model of DNA consrted by Watson and Crick, [DNA isa very repularpoymer of mcletides, How ‘many diferent asic ncleotdes aren DNA and ‘shat are they? “The diagram represents a one nucleotide. | (@) Hen the components X.Yand Z (6) Drawn diagram 10 show how v0 more 2 nucleotides would connect with his owe 403 cleotide Gre rctestis Describe a model you could construct 10 show the structreof the DNA molecule and asses the uses ‘nd imitations ofthis model. ‘What is codon? Explain why the coding of th basepairs in a section of DNAs important ‘The diagram shows ‘aseton of DNA. (Copy this diagram sd ctl one nucleotide. ‘biology student needed evaluate ‘model of DNA ‘ade by anther Stent For the mode 0 be consistent with known information, where should the phosphates be located inthe model? (A), Onte left and side ofthe ladder. (8). Atenating with sugars down bth sides ofthe ladder, (©) Aiteratng with sogenous bases down both sides ofthe ladder (©) Onthe rings ofthe ladder ‘Watson and Crick deduced the double elxstrutre Cf DNA and rested a model ofthe DNA molecule. ‘Many scents went to see this model and their ‘model ion display inthe Science Maseum, Landon ‘What isthe beef of eeaing medels? (A) Models help visualisation of scientific concepts (8) Models an be seo make farther preistins (©) Models sd corsmunication, {(D) Allofthe above. igure 40.4 A secon of OA 41_DNA Replication Watson and Crick predicted tht DNA replication involved the sem-conservative model wich involves ‘nvh ofthe two daughter molecules having one ld strand fom the parental molecule and one newly made strand, Inthe 1950s there were tree models roposed for DNA, replication, the conservative node where the parental ‘Stands resemble afer forming a template that forms ‘anes double hai, the semi-conservatve model as propsed by Watson and Crsk and the dispersive model vier both the dager molecules contain a mixtre of Sidney sabe —— ome. Wy - WY = eee Figur 4.1 Tao propoces mee fr DNA epcaton Meselson-Stahl experiment In 1958 Mathew Meselson and Franklin Sta ered out tm expeiment wih the ects Exherichi co labelled With radioactive nitrogen (°N) oivestignte the tree ‘models of DNA replication They four that he amount of Nin the each generation afte cell vision and repli ‘over several neato was consistent withthe sem ‘conservative model and confirmed the modelo semi ‘conservative replisaton proposed by Watson and Crick Process of replication During DNA replication the DNA molecule unwinds ‘andthe double helix separates into two single sands ch single sand i tmplte forthe synthesis ofa ‘complementary stand so that adenine is opposite thymine and unin is opposite cytosine “The pes of epction gine trig replat Sites ng cromosome. Thee sts are actos that ae coded ‘ih secife soon of mks, Proteins that sat DDNA replication dct and tach othe sections causing the two stands separate to fer repaint ‘Thr isa repleaton fork at he end ofeach Buble where the unwinding pres begins andthe buble opens up fare inh eto. Helens enzymes unis the daub hel atte repaton ks and reak the bons etveen he Stands GDN. The sorted stn inthe bubble acs template fone complementary see ell ‘Pure 41.2 DNA rapoaton bagi the ste of gin of vepicton “The beginning mucetide cain short RNA chain called primer end syed by the ezyrne RNA primase, (Onc the primers formed DNA polymerase enzymes a cess othe ed ofthe exing chai, Nachos can only be aed tothe end of the growing DNA sand This ‘eis he new strand aways gow ina S'> 3 deton. “The leading strand is th new DNA stand that is amines syntheses nthe S'-» 3 diction. The the ‘onde cad the lagging strand ands alo synthesised inthe $=» 3 dren ut grows covey fo theepiation {kad Fems iconic in seis of segment ‘These segments ae cled Okwald fragments. DNA ligase zymes jin the sogposphate ackone ofthe Okazaki Fragment togsher to complet the new single DNA strand Figure 41.3 ONAreplcaton cca» areton‘The cytoplasm ofthe eel contains many fre nucleotides, which are used during DNA repletion. DNA polymerase proofreads each ncletide against is emplate removing 9. Incoerect ueleotides or staying the