Module 1

APPROACHES AND METHODS TO THE STUDY OF POLITICAL

THOUGHT

➢ The study of political science and in the process of search for political truth certain
procedure must be followed . These procedures are defined as approaches, methods,
techniques and strategies.
➢ An approach may be considered as some criteria for selection to study of perticular
phenomenon or a discipline
➢ These approaches are divided into two categories
1. Traditional Approach
2. Modern Approach

Traditional Approach

➢ The traditional approaches are highly speculative and normative and the modern
approaches are more empirical and scientific in nature.
➢ Traditional Approaches put emphasis on values more that facts.
➢ Advocates of these approaches believe that the study of political science cannot and
should not be purely scientific.
➢ Traditional Approach can be divided into four
1. Philosophical Approach
2. Historical Approach
3. Legal Approach
4. Institutional Approach

Characteristics of Traditional Approach

• Traditional approaches are largely normative and stresses on the values of politics.
• It emphasizes on the study of different political structures.
• It made very little attempt to relate theory and research
• Facts and values are closely interlinked
• Studies in political science can never be scientific

Type of Traditional Approach

1. Philosophical Approach
 • Philosophical approach is the oldest approach to the study of politics. It is
also known as speculative, metaphysical or ethical approach.
• Traditionally, the study of politics was subjugated by philosophical
reflections on universal political values that were regarded as essential to
the just state and the good state.
• The main aim of this approach is to evaluate the consequences of events in
a logical and scientific manner.
• Philosophical approach was created by Plato and Aristotle.
• Major plot of Plato’s writings was to define the nature and characteristics
of an ideal society.
• This approach is strongly arguing that values are inseparable from facts.
The study of state, government and the political behavior of man is
intricately linked with the quest for achieving certain goals, morals or
truths.
• Philosophical approach also tries to establish standards of good, right and
just.
• Here, the discipline moves closer to the world of ethics.
• This approach is criticized for being highly speculative and abstract.

2. Historical Approach
• This approach throws light on the past and traces the origin and
development of the political institutions.
• It highlights on the study of history of every political reality to analyses
any situation.
• It seeks to study the role of individuals and their motives,
accomplishments and failures in the past and its implications for the
future.
• In understanding the political issues of today, the help of historical
parallels are sought
• Machiavelli, Sabine and Dunning are the major exponents of historical
approach

3. Institutional Approach

• This approach is also known as the structural approach.

• It lays stress on the formal structures of the political organization such as
legislature, executive and judiciary.
• The informal structures are also studied and a comparative study of the
governmental system are encouraged.
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 • However, this approach is criticized for laying too much emphasis on
formal and informal structures and ignoring the role of individual in those
institutions.
• Harold Laski, Arthur Bentley and James Bryce are the exponents of
this approach.

4. Legal Approach
• The study of politics is linked with the study of legal institutions created
by the State for the maintenance of the political organization.
• As the State is engaged in the maintenance of law and order, the study of
judicial institutions become the concern of political theorists.
• This approach looks at the State as an organization primarily concerned
with the creation and enforcement of law.
• However, critics argue that this approach has a narrow perspective.
• The State has various other functions to perform other than enforcement
of law and order.
• Laws deal with only one aspect of an individual’s life and do not enable
the complete understanding of his political behaviour.
• Cicero, Jean Bodin and John Austin are the main exponents of this
approach.

Modern Approach

• The traditional approach’s focus is directed to the institutions.

• Thus, to minimize the deficiencies of the traditional approaches, various new
approaches have been advocated by the new political thinkers.
• These new approaches are regarded as the ‘modern approaches’ to the study
of Political Science.
• Modern approaches are fact based approaches.
• They lay emphasis on factual study of political events and try to arrive at
scientific and definite conclusion.
• The aim of modern approaches is to replace normativism with empiricism

Characteristics of Modern Approach

• Modern approaches try to draw conclusion from empirical data

• These approaches go beyond the study of political structures and its historical
analysis.
• Modern Approaches believe in inter-disciplinary study.
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 • They emphasize scientific methods of study and attempt to draw scientific
conclusions in Political Science

Types of Modern Approach

❖ Sociological Approach
• Sociological approach emphasizes on the understanding of the social context
to explain the political behaviour of the members of the community.
• The state is considered primarily as a social organism and politics is
understood through the sociological factors.
• But critics are of the opinion that too much of emphasis on the social context
can affect the very autonomy of the discipline.
• The main exponents of this Approach is Mac Ivor, Gabriel Almond.

❖ Economical Approach
• As matters pertaining to production and distribution of goods are regulated by
the State, the economic matters also become a concern for the political
theorists.
• This approach emphasizes on the role of the State in regulating the economic
matters and argues that economic affairs are intimately linked to the political
process of the State.
• The approach is inclined towards linking and understanding the political and
economic life of individuals.
• However, the approach takes into account only the economic factors and
ignores other factors such as social and psychological factors.
• Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels are the chief supporters of this approach.

