The Persian Book of Kings An Epitome of The Shahnama of Firdawsi 0700716181 9780700716180 Compress

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F R O N T I S P I E C E R ustam lassoing the King o f Sham (p.30)

(Leipzig, M useum fiir Kunsthandwerk)
The
Persian Book
of K in gs
An Epitome o f
The Shahnama o f Firdawsi
B.W. ROBINSON
Q Routledge
Taylor & Francis Croup
LONDON AND NEW YORK
First Published in 2002
by RoutledgeCurzon
Published 2013 by Routledge

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ISBN 13: 978-0-700-71618-0 (hbk)

FOR
M Y G R A N D C H IL D R E N
H A R R IE T , EDW ARD, K A TH A R IN E & JESSICA
CONTENTS
List o f Illustrations xiii

Preface xvii
Introduction: The Poet & the Poem 1
EPITOME OF THE SHAHNAMA

Prologue 10
I T H E PISHD AD IA N DYNASTY 11
R E IG N OF G A Y U M A R T H 11
R E I G N OF H U S H A N G 11
R E I G N OF T A H M U R A T H 12
R E I G N OF JA M SH ID 13
The Splendour o f Jamshid 13
The Tyranny o f Zahhak 13
The Coming o f Faridun 15
R E I G N OF F A R I D U N 16
Faridun & his Three Sons 16
R E IG N OF M IN U C H I H R 18
Zal & Rudaba 18
Birth & Early Exploits of Rustam 20
R E I G N S O F N A W D A R , ZAV & G A R S H A S P 21
War with Turan 21
V ll
viii T H E P E R S I A N B O O K OF K I N G S
II T H E KAYANIAN DY NA STY 23
R E I G N O F KAY Q U B A D 23
Rustam's Quest for Kay Qubad 23
R E I G N O F KAY K A ’US 24
Disaster in Mazandaran 24
R ustam ’s Seven Stages 26
Wars of Kay K a ’us 30
The Flying Machine 31
R ustam ’s Raid 32
Rustam & Suhrab 32
The Tragedy of Siyawush 36
Birth o f Kay Khusraw 40
Revenge for Siyawush 41
Finding of Kay Khusraw 41
Abdication of Kay K a ’us 43
R E I G N O F KAY K H U S R A W 43
Tragedy of Farud 43
Persian Reverses 45
Second Expedition: Continuing Reverses 46
Rustam to the Rescue 47
R ustam ’s Overthrow of Kamus, the Khaqan, and Others 48
Successful Termination o f the Campaign 50
Rustam & the Demon Akw an 51
Bizhan & M anizha 53
Battle of the Twelve Rukhs 57
Afrasiyab’s Last Campaign 60
Capture & Execution of Afrasiyab 63
The Last Days of Kay Khusraw 65
R E I G N OF L U H R A S P 65
Gushtasp in R um 65
R E I G N OF GUSHTASP 68
The Prophet Zoroaster 68
Vicissitudes of Isfandiyar 69
Isfandiyar’s Seven Stages 70
Rustam & Isfandiyar 74
Death of Rustam 76
R E I G N OF B A H M A N 78
R E I G N OF Q U E E N HUMAY 78
C O N T E N T S ix
R E I G N OF DARAB 79
Birth o f Iskandar 79
R E I G N OF DARA 79
R E I G N OF ISK AN DA R 79
Iskandar in India 79
Iskandar & Queen Qaydafa 81
Further Travels & Death of Iskandar 83
III T H E A SH K A N IA N DYNASTY 87
R E I G N OF A R D A W A N 88
Rise o f Ardashir 88
IV T H E SASANIAN DYNASTY 91
R E I G N OF A R D A S H IR I 91
The Worm of Kerman 91
Birth of Shapur 93
Shapur & the Daughter of Mihrak 94
R E I G N OF S H A P U R I 94
R E I G N S O F H U R M U Z D I, B A H R A M I,
B A H R A M II, B A H R A M III, N A R S I
& H U R M U Z D II 95
R E I G N O F S H A P U R II 96
War with the Arabs 96
Shapur in R um 96
Mani 97
R E I G N S O F A R D A S H I R II, S H A P U R III
& B A H R A M IV 97
R E I G N OF YA ZDA GIRD I 98
Arabian Education of Prince Bahram 98
Mysterious Death of Yazdagird 99
R E I G N OF B A H R A M V (BA HRA M G U R ) 100
Bahram Wins the Crown 100
Anecdotes of Bahram Gur 100
1 The Water-Carrier & the Jew 100
2 Ban on Wine-Drinking 102
3 The Deserted Village 103
4 The Miller’s Daughters 104
5 The Treasures of Jamshid 104
x TH E PER SIA N B O O K OF KINGS
6 The Unobliging Merchant 105

7 Bahram Gur changes his M ind 106
8 Bahram Gur adds Three to his Harem 108
9 Bahram Gur makes a Further Addition to his Harem 109
10 Bahram Gur & the Miser 110
11 A Great Hunting Expedition 111
Victories of Bahram Gur 111
Bahram Gur in India & his Return 113
R E I G N S O F Y A Z D A G I R D II & H U R M U Z D III 116
R E I G N OF P I R U Z 116
Crushing Defeat of Piruz 116
R E I G N OF BALASH 117
Piruz Avenged 117
F IR ST R E I G N OF Q U B A D 118
Rebellion 118
R E I G N OF JAMASP 118
Temporary Absence of Qubad 118
S E C O N D R E I G N OF Q U B A D 119
Prince Kisra & the Mazdakites 119
R E I G N OF N U S H IR W A N 119
Insolence & Defeat of Caesar 119
Revolt of N ushzad 120
Buzurjmihr as Dream Interpreter 121
The Misfortunes of Mahbud 122
Nushirwan marries the K han’s Daughter 123
Introduction of Chess 124
The Book of Kalila wa Dimna obtained 125
Buzurjmihr & the Locked Casket 126
Nushirwan’s Last Campaign 127
R E I G N O F H U R M U Z D IV 127
The Rise of Bahram Chubina 127
Bahram Chubina & Parmuda 130
Bahram Chubina proclaims himself King 130
War between Khusraw & Bahram Chubina 131
R E I G N O F K H U S R A W ( PARVI Z) 132
Caesar’s Talisman 133
The War Renewed 134
Bahram Chubina in Chin 135
C O N T E N T S xi
Murder of Bahram Chubina 137

Activities of Gurdiya 137
Birth of Shirwi 139
Khusraw & Shirin 140
Barbad the Minstrel 140
Fall o f Khusraw 140
R E I G N O F Q U B A D II ( S H I RW I ) 142
Murder of Khusraw 142
R E I G N S O F A R D A S H I R III, G U R A Z , P U R A N D U K H T ,
AZARM IDUKHT & FARRUKHZAD 143
Period of Confusion 143
R E I G N O F Y A Z D A G I R D III 144
The Arab Invasion 144
Flight & Murder o f Yazdagird 144
The Bitter End: Firdawsi signs off 145
Notes 147
Table o f the Kings in the Shahnama 153
Select Bibliography 155
Index 157
LIST OF
ILLUSTRATIONS
he illustrations are taken from three MSS: Keir Collection III.

T 133/175 o f 1475; British Library, London, Add. 18188 o f 1486;
and Bodleian Library, Oxford, Elliot 325 o f 1494. These are referred
to as K, L and O, respectively in the following list. Grateful
acknowledgem ent is offered to the M useum fur Kunsthandwerk
(Leipzig), The British Library (London), the Bodleian Library
(Oxford), and M r Edm und de U nger (Ham, R ichm ond), for their
kind permission to reproduce the miniature paintings.
Frontispiece: R ustam lassoing the King o f Sham (Leipzig,

M useum fur Kunsthandwerk)
1 Firdawsi and the three poets (K f.6a) 3
2 Prince Baysunghur receiving his new recension o f the
Shahnama (O f.7a) 6
3 Gayumarth the first king and his court (K f. 11a) 12
4 Jamshid teaching the crafts (K f,13b) 14
5 Faridun crossing the Arwand (K f,18b) 16
6 M ourning for the m urdered Iraj (L f.55b) 17
7 Zal w ooing R udaba (K f.39b) 19
8 R ustam and the mad elephant (K f.52a) 20
9 R ustam catches his horse Rakhsh (L f.85a) 24
10 Rustam lifts Afrasiyab from the saddle (K f.64a) 25
11 Sleeping R ustam and the lion (L f.90b) 26
12 Rustam and the W hite D em on (O f.90a) 29
xi v T H E P E R S I A N B O O K O F K I N G S
13 Kay Ka’us in his flying machine (L f.l8a) 31

14 Suhrab and Gurdafarid (O f.l06a) 34
15 Suhrab slain by Rustam (O f.ll5 b ) 36
16 Fire ordeal o f Siyawush (L f.37b) 37
17 Siyawush displays his prowess (L f.98b) 39
18 M urder o f Siyawush (L f.l03b) 40
19 Kay Khusraw, his m other Firangis, and Giv fording the
Jihun (O f.l60b) 42
20 Farud w ounded by Bizhan (L f.l28b) 44
21 R ustam and Ashkabus (L £150b) 48
22 R ustam lassoes the Khaqan o f C hin (L f.l60a) 49
23 R ustam carried through the air by the dem on Akwan
(K f.194) 52
24 Bizhan rescued from the pit by R ustam (L f.l83a) 56
25 Piran slain by Gudarz (K f.233a) 59
26 Shida slain by Kay Khusraw (L f.219a) 61
27 Kay Khusraw crossing the sea (L f.232b) 62
28 Execution o f Afrasiyab (K f.255b) 64
29 Gushtasp and the dragon (K f.270b) 67
30 Isfandiyar kills the Simurgh (O f.337b) 72
31 R ustam kicks back the rock throw n by Bahman (L f.281a) 75
32 D eath o f Rustam (L f.298a) 77
33 Iskandar comforts the dying Dara (O f.379a) 80
34 Iskandar at the Ka‘ba (O f.388a) 82
35 Iskandar and the Brahmins (L f.323a) 83
36 Iskandar at the Well o f Life (O f.396b) 84
37 M ourning for Iskandar (L f.329a) 85
38 Ardashir and the W orm o f Kerm an (O f.411b) 92
39 Shapur’s troops take the city o f Ta’ir (K f.349b) 95
40 Bahram Gur hunting w ith Azada (K f.358b) 98
41 Bahram Gur at the house o f Lambak (L f.358a) 101
42 Bahram Gur finds the treasure o f Jamshid (O f.446b) 105
43 Bahram G ur at the house o f the Countrym an (L f.368b) 107
LI ST O F I L L U S T R A T I O N S xv
44 Bahram G ur and the R hinoceros (O f.463b) 114

45 Defeat and death o f Piruz (O f.471b) 117
46 Enthronem ent o f Nushirwan (L f.388b) 120
47 D eath o f Nushzad (L f.398a) 121
48 N ushirw an’s envoy and the Khan’s daughters (O f.503a) 123
49 Casket brought to H urm uzd containing N ushirw an’s
prophecy (L f.431b) 128
50 Sawa Shah pursued by Bahram Chubina (L f.438b) 129
51 Khusraw consults a herm it o f R u m (L f.451a) 132
52 Bahram Chubina kills the Lion-ape (L f.465b) 136
53 Khusraw at Shirin’s palace (L f.476a) 139
54 Khusraw and Shirin listening to the music o f Barbad
(O f.599a) 141
55 Suicide o f Shirin on the corpse o f Khusraw (O f.612a) 142
XV
PREFACE
he Shahnama (‘Book o f Kings’) is the Persian national epic, and is

generally accepted as one of the w orld’s literary classics. But the
only full translation into English, by the brothers A.G. and E. W arner
(on w hich this book is based), has been long out o f print, as have one
or two other English versions o f selected passages. So it seemed that
there was room for a book o f manageable proportions (the W arners’
translation occupies nine volumes) in which all the stories in the
great epic can be found, abridged but, I hope, readable. T hroughout
my abridgem ent I have concentrated on the narrative, and have
excluded lengthy speeches, letters, etc., w hich occupy a considerable
space in the poem. Basically it is aimed at the general reader, but the
epic narrative and its characters, especially R ustam ‘the Persian
Hercules’, will appeal particularly to lovers o f folklore and old
romances, and to children (I was introduced to it before the age o f
ten). Such a book may also be found useful by students o f Persian
literature and history as an aide-memoire, and by lovers o f Persian
painting as a help in identifying subjects. W ith these ends in view the
book includes an introduction, a table o f the Persian Kings, a select
bibliography, explanatory notes, and a full index.
The illustrations come from three late 15th century manuscripts of
the epic, and give a good idea o f how the Persians regarded and
illustrated their traditional history. They are all in the same
uncomplicated style, centred at Shiraz, which is found in countless
poetical manuscripts throughout the second half o f the 15th century
It may be thought that the illustrations should have been chosen from
some o f the m ore famous royal manuscripts o f the Shahnama. But
X V ll
xviii T H E P E R S I A N B O O K OF K I N G S
these differ so widely in date, size and style that in order to preserve
continuity I thought it preferable to follow the style o f a Persian
manuscript by presenting a hom ogeneous group o f illustrations to
accompany the narrative, rather than a selection o f disparate
masterpieces to divert the connoisseur. The only exception is the
frontispiece, which is in the same basic style as the rest, and only
slightly later in date, b u t is considerably larger and m ore
sophisticated. I consider that it contains the finest representation of
the national hero in the w hole o f Persian art and is probably an early
w ork o f the great master Sultan M uham m ad.1
B.W. R obinson
X V lll
INTRODUCTION
THE POET &

THE POEM
he first draft o f the Shahnama (‘Book o f Kings’) was completed

T in the year 999, and the final version, dedicated to Sultan
M ahm ud o f Ghazna, just over ten years later. The author was A bu’l-
Qasim Hasan, generally know n by his professional name, Firdawsi.
T he work occupied him for some thirty years and the poem covers
the whole traditional history o f Persia from its rem ote and fabulous
origins down to the fall o f the Sasanian dynasty before the invasion o f
the M uslim Arabs in the middle o f the seventh century. It comprises
some 60,000 rhyming couplets in the metre called mutaqarib (U- - /
u - - / u - - / U - ).
Firdawsi was born near Tus in the north-eastern province o f
Khurasan, probably about 935; his father was a yeoman (dihqan) o f
good standing. Virtually nothing is know n o f his early life, but, as
one o f the earliest, and arguably the greatest o f Persian poets, he soon
attracted a mass o f fable and anecdote. H e died about 1020—1025.
The most reliable sources for his life are, firstly, the poet himself, who
introduced a num ber o f autobiographical details into the text o f the
Shahnama ; secondly the Chahar Maqala (‘Four Discourses’) o f Nizami
al-‘A rudi o f Samarqand, w ho visited the p oet’s grave at Nishapur
w ithin a century o f the latter’s death; and thirdly the Lubab al-Albab
(‘Pure M inds’) o f ‘Awfi, o f about a century later. This last is probably
the earliest o f many collections o f poetical biographies, but its
treatm ent o f Firdawsi is, as Browne says2 ‘very m eagre’. The best
European accounts o f the poet and the Shahnama are Professor
Theodore N oldeke’s Das iranische Nationalepos, 1898 and later
editions (English translation by L. Bogdanov in the Journal o f the
1
2 TH E PER SIA N B O O K OF KINGS
K .R . Cama O riental Institute, N o .6, Bombay 1925) and E.G.

Browne, A Literary History of Persia, Vol. II, pp. 129—147, London
1906. I have used these freely, and here hum bly acknowledge my
indebtedness. According to Nizami al-‘Arudi, Firdawsi’s sole object
in composing the Shahnama was to provide a dowry for his only
daughter, hoping that his great poem would attract a liberal gift or
pension from a princely patron. Firdawsi also had an only son whose
tragic early death inspired a pathetic elegy which is included in the
text o f the Shahnama. The com pleted epic, transcribed in seven
volumes, was accordingly carried to Ghazna by Firdawsi and brought
to the notice o f Sultan M ahm ud by the good offices o f his Minister,
whose friendship the poet had gained.
A favourite anecdote o f Firdawsi’s arrival at Ghazna is w orth
repeating here, though it is related by neither N izam i al-‘A rudi nor
‘Awfi. However, it is included in the Baysunghuri Preface (see
below) to the Shahnama , and is not infrequently illustrated by
m iniatures in the m anuscripts. T hree o f Sultan M ahm ud’s court
poets, ‘U nsuri, ‘Asjadi and Farrukhi, were diverting themselves in
a garden, w hen a stranger approached, and asked if he m ight jo in
them . ‘U nsuri, the senior o f the three, coldly inform ed him that
they were the Sultan’s poets, and that none but a poet m ight enter
their company; he therefore proposed a test by w hich each o f the
three should in tu rn improvise a line o f verse, and that the stranger
(who was, o f course, Firdawsi) should then com plete the quatrain
by im provising the fourth line. For his rhym ing w ord ‘U nsuri
chose one to w hich, so far as he knew, there were only tw o possible
rhymes. H e was followed by ‘Asjadi and Farrukhi, w ho guessed his
stratagem and used the other two rhym ing words. All three then
tu rn ed to the stranger, w ho w ith o u t hesitation improvised the
fourth line, using as a rhym e the name o f an obscure hero o f the
Shahnama. Being asked for an explanation, Firdawsi showed such
an im pressive know ledge o f the old legends that ‘U n su ri
im m ediately recom m ended him to Sultan M ahm ud as the ideal
successor to Daqiqi, a poet w ho had begun to w rite a Shahnama ,
b ut had recently been m urdered by one o f his slaves. This amusing
anecdote seems to be irreconcilable w ith the earlier account o f
N izam i al-‘A rudi, w ho makes Firdawsi com plete his Shahnama
before his arrival at Ghazna. O n the other hand there is no doubt
THE POET & THE POEM 3
PLATE 1 Firdawsi and the three poets
that about a thousand couplets by Daqiqi are included in the