formation of 10. bonds to join the corret micleoie tothe DNA strand, IEDNA polymerase while proofeading misses ast of 4, mismatched mclecids other repirenzymescan remove 4. and replace the incorrect pai fa The significance of DNA replication i that lage amounts 14 of coded information canbe copied and passed onto the next generation, providing continuity o species. The method aso allows for some changes and for mations ‘when the code is incortetly copied. SONA eros Fur 41.4 DNA pletion, Which mode of DNA replication was proposed by Wasson and Cask? 2 Const a tbl to summarise the tre models of [DNA plication tht were proposed in techy 19505, 3. _Deseribe the experimont tha eventually showed how DNA replicated 4. The diagram shows a simple summary ofthe process of DNA replication, PEE ‘Four 4.8 Simpl surary of NA epi, 15. Briely explain whats happening inthis agra, 5. What isan origin of replication sit? 6. Whatisa replication ‘bubble? 7. Outline he futon of haliaseeneymes Bm 0185 Hence (@)_ What isa primer? (©) What isthe furction oF RNA prise? utine te fanetion of DNA polymerase enzymes, Distinguish between the lading stand and the Jngaing standin DNA repletion, ‘What re Okazaki fagments? Cutine the funtion of DNA ligase enzymes, Explain the sigilesnce of DNA replication, ‘The diagram sows several stages of DNA repli Be Figure 4.8 Stgos of ONA repletion enti the correct suena order ® LENM ® LMNP © NAME. © LRM “The diagram shows « DNA replication bubble Sti Figur 4.7 ONA repicaton bb ‘Which aro) pot othe lang sand in DNA, replication? (A) Foal B) Henly (©) Hand. () Fandk. 42_DNA Repairs Itself During DNA replication and othe salar metabolic actives DNA can be damaged and rots can occur DNA that is exposed to chemical mutagen, radiation ct ‘an become damaged and ness be epi. ‘Thera several proceses that correct damaged DNA, Repair enzymes move along the DNA checking the base rs io make sre they are corety matched. I the DNA, ‘Snot epired ican lead to mutations replication errs persistent DNA damage, genomic instability which in turn Tea to eanoer and ageing, taeee ee | sce Figure 42.3 DNA pssst ‘Types of DNA damage DNA canbe damaged in several ways, + One of the nitrogenous bases in DNA is modified, 128 by the loss of an amino group (deamination) sch as cytosine being converted tour + Misnatching of somal bases in DNA, eur instead of tiymnine (cl is normaly oly fund in RNA}, + Crosslinks between DNA base ihe on the sme DNA strand o between diferent DNA stands “+ Breaks inthe ackbone eg Xr td some chemicals ‘sich as perxide cause breakin the DNA bockhone ‘Types of damage repair systems ‘There ae thre basic ype of damage repr systems: nage reversal, damage removal, nd dana tolerance Damage reversal where enzymes restore stuctre ‘without breaking the backbone orf asa simple beak inthe backbone of oe strand, DNA lige can rapidly "epair the damage. In many Bacteria, noes and plants, the enzyme photolyase breaks the bond and reverses DNA damage in the presence light Damage removal - where the damage section of ‘meleotides is cut ou, removed and eptced, « lyovsylse enzymes each remove aspevife type of ‘se damage by eating the base-sgar bond. Uracil yeospase wil remove use from DNA. This is often called excision rein Damage tolerance — whore a methods ound to ‘pe withthe damage, ea. iF thymine dimer forms, ie covalent bond forms between to adjacent thymine tases, the thymine dimer wil hinder DNA repiation, Daring replication a gap’ may be let on one strand, though this an be dangerous ithe cell divides, Rate of DNA repair ‘The ate of DNA reais depend on several factors, the age ofthe cel the typeof el and the exocllular Why does DNA need to repairs? dent to causes of DNA damage Otitne some ways in which DNA can be damaged Use an example o discuss how DNA damage ean be reversed People wth the heredity disease xeroderma igmentosun (XP) ae sight sensitive. They get sense eke lesions ons exposed skin snd ‘nc highlysuscepbl to developing skin cance XP cells hae defective DNA rep expecially exctsion repair Explain how this defect ales DNA, {6 Thediagram shows DNA repair caused by covalent bond (a thymine dimer) forming beteen adjacent thymine bases, Trin ner eat OMA noes BR ete ee Crd Bly in ne oma Four 42.2 ONA reps (4) How does the thymine dimer affect the DNA ‘molecule? (©) dent the enzymes that are involved in this DNA repair process. 