❖ Psychological Approach
• Psychological approach studies and explains political and social institutions
through psychological laws.
• Psychologists usually study the political behaviour of individuals and factors
leading to such behaviour
• They also study why certain individuals behave in a certain way.
• In simple form psychology studies the behaviour, attitude of the voter and
after studying various aspects
• Graham Wallas, David Truman are the main propagators of this approach.

❖ Behavioural Approach

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 ▪ The behavioural approach to the study of political thought emerged in
the mid-20th century.
▪ David Easton, Robert A. Dahl, Harold Laswell , and Carl Deutsch
are also prominent proponents of this approach.
▪ Attitudes of individuals in the political context, priority
▪ This approach attempted to understand and explain political
phenomena by examining actions.
▪ It is the behavior of individuals in the political phenomenon
Emphasize the importance of that behaviour, Empirical and scientific
verification will be attempted
▪ One of the main tenets of the behavioural appro7ach is the value-free
and objective analysis of political behavior.
▪ Proponents of this approach argue that studies of political thought
avoid values and biases and focus instead on rigorous and systematic
analysis of data.

❖ Post behavioural Approach

• Post-behaviourism arose in response to the limitations of behaviourism in the
study of political thought.
• While behaviourism focused on empirical and scientific methods in the study
of politics, post-behaviourism included ideas, values, and ideologies in the
study of politics.
• It recognizes that the political arena is influenced by individuals’ beliefs,
values, and historical context not just what is experienced by individuals.
• Post-behaviourism therefore includes philosophical, ethical and cultural
dimensions in the scope of political analysis contains
• This approach recognizes that political thought is not merely empirical of
individuals, but a complex web of ideas, theories, and traditions that shape
political action and institutions.
• Post-behaviourists argue that understanding political thought requires
examining the intellectual foundations of political ideologies, the historical
development of political theories, and the ways in which ideas are formulated
and disseminated.
• post-behaviourism offers a more comprehensive approach to the study of
political thought. It acknowledges the importance of empirically analyzed
ideas, values and ideologies in shaping political behavior and seeks to gain a
deeper understanding of the complexities of politics.

❖ Marxian Approach

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 ▪ The Marxian approach to the study of political thought focuses on
understanding politics within the broader context of class struggle,
historical materialism, and the critique of capitalism.
▪ The Marxian approach is the approach developed by Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels.
▪ Marxian political thought is a very comprehensive framework for
understanding society, politics and the dynamics of power.
▪ At the heart of the Marxian approach is the analysis of the relationship
between the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and the proletariat
(proletariat), which dominates class struggle.
▪ Marx argued that the capitalist system is inherently exploitative and
that the bourgeoisie extracts surplus value from the labor of the
working class.
▪ The bourgeoisie controls the material conditions of society, the means
of production, the relations of production, and the distribution of
production.
▪ that the economic base of society, which includes the ownership and
control of productive resources, governs the social, political, and
ideological superstructure
▪ It is evolving. This is historical materialism.
▪ This capitalist system, which led to social inequality and oppression,
would eventually lead to class struggle.
▪ According to Marx, capitalism will ultimately lead to its downfall,
leading to a classless society called communism.
▪ From a Marxian perspective, the study of political thought criticizes
and exposes the ideological nature of dominant concepts such as liberal
democracy or parliamentary ‘systems’.
▪ Marxists argue that these ideas serve to maintain the existing social
order and protect the interests of the bourgeoisie.
▪ Inherent in political institutions, laws and ideologies are bourgeois
class interests.
▪ Liberal democracies or parliamentary systems exist only to maintain
the existing social order and protect the interests of the bourgeoisie.
▪ Although this must be broken and bring about social change, the
Marxist approach emphasizes the importance of collective action and
social movements.
▪ Marxists argue that there must be an organized class struggle of the
working class to challenge capitalist exploitation and build a more
egalitarian and just society.

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 ▪ Overall, the Marxian approach is an approach based on class struggle,
historical materialism, and a critique of capitalism.

❖ System Approach
• The systems approach originated in the study of biology.
• Its advocate is Ludwig von Bertalanffy.
• In the 1960s, this approach in political science David Easton, a prominent
political scientist, is the main proponent of this approach in political science
• The systems approach posits any social environment that the political system
also operates broadly.
• Social environment is created by different needs from different sections of
the society.
• For example, social environment is created by demands such as better
working conditions, job reservations, minimum wages, better transport
facilities and better health services.
• Government acts as the decision making body for these purposes.
• This process is described by David Easton as the systems approach of turning
inputs into outputs and activities within a system.

• David Easton introduced the concepts of ‘Demands’ and ‘Support’ as inputs

to the political system.
• The political system receives these inputs from the political environment.

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 • Decides which needs to be addressed and which to ignore.
• Government decisions and actions turn inputs into outputs.
• Outputs feed back into the environment through a feedback mechanism
(inputs).
• It goes on as a cyclical process.