Shahnama as we now have it; for this Firdawsi him self is our
authority. D id he then discard his ow n verses on the same episode
to accom m odate them?
To return to the account o f Nizami al-‘Arudi: some court
mischief-makers began to intrigue against the M inister and his poet
friend, accusing the latter o f heresy, and in consequence he received
only a trifling reward. After w riting a blistering satire on Sultan
M ahm ud3, Firdawsi visited the bath, bought himself a cup o f beer
(fuqa) and divided his paltry fee betw een the bath attendant and the
beer seller. Anticipating the Sultan’s fury if a rum our o f this should
reach him, Firdawsi managed to recover his manuscript from the
royal librarian, and took refuge w ith the Ispahbud (Com m ander-in-
Chief) o f Tabaristan on the south-east coast o f the Caspian. The
Ispahbud was o f pure Persian blood, a descendant o f the Sasanian
Kings; he naturally found the Shahnama , w ith its glorification o f the
4 TH E PE RS IAN B O O K OF KINGS
pre-Islamic Persian monarchy, very m uch to his taste, and treated the
fugitive poet w ith every kindness and generosity.
M eanw hile Sultan M ahm ud himself, engaged in his Indian
campaigns, had halted before the city o f a rebel chief, to w hom he
had sent an envoy demanding surrender. As they waited for the
envoy’s return, the Sultan and his M inister were discussing what sort
o f reply they would receive. The M inister was already an admirer o f
the Shahnama , and quoted a couplet:
‘And should the reply w ith my wish not accord,

T hen Afrasiyab’s field, and the mace, and the sword.’
‘W hose verse is that?’ asked the Sultan, ‘for he must have the heart o f
a m an!’ The M inister told him that Firdawsi was the author, and
ventured to rem ind him o f the shabby treatm ent the poet had
received after his long years o f labour. Sultan M ahm ud was stung by
remorse, and on his return to Ghazna com m anded that a rich present
to the value o f 60,000 gold dinars - one for each couplet o f the
Shahnama — should be sent to Firdawsi at Tus, his birthplace to w hich
he had returned. But, as Nizami al-‘Arudi goes on to tell us, as the
royal camels bearing the gift entered the city by the river gate, the
corpse o f Firdawsi was carried out to burial by the Gate o f Razan.
T he p o et’s daughter proudly refused the royal bounty, w hich was
used instead to build a caravanserai on the road to Nishapur.
Firdawsi’s sources were both literary and oral. In 928, shortly
before the poet’s birth, as related in the ‘old’ preface to the Shahnama ,
a certain Abu M ansur A l-M a‘mari, a high official, commissioned a
prose Shahnama for the governor o f Tus. This was to be translated
and edited from the original Pahlavi sources by a team o f four
Zoroastrian scholars (their names are given; all are pure Persian
w ithout a single Muslim name among them ), and the result o f their
labours, now unfortunately lost, must have been Firdawsi’s main
source.4 Additional sources would probably have been other Persian
or Arabic translations from the Pahlavi, such as al-M uqaffa’s
translation o f a history o f Isfandiyar son o f Gushtasp, and an
abridgem ent o f the Book o f Zarir (brother o f Gushtasp) w hich was
included by Tabari in his m onum ental annals. N o doubt he also
received oral inform ation and assistance from scholarly acquaintances
w ho clung to the old religion and so were familiar w ith the Pahlavi
language and traditions.
The contents o f the Shahnama in its present form fall into four
dynastic periods o f unequal length: (i) the Pishdadian, in w hich the
early Kings (all, o f course, completely mythical) teach their subjects
the arts and trades, and engage in wars w ith the demons (div), the
sequence being broken by the long and bloody reign o f the Arabian
usurper Zahhak; (ii) the Kayani, in w hich the national hero Rustam
is the most prom inent character, and there is almost incessant warfare
w ith the northern neighbour Turan and its king Afrasiyab;5 (iii) the
Ashkanian (Parthian), a period o f nearly 500 years (BC249-A D 226),
dispatched by Firdawsi in a mere twenty couplets, as no m ore than
‘Kings o f the Tribes’ (muluk al-tawa’if. cf Genesis xiv.I, ‘Tidal King o f
N ations’); (iv) Sasanian (AD226-652), in w hich the treatm ent is
broadly historical, though an occasional dragon puts in an
appearance. The text varies somewhat in length in different copies,
and portions o f later epics, w ritten in imitation o f Firdawsi, are often
included in manuscripts o f the 16th century onwards.
From its first appearance the Shahnama enjoyed im m ense
popularity amongst the Persians, and hence the text, sometimes in
a fairly corrupt form, has survived in innumerable m anuscript copies
right down to the 1860s. The earliest surviving copy, in the National
Library, Florence, is dated to 1217 —two centuries after the death o f
Firdawsi —and we have to wait another century before we encounter
a copy illustrated w ith miniature paintings. In 1425, under the
cultured young T im urid Prince Baysunghur Mirza, a scholarly
recension o f the text and a new preface were undertaken, and these
are usually followed in subsequent copies. Baysunghur’s text and
preface were first enshrined in a magnificent manuscript produced
under the prince’s supervision and dated to 1430, w hich is now in
the Gulistan Palace Library, Tehran. The fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries produced an enorm ous range o f fine illustrated Shahnama
manuscripts, after w hich their numbers gradually decreased, and
faded out after the appearance o f the first Persian prin ted
(lithographed) edition in 1850.
As noted above, the Shahnama comprises the whole history of
Persia, in its traditional form, down to the Arab conquest. It must be
emphasised that, although most Persians accepted it till comparatively
6 TH E PER SIA N B O O K OF KINGS
PLATE 2 Prince Baysunghur receiving his new recension

o f the Shahnama
recent times as historical, and despite the misguided efforts o f

W estern writers to equate Kay Khusraw w ith Cyrus, the earliest part
o f the poem, down to the death o f Rustam , is wholly mythical, and
that from then on, though the framework is basically historical,
fabulous episodes and characters abound. If the epic is to be enjoyed,
disbelief must also be suspended in matters o f geography, time and
space, in envisaging the patriarchal length o f life enjoyed by some
kings and heroes (Rustam ’s life covered nine reigns —over 600 years),
the inexhaustible resources o f the royal treasury, the instant raising
and rapid m ovem ent o f enorm ous armies, and many other pieces o f
fantastic hyperbole, rem em bering that to the oriental m ind such

concepts are far easier to digest than to the European.
Even so, Firdawsi’s language, in comparison w ith other and later
Persian poets, is quite simple. H e loves his heroes, and he is invariably
sympathetic to the old religion, and to pre-Islamic Iran in general; no
doubt it was this attitude that prom pted the accusations o f heresy
levelled at him by Muslim bigots at the court o f Sultan M ahm ud. He
never used an Arabic word or phrase where a Persian one was
possible; indeed, some o f the Persian words he used were archaic or
obsolete even in his own time, and many manuscripts o f the
Shahnama incorporated a glossary o f such words. In short he was an
ardent patriot as well as a great poet —a com bination that made him
the ideal author for such a stupendous em bodim ent o f national pride,
w hich helped to keep the flame o f independence burning through
the long centuries o f Arab, Turkish, M ongol, and Tartar dom ination,
till the final re-em ergence o f a sovereign Iranian state under the
Safavid dynasty at the beginning o f the sixteenth century.
To conclude this brief introduction it is w orth quoting the
eloquent appreciation o f Firdawsi by the great English orientalist
Professor Edward Cowell (1826-1903): ‘Augustus said that he found
R om e o f brick, and left it marble; and Firdawsi found his country
almost w ithout a literature, and has left her a poem that all
succeeding poets could only imitate and never surpass, and w hich . . .
perhaps, stands as alone in Asia as H om er’s epics in Europe. His
versification is exquisitely melodious, and never interrupted by harsh
forms o f construction; and the poem runs on from beginning to end,
like a river, in an unbroken current o f harmony.’
EPITOME
OF THE
SHAHNAMA
PROLOGUE
irdawsi devotes the first 230-odd couplets o f the Shahnama to a

F variety o f introductory matter: the praise o f God, o f his wisdom,
and o f the making o f the world, o f Man, and o f the Sun and M oon;
praise o f the Prophet M uham m ad and his Companions, an account
o f the compilation o f the Shahnama ; an account o f the poet Daqiqi
(a profligate w ho came to an early and tragic end), and o f how the
Shahnama was begun; eulogies o f Abu M ansur b. M uham m ad
(a fellow-citizen o f Tus and an early and generous patron o f
Firdawsi), and o f Sultan M ahm ud o f Ghazna. After this the poem
proper begins.
I
THE PISHDABIAN
DYNASTY
R E I G N OF G A Y U M A R T H
he first King was Gayumarth, w ho dwelt on a m ountain

surrounded by his courtiers all clad in leopard skins. They lived
in peace and tranquillity and on friendly terms w ith all the wild
beasts. But this happy state o f affairs was soon disturbed by the envy
o f Ahriman, the Evil Principle, w ho sent his son, the Black D em on,
to invade Iran at the head o f a vast dem on host. Siyamak, the Kings
gallant young son, led out an army against them , but was defeated
and slain in single combat by the Black D em on. In due course
Hushang, the son o f Siyamak, encouraged and accompanied by his
grandfather, embarked on a war o f revenge, engaging the demons in
battle, and, w ith the assistance o f a squadron o f angels and a troop o f
lions, leopards, and tigers, inflicted on them a crushing defeat,6
killing the Black D em on in single combat. Shortly after this
Gayumarth died, leaving the kingdom to his grandson.
R E I G N OF H U S H A N G
Hushang taught his subjects to mine and w ork iron and to use it to
make tools and other metalwork. H e encouraged agriculture and
irrigation, and certain animals were domesticated.
O ne day as Hushang rode out w ith his followers, he encountered a
loathsome dragon. The King seized a stone and hurled it at the
monster, but he missed his aim, and the stone struck a rock. Sparks
11
12 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A
PLATE 3 G ayum arth the first king and his court
flew, and a fire was started. Hushang and his m en were impressed by
this phenom enon, and in due course discovered that fire can also be
produced by striking stone w ith iron. Fire was welcom ed as a
heavenly gift and became an object o f worship. The King instituted
the Feast o f Sada in its honour, and died soon afterwards.
R E I G N OF T A H M U R A T H
Hushang was succeeded by his son Tahmurath, under whose rule

m ore useful arts were discovered and developed: spinning and
weaving, horse breeding, and the training o f cheetahs and falcons for
the chase.
THE PISHDADIAN DYNASTY 13
In all this he was assisted by his wise counsellor Shidasp, and soon
felt capable o f tackling the evil Ahrim an and his demons. H e bound
Ahrim an w ith spells, and rode him about the world like a horse.
Enraged by his hum iliation o f their leader, the demons once again
came out to battle, but were quickly dispersed by Tahm urath and the
royal troops. T he captive demons begged for quarter, promising to
instruct the king in a new and fruitful art — the art o f writing.
Tahm urath agreed and learnt to w rite in various scripts, but kept the
demons in subjection, thus gaining the title o f Div-band, Binder o f
the Demons.
R E I G N OF J A M S H I D
The Splendour o f Jamshid
Jamshid son o f Tahmurath succeeded his father, ushering in what was

at first a golden age. H e excelled all his predecessors in wealth and
magnificence. H e taught his subjects the arm ourers craft, how to
make fine garments o f silk and brocade, and other luxuries. He
divided them into four classes: priests, warriors, farmers, and artisans;
building and architecture he left to the subject demons. H e also
initiated the use o f perfumes and gems, and o f medicinal herbs.
Finally he had a jewelled throne made, w hich the demons were
employed in raising into the air, and from w hich he proclaimed the
festival o f N ew Year (Nawruz).
But after a while he became corrupted by his good fortune, ending
up by imagining himself equal to the Almighty. It was then that the
Royal Splendour (see note 19) departed from him, and after that his
path ran steeply downhill.
The Tyranny of Zahhak
In Arabia at this time there ruled a good old king named Mirdas. But
his son Zahhak was a young man o f evil tendencies, and in order to
gain the throne and under the persuasion o f Iblis (the Devil)7 he
m urdered his father by causing him to fall into a deep pit w hich he
14 E P I T O M E OF T H E S H A H N A M A
PLATE 4 Jamshid teaching the crafts
had prepared. O nce on the throne he was visited by Iblis in the form
o f a cook, w ho provided him w ith such delicious meals that Zahhak
offered him whatever favour he m ight ask. Iblis simply requested the
honour o f kissing the King’s shoulders. N o sooner had he done so
than two w rithing serpents grew from Zahhak’s shoulders, and Iblis
vanished. The serpents were cut off, but grew again immediately
causing the king intense pain, and Iblis soon reappeared, this time in
the guise o f a physician. H e counselled the w retched king that the
only way to relieve the pain was to feed the serpents daily on hum an
brains. Accordingly every day two youths were sacrificed to satisfy
the serpents’ horrible appetite.
The Coming of Faridun
M eanwhile in Iran Jamshid’s overbearing pride and tyranny were

provoking open rebellion, and some o f the disaffected nobles sent a
deputation to Zahhak, o f whose character they had unfortunately
received a favourable account, inviting him to come to Iran and to
take over the Kingdom. H e responded eagerly, drove out the ill-
starred Jamshid (who was eventually run down and sawn in two),
seduced his two sisters, Shahrinaz and Arnawaz, and forced the
Persians to pay the daily toll o f two young lives to feed his serpents.
However the bloody toll was halved by the ingenuity o f two young
Persian patriots, Irm a’il and Karm a’il. They contrived to secure
positions as royal cooks, and w hen the two daily victims were
brought to the kitchens, they killed only one o f them, turning the
other free, and substituting for his brains those o f sheep and goats. In
this way they saved the lives o f 200 young men, from w hom the
Kurdish nation is said to have sprung.
A certain smith named Kava lost seventeen sons in this way, and
w hen the eighteenth was threatened he burst into Zahhak s presence,
denounced him violently, and procured a reprieve for the boy. But
w hen the king asked him to add his name to a statement (already
signed by the abject court nobles) to the effect that his reign had been
benevolent and just, Kava scornfully refused, storm ed out into the
marketplace, m ounted his leather apron on a spear for a banner,8 and
called on the crowd to follow him. They first sought out a young
prince o f the old royal race, named Faridun, w ho Zahhak had been
warned in a dream w ould bring about his downfall. Faridun’s father,
Abtin, had been killed by Zahhak, and w hen his m other Faranak was
in hiding w ith her child, they were sheltered and fed by a beautiful
cow called Birmiya. In m em ory o f this cow (also slain by Zahhak),
Faridun later ordered Kava to make him an iron mace w ith a cow ’s
head. So far Faridun had evaded the tyrant’s efforts to find and
destroy him, and now he saw his chance. A mighty host o f the
exasperated Persians, led by Kava w ith his apron-banner, gathered
round him, and boldly advanced on Zahhak’s palace, after swimming
their horses across the river Arwand. There Faridun found Jamshid’s
two dishonoured sisters, w hom he rescued and m arried, but there
was no sign o f the tyrant himself. H e had been in India, learning
PLATE 5 Faridun crossing the Arwand
sorcery, but his minister, Kundrav, saw Faridun enthroned in the

palace, and hastened to inform his master o f this reverse o f fortune.
So after a while, mad w ith jealousy at Faridun s appropriation o f his
mistresses, Z ahhak ventured back to the palace. T here he
encountered Faridun, w ho struck him down w ith a mighty blow
o f his cow-headed mace, and, on the advice o f the angel Surush, had
him chained above a bottomless chasm on M ount Demavend, where
he was left to die miserably.
R E I G N OF F A R I D U N
Faridun & his Three Sons
Faridun now ascended the throne. His m other Faranak, as soon as the
joyful news reached her in her hiding place, brought out the hoarded
treasure she had amassed during her years o f seclusion, and

distributed it lavishly amongst her son’s supporters, making a special
gift to Faridun him self He had three sons by the sisters o f Jamshid,
Salm and Tur by Shahrinaz, and Iraj by Arnawaz, and in due course
as the result o f a successful embassy by Jandal, Faridun’s trusty
minister, they were m arried to the three daughters o f Sarv, the King
o f Yemen. O n their return journey after this triple wedding, the
brothers were confronted by a dragon, before w hich Salm prudently
retired, while Tur strung his bow and prepared to fight. But Iraj
interposed, boldly confronting the m onster and conjured it to vanish
in the name o f their father Faridun. The dragon accordingly
vanished; it was, in fact, Faridun himself, w ho has assumed this shape
in order to test his sons.
So Faridun divided his realm betw een the three: to Salm he gave
R u m (Rome) and the West; to Tur the N orth and East, comprising
Turan (Turkestan) and C hin (China); and to Iraj the choicest lands of
Iran and Arabia in the South. But before long the two elder brothers
PLATE 6 M ourning for the m urdered Iraj

became jealous o f Iraj, and began to plot against him. A m eeting was
arranged to settle matters betw een them , in the course o f w hich Tur
attacked Iraj, striking him down w ith a stool and finishing him off
w ith his dagger.
Faridun was prostrated w ith grief w hen he received the news in
the form o f the severed head o f his youngest and favourite son. Iraj,
however, had left a daughter w ho in due course was m arried to
Faridun’s nephew, Pashang, and their son was M inuchihr. As soon as
he was o f age his great grandfather urged him to execute vengeance
upon his great-uncles. This he faithfully performed, first on Tur and
then on Salm, both o f w hom he slew in single combat. Soon after
this the aged Faridun died, leaving the throne and kingdom to
M inuchihr.
R E I G N OF M I N U C H I H R
Zal & Rudaba
W ith the accession o f M inuchihr the scene o f action moves to the

eastern frontier province o f Zabulistan, or Sistan, to the household o f
the great paladin Sam. For long childless, he at length became the
father o f a sturdy son, Zal; but the baby’s hair was pure w hite —
thought to be a sure sign o f dem on blood —and he was accordingly
exposed on a mountainside as a prey for the wild beasts. From this
predicam ent the baby was rescued by the miraculous bird Simurgh,
w ho carried him off to her nest, and brought him up w ith her own
chicks. M eanwhile Sam was sternly reproved in a dream for what he
had done, and was directed to seek out his son, w hom he eventually
traced and received back from the Simurgh. Before their sad and
affectionate parting, the great bird gave Zal a feather from her breast,
and instructed him to burn it if he should ever be in dire need, and
she would immediately fly to his assistance. So Zal was restored to his
father Sam, and they returned home.
Zal grew up a pattern o f beauty and chivalry, was given a part in his
father’s government, and decided to pay a call on his neighbour
Mihrab, King o f Kabul. W hile there, he fell in love w ith the K ing’s
daughter, the fair Rudaba, and after a distant w ooing had his first
m eeting w ith her, climbing up to her apartment in a high tower o f

the palace w ith the aid o f his lasso.9
B ut there were difficulties and objections. M ihrab was a
descendant o f the hated tyrant Zahhak, and his people were idol-
worshippers; they, on the other hand, taunted Zal w ith his w hite hair
and unconventional upbringing. However, after a long process o f
royal correspondence, threatened hostilities, and female intrigue, and
not before Zal had undergone a kind o f third degree interrogation
and given an impressive display o f his various military accomplish
ments, the families were eventually reconciled and the marriage
consummated.
PLATE 7 Zal w ooing R udaba