7. Describe how DNA has the ability to repair lf43 DNA Replication and Continuity Of a Species ‘The caing inthe DNA molecule rovie al honesty infamato obi structural ri into cell components DNA replicon allows the odin tbe passed fo one _gereraon tothe net. The epcato sem conservative ith each new DNA molecule consiing of one DNA stand fio he template and one newly syed DNA stad Figwe 3:1 DNA epeaton Universality of DNA replication Many fetures of DNA replication ate universal eg. the nitrogenous basepair coding not only holds the gence. information that wl determine the festursof«prtiular species but the adenine-thymine and eyosine-guaine pairings found aros al species. Since the “backbone ofthe DNA molecule consists ‘of covalenily bonded 3" eatbon of one suet the 3 hosphate ofthe adjacent suas itis possible to have molecules of indefinite length. Though there are some «ferences between prokaryotic DNA which isa cela molecule and eukaryotic DNA which s linear wth ange amount of associated proc ad some RNA. ‘blo 4.1 Dold munber of tert raion. Fok Drei rane . eciangns | waseau vn EA = — = a = ‘Ompaan [Fagor = Wester a5 [ crt gi = = Gre una es a ie Continuity and evolution The complementary base pig allows DNA replicti produce another generation withthe contin of ie ad ‘continuity ofa species The exat replition ofthe codes needed in bin sion, efor unicellular ngs and fee meiosis in eakaryes for get formation. In DNA replication there i also the possibilty of tation. base substation, destin, insertion, duplication, translocation so that variations ean arse leading to evolution and speciation, For example thre is some evidence that human chromosome? fered by {he fision of two ancestral chromosomes iclomere telomere lading to humans hving 46 chromosomes while the great apes have 48 eromosomes. Though some people propose tat chromosome 2 spit ito twin the i apes making them 48 chromosomes from 46 ‘What information i stored inthe DNA code? Explain why DNA replisation is semicenservatve. enya featur of DNA replication tha sive Explain why the length of DNA sn ited The diagram shows a ection of DNA replication Fue 43.2Secton of ONA resting (0) Name the nlc tht wil be ade a point A and th mcletie dat willbe ade tpi (©) Onthe diagram deny which isthe lending strand and which the lagging std in DNA replication {5 Hows prokaryotic DNA diferent to cakanotic DNA? 7. Use some examples to show tat diferent species have diferent aumbers of chromosomes. 8. Usean example to show that different species can have the same number of chromosomes, 9. Explsin why DNA is import forthe continu of species, 10. Explain how DNA replication is involved in evolution and speciation, 11, Usean example where evoaton has involve a ‘change in chromosome number, 44_Prokaryote and Eukaryote DNA The penome of prokaryotes is seuctrlly diferent to the senome of eukaryotes withthe ammount of DNA in & prokaryote being considerably less han the amount of NA inn eukaryote. The process of DNA replication is fandamentaly the same in prokaryotes and eukaryotes Prokaryote DNA, “Most prokaryotic DNA isin circular ring nth ule "etion af th eopisn. They do not have the histone protein amework of eukaryote cells, Many prokaryotes aso have plasmids which a smaller rings of DNA at contain Tinted numberof genes Prokarote ribosomes areslighily smaller than eukaryote ‘ibosomes and have different protein and RNA. {Im DNA replication the process starts atthe origin of "replication stand continues fom the two forks teach ‘nd ofthe replication bubble. Thee are no telomeres {8 prokanote DNA is circular with no ends that canbe eroded wit ach replication poses ‘When the DNA code i used in protein synthesis the process of tansltion starts while transcription fs stil in progress. When the protein hasbeen sythessed it ‘ily diss to