❖ Structural Functional Approach

• The structural and functional approach to understanding the society and the
political system (Structural Functional Approach) is the understanding of
political phenomena by examining the structure of political institutions within
a society and its functioning.
• The structural-functional approach can be considered a continuation of the
systems approach.
• These approaches emphasize structures and functions.
• Gabriel Almond is the main proponent of this approach,
• Like David Easton in the systems approach, Gabriel Almond also thought
that all political systems perform input and output functions.
• This approach emphasized the evaluation of those structures and functions in
order to understand the political structure phenomena in society and political
society.
• Functions in the political system are considered as input functions and output
functions as 2 stars for a total of 7 functions.
• Input functions are 4 in number.
• The output functions are 3 in number.
• There are 4 input functions in the political system.
1. Political socialization
2. interest articulation Expression of interests or concerns.
3. Interest-aggression (combination of interest) – combining various
interests into coherent political demands
4. political communication.

• There are 3 output activities done by the government regarding policy

formulation and implementation.
1. rule making
2. rule application
3. rule adjudication.

Functions.

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 1. Political socialization and recruitment – family, peer group, school, college, places
of worship etc.
2. Interest Articulation – Pressure groups and interest groups in society.
3. Interest-aggression is done by – political parties.
4. Political communication is done by the media.
5. Rule making – Legislatures too
6. Rule application – administrative department
7. Rule adjudication – judiciary
• Gabriel Almond says in a nutshell.
1. Every political system has its own structure,
2. Regardless of the differences in political structure, the same political
activities take place in all political systems.
3. All political structures are multifunctional.
4. All political systems which are parts of the totality of society have their
own culture.
• Thus, the Structural Functional Approach says that political phenomena
should be understood by examining the structure and functioning of political
institutions within the society.

❖ Decision making Approach

• Decision making approach denotes an attempt to understand politics as a
process of arriving at decisions
• We are concerned with the process of arriving at public decisions.
• The major concerns are actors, structures, factors involved in decision
making process, identification of the issues on which decision are made, and
alternative courses of action.
• Again, decision making approach discovers the features of decision makers
as well as the type of influence the individuals have on the decision makers.
Numerous scholars such as Richard Synder and Charles Lindblom have
developed this approach.

❖ Communication Theory Approach

• This approach explores the process by which one segment of a system affects
another by sending messages or information.
• Robert Weiner had evolved this approach.
• Afterwards Karl Deutsch developed it and applied it in political Science.
• Deutsch stated that the political system is a network of communication
channels and it is self-regulative.

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 • Additionally, he emphasized that the government is responsible for
administering different communication channels.
• This approach treats the government as the decision making system.
• Deutsch described that there are four factors of analysis in communication
theory which include lead, lag, gain and load.

METHODS TO THE STUDY OF POLITICAL THOUGHT

• The study of political thought has to recover the correct meaning and
interpretation from the past of the ancient political thinkers and their texts.
• This is a complex endeavour.
• From time to time scholars and social scientists have constantly discussed the
appropriate methods (Methods) for honest and meaningful interpretation and
recovery of ancient political thinkers and their texts.
• For the basis of these study, there are two approaches to political science.
Textual Method and Contextual Method

Textual Method

• The textual method of studying classical texts focuses only on analyses of those
texts.
• This method states that the analysis of the source text is the only basis for
formulating the meaning and understanding of the words, ideas and arguments
presented by the ancient political thinkers.
• Proponents of the textual method argue that any text
• To identify the inner logic and intentions of the author
• The book itself should be interpreted in a way that is comprehensible
• Means To understand the texts as the author intended them to be understood – to
read and understand Plato’s Politics we must read his Republic, and if necessary we
can read the Republic in the light of Plato’s other works.
• In the textual way, the reader just needs to read it to understand its meaning. Hence
this method is considered as foundationalist.
• Accordingly, each sentence has a specific meaning.
• Classic represents timeless wisdom.
• Don’t change with the times.
• The textual method says that if we accept that meaning changes over time, the text
loses its value

Contextual Method
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 • Contextual method means that if the ideas of the ancient political thinkers are to be
understood in the right sense, we should not focus only on the lines of their texts but
evaluate them in the historical, social, cultural and intellectual context of the texts o
Contextual Method.
• This approach recognizes that any political thinker and their writings are influenced
by the particular historical circumstances in which they lived.
• In order to get the correct meaning and interpretation of the ancient political
thinkers and their texts, one must understand the context in which the text was
produced and the broader purpose of the author.
• Proponents of the contextual approach argue that focusing only on the texts does
not provide a proper interpretation of the texts.
• Human language was not as developed as the early thinkers of deconstructionist
philosopher Jacques Derrida.
• So when we look at their texts and classics now we must understand the context of
the author, otherwise there is a risk of misunderstanding.
• A contextual approach therefore provides valuable insights into the historical
circumstances that shaped the author’s thinking and the broader intellectual debates
of the time.
• This approach can be seen primarily as a result of linguistic development influenced
by post structuralism and postmodernism.

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