Birth & Early Exploits o f Rustam
R udaba’s pregnancy was difficult, and a portentous birth was

indicated. Zal became so w orried that he burned the Simurgh’s
feather. T he faithful bird imm ediately appeared, took in the
situation, and counselled a caesarean operation, R udaba having been
first made senseless w ith wine. This advice was followed successfully,
the w ound healed by a preparation provided by the Simurgh, and the
national hero Rustam was ushered into the world. At one day old he
appeared like a child o f a year’s growth, and soon the services o f ten
wet-nurses were required to satisfy his appetite.
W hen still quite a small boy, Rustam used to join in drinking bouts
w ith his father and friends, and while sleeping off the effects o f one
o f these he was rudely awakened by an alarm that the royal white
elephant had broken loose and was rampaging through the streets and
PLATE 8 R ustam and the mad elephant

T H E P I S H D A D I A N D Y N A S T Y 21
trampling the citizens. The boy seized his grandfather’s mace,

knocked down a gate-keeper w ho attempted to stop him, smashed
the gate open, confronted the elephant, and slew it w ith a single
blow to the head. H e then returned calmly to bed.
It was not long before Zal decided that it was time his son was
blooded in war, so he sent him to avenge his greatgrandfather
Narim an, w ho had been killed in an unsuccessful attack on the
fortress o f Sipand. An attempt by Sam had also failed. Rustam ,
however, gained access to the impregnable stronghold w ith his m en
disguised as salt merchants, made a great slaughter o f the inhabitants,
and carried off an immense booty. Soon after this King M inuchihr
died.
R E I G N S OF N A W D A R , Z A V & G A R S H A S P
War with Turan
M inuchihr was succeeded by his son Nawdar, an oppressive

m onarch, under w hom the people revolted, and the country was
invaded by Afrasiyab, the young son o f Pashang, King o f Iran’s
northern neighbour Turan. H e defeated the Persian army and took
Naw dar prisoner. Afrasiyab then sent an army under Shamasas and
Khazarwan to invade Zabulistan, w here Zal was occupied w ith his
father’s obsequies. Nevertheless he immediately led out his troops to
m eet the threat and inflected a signal defeat on the invaders.
Infuriated by this reverse, Afrasiyab beheaded Naw dar w ith his own
hand, and ordered that all the Persian captives in Turanian hands
should be massacred. Their lives were saved, however, by the
intervention o f Afrasiyab’s brother Ighrirath, whose hum ane action
Afrasiyab regarded as treachery, and cut him dow n w ithout
hesitation. The war continued under Zav, w ho succeeded Nawdar,
and the situation was exacerbated by drought and famine. Eventually
a treaty was negotiated, rain fell, and Zav died. His son Garshasp
succeeded him, and Afrasiyab renewed hostilities, being again
checked by Zal, and Garshasp died.
II
THE KAYANIAN
DYNASTY
R E I G N OF KA Y Q U B A D
R ustam ’s Quest for Kay Qubad
this juncture Zal decided to send Rustam to fetch Kay Qubad, a

prince o f the line o f Faridun, from his secluded retreat on
M ount Alburz. But first the young hero must have a steed. In Zal’s
herd was a fierce mare w ith a fine young colt; she had killed several
m en w ho had tried to secure her offspring, and w hen Rustam
approached she attacked him furiously w ith hoofs and teeth. But
Rustam felled her w ith a blow o f his fist, and turned his attention to
the colt. It took him a long time and m uch patience to break him,
but eventually he was subdued, and remained R ustam ’s faithful
charger and com panion till they m et death together. His name was
Rakhsh, Lightning.
So they started together on their quest for Kay Qubad, Rustam
carrying his grandfather’s mace. O n the slopes o f M ount Alburz he
came upon a splendid palace and garden in which was a young man
w ith a band o f retainers. O n hearing o f R ustam ’s errand, the young
man revealed himself as Kay Qubad, saying that he had been warned
in a dream o f the destiny that awaited him. All then m ounted and,
led by Rustam , joined Zal and the Persian army w hich was
confronting the host o f Afrasiyab. Rustam asked his father to point
out Afrasiyab to him, but the latter declined to do so, saying that the
Turanian prince was too strong an opponent for a youthful and
untried w arrior to tackle. In the general engagement that followed,
23
PLATE 9 R ustam catches his horse R akhsh
however, Rustam made short work o f a Turanian outpost and its

com m ander Q ulun, and soon identified the enemy leader. They
fought fiercely till Rustam , w ith a mighty effort, seized Afrasiyab by
the belt and lifted him bodily from his horse, intending to bring him
captive before Kay Qubad. But the belt snapped, Afrasiyab fell to the
ground, and was immediately surrounded and rescued by his own
troops. Rustam went on to perform prodigies o f valour, and soon the
Turanians broke and fled. T heir king Pashang sued for peace, and
Kay Q ubad passed the remainder o f his life quietly at Istakhr
(Persopolis) the capital.
R E I G N O F KA Y K A ’U S
Disaster in M azandaran
Kay Q ubad was succeeded by his eldest son Kay Ka’us, a rather
foolish, headstrong young man. Very soon after his accession he was
persuaded by a dem on in the guise o f a minstrel, to invade the
T H E KA Y A N I AN D Y N A S T Y 25
PLATE 10 R ustam lifts Afrasiyab from the saddle
northern territory o f Mazandaran, which was described to him as a

veritable earthly paradise. This was in spite o f the strongly worded
advice o f Zal; he enlarged on the demons and wizards w ho infested
the land, w hich m ight well prove a death trap.
The expedition was a disaster. After some preliminary Persian
successes, the King o f Mazandaran enlisted the help o f his formidable
neighbour, the W hite Dem on. W ith his assistance the Persian army
was overwhelm ed by aerial missiles, and the survivors captured,
blinded, and im prisoned in caves. Nevertheless Kay Ka’us, w ho was
included in the disaster, contrived to send a message to Zal,
inform ing him o f the dreadful straits to which he and the army were
reduced.
R u sta m ’s Seven Stages
Zal naturally decided to send R ustam to the rescue (feeling too old
himself), and w hen the latter enquired o f the route, his father replied
that there were two possible ways. The first, w hich had been taken
by Kay Ka’us and his army, was safe and easy, but m ight take several
m onths; the second was beset by dangers and obstacles o f all kinds,
but m ight be covered in seven days. As befitted a national hero,
R ustam unhesitatingly chose the second, saddled up, and bade his
father farewell.
As night fell after his first day’s journey, R ustam found himself in a
dense forest where, sighting a herd o f wild asses, he quickly secured
one o f them w ith his lasso, spitted and roasted it whole, and made a
hearty meal. H e then found a comfortable spot under a large tree
where he spread his blanket, leaving R akhsh to graze nearby, and was
soon deeply asleep. After a while Rakhsh heard a rustling in the
undergrow th, and a huge lion suddenly emerged and attacked the
faithful steed. But Rakhsh fought hard w ith hoofs and teeth, and
eventually trampled the lion underfoot and left it dead. The noise
aroused the sleeping hero, w ho quickly realised what had happened,
and sternly rebuked Rakhsh for not waking him, thus putting them
PLATE 11 Sleeping R ustam and the lion

T H E K A Y A N I AN D Y N A S T Y 27
both, and his vital errand, in danger. The remainder o f the night
passed quietly.
W hen they left the forest the following m orning they found
themselves in a treeless desert under a blazing sun, and soon both
man and horse were suffering terribly from thirst. After wandering
hopelessly for some time in search o f water, Rustam fell exhausted
on the burning sand, and prepared himself for death. But he also
prayed earnestly to the Almighty to spare him so that he m ight rescue
the King and his captive army, and suddenly a fat sheep appeared.
Rustam staggered after it, and it led him to a spring, w here he and
Rakhsh were able to quench their thirst and cleanse themselves. But
w hen Rustam looked round for the sheep it had vanished, and he
realised that his prayer had been answered by a miracle.
Conditions improved on the following day, and as night came on
Rustam , having slain, roasted and eaten another wild ass, lay down to
sleep, emphatically repeating his warning to Rakhsh not to tackle any
dangers w ithout waking him. At m idnight an enorm ous fire-
breathing dragon made its appearance, w hereupon Rakhsh furiously
neighed and stamped by his master’s side, but w hen the hero awoke
and looked about him, the m onster had disappeared. This happened
a second and third time, so that Rustam became enraged and
threatened the noble horse w ith death if he should again waken him
unnecessarily. B ut suddenly the darkness lifted revealing the
monstrous dragon close upon them. Rustam engaged it boldly, but
would have been overwhelmed had not Rakhsh distracted the
creature’s attention by biting its shoulders. This gave R ustam his
chance, and he was able to cleave the dragon’s head w ith his sword.
In the course o f the next day they entered Mazandaran, the land o f
the magicians, a delightful country o f rich vegetation and purling
streams. All at once R ustam came upon a charm ing spot by the
waterside where a sumptuous meal was laid out. R ustam was ever a
good trencherm an, so dispensing w ith ceremony he ate and drank his
fill, though he suspected that he was being watched. H e noticed a
lute on the ground nearby, so he took it up and sang to his own
accom panim ent o f the joys and glory o f a w arrior’s life. At this, a
beautiful wom an appeared and made herself pleasant, laughing and
bantering w ith him, till Rustam pressed a cup o f wine on her,
bidding her drink in gratitude to the Almighty for his bounty. But no
sooner had she heard the Divine N am e pronounced that she perforce
resumed her natural repulsive shape, for she was one o f the
magicians. The hero quickly caught her in his lasso, drew his sword,
and cut her in two.
They next passed through a land o f utter darkness, where Rustam
dropped his reins on the neck o f R akhsh allowing the faithful horse
to determ ine the way. He eventually brought them out into an
extensive farmland, where Rustam lay down to sleep on a grassy
bank, leaving Rakhsh to graze among the corn. The farm er soon
appeared, and imprudently roused R ustam w ith foul words and
blows o f his stick, w hereupon the hero, furious at this ill-m annered
awakening, seized him by the ears and tore them from his head. The
w retch fled to the local marchlord, Awlad, to make his complaint,
and the latter rode swiftly w ith a body o f his guards to where Rustam
was resting. They attacked him, but he made such havoc among
them that they fled in confusion, Awlad himself being taken in
R ustam ’s lasso. R ustam promised him his life and the kingship o f
Mazandaran if he would act as his guide to the lair o f the W hite
D em on, an offer which Awlad was relieved and delighted to accept.
But first Rustam had to encounter the dem on host that had
defeated and imprisoned Kay Ka’us and his arm y It was dark w hen
he came in sight of their camp-fires, so he decided to settle down for
the night, having secured Awlad and set Rakhsh on guard over him.
At daybreak he rode forth shouting his challenge, and the
com m ander of the dem on army, w ho was named Arzhang, came
furiously to m eet him. R ustam simply seized him by the horns, tore
his head from his body, and flung it among the other demons, w ho
fled in all directions. He then rode on into the city, which he found
deserted. Rakhsh was so delighted w ith their progress that he gave a
loud neigh which reached the ears o f the captive king in his prison;
but w hen he joyfully told his fellow captives, they thought he was
mad, and it was not till the hero himself burst into the prison that
they felt liberty was at hand. Kay Ka’us urged Rustam to lose no time
in seeking out the W hite D em on, w ho would otherwise call up a
host o f dem on reinforcements, and he added that blood from the
m onster’s liver was the only sure cure for their blindness.
So Rustam set forth, still guided by Awlad, on his last stage. Among
the Seven Mountains he encountered the W hite D em on’s bodyguard,
T H E K A Y A N I A N D Y N A S T Y 29
w hom he fell upon w hen the sun was high and most o f them were
asleep, and dispersed them w ithout difficulty. Soon he entered a deep
m ountain cleft, at the end of which was a cave o f utter blackness,
almost entirely filled by a monstrous sleeping figure. Rustam boldly
advanced, shouting his war-cry, w hereupon the creature leaped up and
hurled a huge millstone at him. Rustam dodged it, and, rushing to
close quarters, lopped off a hand and foot from the demon. There
ensued a terrible wrestling bout during which first Rustam and then
the W hite D em on felt himself failing, but the hero put up a desperate
prayer, and found himself endued with an access o f strength by which
he was enabled to dash the W hite D em on to the ground and plunge a
PLATE 12 R ustam and the W hite D em on

dagger into his heart. W hen he had recovered his breath Rustam cut
out the D em ons liver, w ith the blood o f which he anointed the eyes
o f the King and his soldiers, w ho became quite delirious w ith joy at
the restoration of sight and liberty.
Wars of Kay K a ’us
W hen he was fully recovered, Kay Ka’us wrote to the King o f

Mazandaran demanding formal submission and tribute; this was
haughtily refused, and R ustam was sent to arrange matters. H e first
routed a ‘welcom ing’ party by uprooting a tree and hurling it among
them , then discomfited a giant Mazandarani leader named Kalahur,
w ho challenged him to shake hands, by crushing his hand in his grip.
But the King o f Mazandaran was set on war. In the ensuing battle
R ustam sought out the King who, being a sorcerer, tried to save
himself by turning into a mass o f rock, but the hero forced him to
resume his normal shape, and he was quickly hewn in pieces.
Kay Ka’us then returned in trium ph to Iran, and R ustam to his
father in Zabulistan. D uring a subsequent progress through his
dominions, the king became involved in a war w ith the monarchs o f
Barbaristan (Somalia), Hamavaran (Yemen), and Sham (Syria), and
having defeated them, he m arried Sudaba the daughter o f the King
o f Hamavaran. The latter, however, was furious at the loss o f his
daughter, and planned revenge. H e therefore invited Kay Ka’us and a
num ber o f Persian nobles to a great feast. Despite an urgent warning
from Sudaba, the invitation was accepted, and all were treacherously
seized and imprisoned in a m ountain fortress, where Sudaba was
soon sent to jo in them. Afrasiyab, w ho had by now succeeded his
father Pashang on the throne o f Turan, was not slow to take
advantage o f this situation, and invaded Iran w ith a large army.
R ustam was inevitably sent for, and decided to deal w ith the
Hamavaran situation first, and then w ith Afrasiyab’s invasion. His
ultim atum was rejected by the King o f Hamavaran, w ho sum m oned
his form er allies to his aid. The battle was joined: R ustam lassoed the
King o f Sham, the King o f Barbaristan was also captured, and their
armies put to flight. In view o f this signal defeat, the King o f
Hamavaran released all his prisoners and restored their looted
property. Afrasiyab was then tackled, and once m ore a rejected

ultim atum was followed by a battle in w hich the invaders were put to
flight.
The Flying Machine
The period o f peace and prosperity that followed these victories was
interrupted by the curious episode o f Kay Ka’us and his flying
machine. Iblis, the Devil, once m ore took hum an shape as an
engaging youth, w ho pointed out to the King that though he was
lord o f all the earth, he was not yet familiar w ith the heavens; should
he not find means o f ascending thither? Kay Ka’us, as was his nature,
eagerly seized on the idea, and devised a throne w ith a spear fixed
upright at each corner; on the point o f each spear was suspended a
leg o f m utton, and below, at each corner o f the throne, a trained
eagle was secured. The King seated himself upon the throne, a cup o f
wine before him, and gave the word. The eagles flew eagerly upward
to get at the meat, and the whole contraption rose into the air. After
a while the eagles tired, or perhaps gave up in despair, and the
machine made a forced landing in a forest on the Caspian coast.
PLATE 13 Kay Ka’us in his flying m achine

Miraculously the King was unhurt, and prayed hum bly and earnestly
for deliverance. In some unexplained m anner news o f his plight got
through to R ustam w ho organised a body o f troops and eventually
found and rescued him. H e berated the king soundly for his folly, and
escorted him home, overcome w ith shame, in a litter.
R ustam ’s Raid
T here follows a short interlude in w hich Rustam and seven chosen

warriors (with their followers) made a raid into Turan on the spur o f
the m om ent after a day o f feasting and drinking. They made havoc
am ong the game in Afrasiyab’s favourite hunting ground, and the
latter soon appeared w ith an army. Rustam easily dispersed them at
the first encounter, but at the second the Turanians fielded two
champions, Pilsam and Alkus, w ho caused serious casualties among
the Persians. However, as soon as R ustam took a hand, Pilsam fled,
and Alkus fell a victim to the hero. In his subsequent flight Afrasiyab
narrowly escaped capture.
Rustam & Suhrab
H ere ensues the best know n (in the West) episode o f the Shahnama :
the tragic story o f Rustam and his son Suhrab. Once, on a solitary
hunting expedition, Rustam awoke to find that his faithful steed
R akhsh had, as he thought, been stolen during the night. H e
therefore made his way on foot to the neighbouring city o f
Samangan near the Turanian border. He was received there w ith
great respect by the local ruler, w ho offered him entertainm ent and
accom m odation whilst a search for Rakhsh was organised. After he
had retired to bed in the ruler’s palace, Rustam was visited by his
host’s beautiful only daughter, Tahmina. She averred that she had
long been in love w ith him after hearing o f his prowess and
adventures, and longed to bear his child. Rustam reciprocated her
feelings, formally requested her hand from her father, and the
marriage was solemnised and consummated. M eanwhile R akhsh had
been found and restored to his master. It was not long before the
hero decided he must return home, but before he left he told