is se of function Stn |p REET niece 4 ur 4.1 pial pretarots cl Eukaryote DNA ‘The chromosomes contining DNA of eukaryotes ae ‘ound inside the nclear membrane nthe ncleus and ae packaged with large ameunsof protein with about ‘one-half ofthe protein present being histone. The DNA Protein complex is aed ehromatn, Plasmids are found in some eukaryote, eg. yest In exkaryotes DNA replication isnt at many points long the chromosomes. Thee i also famewerk of Ares throughout the nls that anchor the parental stands of DNA during the DNA replisston process ‘Telomeres are protective strates with repetitive codes that re found atthe ends of eukaryotic cremosomes, ‘The nucleotide sequence in telomeres is nota gene code ‘but mukipe repetitions ofa shor sequence hat is croded with each repieaton. Sine eukaryotic DNA isin fincas _Sromosomes and DNA polymere can only add tthe 3 end of an existing chin each replication volves the erosion ofthe 5"ends ofthe daughter DNA stand Telomeres ata. buffer and increase the time before ‘zens near the ends of DNA molecules star be eed. memos ome Pour 44.2 Tomer, ‘When the DNA code is used in protein synthesis ‘transcription cceusin the nucleus whee the cove x ‘tanscrted onto mRNA. The mRNA then esto leave the nucleus and go the cytoplasm where trnslton occurs. ‘While inthe nucleus theres extensive RNA procening ‘with RNA splicing removing introns which se long oneoding srtches of nuclides, 1. Consrst a table compare the DNA of prokaryotes and eukaryctes 2. Whatisa plasmig? 3. Ga) What isatelomere? (©) Why re telomeres important? (©) Why are telomeres needed in eukaryotes and ae not needed in prokaryotes? Define chromatin, In which type of ells would you Feast expect to find Plasmid? (A) Cyanobacteria, (8) Methanogens, (©) Yeas (D)_ Animal cells {5 Which of the elowing comet associates telomeres with their DNA code and typeof el in which hey ae foun? (| sor peningnahctsesenaren | Eanes 1 | Seat epehanvceorsosogana | Prune (0 | ome ose spoon | Ealanete 0 | Gre ose re paperese pain | Plans45_DNA In Organelles Some organs in eukaryotes conta DNA. The genes in thee organelles are callodextramuclear genes. These ‘orgmelles can reproduce themscives ‘Mitochondrial DNA Mitochondria ae cylinder shaped oraneles that vary in size from 2 8 miceomets in ent and are the site of| ‘eobierespcation. They havea double membrane with the mer membrane inflded 6 forms erste. They can lve rise other mitochondria by groth and division. Mitochondria contain aing of DNA (meDNAY like prokaryotes and the dimensions of mitchondria is inilar {ote sizeof prokaryotes. The inheritance af mDNA from ‘one generation othe next doesnot velve bot parents ‘nd bas been used © ack ancesy and evolutionary tres Inhumans th analysis of DNA as bon eo track the migration of different human population flowing the ‘ama ine tock throagh ma’ generations “The endosymbitie theory stages that mitochondria ros asa sybils between a r=ving tercrophic bacterium wit cob respiration th entered ‘lage cell ihe larger prokaryote an okay ard bot thn existed na malic prteship. Flore 45.1 Part an anal mitochon DNA in plastids Pst af a group of closely relate plant organelles that incadeschlorplasts,chromoplasts and amoplasts (eseoplast) Plast coatainpigzents such as chlorophylls and carotenoids ‘Cioroplsts have double membrane withthe ner membrane giving rise benching lamella Forms ‘Hylands They contin he gon piers chlerepy a ‘chloro which tmp light ene fr photoes ‘Cleroplss conan ang of DNA ike rotary and the mension of chlorp as silat tes of prkayors Chloroplasts may have arisen 8 symbiosis relationship tween re-lvig photosynthetic bacterium tht entered ‘longer el either alge prokaryote o an eukaryote ‘Chloroplast are found in algae and cerain pnt ol Amyloplast arecolores pass commen in storage ‘onze sring sah in ot and soos. Ar opasscan tum in chips, pater tum ren insight ‘Chromoplass are coloured plats with now petosybetic Pigments common in futsal flower petals an in ea. root emu, Chremopts hese an str pigment Tr ‘What are extranuclnr genes? Dewrbe mitechonda Describe mitochondrial DNA. ow does the endosymbiatic theory apy 10 itochonara?