Tahmina that if she bore a son, she must send him to his father to be
trained as a warrior, but if a daughter, she might keep her at home;
he also gave her a signet for the child.
In due course Tahmina gave birth to a son, Suhrab - a baby almost
as prodigious as Rustam had been. She prevented the news reaching
Rustam , but Suhrab soon began to show curiosity about his father’s
identity. Eventually his m other told him that he was the son o f the
great hero Rustam , whose nobility, virtues, and heroic exploits she
extolled at length. Suhrab impulsively decided to attack both Kay
Ka’us and Afrasiyab, and to place his father on a united throne. But
the crafty Afrasiyab had already heard o f this young w arrior and his
superhum an strength and skill in arms, and sent two o f his chief
paladins to enlist the youth’s co-operation in overthrowing Kay
Ka’us, hoping at the same time to ensure that father and son should
fight on opposite sides and so perhaps destroy one another.
Suhrab began his crusade w ith an attack on the W hite Castle, a
Persian stronghold. He first overcame and captured Hajjir, its deputy
commander, but was then engaged by the fair amazon Gurdafarid,
w ho fought him on equal terms till he snatched off her helmet,
revealing luxuriant tresses and a girl’s face. She tricked him into
allowing her to withdraw, unconquered, w ithin the fortress walls
from which she shouted scorn and defiance. W hen Suhrab assaulted
the castle on the following day, he found to his chagrin that
Gurdafarid and the whole garrison had escaped during the night by a
subterranean passage. News o f these proceedings duly reached Kay
Ka’us who, as was his wont, sum m oned Rustam urgently from
Zabulistan. The hero treated the summons lightly, and detained the
envoys feasting and drinking for several days. W hen he eventually
presented himself before the King, the latter was furious at the delay,
and ordered the paladin Tus to seize Rustam. This ill-advised move
resulted in Tus being unceremoniously knocked down by the hero.
Rustam started off homewards in high dudgeon, but the King soon
realised his mistake, and sent the paladin Gudarz after him w ith an
abject apology. This the hero accepted graciously, and returned w ith
Gudarz to court. His return was celebrated by a lavish banquet and
drinking session, from w hich the paladins sought their beds
somewhat unsteadily
PLATE 14 Suhrab and Gurdafarid
The army marched the following day to encounter Suhrab’s forces

and soon came up with them. In the evening Rustam volunteered to
visit Suhrab’s camp in disguise in order to size up this formidable
young man and his troops. W hilst he was observing Suhrab and his
principal officers in high revel, a certain Zhanda Razm , Suhrab’s
uncle, felt a need to leave the company temporarily, and stumbled on
the disguised Rustam lurking just outside the tent entrance. He
challenged the hero and Rustam felled him w ith a blow that broke
his neck. Suhrab awaited his return in vain, and w hen inform ed o f
his death, vowed vengeance. M eanwhile Rustam made his way back
to the Persian camp, and reported all he had seen to the King.
Suhrab, o f course was equally anxious to ascertain his foe’s
dispositions, and the following m orning he took w ith him his Persian
captive Hajjir to the top o f an eminence which gave them a view o f
the w hole Persian camp. H e particularly asked Hajjir to identify the
positions o f the various Persian leaders, in the hope o f locating his
father; but Hajjir refused to identify Rustam , fearing that he would
be sought out and slain by Suhrab in the impending battle.
Suhrab then led his army against the Persians, penetrating to w ithin
striking distance o f the royal tent, where he called out a challenge to
Kay Ka’us to send out a w arrior w orthy o f combat w ith him. There
was no reply, but the King sent for Rustam , w ho was lying low in his
tent. The hero arm ed and came forth, and so father and son faced
one another for the first time, neither knowing w ho the other was.
In a preliminary exchange, Suhrab expressed himself as unwilling to
kill an old man, whilst Rustam , nettled at this, loudly regretted that
such a fine young man should be rushing on his doom . Suhrab,
however, felt an instinctive sympathy w ith his opponent, and asked
him directly if he were Rustam. Rustam denied it, and they fell to
combat till both were exhausted and their weapons broken. The next
day they m et once more, but before the fight resumed, Suhrab again
pressed his opponent to confess that he was indeed R ustam son o f
Zal, but R ustam again dismissed any such suggestion. They then
contended in wrestling, and suddenly Suhrab heaved up R ustam and
flung him on the ground, where he sat astride him and drew his
dagger for the fatal blow. R ustam ’s quick wit saved him; he pleaded
that the customs o f battle differed betw een Iran and Turan, and that
in the form er a victor in wrestling might only kill his opponent on
the second throw. The chivalrous youth accepted this plea, and they
parted once more. W hen they confronted one another on the third
day, Suhrab felt unaccountably depressed, while R ustam sensed a
revival o f his powers. In the struggle that followed he dashed his son
to the ground and, not giving him the second chance he had
successfully claimed himself, stabbed him fatally. ‘M y father Rustam
will avenge m e!’ cried Suhrab. R ustam was deeply shocked to hear
this, and demanded proof. His son bade him uncover his arm, and
there he found, bound round it, the signet he had given to Tahmina.
R ustam ’s desperate request to Kay Ka’us for an elixir to restore his
son was turned down, and the youth expired. R ustam was almost
distracted w ith grief, and returned to Zabulistan. The desolate
PLATE 15 Suhrab slain by Rustam
m other, w hen she heard the news, gave herself up to hopeless

m ourning, feeling that by concealing the birth o f his son from
Rustam , she was largely responsible for the tragedy
The Tragedy o f Siyawush
The tragedy o f Suhrab is followed by the misadventures o f another

ill-starred young man, the prince Siyawush. In the course o f a
hunting expedition the paladins Tus and Gudarz encountered a fair
maid in the forest; they quarrelled about whose she should be, and
agreed to let the king decide. Kay Ka’us resolved the dispute by
marrying her himself, and in due course she gave birth to prince
Siyawush. The child showed such physical promise that the king
entrusted his education to Rustam in Zabulistan. As a boy he was
brought to court by the hero, and was given a sumptuous reception.
Soon after this the m other o f Siyawush died, m uch to the grief o f her
young son.
As he grew up, Sudaba the Q ueen fell violently in love w ith her
step-son, w ho had been urged by his father to visit her following his
m other’s death. She finally attem pted to seduce him, but he rejected
all her advances till, in the fury o f a wom an scorned, she tore her hair,
disordered her dress, and accused Siyawush o f violating her. The
King was unconvinced, so she later took dead twins, to w hich a
palace wom an had just given birth, passed them off as her own, and
loudly com plained that Siyawush was the father. Even after
consulting astrologers and other wise men, Kay Ka’us was unable
to make up his m ind on the affair, and decided to subject Siyawush to
an ordeal by fire. Two huge fires were accordingly built, w ith a
narrow passage betw een them, and the young prince, clad in white,
rode unharm ed through the blaze. The people rejoiced and the King
embraced him w ith relief. H e condem ned Sudaba to be hanged, but
PLATE 16 Fire ordeal o f Siyawush

the chivalrous Siyawush begged his father to spare her life, and his
request was granted. Nevertheless the Q ueen revived the King’s love
for her by witchcraft, and continued to slander the prince to him.
As this point news arrived o f another invasion by the restless
Afrasiyab. Siyawush volunteered to lead the Persian troops, and Kay
Ka’us agreed, but put him under the protection o f Rustam . The first
engagement took place near Balkh, a city which the Persians
occupied after three days o f fighting. Afrasiyab was infuriated, and
that night he had a terrible dream that he was in the midst o f his
slaughtered soldiers, while the Persians trium phed everywhere; one
o f them dragged him before Kay Ka’us, and there Siyawush clove
him in two w ith his sword. His wise m en warned him that this dream
foretold disaster if he fought against Siyawush, and he therefore
decided to make peace. His brother Garsiwaz was sent to negotiate.
Lenient terms were arranged, including the surrender o f hostages by
the Turanians, and Siyawush sent the news to his father by Rustam .
Kay Ka’us was enraged at the peaceful outcom e o f the campaign;
he thirsted for Turanian blood. Rustam was perem ptorily sent hom e
to Zabulistan, and the King wrote a letter to Siyawush berating him
for his mildness in the face o f the Turanian foe, and ordering the
hostages to be sent to him to be hanged. There was a fruitless
exchange o f correspondence and finally Siyawush decided that he
could not act against the Divine Will by giving up the hostages, nor
could he in honour return to his father. So, putting the army under
the com m and o f his lieutenants Bahram and Zanga, he made up his
m ind to seek refuge w ith Afrasiyab. O n the advice o f his wise
minister Piran, Afrasiyab wrote to Siyawush, saying that he had heard
o f his trouble, and offering hospitality, prom otion, and every luxury
if he would join the court o f Turan.
Afrasiyab did indeed give the prince the warmest o f welcomes, and
before long invited him to display his skill in various knightly
accomplishments - polo, archery, hunting - in all o f w hich Siyawush
distinguished himself. Afrasiyab conceived a genuine affection for
him, and Piran gave him his daughter Jarira in marriage. Shortly after
this, on Piran’s advice, he requested and gained the hand of
Afrasiyab’s daughter Firangis. By Jarira he had Farud, and by Firangis
he had Kay Khusraw, destined to be one o f the greatest o f Persian
kings. Amid the rejoicing at these happy events, only the face o f
PLATE 17 Siyawush displays his prowess
Garsiwaz was sour, boding ill for Siyawush, and his m ood was further
darkened w hen Siyawush trounced him at polo, and carried out w ith
considerable panache several m ore breath-taking feats o f arms.
Afrasiyab bestowed a province on Siyawush, where the latter built
a splendid castle called Gang-Dizh, and later the m onarch gave him a
choice site where he built a city w hich he named Siyawushgird, and
was visited there by Piran and Garsiwaz. But w hen they returned to
Afrasiyab, Garsiwaz slandered Siyawush, accusing him o f intriguing
with the neighbouring nations, and o f scheming to usurp the throne
o f Turan, for w hich purpose, he said, the prince had assembled a
large army. Afrasiyab was half inclined to believe these slanders, and
sent Garsiwaz back w ith an invitation to Siyawush and Firangis to
come to court. D uring his visit, Garsiwaz succeeded in sowing
suspicions o f Afrasiyab s intentions towards him in the m ind o f
PLATE 18 M urder o f Siyawush
Siyawush, and persuaded him to put off coming to court, and to

w rite a letter instead, declining the invitation, and citing the
indisposition o f Firangis as his excuse. Afrasiyab s anger at this
imagined insult was further inflamed by the continuing slanders o f
Garsiwaz, and he m arched on Siyawush w ith an army, slaughtered his
guards, and, despite the impassioned pleading o f Firangis, ordered the
prince to be beheaded. This cruel sentence was carried out by
Gurwi, while Garsiwaz caught the blood in a basin.
Birth o f K ay Khusraw
This m urder o f an innocent and brilliant young prince struck horror

into the hearts o f many Turanians, especially the wise counsellor
Piran, w ho had been a good friend o f Siyawush ever since the
prince’s arrival in Turan. H e hurried to court, just in time to save the

pregnant Firangis from sharing her husband’s fate, and persuaded
Afrasiyab to let him take care o f her, promising to bring the child, if a
boy, to court as soon as he was old enough. So Kay Khusraw was
born peacefully, and placed for safety in the hands o f shepherds
faithful to Piran. W hen at length Afrasiyab sum m oned him to bring
the boy before him, Piran instructed Kay Khusraw to feign imbecility
in answering the king’s questions, and gave out that he was half
witted. The plan worked. Afrasiyab felt that he had no further reason
to fear, and Piran settled the boy and his m other in his father’s palace
at Siyawushgird, now alas, overgrown w ith brambles.
Revenge for Siyawush
W hen news o f the m urder o f Siyawush reached Iran, Kay Ka’us was
prostrated w ith grief and remorse, whilst Rustam was almost mad
w ith rage. H e hauled Sudaba from her palace by the hair and cut her
down in the street. The army was immediately prepared for a war of
revenge. The van was led by Faramurz, a young son o f Rustam , w ho
defeated and slew Warazad, king o f the border state o f Sipanjab,
whilst his father routed the main force o f the Turanians, led by
Afrasiyab’s son Surkha. This prince was captured and beheaded in
revenge for Siyawush. A final effort by Afrasiyab himself also ended
in a rout, despite heroic deeds by the champion Pilsam, w ho was
finally slain by Rustam . Afrasiyab fled, and despatched Kay Khusraw
to the distant land o f Khutan to prevent his joining the victorious
Persians. M eanwhile R ustam devastated the land o f Turan, and ruled
over it for seven years.
Finding of Kay Khusraw
W arned in a dream, the paladin Gudarz sent his son Giv to find Kay
Khusraw. The weary search took him seven years, and whenever he
made enquiries he slew his inform ant to prevent his quest becom ing
know n in Turan. But at length he came upon the prince and his
mother, and identified him by a black birthm ark on his arm w hich he
shared w ith all the Kayanian race. They travelled to Siyawushgird,

where Kay Khusraw found and appropriated his father’s faithful steed
Bihzad, and Firangis supplied them w ith arm our and weapons from a
secret store. T hen they started for home, but very soon their presence
was detected, and one night w hen Kay Khusraw and his m other were
asleep, exhausted, and Giv was on guard, a body o f Turanian troops
appeared. N othing daunted, Giv engaged them single-handed w ith
such fury that they fled back to Piran, their commander. Piran was
very angry to hear o f this ignominious defeat, and himself led a
PLATE 19 Kay Khusraw, his m other Firangis, and Giv fording

the Jihun
strong force in an attempt to prevent the fugitives from reaching Iran.

Firangis was on watch w hen they appeared, and gave the alarm. Giv
engaged Piran in single combat, and the latter was unhorsed and
bound w ith Giv’s lasso, and his troops fled. Piran s life was saved by
the intercession o f Firangis, and he was allowed to go home. O n the
way he was m et by Afrasiyab w ith a fresh force, w ho cursed him for
his failure and dismissed him. By this time the fugitives had reached
the river Jihun (Oxus) which separated the realms o f Iran and Turan,
and, w hen the ferryman refused to take them across, they boldly
swam their horses across the stream and landed safely on the friendly
shore, leaving Afrasiyab and his m en raging in frustration.
Abdication of Kay K a ’us
They were joyfully received by Kay Ka’us, w ho then swore to

renounce the kingship to anyone w ho would subdue the infidel
fortress o f Bahman. Fariburz son o f Kay Ka’us and Tus son o f
N awdar both felt, in view o f their royal parentage, that they had a
certain right to the crown, and jointly led an expedition against the
fortress. But they found it surrounded by an area o f intolerable heat,
and were forced back. Kay Khusraw was then called upon to try his
luck. By invoking the name o f the Almighty, he was enabled to reach
the fortress, the ramparts collapsed, and his troops made short work
o f the dem on garrison. R eturning in trium ph he was warmly
congratulated on all sides and especially by Fariburz and Tus, w ho
acknowledged his prior right. In a formal ceremony Kay Ka’us
vacated the throne, crowned Kay Khusraw, and handed over the
kingdom.
R E I G N OF KAY K H U S R A W
Tragedy of Farud
From the beginning o f his reign Kay Khusraw was determ ined to
exact a full revenge for the m urder o f his father, and having
dispatched various formalities —receiving homage, making a progress
through his kingdom, num bering the paladins, and so on —he first of
all granted R ustam ’s request to pacify a troublesome province on the
frontier w ith India, and thus adjacent to R ustam ’s own domain. H e
then reviewed his army, w hich he placed under the com m and o f Tus,
and sent them on a punitive expedition to Turan. But first he warned
Tus that he must go by the desert route in order to avoid the castle o f
his half-brother Farud, w ho was not to be molested or interfered
w ith in any way. But w hen the time came, and despite the protests of
Gudarz, Tus took the easier route past Farud’s castle.
T he young Farud learned o f the approach o f Tus and his army, and
took his counsellor Tukhar w ith him to the top o f a m ountain from
w hich the whole Persian host could be viewed. Tukhar pointed out
all the chiefs to him by their blazons. The appearance o f the two o f
them on the m ountain enraged Tus, w ho thought they were hostile
spies, and he sent Bahram to question them. W hen Bahram
discovered w ho Farud was, he welcomed him, but, not trusting
Tus, advised him to treat w ith no envoy but himself; he then
returned to the camp and reported to Tus. But the general was still
PLATE 20 Farud w ounded by Bizhan

peevish, and called for a w arrior to go up and bring him the head o f
Farud. Two successive warriors w ho tried to obey this summons
were shot by Farud, w ho sensed their hostile intent. Tus him self then
sallied forth, but this time, on the advice o f Tukhar, Farud shot only
the horse, leaving the general to make an inglorious return on foot.
Giv followed w ith the same result. Finally Bizhan, Giv’s son, rode
out, and again Farud shot the horse, but this time Bizhan continued
his advance on foot, and Farud turned from him towards the castle
gate. Bizhan severely w ounded Farud’s horse, but the rider escaped
into his castle. N ext day the army o f Tus launched a general assault;
most o f Farud’s m en were slaughtered, but he fought on alone. At
last, mortally wounded, he managed to gain the castle interior and
expired in his m other’s arms. His m other, Jarira daughter o f Piran,
then slew herself on his corpse. The Persian warriors were overcome
w ith grief and remorse w hen they viewed the corpses, and turned
angrily on Tus, w ho endeavoured to palliate his guilt by giving Farud
a splendid funeral.
Persian Reverses
Tus then pursued his errand o f vengeance into Turan, burning and
pillaging as he went. A Turanian champion named Palashan was
killed by Bizhan on the way, but soon the Persian army encountered
a terrible blizzard which raged for eight days. They suffered badly
from cold and starvation, and were reduced to eating their horses.
The next Turanian champion they m et was Tazhav, a local marchlord
and a renegade Iranian. H e led out his troops boldly, but in the fight
that followed they were put to flight, and Tazhav himself narrowly
escaped capture by Bizhan, w ho snatched from his head a splendid
crown he had received as a gift from Afrasiyab. T he Persians looted
his castle, and replaced from his herds the horses they had eaten.
Tazhav himself got away to carry the news to Afrasiyab, w ho
immediately sent out an army under Piran. Having driven off a
num ber o f the Persians’ horses he launched a night attack on their
camp, which took them by surprise, many o f them being drunk. The
rout was complete, and the Turanians pursued the defeated rabble for
some distance.
News o f the disaster was o f necessity sent to Kay Khusraw. H e was

outraged by the senseless killing o f his half-brother Farud, and by
the subsequent collapse o f the army, and prom ptly w rote a furious
letter recalling Tus, and appointing Fariburz to replace him as
com m ander-in-chief. T he reception o f Tus by the king was rather
less than cordial, and after a scarifying denunciation he was put in
chains and dismissed the court. T he first act o f Fariburz as
com m ander was to ask Piran for a m o n th ’s truce. This was
generously granted and honourably kept, but w hen the m onth had
expired, fighting again broke out, and the Persians suffered another
reverse in the course o f w hich Bahram lost his riding-w hip, and
insisted on returning to the battle-field to look for it. Turanian
troops came about him, and after an heroic resistance he was
m ortally w ounded by Tazhav. Giv, however, later found Tazhav
alone, attacked and lassoed him, dragged him before the dying
Bahram, and cut his head off. But the Persian army resolved to
withdraw, leaving the victory to Piran.
Second Expedition: Continuing Reverses
Kay Khusraw was furious w hen the army returned, but eventually
pardoned them, and, on R ustam ’s intercession, re-appointed Tus to
the com m and, and sent him out once m ore against Turan.
R eluctantly Piran came to m eet him and, pretending to accept
Tus’s proposal that he should come over to the Persian side,
succeeded in delaying matters till Afrasiyab could send him a fresh
army. A huge force was duly set in m otion, and hostilities
recom menced. O n the first day Tus slew Arzhang, a famous
Turanian champion, and engaged Hum an, the Turanian com m ander
under Piran, but approaching darkness stopped the fight.
O n the following day, the Turanians employed a sorcerer named
Bazur. H e was sent up to the top o f a m ountain by Piran, and there
conjured up a terrible blizzard o f snow and ice to afflict the Persian
army. Tus prayed for divine assistance, and the sorcerer was detected
and slain, w hereupon the sun began once m ore to shine through.
Nevertheless, despite the heroism o f their leaders, the Persian army
fled to M ount Hamavan, where they were closely besieged by the
enemy. The Turanians attempted a night attack; the fighting was

fierce, but ended in a draw.
News o f the continuing failure and perilous situation o f his army
was brought to Kay Khusraw, and he sum m oned R ustam and other
chieftains to a meeting. R ustam readily responded to the King’s
appeal, and agreed to go to the rescue. Kay Khusraw ordered him to
raise troops in Kabul and his native Zabulistan, and to send Fariburz
ahead w ith such troops as were readily available. Before he departed
Fariburz, by R ustam ’s mediation, requested the hand o f Firangis, his
brother’s widow. She accepted him, and after a short honeym oon of
four days the armies were on the move.
Rustam to the Rescue
The beleaguered Tus, meanwhile, was visited by Siyawush in a

dream, giving encouragem ent and hinting at the approach o f
Rustam , but still the Persians were hem m ed in. H um an and Piran
discussed the situation, the form er counselling immediate attack, but
the latter, w ith his customary caution, decided to continue the siege
and to starve the Persians into surrender. H e received an encouraging
message from Afrasiyab to the effect that further reinforcements were
on the way including the Khaqan o f C hin (Emperor o f China) and
the mighty w arrior Kamus. Soon after they had arrived, one o f the
Persian watchm en cried out that a cloud o f dust was rising from the
road to Iran; it was Fariburz leading the vanguard. T he Khaqan, as
soon as he arrived w ith Kamus, carefully reconnoitred the Persian
positions on M ount Hamavan, and discussed plans w ith Piran and
Kamus. O nce m ore Piran advised a waiting game, but Kamus was all
for an immediate attack.
The armies faced each other once again, and Kamus stood forth
w ith a haughty challenge. Giv came out to face him, but his arrows
made no impression on the arm our o f Kamus, w ho w ounded him
w ith his spear, and advanced to dispatch him. Tus rushed to his
rescue, and they fought till darkness fell. That night R ustam arrived,
incognito, w ith the army o f Zabulistan.
W hen the armies faced each other on the following m orning,
Ashkabus, a doughty Turanian champion, rode out calling loudly for
PLATE 21 Rustam and Ashkabus
a w orthy opponent. R uhham accepted the challenge, but was

quickly knocked unconscious by a blow o f Ashkabus’s mace. Tus
would have taken his place, but was prevented by Rustam , who
strolled out on foot w ith his bow and a couple o f arrows stuck in his
belt. After a heated verbal exchange in w hich Rustam declined to
identify himself, Ashkabus vainly showered arrows upon him, but
Rustam , w ith two quick shots, first brought down the horse and then
slew the rider.
R u sta m ’s Overthroiv o f Kam us, the Khaqan, and others
In conference after this set-back, Piran and Kamus decided that the
Persian champion on foot was not Rustam , and their allies, led by the
Khaqan, resolved on an all-out assault. O n his side R ustam made a
speech encouraging his troops, and appeared in full panoply,
m ounted on Rakhsh. Kamus rode out w ith his usual challenge,
and after some hesitation Aiwa, a com panion o f Rustam , came out to
face him. But Kamus made short work o f him, filling R ustam w ith
rage and grief at the death o f his friend. So he immediately attacked
Kamus, dragging him from his horse w ith his lasso, bound him, and
cast him down before the Persian chieftains, w ho soon finished him
off w ith their scimitars. But the Turanians were still uncertain o f
R ustam ’s identity, and w hen the death o f Kamus was announced to
the Khaqan he urged them to find out, by all possible means, the
name and origin o f his vanquisher. O ne o f his warriors, Chingish,
eager to avenge Kamus, volunteered to engage the unknow n Persian
champion. However Rustam again refused to identify himself, and
his formidable appearance was too m uch for Chingish, w ho turned
tail and fled. But the hero spurred on Rakhsh and soon caught up
w ith him, seized his horse by the tail, cast him to the ground, and
struck off his head. The Khaqan then decided to send H um an in
PLATE 22 R ustam lassoes the Khaqan o f C hin

disguise to question the hero, but R ustam would only say that if the
Turanians wanted peace they must deliver up all w ho had any part in
the betrayal and m urder o f Siyawush, and he added that he fervently
desired to m eet Piran. H um an was now convinced that they had
R ustam to deal with, and told Piran so. Piran told the Khaqan, w ho
sent him to Rustam. The hero received him kindly, and on learning
his name revealed his own. Their converse was friendly, but Rustam
still insisted that he was there to exact retribution for the m urder o f
Siyawush, and no other solution was possible, so Piran sadly
departed.
Again the armies faced each other and a bloody fight ensued,
during w hich Rustam successively overthrew the Indian King
Shangul, w ho managed to escape alive, Sawa, a kinsman o f Kamus,
w hom he demolished w ith his mace, and Gahar o f Gahan w hom he
slew as he fled. Finally he encountered the Khaqan himself, and,
being goaded by the latter’s shouted insults, lassoed him and dragged
him from his w hite elephant to the ground, where he was quickly
secured as a prisoner.
Successful Termination of the Campaign
News o f the disastrous defeat o f his powerful allies was duly carried
to Afrasiyab, while the Persian army continued its advance into
Turan. The vanguard came to a city o f cannibals, ruled by Kafur the
M an-eater, w ho led out his troops against them and inflicted heavy
casualties. But w hen R ustam came up he soon turned the tables,
killing Kafur and sacking his city where the Persians took a rich
booty o f slaves and treasure. Conscious o f R ustam s approach,
Afrasiyab mustered the army o f Turan, and enlisted the help o f
Puladwand, a king from am ong the m ountains o f China, and thought
to be an invincible wrestler, w ho joined him w ith a large force.
W hen the armies met, Puladwand overthrew Tus, Giv and R uhham
in quick succession, so that the Persians were throw n tem porarily
into confusion. W hen R ustam heard o f the havoc w rought by
Puladwand he was m uch grieved, and rode out to challenge him.
After an inconclusive combat on horseback, they agreed to dism ount
and wrestle. But Afrasiyab, disdaining the rules o f wrestling, sent
Puladwand orders to kill Rustam w ith his dagger if opportunity

offered; however this message was overheard, and R ustam was
forewarned. W hen they closed, R ustam grasped his adversary, lifted
him above his head, and dashed him violently to the ground, then,
thinking him dead, rode off in trium ph. But Puladwand recovered
himself, and fled the field w ith his troops, to be quickly followed by
Afrasiyab and the Turanians, w ith the Persians in pursuit. Afrasiyab s
camp was looted, his palaces burnt, and the victors returned to a
lavish welcome at the court o f Kay Khusraw, while R ustam made his
way hom e to Zabulistan.
[Here follow two detached episodes: the story o f R ustam and the
D em on Akwan, and the story o f Bizhan and Manizha.]
Rustam and the Demon A kw an
O ne day, as Kay Khusraw was drinking w ith his paladins, a herdsman

arrived at court complaining that a wild ass o f alarming size and
appearance had been raiding the horse-herds and killing the horses.
The king realised at once that this was no ordinary wild ass, but the
dem on Akwan in disguise. N one o f the paladins present would
volunteer to tackle the problem, so Rustam , as usual, was sent for.
Kay Khusraw explained the situation to him w hen he arrived, and
sent him forth to deal w ith the menace.
Arrived at the place the herdsman had indicated, the hero searched
in vain for three days, but on the fourth the astonishing creature
suddenly appeared and rushed past him like the wind. Rustam
pursued, but w hen he threw his noose the wild ass vanished, and the
same thing happened when he attempted to shoot it w ith bow and
arrows. After vainly following it for a day and a night, he was
exhausted, and lay down to sleep by a spring. Seeing his chance, the
dem on approached in his true form, dug up the earth all round the
sleeping hero, and lifted it, Rustam and all, into the air. The
unaccustomed m otion soon awoke the hero, and the dem on offered
him a choice: should he cast him down on the m ountain, or should
he hurl him into the sea? Even in this predicament, R ustam ’s w it did
not desert him; he realised that whichever choice he made the demon
PLATE 23 Rustam carried through the air by the demon Akwan
w ould carry out the other, so he asked to be cast on the m ountain, so

that even in death his bones would remain to show what a mighty
man he had been. True to form, Akwan replied that he wished no
trace o f him to remain, and flung him into the sea. O n the way down
R ustam contrived to draw his sword and, once in the water, used it
effectively against the crocodiles by which he was attacked, swimming
w ith his left arm, till at last he reached the shore, and offered up a
heart-felt thanksgiving to the Almighty for his deliverance. H e made
his way to the spring where he had slept, but Rakhsh was nowhere to
be found. At last, however, he spied his faithful steed amongst a herd
o f Afrasiyab’s horses, m ounted him, drove off the herd, and slew
several herdsmen w ho attempted to interfere.
A surviving herdsman brought the news to Afrasiyab, w ho went
after R ustam w ith a body o f troops, including elephants, but w hen
they encountered him the hero spread death and destruction in all
directions, drove off the elephants and horses, and returned to his
spring. There the dem on found him again, but this time R ustam was
too quick for him, caught him in his lasso, and knocked him on the
head. H e then returned in trium ph to the King’s court, driving the
elephants and horses before him.
Bizhan & M anizha
O nce again Kay Khusraw was drinking w ith his paladins w hen a
deputation from the land o f Irman, on the borders o f Turan, waited
upon him, complaining o f a noxious plague o f wild boars, which
were doing untold damage to crops, trees, and livestock. As before,
the king called for volunteers, and this time young Bizhan stood
forth and, despite the opposition o f his father Giv, was given the task
o f clearing the land o f this plague. But in view o f his youth, he was to
be accompanied by Gurgin, an older w arrior w ho had m ore
experience and knew the country. From the beginning Gurgin was
jealous o f Bizhan, and sought to thw art him at every turn. However
the young w arrior successfully exterm inated the boars, taking their
tusks as trophies for the King.
They were now near the border o f Turan, and Gurgin suggested
that they should visit a delightful spot he knew in the neighbourhood
w here parties o f young Turanian girls, including Manizha, the
daughter o f Afrasiyab, were in the habit o f disporting themselves.
Bizhan needed little persuasion to fall in w ith this plan, and leaving
Gurgin behind, soon came in sight o f M anizha’s pavilion. She
observed him w ith approval as he stood in the shade o f a cypress tree,
and sent her old nurse to bid him welcome. So they feasted and
drank w ith her maids for three days and nights, but then it was time
for Manizha to go home. She could not bear to be separated from
Bizhan, so put a drug in his wine, and smuggled him, still
unconscious into her apartment in the palace, where they continued
their revels. But is was not long before his presence was detected by a
chamberlain, w ho w ent and told Afrasiyab. The King was infuriated
and sent Garsiwaz w ith a detachment o f soldiers to seize and bring
before him any man found in the princess’s apartments. Guided by
the sound o f revelry, Garsiwaz soon located the chamber, and found
Bizhan within, w ith M anizha and a considerable num ber o f her
maids. Bizhan drew a dagger he carried in his boot, but Garsiwaz
tricked him into surrendering it, trussed him up, and brought him to
Afrasiyab. The latter, not surprisingly, condem ned him to the gallows
w ithout hesitation. However, by good fortune Piran happened to
pass that way w hen m en were busy erecting the gibbet, and w hen
they told him it was for Bizhan he bade them cease w ork whilst he
sought an audience w ith the king. H e succeeded in having Bizhan’s
sentence com m uted to imprisonm ent, and he was confined, heavily
fettered, in a dark and noisome pit covered by a huge stone. As for
M anizha, her apartments were sacked, she was deprived o f her
fortune and status, and reduced to begging in the streets. She
m anaged to make a small hole under the covering stone o f Bizhan’s
dungeon, through w hich she was able to pass such scraps o f food as
she could obtain.
M eanwhile the w retched Gurgin became alarmed w hen Bizhan
failed to return. H e found the young w arrior’s horse wandering by
the riverside, and decided to return to Iran w ith a concocted story o f
Bizhan’s fate. H e was first confronted by Bizhan’s father Giv, and told
him a tale o f a dem on wild ass in pursuit o f w hich Bizhan had
vanished. Giv was not convinced, and brought him before Kay
Khusraw, to w hom he babbled his story in a most unconvincing
manner. The king had him put in chains, sent search parties in all
directions and, w hen they failed to trace the young man, called for
his magic cup, in w hich he was able to see all that was happening in
the Seven Chimates. By this means he soon descried Bizhan confined
in the pit and Manizha attending him. So he sent a letter to R ustam
by the hand o f Giv, im ploring his assistance. As usual, the hero
readily assented, and, again as usual, invited Giv to jo in him in a three
day feast and drinking bout. W hen they eventually came to court,
Kay Khusraw welcomed them w ith another feast and drinking
session, to which all the other paladins were invited. H earing o f
R ustam ’s arrival, Gurgin besought him to plead his cause before the
King, w hich Rustam did to such effect that Gurgin was freed from
his chains.
W hen the situation had been explained to Rustam , he decided to
employ his old stratagem o f disguising himself and seven chosen
companions as merchants, and drew on the royal treasury for an

impressive stock o f costly merchandise. Thus equipped he set out
w ith a strong force w hich he left on the frontier in case it should be
needed, whilst himself advancing w ith his chosen seven till he came
to Khutan, w here Piran ruled. Piran did not penetrate R ustam ’s
disguise, and bade him and his party welcome. News soon spread that
a caravan o f rich merchandise had arrived from Iran, and R ustam and
his m en did a brisk trade. Poor Manizha also heard o f the arrivals
from Iran, as she begged bread in the streets, and hastened to
R ustam ’s lodging. At first he questioned her sharply, but quickly
realised that she was speaking the truth, and gave her food to take to
Bizhan, concealing his signet in a loaf o f bread. O n discovering the
signet, Bizhan laughed aloud in the pit, so that M anizha, listening
outside, was afraid he had gone mad. But he reassured her w ith the
good news the signet implied, and sent her back to R ustam for
instructions. She was told to light a fire after dark to guide the
rescuers to Bizhan’s place o f confinement. Arrived there guided by
M anizha’s fire, the warriors strove in vain to lift the great stone from
the m outh o f the pit; but Rustam prayed for strength, lifted the
stone, and hurled it into the neighbouring forest. H e then demanded
o f Bizhan that he w ould freely forgive Gurgin, otherwise he would
leave him w here he was. To this Bizhan had little choice but to agree,
though unwilling at first, and Rustam drew him up from the pit with
his lasso. H e was in a terrible state w ith sores and filth, so they made
all haste back to R ustam ’s lodging, w here he was washed, tended,
and given clean clothes.
Rustam decided to enliven and round off his trip to Turan by
sacking Afrasiyab’s palace, w hich he and his companions (now
including Bizhan) effected in fine style, shouting abuse at Afrasiyab
and carrying off rich booty. W hen they got near the frontier, they
found themselves pursued by Afrasiyab w ith a considerable force, but
they joined up w ith the reserve Rustam had left there, and the armies
faced each other in the shadow o f the mighty rock o f Bistun
(Behistun). But luck had deserted the Turanians; Afrasiyab and his
army were put to flight and relentlessly pursued for two leagues. The
spoil was loaded upon captured elephants, and the Persian army
returned home. They were warmly welcomed by Kay Khusraw who
marked the occasion, inevitably, with a great feast followed by a
PLATE 24 Bizhan rescued from the pit by R ustam
drinking session, with fair slaves circulating the wine and girl
musicians playing in the background. The following m orning
R ustam requested the Kings leave to go home, w hich he did,
loaded w ith gifts. Finally, Bizhan had a long interview w ith Kay
Khusraw, telling him the full story o f his vicissitudes in Turan, and
praising M anizha’s loyalty and courage, and the king entrusted him
w ith a great load o f brocades, dresses, carpets, slave-girls, and purses
o f gold as a present for his faithful lady.
T H E KAYANI A N D Y N A S T Y 57
Battle of the Twelve Rukhs
However many and crushing his defeats, Afrasiyab showed an

indomitable spirit, and in the frequent m ustering o f fresh armies he
demonstrated the surprising resilience o f his subjects. So now, after a
conference w ith his chiefs, he sent messengers far and wide to gather
a fresh host. News o f this soon reached Kay Khusraw, w ho mustered
his army and put the main body under the veteran Gudarz. Auxiliary
detachments were sent under Rustam to the eastern frontier, and
under Ashkash to the north. Gudarz began by sending his son Giv to
offer terms to Piran, w ho was in com m and o f the Turanians. W hen
these were rejected, there was eagerness for battle on both sides; the
impetuous Bizhan chafed at the delay, whilst on the enemy side
H um an asked Piran for permission to begin the battle. H e did so by
challenging R uhham , w ho declined in view o f orders issued by
Gudarz. Turning from him in scorn, H um an rode to the opposite
wing and called out Fariburz, w ho declined for the same reason.
Gudarz himself, w hen challenged by Hum an, said that single
combats were not his intention; let there be a general engagement.
H um an then rode back to his lines w ith a shout o f trium ph and
derision.
But w hen Bizhan heard o f this, though opposed by his father, he
prevailed on Gudarz to let him m eet H um an wearing the arm our o f
Siyawush. At first they simply exchanged insults, but on the
following m orning they carefully chose an isolated desert spot for
their duel. They both used all their weapons in turn, but w ithout
effect, after which, agreeing on a short interval by a pool, they
refreshed themselves. Bizhan took advantage o f this break to offer up
a prayer for strength, and this was quickly answered, for, as they
grappled once more, Bizhan grasped H um an and dashed him
violently to the ground, and, drawing his dagger, cut off his head.
Bizhan did not forget to offer his thanksgiving, and, as he had to pass
through the Turanian lines on his return ride, he changed the arm our
o f Siyawush w hich he was wearing for that o f the slain Hum an. He
thus passed through amidst acclamations, the Turanians thinking that
this was their victorious champion, whilst the Persians at first
thought that Bizhan had m et w ith disaster. But soon the truth
became know n to both sides producing strong but opposite effects.
The Turanian reaction was to launch a night attack under