| 5, Explain ow human mtDNA bas been wed to trace Jnuman migration ars the Earth 6 @ Whatisa pasa? Ab) Name some diferent types of plas 7. Describe chlropiasts, {8 The diagram shows one proposal about the origin of| imtochondria and chloroplast vee) Sina som Foe 45.2 Giga of mtoshonaia and cepa (8) Use this diagram to write out the sequence of evens that has een proposed to explain the ‘tigi of eukaryce pant and animal cet. (©) Expkinhow mitochondrial DNA and chloroplast, DNA supports th endommbiois toon: 9. Which ofthe flowing dos at ave town DNA? (A) Chromoplass.(B). Chloroplasts (©) Endopissmic. ——(D) Mivchondria. rsticolim. 10. Whats the tractor of mitochondtal DNA? (A) Small rol rng, (B) Large ccular ing wit stone protein, (©) Linear chromatin, (D) Smal cial ring inked with lipids, 46 The Beadle and Tatum Experiment In 1941, George Beadle (1903-1989) and Edward Tatum (1909-1875) proposed the one geneone enzyme hypothesis afer conducting series of experiments With the bread mould Neurospora crassa. i Figure 48.1 Ewart Tau and George Bad "Neurospora fungus with a haploid genome only one copy ofeach gene. They expose the spores ofthe inh to X-aysor UV radiation o produce mutant varieties that hd Special nutritional aces. For example, one mutant ‘woul only grow ithe wear plate contained the amino acid arginine. T leary iden the defect Beadle and Tarn investigated the te tps inthe synthesis of engine. Promornseet E81 crite ESE? cane 0003, rine Figure 46.2 S658 agin thes They Found shee types of mutants for agnine when sown ona minimal medium and the chemical stages which le to arginine synthesis "em rs m0 Some ofthe mutans could not lve witout particular vitamin cr ano aed in het food source, eg normal ould requies oly the vitamin biotin, while some mutant so required thiamine r choi. Investigation into proteins le to frther refinement of Beadle and Tarun’ theory. Since all genes do nt code forenzymes, the one gene-oneenryme hypothesis has ‘been refined to one gene-one polypeptide. Thi is nde asnotll genes code for enzymes. ‘Examples where he coe isnot for enzymes include some gees that hae the code to build stretiral posing, geri and collagen. Many proteins have more ‘han one polypepte chun, eg haemoglobin bas four polypeptide chains of two diferent types and cash of the fo chain types i contd by a diferent ene In 1958 Beadle and Tatum received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for ter discovery tht genes ast ‘by ropultingdoinite chemical events Joshua Lederberg abo received the Nabe Prize that year fri work on ‘senate ecambinaton and the orgnisation ofthe genetic ‘trial of batria 1. What is Newospond? 2. How did Beadle and Tatum produce mutants? 5. Describe the contol in Beadle ad Tatun’s experinent 4 Army the results ofthis experiment. 5. What conclusion could be drawn fom his cexperinent? 45. How vas the Beadle and Tatum hypothesis modified? Explain why the hypothesis was mote How were Beadle and Tatum rewarded or thir ‘work on genes and enzyme? 9. Beadle an Tatum grew each culture on "minimal medium’, Lee medium with only those compounds needed for growth snd reproduction of normal Sirins. Suggest why such substances a salts and ‘caren source would be inched na minimal ‘medium, but vitamins would not be inched 10, What wasthe evidence whi edt Beadle nd ‘Tatum’ “one gene-ne pecea’hyphess? (A) Interbreeding ere pa plans form hybrids (8) Showing the bacteria, Escherichia col can be infected by’ vil DNA (©) Growing bread moul, Netospory eras on lillerent agar growth mediums () Splicing RNA ofthe the ciliated protozoan, Taralymena, using ribozymes. 11. Experimental wook by Beadle and Tatum ed tothe “one genc-one enzyme’ hypothesis. This needed tobe altered when it was ealisd tht resell enzymes fae proteins, bu otal pees ae enzymes. Wes firs suggested tat the hypothesis bzome ‘one Een one prtsin’ however, What has further evidence suggested thatthe stemet shoud bocome? (A). One gene-one amino ac (B) One gene-one polypeptide (©) Two genes-one protein, (D) Two genes-one pid