Nastihan, but Gudarz received timely warning o f it, and sent Bizhan
forward w ith troops to turn the enemy back. The young w arrior
soon picked out Nastihan and, having shot his horse, brained him
w ith his mace. The night attack thus ended in disaster, and after a day
o f indecisive fighting, Gudarz sent to Kay Khusraw for reinforce
ments. The king promised to lead an army in person to his assistance,
and gave him news o f the successes o f Rustam , Ashkash, and Luhrasp
in their auxiliary advances. M eanwhile Piran sent a letter to Gudarz
by the hand o f his son R u ’in offering to give up various territories,
but Gudarz was able to reply that they were already in the hands o f
the Persians.
Piran then applied to Afrasiyab for m ore troops, and a stubborn
battle was fought. Piran, standing his ground alone, was attacked by
Giv, but the latter s horse suddenly jibbed, and Bizhan took the
opportunity to rem ind his father that Gudarz was destined to be the
slayer o f Piran, so they allowed him to retire. Piran next urged two
Turanian champions, his brothers Lahhak and Farshidward, to engage
the Persians. They furiously attacked Giv, and others from both sides
joined in, but darkness fell, and the issue remained undecided.
Gudarz and Piran then decided betw een them to settle the issue by
a series o f single combats, betw een eleven pairs o f champions (rukh )
chosen from either side.10 All o f these duels ended in victory for the
Persian, and in every case the Turanian was killed except in one. Giv
was pitted against Gurwi, whose hand had cut the throat o f
Siyawush, and was determ ined to take him alive and send him to Kay
Khusraw. This he accomplished, having first stunned him w ith a
blow o f his mace.
T h e last o f these fateful com bats was betw een the tw o
com m anders-in-chief, Gudarz and Piran. Both were old warriors,
skilful and experienced in war, and each had instinctively a high
regard for the other. They tried and exhausted all their combative
skills till, w hen it came to bows and arrows, Gudarz pierced the
arm our o f Piran’s steed w hich fell, rolling upon him and badly
damaging his right hand. The old w arrior recovered himself, and fled
up a hill, while Gudarz dism ounted and pursued him. As they faced
one another, Piran hurled a dart w ith his left hand, which w ounded
Gudarz in the arm. But Gudarz, w ith a surer aim, sent a dart through
PLATE 25 Piran slain by Gudarz
Piran s body from breast to liver. Finding him dead, Gudarz drank o f
his blood and smeared his face w ith it in m em ory o f the m urder o f
Siyawush, but refrained from taking his head. As the bodies were
brought in to burial the watchm en on both sides saw the approaching
host o f Kay Khusraw, whilst a host sent by Afrasiyab to the aid o f
Piran was m et by the melancholy news that the old w arrior was dead.
Thereupon Lahhak and Farshidward, rem em bering the instruc
tions o f Piran in the event o f defeat, fled towards Turan. Gudarz sent
Gustaham in pursuit, and Bizhan obtained permission to follow him
and aid him at need, though not before his father, ever anxious o f his
safety, had once m ore tried to prevent him. Gustaham had a tough
fight with the two brothers, but eventually slew them both, though
grievously w ounded himself. Bizhan found him, having recognised

his wandering horse, very near to death. His earnest wish was that
Bizhan should convey him to Kay Khusraw, together w ith the bodies
and spoils o f his two vanquished foes, and this Bizhan successfully
accomplished, w ith the help o f a Turanian prisoner. Gustaham was
healed by a talisman carried by Kay Khusraw, and eventually
recovered. The king gave honourable burial to Piran and the other
slain Turanian champions, but the captive m urderer Gurwi was
summarily beheaded. At the same time rich rewards were distributed
am ong the victorious Persians. Kay Khusraw received a deputation
from the Turanian army pleading for quarter; this was willingly
granted, and the petitioners were given liberty either to remain under
Kay Khusraw’s protection, or to return to Turan, having first
surrendered their arms.
Afrasiyab’s Last Campaign
But before long, incredible as it may seem, both monarchs were

eager to resume the conflict, Kay Khusraw in his firm intention to
destroy Afrasiyab, and Afrasiyab in a desperate attempt to reverse his
fortunes and to avenge Piran. After a fruitless exchange o f embassies
the armies once again faced one another. The gallant Prince Shida,
son o f Afrasiyab, was in com m and o f the Turanians, and he rode out
w ith a direct challenge to Kay Khusraw to m eet him in single
combat. Despite the loud protests o f his paladins, the king insisted on
accepting this challenge. At first they fought on horseback, w ith
advantage to neither side, but then Shida proposed that they should
dism ount and wrestle, and it was not long before he was dashed to
the ground and slain. The ensuing battle was long and bloody, and
the rival monarchs almost achieved a personal confrontation, but in
the end Afrasiyab was forced to retire, still shouting defiance.
D uring the night the Turanians abandoned their camp, w hich was
looted by the Persians in the m orning, and took refuge, together
w ith Afrasiyab himself, in the great fortress o f Gang Bihisht. Kay
Khusraw returned hom e and reported his trium ph to his grandfather,
the retired King Kay Ka’us. But at Gang Bihisht, Afrasiyab was
gathering his armies and sum m oning allies from far and wide. W hen
news o f this reached Kay Khusraw he led his troops north; the
Turanians m arched out o f Gang Bihisht to m eet him, and the battle
was joined. It was as hotly contested as ever; Kay Khusraw prayed for
divine succour, and a fierce w ind arose, blowing sand and dust in the
eyes o f the Turanians. W hen darkness fell, both armies withdrew.
Then came news o f the approach o f Rustam , bringing exultation to
one side and despair to the other; Afrasiyab w ithdrew all his forces
w ithin the walls o f Gang Bihisht, while great joy reigned in the
Persian camp. Kay Khusraw moved quickly against the fortress,
which was besieged, assaulted, and sacked, Afrasiyab himself escaping
through a subterranean passage.
PLATE 26 Shida slain by Kay Khusraw

T he w om en and children o f Afrasiyab s court were among the

captives, and Kay Khusraw took them under his protection. But
Afrasiyab himself was at large, and persuaded the Faghfur, a powerful
Chinese potentate, to jo in him, and they advanced together.
Afrasiyab again challenged Kay Khusraw to single combat, to settle
the feud once and for all, and the latter was keen to accept, but was
dissuaded by Rustam. After a daylight battle o f uncertain outcom e,
Afrasiyab attempted a night attack, but Kay Khusraw divined his
purpose, and it failed completely. The Faghfur now felt that he had
made a serious mistake in attaching himself to Afrasiyab, and opened
negotiations with the Persians w hich led to his withdrawal w ith all
his troops. The w retched Afrasiyab, thus deserted, decided to cross
the sea to his distant stronghold o f Gang Dizh. W hen Kay Khusraw
announced his determ ination to sail in pursuit, almost all the paladins
dem urred, as all Persians have a horror o f the sea, but Rustam
PLATE 27 Kay Khusraw crossing the sea

supported the king. This was decisive, and the expedition sailed,
conducting en route a m inor (and, o f course, victorious) campaign
against the King o f M akran. The outstanding feature o f the voyage
was the incredible num ber and variety o f the sea-m onsters
encountered and observed. Eventually the expedition reached Gang
Dizh, and the Persians marched in unopposed, for Afrasiyab s heart
had failed him at last, and he fled alone. But Kay Khusraw stayed a
year at Gang Dizh, enjoying the amenities o f the balmy climate, till
his soldiers rem inded him o f duties at home. O n the return journey
he was warmly welcom ed by one and all, especially at Makran, and
Rustam rejoined him halfway. At last they reached Iran, and the aged
Kay Ka’us came out joyfully to m eet his grandson. Lavish festivities
naturally followed.
Capture & Execution of Afrasiyab
The lonely fugitive Afrasiyab found himself a solitary cave on a

rem ote m ountain-side, where he hoped to spend his remaining days
undisturbed. However, a certain H um , a holy man o f the race of
Faridun, lived in a hermitage in the vicinity, and was in the habit of
using the m ountain for his devotions and austerities. O ne day he was
surprised to hear a sound o f lam entation issuing from the cave; this,
o f course, was Afrasiyab bewailing his fate. H um recognised the dirge
as Turanian, and w ith singular discernment decided that the voice
must be that o f Afrasiyab, o f whose solitary flight he had presumably
received news. He therefore entered the cave, and after a short
struggle secured the aged recluse w ith his girdle. However Afrasiyab
with piteous pleas induced H um to loosen his bonds, and, suddenly
freeing himself, plunged into an adjacent lake and disappeared under
the water.
It so happened that Gudarz, w ith a body o f retainers on an urgent
mission to Kay Khusraw, was passing that way, w hen they saw H um ,
obviously in a state o f perplexity, wandering up and down the lake
shore. He told them what had happened, and the king was, o f course,
inform ed immediately, and hastened to the lake accompanied by Kay
Ka’us. H um repeated his story, adding the helpful suggestion that
Afrasiyab’s brother Garsiwaz, now in captivity, m ight be used as a
PLATE 28 Execution o f Afrasiyab
bait. This seemed a good idea; the unfortunate Garsiwaz was brought
to the place and sewn up in an ox-hide which, as it dried, shrank,
causing him intense agony. His cries o f pain —a brother’s voice —had
the desired effect, and Afrasiyab came to the surface. He was quickly
lassoed by H um , and delivered to Kay Khusraw. The two brothers,
heavily fettered, were brought before the king, and after prolonged
m utual recriminations, in which Afrasiyab, in the face o f im m inent
death, showed the dignity o f resignation, Kay Khusraw beheaded
him w ith his own hand. Garsiwaz was consigned to an executioner,
w ho cut him in two at the waist.
The Last Days of Kay Khusraw
Soon after the death o f Afrasiyab, the aged Kay Ka’us died, and an
uncanny change came over Kay Khusraw. He w ithdrew himself,
spending m uch time in solitude and prayer, and closed the court,
m uch to the discomfort o f the paladins and courtiers. Zal and
Rustam came from Zabulistan to see what they could do to help. But
the angel Surush had visited the king in a dream and warned him that
his end was near. He gave a last charge to his subjects, patents to his
paladins, and a fond farewell to his wom en. H e appointed Luhrasp to
succeed him, and began a last journey up a m ountain, crowds
following him. At a certain point he ordered all to leave him. The
crowd dispersed, and Zal, Rustam , and Gudarz, w ho had always
obeyed him implicitly, went w ith them. But five o f the paladins -
Tus, Giv, Fariburz, Bizhan, and Gustaham - could not bring them
selves to part from their King, and they accompanied Kay Khusraw
to a spring where, entering the water, he vanished from their sight.
They remained long by the spring, talking o f old times, but at length
sleep overcame them . W hile they slept a terrible snowstorm
descended on the m ountain, and they were never seen again.
R E I G N OF L U H R A S P
Gushtasp in R um
Kay Khusraw was what is sometimes called ‘a hard act to follow’, and
Luhrasp, his successor, appears somewhat colourless and insignificant,
by comparison. Luhrasp had two sons, Gushtasp and Zarir, and
Gushtasp, the elder, was angry that his father refused to name him as
his heir, so left the court to take refuge in Hindustan. Luhrasp sent
Zarir to bring him back, but on his return he found that his father’s
plans for the succession were still vague, so departed in disgust for
R um , the realm o f Caesar, w here Luhrasp’s attempts to trace him
failed. Arrived in R um , Gushtasp tried to get w ork as a secretary, a
herdsman, or a camel-driver, but was turned down every time. H e
was finally taken on as an assistant to a blacksmith, but w hen
entrusted w ith the heavy hammer, he smashed at one blow the mass
o f red-hot metal and the anvil under it, and was not surprisingly
shown the door im m ediately At length a compassionate village
headman, a descendant o f Faridun, took him in.
It was Caesar’s custom, w hen one o f his daughters reached
marriageable age, to allow her to choose a husband from among the
assembled nobles and grandees. It was now the turn o f his eldest
daughter Kitayun; she saw nobody she fancied at first, so Caesar
invited candidates to present themselves from every part o f his
empire. Gushtasp’s host urged him to jo in the throng, and, o f course,
Kitayun chose him. As he was a foreigner, Caesar gave only grudging
consent, and denied the couple residence in the capital, so they
repaired to the hospitable village headman, who gave them quarters
in his village, where they were able to raise sufficient m oney on
Kitayun’s jewellery to maintain themselves.
After a while a noble R om an named M irin requested the hand of
Caesar’s younger daughter, Dilanjam, in marriage. But her father
decided to impose stiff conditions on this occasion, and told M irin
that he must first slay the monstrous rhinoceros11 o f Faskun. M irin at
first dem urred, saying that he was only prepared to take on hum an
foes. But by means o f astrology he discovered Gushtasp o f w hom
mighty deeds in R u m were foretold, and asked for his assistance.
Gushtasp readily agreed, borrow ed steed and arm our from M irin,
and tracked the monster down. The rhinoceros killed his horse, but
Gushtasp split its skull. The grisly carcass was shown to Caesar, w ho
congratulated M irin as its slayer, and bestowed on him his daughter.
There was another young R om an named Ahran, w ho aspired to the
hand o f Caesar’s third daughter, and Caesar decided once m ore to
change the old custom, inform ing Ahran that he must first rid the
land o f the dreadful dragon o f M ount Saqila. Ahran did not at all
fancy tackling the dragon himself, and consulted M irin. The latter,
having put him under a strong oath o f secrecy, told him how he had
procured Gushtasp to slay the rhinoceros o f Faskun on his behalf. In
short, Gushtasp was again persuaded to undertake the task, w hich he
rapidly dispatched, thrusting his sword into the dragons maw, and
then cleaving its head. Ahran duly received Caesar’s congratulations,
and the marriage ceremony was perform ed by the bishop.
It was the practice o f M irin, Ahran, and other R om an youths to
engage in equestrian and military exercises on Caesar’s riding-
PLATE 29 Gushtasp and the dragon
ground, and one day, w hen Gushtasp and his wife were watching
them, Kitayun persuaded him to jo in in. His skill at archery and polo
was such that Caesar, w ho was also watching, sent for him, and asked
w ho he was and w here he came from. Gushtasp replied by rem inding
him o f the harsh treatm ent he and his wife had received, being
banished from court, and proceeded to relate how he had slain the
rhinoceros and the dragon. Caesar apologised, prom oted him, and
also apologised to his daughter Kitayun, privately requesting her to
find out from her husband his true name and country o f origin,
w hich he had so far concealed. Caesar also sternly rebuked M irin and
Ahran for their double-dealing.
At this time Caesar was concerned to levy tribute from his
neighbours the Khazars, and sent a perem ptory letter to that effect to
Ilyas their king, threatening an invasion under Farrukhzad (the name
Gushtasp had adopted in R um ). Ilyas sent a scornful reply deriding

Caesar’s new ally. M irin and Ahran also, w rithing in jealously, poured
scorn on Gushtasp. Nevertheless, Caesar confirm ed him in com m and
o f the army, and w hen the hosts met, Gushtasp sought out Ilyas and
slew him. Elated by his success, Caesar now presumed to send a
demand for tribute to Luhrasp in Iran. W hile firmly rejecting any
possibility o f tribute, Luhrasp questioned the envoy about Caesar’s
sudden access o f aggressive confidence. The envoy described the
exploits o f ‘Farrukhzad’ in Caesar’s service, at the same time noticing
his strong physical resemblance to Zarir, w ho was standing beside the
king. Luhrasp also put two and two together, dismissed the envoy,
and sent Zarir on a mission to R um . He was to identify Gushtasp,
present him w ith the emblems o f sovereignty, and if possible bring
him back. All this he accomplished, Gushtasp having volunteered to
put Caesar’s case before the Persian court. He was warmly welcomed
by his father, w ho crowned him after abdicating in his favour. Caesar
gracefully accepted the situation, and all was peace and friendship
betw een R u m and Iran.
R E I G N OF G U S H T A S P
The Prophet Zoroaster
T he beginning o f Gushtasp’s reign saw the coming o f the great

prophet Zardusht (Zoroaster). His preaching converted the king, and
the religion spread rapidly; he advised Gushtasp that no tribute should
be paid by Iran to Turan (though the possibility o f such a tribute is not
made clear). Turan was now ruled by Aqasp who, filled w ith
contem pt for the new religion, and with fury at Gushtasp’s refusal to
pay the tribute, after a fruitless exchange o f envoys and correspon
dence, decided that the ancient struggle between the two nations
must be resumed. Gushtasp’s wise counsellor Jamasp reluctantly
w arned the king that great misfortune and the death o f many Persian
champions would be the result. So indeed it happened. Five o f Iran’s
best warriors fell in quick succession as soon as hostilities began, and
the king’s brother Zarir was slain in single combat by the Turanian
champion Bidarafsh. The situation was reversed, however, by the
intervention o f Isfandiyar, Gushtasp s eldest son by Kitayun, w ho

joined up w ith Nastur the son o f Zarir; together they laid Bidarafsh
low, and Aijasp and his army fled the field. A massacre o f the defeated
Turanians was halted by Isfandiyar as soon as he heard their cries for
quarter, and he then inspected the battle-field and gave a fitting
funeral to Zarir and the other illustrious dead.
Vicissitudes of Isfandiyar
Gushtasp m arried his son Isfandiyar, on his return, to his daughter

H um ay12 and put Nastur in comm and o f the army, w ith orders to
invade Turan. Caesar, on hearing o f the defeat o f Arjasp, sent an
embassy to Gushtasp, bearing rich gifts, as did several neighbouring
monarchs. Isfandiyar himself was sent on a tour o f the provinces to
spread the new faith. But Gurazm, an old w arrior w ith a grudge
against the prince, poisoned the m ind o f Gushtasp against his son,
and the king sent him to Isfandiyar with an urgent summons to
court. Isfandiyar suspected trouble ahead, but Jamasp counselled him
to obey. The prince’s suspicion was justified, and despite his fervent
protestations o f innocence he was removed to a m ountain fortress,
and closely confined in fetters.
Gushtasp then paid a visit to Zabulistan. H e was received with
protracted hospitality by Zal and Rustam , w ho readily accepted the
new religion. But, taking advantage o f the situation in Iran, w ith the
king absent and Isfandiyar in confinement, Arjasp and his allies once
m ore gathered a vast army and attacked the north-eastern city o f
Balkh, which was defended by the retired king Luhrasp. The old man
led out such forces as he had, and was overwhelmed by numbers after
a brave resistance. Balkh was taken and burnt, the sacred scriptures
destroyed, the prophet Zardusht and his priests massacred, and the
two sisters o f Isfandiyar, Hum ay and Bih-Afrid, led into captivity.
This dreadful news was conveyed to Gushtasp in Zabulistan by one o f
his wives w ho had escaped by a daring ride. The king hastily
gathered an army, but in the ensuring battle Arjasp put him
ignominiously to flight. Jamasp then implored Gushtasp to release
Isfandiyar to lead the troops, and was sent to the prince’s place o f
confinem ent to persuade him.
At first Isfandiyar refused, but finally agreed w hen told o f the

situation o f his brother Farshidward, w ho had fought bravely, and
been sorely w ounded in the battle. H e finally died in Isfandiyar
arms. The prince’s m eeting w ith his father was naturally strained at
first, but in the end they were reconciled. Isfandiyar then marshalled
the host, advanced, and m opped up Arjasp’s outposts; w hen the
armies m et, he encountered Gurgsar the enemy comm ander, lassoed
him, and sent him bound to Gushtasp. At this the king o f Turan
decided to w ithdraw to the Brazen H old, carrying w ith him the
spoils o f Balkh and the two princesses..
Isfandiyar’s Seven Stages
Isfandiyar’s main task now was the rescue o f his sisters (one o f them
his wife), w ho were confined in the Brazen Hold. T he captive
Gurgsar was enlisted as guide, and he gave Isfandiyar an account o f
three possible routes, which would take him three months, one
m onth and seven days respectively, graphically describing the dangers
involved, especially on the third route. It need hardly be added that,
like the great Rustam on his journey to Mazandaran, Isfandiyar chose
the third, and set forth w ith his army. The first stage o f their journey,
Gurgsar w arned him, involved an encounter w ith a pair o f
rhinoceroses13 each as large as an elephant.
They started at daybreak, but as they approached the place o f
danger Isfandiyar placed his m en under the comm and o f the veteran
Bishutan and rode forward alone. As soon as the monsters appeared,
he rained arrows on them, by w hich they were both disabled and
became easy prey to the prince’s sword. W hen the army came up
w ith him they found Isfandiyar offering a prayer o f thanksgiving, and
the two monstrous corpses lying by. This first victory was celebrated
w ith a feast.
In the evening Isfandiyar ascertained from Gurgsar that the next
peril to be m et was a pair o f savage lions before w hich the mightiest
wild beasts quailed. N othing daunted, he led his troops in a night
march, and w hen day dawned he once m ore rode forward, leaving
Bishutan in charge o f the troops. He soon encountered the lions, and
they made the fatal mistake o f attacking the prince separately. First
came the lion, w hich Isfandiyar clove from head to belly; then the
lioness, though appalled at the slaughter o f her mate, rushed at him
desperately, but in a m om ent her severed head was rolling on the
ground.
So they encamped for the night, and this time Gurgsar warned the
prince o f an enorm ous fire-breathing dragon w hich he must m eet on
the morrow. In view o f the fearsome size and deadly attributes o f this
m onster, Isfandiyar kept his engineers busy till nightfall in
constructing a strongly built arm oured chariot bristling w ith blades,
in the midst o f w hich was a reinforced com partm ent in w hich
Isfandiyar himself would ride. The night was m oonlit as the army
resumed its march, and in the m orning Isfandiyar entered his
arm oured vehicle and drove on ahead. The dragon soon heard the
rum bling o f its wheels and confronted it w ith a roar and cavern-like
open jaws breathing flames. The prince drove his horses straight at it,
and the dragon swallowed them, chariot and all. But w hen the blades
w hich covered the vehicle began to do their work, the dragon
became weak through loss o f blood, so that Isfandiyar managed to
cut himself loose aha brained the monster. But the foul emanations
from its flowing blood and mutilated corpse tem porarily over
powered him so that he fell unconscious till revived by Bishutan with
a liberal splash o f rose-water.
Gurgsar next warned him o f a powerful witch, by whose spells he
was sure to be made defenceless. So after the usual night march he
took his goblet, w ith wine and a lute, and settled himself by a spring,
passing the time by singing to himself. M eanwhile the w rinkled and
hideous w itch changed her shape into that o f a beautiful girl, and
joined Isfandiyar in his solitary revel. But he saw through her
disguise, encircled her w ith a steel chain he had received from the
prophet Zardusht, and slew her w ith his sword.
W hen they had pitched camp, Gurgsar was, as usual, interrogated
on what was to be expected on the following day. A beetling
m ountain, he replied, on which dwells a monstrous bird, the
Simurgh14 and her twin offspring. She can carry off an elephant or a
crocodile w ith no effort, and is always ready for battle. O n thinking
over this prospect, Isfandiyar decided to have recourse once m ore to
the arm oured chariot in w hich he had tackled the dragon. The
Simurgh observed from her m ountain eyrie the advance o f the
PLATE 30 Isfandiyar kills the Simurgh
strange vehicle ahead o f the troops, and swept down upon it in an

attem pt to carry it off. But the trusty blades again did their work, and
before long the mighty bird sank down bleeding from a hundred
wounds, so that Isfandiyar was able to leap out o f his secure cabin and
hew her in pieces. The orphaned chicks flew away screaming.
Gurgsar w arned Isfandiyar that the sixth stage w ould be m ore

testing, consisting o f a dreadful blizzard producing a snowfall o f a
spear’s length in depth, and the seventh stage, the approach to the
Brazen Hold, would be an arid wilderness o f dust and sand and
blistering heat forty leagues wide. Dismayed by this prospect, his
troops implored Isfandiyar to turn back; however he restored their
confidence by a vigorous harangue. The blizzard lasted three days and
nights, and the soldiers suffered terribly, but in the end their fervent
prayers caused a gentle breeze to arise w hich dispersed the clouds,
and the sun shone once more.
Gurgsar’s advice had been over-pessimistic; he had persistently
striven to dissuade Isfandiyar from his quest, and the prince suspected
him o f treacherous intentions. These suspicions were confirm ed
w hen Gurgsar endeavoured once again to divert him from his
purpose by asserting that only brackish or poisonous water was
available from that point onwards. But Isfandiyar disregarded him,
and pressed on till he reached a great river o f sweet water, w hich the
army successfully forded. W hen the Brazen H old was still ten leagues
away, Isfandiyar halted his troops and sum m oned Gurgsar, taunting
him by describing how he would deal w ith his master Arjasp and his
paladins. Gurgsar made a spirited and insulting retort, upon w hich
the prince drew his sword and cut him down.
As they approached the Brazen Hold, Isfandiyar reconnoitred the
ground and fortifications, and found the place apparently impreg
nable, an opinion confirm ed by two captured locals. Again following
R ustam ’s example, he therefore decided to gain access to the fortress
w ith a party disguised as merchants, leaving his main body in
concealment. The unsuspecting Arjasp received the ‘m erchants’
kindly and a busy market was set up. The sisters o f Isfandiyar, as they
passed by, recognised him, but kept mum. Isfandiyar then prepared a
great feast to w hich he invited Arjasp and all his principal warriors,
made them helplessly drunk, and then lit a fire on the ramparts as a
signal to Bishutan and the main body to launch an assault. H e himself
released the trusty warriors he had brought in concealed in bales o f
merchandise. They quickly penetrated the palace o f Arjasp, slaying all
the drunken noblem en they encountered. Arjasp himself put up a
stout fight, but Isfandiyar soon overcame him and cut off his head.
News o f the night’s doings at length reached the main body of
Turanian troops under Arjasp’s son Kuhram. As they approached the

fortress they were greeted by the severed head o f Arjasp flung over
the battlements, and in the battle that followed they were put to
flight. Isfandiyar ordered a general massacre in which the w ounded
were included. Kuhram and his brother Andariman were hanged
head downwards, after w hich the army made a trium phal return to
Iran.
Rustam & Isfandiyar
Isfandiyar (like his father before him) now considered that the time
had come for Gushtasp to abdicate in his favour. H e told his m other
so, but she tried vainly to dissuade him from such a treacherous
purpose, and he answered her roughly. Gushtasp suspected some
thing o f the sort, and enquired o f the astrologers what fate awaited
the prince. They replied through the counsellor Jamasp that
Isfandiyar was fated to die by the hand o f Rustam. So w hen the
prince appeared before his father and openly dem anded the
kingdom , the latter replied that he must first bring R ustam before
him in chains, as recently (he alleged) the old hero had not shown
him all the respect and loyalty he demanded. Isfandiyar agreed,
though very reluctantly, and in spite o f his m other’s protests, and so
set out for Zabulistan w ith a company o f followers.
At the borders o f Zabulistan he sent on his son Bahm an15 w ith the
king’s message; Zal received him, but Rustam was out hunting.
Bahman was therefore given a guide to help him to locate the hero,
and w hen he spied Rustam in a valley below him, he determ ined to
put him to the test. He dislodged a large boulder from the hilltop and
sent it thundering down on Rustam , w ho was just engaged in
cooking his usual supper, a wild ass roasted whole. The hero was
unperturbed, and as the boulder reached him he simply kicked it out
o f the way. M uch impressed by R ustam ’s strength and sang-froid,
Bahman gave him and his party a hearty welcome to the meeting,
and was even m ore impressed w hen at the ensuing feast R ustam
demolished another complete roasted wild ass.
Bahman delivered Gushtasp’s message, to w hich R ustam replied
politely but firmly: he could never consent to appear in chains before
PLATE 31 R ustam kicks back the rock throw n by Bahman
the king. W h en he finally m et Isfandiyar face-to-face, the

conversation on both sides soon degenerated into boastful vaunting
o f lineage and prowess, tempers became frayed, and a fight became
inevitable. W hen they had decided on a suitable ground, R ustam
stationed his brother Zawara and son Faramurz on an adjacent hill,
whilst he and Isfandiyar confronted one another, and their first
encounter was indecisive. M eanwhile a quarrel arose betw een
Zawara and Faramurz and the brothers Nush-Azar and M ihr-i-N ush,
sons o f Isfandiyar, in w hich the latter were slain. Isfandiyar was
naturally outraged at this, loudly accusing R ustam o f treachery. At
their second encounter he showered the hero w ith arrows, sorely
w ounding both him and his faithful steed. R ustam managed to
withdraw up a hill, and Isfandiyar did not pursue him. Surveying his
wounds that evening his old father Zal judged the occasion to be
serious enough for burning one o f the Simurgh’s feathers. The great
bird immediately appeared, drew out eight arrow-heads from the
hero’s body and six from that o f Rakhsh, and healed the wounds by
stroking them w ith her feathers. She then instructed Rustam to make
a forked arrow o f tamarisk wood, and to aim it at the eyes of
Isfandiyar, but she gave warning at the same time that an evil fate
awaited the slayer o f the young prince. W hen the two confronted
each other on the following day, Rustam made a last, and ineffectual,
appeal to Isfandiyar to call off their conflict and disregard his father’s
comm and, and the last tragic stage o f the duel began. R ustam used
the forked arrow as instructed by the Simurgh, striking Isfandiyar full
in the eyes, blinding and mortally w ounding him.
In his dying words to Rustam , Isfandiyar acknowledged that the
blame for his death lay on his father King Gushtasp, and im plored the
hero to train and take care o f his son Bahman in Zabulistan. To this
R ustam willingly agreed, though his brother Zawara spoke against it.
T he coffin o f Isfandiyar was conveyed to his father, whose courtiers
openly reproached him, and the prince was bitterly m ourned by his
m other Kitayun and her wom en. Rustam faithfully discharged his
promise to the dying Isfandiyar, and Bahman grew up a stalwart
w arrior under his tutelage, till he was sum m oned hom e by his
grandfather.
Death of Rustam
N ow old Zal had a younger son named Shaghad, by a slave-girl. The

astrologers predicted gloomily that the child would prove the
destroyer o f the house o f Sam, but his father favoured him, and w hen
he grew up, sent him to live for a while w ith his neighbour the King
o f Kabul. The king hoped that, being entrusted w ith the care o f
R ustam ’s half-brother, he would be excused the annual tribute he
paid to the hero. But the tribute was collected as usual, and the king
began to plot w ith Shaghad, w ho was madly jealous and resentful of
Rustam . They resolved to stage a quarrel, as a result o f w hich
Shaghad would go and complain to Rustam . The hero would then
come to Kabul to remonstrate w ith the king, w ho w ould then

mollify him w ith a hunting party, in the course o f w hich they hoped
to achieve their ultimate purpose. The plot succeeded, and while
Shaghad was absent, the king had pits dug in the hunting-ground,
planting in them spears and swords w ith points upperm ost, and
covering and concealing them w ith brushw ood and grass.
W hen they reached the first pit, Rakhsh smelt the freshly turned
earth and jibbed; Rustam touched him lightly w ith his whip, and
ever obedient, the old horse plunged forward, the brushw ood gave
way, and both were impaled. Rustam read guilt in the face o f
Shaghad, and bitterly reproached him and his fellow-conspirator the
King o f Kabul. In the end he requested that his bow and arrows
m ight be placed near him before he died to scare off marauding wild
beasts, and he grasped the bow so eagerly that the w retched Shaghad
PLATE 32 D eath o f Rustam

took refuge behind a large plane tree. The dying hero, summ oning
all his remaining strength for a supreme effort, draw the bow to his
ear and sent his last arrow straight through the tree and through the
body o f his treacherous half-brother. Zawara, who had accompanied
his brother, died in another o f the pits.
As soon as the terrible news reached Zal, he sent an army under
Faramurz against Kabul. Faramurz recovered the bodies, prepared
them for burial, and sent them hom e to Zabulistan; the body o f
R akhsh was carried on an elephant. H e then routed the Kabuli army,
captured the king and threw him into one o f the pits, burned forty of
his relatives, throwing the corpse o f Shaghad on the pyre. R ustam ’s
old m other R udaba was so distraught at her son’s death that she lost
her reason.
R E I G N OF B A H M A N
Soon after this Gushtasp died, having given up the kingdom to his
grandson Bahman. The new king lost no time in m ounting an
expedition against Zabulistan to avenge his father Isfandiyar on
R ustam ’s family. The aged Zal was made prisoner but pardoned,
Faramurz however, was hanged head downwards and shot to death
w ith arrows. Bahman then m arried his own daughter16 Humay, w ho
succeeded him w hen he died, despite the claims o f his son Sasan.
Sasan retired to Nishapur in the north-east, and his descendants
became royal herdsmen; from them the Sasanian dynasty traced its
origin.
R E I G N OF Q U E E N H U M A Y
In order to keep the throne to herself Humay, who was pregnant

w hen her father/husband died, set her baby son adrift in a casket on
the river Farat (Euphrates). H e was rescued by a washerman and his
wife, w ho named the child Darab, and brought him up. W hen o f
age, he joined the army and distinguished himself in a war against
R um . At length he was recognised and acknowledged by his m other,
w ho then resigned the crown to him.
R E I G N OF D A R A B
Birth of Iskandar
Darab, builder o f the city ofD arabjird, first defeated a large Arab host
under Shu‘ib, and then routed the army o f Failakus (Philip o f
M acedon). From the latter he demanded a heavy tribute and the
hand o f his beautiful daughter Nahid. But in a very short time he was
disgusted to find that his bride suffered badly from halitosis, and so
sent her back to her father. She was however, already pregnant, and
her son was Iskandar (Alexander the Great), so that w hen Darab
died, leaving the crown to his younger son Dara, Iskandar, as the
elder, felt himself cheated o f his inheritance.
R E I G N OF D A R A
In due course Failakus died, and Iskandar succeeded him on the

throne o f R um . Dara sent to demand tribute from him, and Iskandar
replied by invading Iran to regain his rightful inheritance. H e
defeated Dara in three great battles, and after the last one found him
lying m ortally w ounded by tw o treacherous m inisters. T he
murderers were prom ptly executed, and Iskandar sorrowfully
received his half-brother’s dying wish, w hich was that Iskandar
should m arry his daughter Rushanak (Roxana). H e was then
universally acclaimed as Dara’s successor.
R E I G N OF I S K A N D A R
Iskandar in India
Iskandar began his reign by arranging his marriage w ith Rushanak,

after w hich he turned his attention towards H ind (India). Kaid, King
o f H ind had had a series o f very puzzling dreams, w hich were
interpreted to him by the sage M ihran. The sum o f his interpretation
was: do not fight w ith Iskandar, but put your trust in your Four
Treasures, namely, your daughter, your privy counsellor, your
PLATE 33 Iskandar comforts the dying Dara
physician, and your magic cup. This was timely advice, for Iskandar
was already marching against Kaid (for no ostensible reason), sending
him a high-handed ultim atum in advance. Kaid remained calm, and
returned a conciliatory reply offering to make Iskandar a present o f
his Four Treasures. Iskandar’s bellicose m ood was thus changed into
one o f greed and curiosity, and after suitable negotiations, these
remarkable gifts arrived, accompanied by a profusion o f m ore
conventional offerings. O f the Four Treasures it was Kaid’s beautiful
daughter that at first m onopolised Iskandar s attention; indeed, before
he had even inspected the others he formally m arried her (so soon
after Rushanak?). H e then subjected the other three Treasures to
various ingenious tests, all o f w hich were passed w ith flying colours,
so that Iskandar expressed himself as completely satisfied, and Kaid
was left in peace.
The great conqueror’s vaulting ambition was next directed at Fur
(Porus), king o f the neighbouring Kanauj. His customary blustering
call to surrender produced a dignified and reproachful reply from
Fur. But it was not long before the armies were face-to-face. By the
advice o f his sages, Iskandar had caused a large num ber o f hollow
iron horsem en on wheels to be constructed, and these were filled
w ith naphtha, to be ignited and set in m otion as the battle began.
These fire-breathing machines caused dismay and confusion among
Fur’s elephants, and to prevent further slaughter, Iskandar challenged
Fur to single combat, and the challenge was eagerly accepted. But a
sudden clamour from the troops behind him distracted the Indian
king’s attention, and Iskandar seized the opportunity to deal him a
quick death-blow.
Iskandar & Queen Qaydafa
From India, Iskandar proceeded to Mecca to visit the Ka‘ba,17 and

then settled for a time in Misr (Egypt) to rest his troops. Qaydafa,
Q ueen o f Andalus (Spain), heard o f his great reputation, and sent an
envoy, w ho was also a painter, to his court to gain as m uch
inform ation as he could, and to take a likeness o f Iskandar himself.
The envoy was successful in this, and w hen the portrait was shown to
Q ueen Qaydafa she recognised in it the features o f a w orld-
conqueror. M eanwhile Iskandar was making enquiries about her
from Kabtun, King o f Misr, as a result o f w hich he sent her one o f his
haughty letters demanding tribute, to which she returned a defiant
answer. In his subsequent advance Iskandar captured a border town,
and w ith it Kaidrush, a son o f the Q ueen, and his wife. By a ruse he
concealed his identity from this young man, appearing as one w ho
had saved him from execution, and thus contrived to accompany him
back to Andalus masquerading as an envoy to the Q ueen. At his
audience w ith her Iskandar was overwhelmed by her magnificence
PLATE 34 Iskandar at the Ka‘ba
and royal dignity. She on her part sent privately for the portrait she
had commissioned, by w hich she was able to recognise him, but gave
no sign o f it, whilst he, still pretending to be an envoy, repeated his
threatening message. She then dismissed her courtiers and w hen they
were alone addressed him as Iskandar, showing him the portrait, and
reproaching him for his ill-m annered presumption. She added that
her son Tainush was the late King Fur’s son-in-law, and was eager to
avenge him. At his farewell audience Iskandar at first made bold to
repeat his threats o f war and destruction if tribute were not paid.
Tainush was furious, and Iskandar felt it advisable to climb down, and
they were reconciled; in fact he departed in friendship, having made

a strong pact w ith the Queen.
Further Travels & Death o f Iskandar
Iskandar then visited the land o f the Brahmins and partook o f their
wisdom. N ext he travelled to the W estern sea, where he beheld great
marvels, and after that waged war on the Habash (Ethiopians) and the
Narm pai, both o f w hom he subdued. In the land o f the Narm pai he
slew a monstrous dragon by the astute use o f naphtha.
H e then climbed a great m ountain, on the summit o f w hich was a
gorgeously attired corpse seated on a throne. W hen he approached it
Iskandar heard a voice proclaiming that his end was near; this was the
first o f four such warnings he received in the course o f his travels. His
next call was at Harum , the city o f w om en — true amazons w ith a
PLATE 35 Iskandar and the Brahmins

PLATE 36 Iskandar at the Well o f Life
mighty army - to w hom Iskandar prudently announced purely

peaceable intentions, and stayed w ith them for a m onth before
m arching to the Land o f Gloom in search o f the Water o f Life. But
here he became separated from his guide, the sage Khizr. In his
subsequent wanderings he found himself climbing another m ountain
near the summit o f w hich were four great birds nesting on four
pillars o f aloes wood. They urged him to climb higher, and w hen he
did so he encountered Israfil, the Angel o f the Last Judgem ent w ith
his trum pet, w ho gave him his second warning o f im pending death.
D eparting eastwards from there, he delivered a city from its evil fate
by building a mighty wall o f iron, blocking the passes o f the Caucasus
and so keeping out the savage people o f Yajuj and Majuj (Gog and
Magog) w ho had made a misery o f the citizens’ lives. Still pursuing
his restless course, Iskandar came to a m ountain w here a boar-headed
hum an corpse was lying on a throne by a fountain, and once again
heard a disembodied voice predicting his early demise - the third
warning. The local inhabitants then guided him to the W orld’s End,
w here grew a great tree w ith twin trunks, male and female, w hich
gave tongue, one at midday and the other at m idnight. B oth trunks
gave Iskandar his fourth warning o f im m inent death in a foreign land.
But this did nothing to curb Iskandar’s wanderlust, and he made his
way from the W orld’s End across the desert to China and eventually
reached the sea. Presumably as a m atter o f habit, he wrote an arrogant
letter to the Faghfur (Emperor o f China), w ho replied w ith restraint
PLATE 37 M ourning for Iskandar

and dignity, that he was prepared nether to fight nor to flee. By this
Iskandar seems to have been somewhat non-plussed, and made
thoroughly ashamed o f his boorish behaviour. So he turned back,
passing through India, defeating the m en o f Sind, and crossing to
Yemen. O n the way from there to Babylon the army, exhausted by
scaling a m ountain barrier, descended to a plain adjoining the sea.
T here they m et a hairy savage w ith enorm ous ears whose name was
Gushbistar. H e guided them to a strange city built entirely o f bones,
w here the elders showed him the treasure-house o f Kay Khusraw, o f
w hich they were the custodians. Iskandar did not hesitate to remove
the contents, and m arched on to Babylon, increasingly conscious o f
his im pending fate. This state o f m ind gave rise to a mad scheme to
massacre the whole royal family, but this was scotched just in time by
the intervention o f his tutor, Aristotle. Arrived at Babylon, Iskandar
found that a monstrous birth has just occurred; the child was born
dead, but had the head o f a lion, hoofs, and the tail o f an ox. This was
the last straw, and after w riting a farewell letter to his m other,
containing detailed instructions for his obsequies and the disposal o f
his treasures, Iskandar died in the presence o f his troops, and was
m ourned throughout the w orld.18
Ill
THE ASHKANIAN
DYNASTY
he five centuries betw een the death o f Iskandar in B C 323 and

the foundation o f the Sasanian dynasty by Ardashir in AD 226
are dismissed by Firdawsi in a mere 20 couplets, and he reduces their
duration from 500 to 200 years. There are two reasons: as he himself
admits, the poet had virtually no material to go on, and only
mentions a few scattered names; and in Persian tradition the
Parthians were not considered as true Persian Kings. Firdawsi calls
them ‘Kings o f the Tribes’, and describes their kingdom as a loose
confederation o f tribal rulers. Only the last Parthian sovereign,
Ardawan (Artabanus IV) is treated in some detail, to provide
background for the rise o f Ardashir.
The dynasty takes its name from its legendary founder, Ashk, or
Arash (Arsaces), said to have been a younger son o f Kay Qubad. It is
not unlikely that some stories in the earlier part o f the epic have their
origin in Parthian tradition, and were transferred to the Kayanians
because the Parthians were not recognised as true Persians; the names
o f Ashkanians m entioned in passing by Firdawsi include Gudarz and
Bizhan. Furtherm ore, the Rustam cycle, located in the eastern
province o f Zabulistan or Sistan, may have been introduced by the
Sacae (from w hom the name o f Sistan is derived), a warlike people
w ho successfully invaded Iran from the East as early as the reign o f
the Parthian Phraates II (late 2nd century BC). The origins o f this
cycle may thus antedate the other legends in the early part o f the
Shahnama , as noted by Professor Noldeke.
87
R E I G N OF A R D A W A N
Rise of Ardashir
Sasan, w ho gave his name to the Sasanian dynasty, is here named as a

son o f Dara, though he is elsewhere (p. 78 above) said to have been
the son o f Dara’s great-grandfather Bahman. His descendants were
shepherds and camel-drivers, all bearing the name o f Sasan. The last
in the series became head shepherd to Papak, governor o f Shiraz and
Isfahan, and Papak had a dream foretelling future glory for him and
his line. H e therefore questioned Sasan about his ancestry, and w hen
he learned that he was o f royal descent, he prom oted him and gave
him his daughter in marriage.
T heir son was Ardashir, a boy so fair and strong that news o f his
accom plishments reached Ardawan the King, and Papak was
persuaded to send the youth to court. There he was graciously
received and basked some time in the King’s favour, till a quarrel
broke out betw een him and one o f Ardawan’s sons, as a result o f
w hich Ardawan reduced his rank to stable-master. In his now
hum ble abode, Ardashir one day caught the eye o f Gulnar, the
beautiful and favourite slave-girl o f Ardawan; the attraction was
strong and mutual, and she began to visit him regularly. In her
privileged position she happened to overhear Ardawan in council
w ith his wise m en w hen they warned him that one o f his servants
w ould flee the court and becom e a mighty monarch. W hen she
passed this on to Ardashir, he realised his danger and they laid their
plans. Gulnar helped herself liberally from the treasury, to w hich she
had official access, and the couple fled on two o f Ardawan’s best
horses.
O n learning o f this audacious elopem ent, Ardawan and a body o f
his m en rode off in pursuit. He enquired at the first village he came
to w hether two riders had passed that way, and a villager told him
‘Yes, and behind them ran a fine m ountain ram.’ Ardawan then
questioned his minister on the significance o f the ram; ‘It is the
Royal Splendour (farr),]9 he replied, ‘and if it catches up w ith them ,
your pursuit is in vain’. R epeating his enquiry at the next town,
Ardawan was told that the riders had indeed passed, weary and travel-
stained, and that on the crupper behind one o f them was riding a
T H E A S H K A N I A N D Y N A S T Y 89
m ountain ram. Ardawan turned homewards in despair; the Royal

Splendour had never been his, and it was now w ith Ardashir.
News o f the young man soon spread throughout Iran, rekindling
old national loyalties, and eventually he had a considerable army at
his command. H e m et and defeated successively Bahman son o f
Ardawan, and Ardawan himself, the latter in a great battle lasting
forty days and accompanied by a fearful storm. Ardawan was
captured and executed, but was given an honourable funeral.
Ardashir m arried his daughter (we hear no m ore o f Gulnar) and
assumed the Kingship.
89
IV
THE SASANIAN
DYNASTY
R E I G N OF A R D A S H I R I
The Worm of Kerman
o begin with, a war w ith the Kurds, at first unsuccessful, was won
T in the end by a night attack. The king then turned his attention
to the south-eastern city o f Kujaran, where a chieftain, Haftwad,
enjoyed m uch power and unfailing good fortune. The source o f his
prosperity was a little w orm found in an apple by his daughter. She
kept the w orm as a pet, and just like our own Lambton W orm, it . . .
.. . grow ’d and grow ’d an awfu’ size

w ith a great big gob and great big teeth and great big goggly eyes.
but, unlike its Lambton cousin, it was a vegetarian and consistently

brought good fortune to Haftwad and his family o f seven sons. At
length he felt himself powerful enough to get rid o f the governor and
to take over the city, w hich he successfully accomplished, and built a
stronghold nearby as a residence for the W orm, naming it Kerman
(Persian, kerm = a worm ). Ardashir marched on Kerman, but was
defeated by Haftwad. M eanwhile, during his absence, his palace was
sacked by a certain Mihrak. However his chiefs bade him not to
despair, and two mysterious youths joined the party, giving him
valuable advice on how to deal w ith the W orm , w hich they said must
be destroyed before he could gain any advantage. But first he
overcame M ihrak, and beheaded him w ith his own hand.
91
T hen he marched against Kerman once more, and adopted tactics

exactly corresponding with those o f his ancestor Isfandiyar at the
Brazen Hold. The only difference - a vital one - was that in addition
to the rich merchandise he took w ith him, he packed two boxes full
o f lead and solder and also took a brazen cauldron. Having ingratiated
himself and his seven ‘merchants’ (all, o f course, in disguise), w ith the
custodians o f the W orm, he requested the honour o f feeding the
m onster for them, and supplied them liberally with liquor. W hen this
PLATE 38 Ardashir and the W orm o f Kerman

T H E S A S A N I A N D Y N A S T Y 93
had the desired effect, he melted the lead in the cauldron; the W orm
lifted its head to receive its customary meal o f rice pudding and
honey, but instead the m olten metal was poured down its throat.
There was a roar like thunder, and the W orm expired. Ardashir raised
a smoke signal to summon his general, Shahrgir, waiting w ith the
main body o f troops, and the latter advanced on the city. They were
m et by Haftwad and his men, but easily dispersed them, and Haftwad
was taken prisoner. H e and his son Shahwi were hanged and shot to
death w ith arrows, and Ardashir quickly brought the rest o f Ardawan’s
kingdom under his control.
Birth of Shapur
Ardashir’s formal coronation took place at Babylon. Shortly after it

his wife, Ardawan’s daughter, attem pted to poison him at the
instigation o f her two brothers living in exile in India. But as
Ardashir raised the poisoned liquor, com pounded w ith meal, to his
lips, the cup slipped from his hand and shattered on the floor. His
w ife’s ill-concealed agitation at this aroused his suspicions, and he had
four fowls brought in, w hich ate the meal off the floor, and expired
forthwith. Ardashir immediately ordered his minister to arrange the
execution o f his wife; but she pleaded that she was w ith child, and
the minister kept her concealed in his palace. In due course a son,
Shapur, was born, w hom his m other and the minister brought up till
he was seven years old. It was then that Ardashir complained to the
minister that he had no son to follow him. The minister reckoned
that the time had come to speak, and, on the king’s promise to spare
his life, told the w hole story o f Shapur’s birth, including particulars of
a painful and delicate operation he had perform ed on himself at the
time, o f w hich he produced dated evidence so that no suspicion was
possible as to the child’s paternity. Ardashir was delighted, warmly
com m ending his m inister’s devotion, and ordering him to arrange a
game o f polo in w hich the young Shapur and a hundred o f his
contemporaries should take part. H e had no difficulty in picking out
his son from the others by the skill and boldness o f his play. Ardashir
received his son w ith joy, richly rewarded his minister, and was
reconciled w ith his wife.
Shapur & the Daughter of Mihrak
Finding the cares o f monarchy weighing heavily upon him, Ardashir

sent an embassy to the wise and experienced King Kaid o f H ind,
asking him to divine what the future held for him. Kaid’s reply was
that if he wished for peace and success he must join his family to that
o f M ihrak, w hom he had beheaded on his way to kill the W orm.
Ardashir angrily rejected any such idea, threatening to burn M ihrak’s
daughter - his only surviving descendent - so that she hid herself in
the house o f a friendly village headman. N ow on a hunting
expedition it happened that prince Shapur passed through the village
in question, and saw a handsome young wom an drawing water at a
well. She offered to water Shapur’s horse, so he told his groom to
draw up the bucket. But the groom found it too heavy to raise, and
even Shapur, w hen he tried it, found that it taxed him to the full, yet
the girl had been drawing it up w ithout difficulty. She had
recognised him, and he, fascinated, made her confess that she was
M ihrak’s daughter. H e did not allow that to stand in the way, but got
the headman to m arry them on the spot. In due course she gave birth
to a fine son named H urm uzd, but his existence was kept secret from
Ardashir till by chance the boy attracted his grandfather’s attention,
just as his father had done, by his boldness among his peers on the
playground. W hen Ardashir demanded his name and parentage, the
boy fearlessly announced that he was the son o f prince Shapur and
M ihrnush, daughter o f M ihrak. Ardashir embraced him warmly,
apologising for his disregard o f the wise counsel o f Kaid.
R E I G N OF S H A P U R I
Almost as soon as he succeeded to the throne on his father’s death,

Shapur found himself at war w ith Caesar, whose general, Bazanush,
was captured in the first battle.20 Shapur treated him well, and
entrusted him with the building o f a great bridge, a thousand cubits
long, at Shushtar. As soon as it was finished Bazanush escaped and
made his way home. W hen he had completed thirty years and two
m onths on the throne Shapur died, having entrusted the kingdom to
his son H urm uzd.
THE SASANIAN DYNASTY 95
R E I G N S O F H U R M U Z D I, B A H R A M I, B A H R A M II,
B A H R A M III, N A R S I & H U R M U Z D II
The reigns o f these monarchs are summarily treated in the Shahnam a ,

and nothing o f interest is recorded o f them. H urm uzd II died before
an heir was born to him, but one o f his wives was pregnant at the
time, and the wise m en confidently predicted that the child would
prove a male, so the coronation was held w ith the crown suspended
over the lady’s belly. Shapur II was born four months later.
PLATE 39 Shapur’s troops take the city o f Ta’ir

R E I G N OF S H A P U R II
War with the Arabs
Early in this reign the Arab chieftain Ta’ir invaded southern Iran and
carried off Nusha, the daughter o f Narsi and Shapur’s aunt, and by
her Ta’ir had a daughter named Malika. W hen Shapur was tw enty-
six he made a punitive expedition against Ta’ir, and besieged him in
his stronghold. Malika saw him from the ramparts, fell in love w ith
him at first sight, and sent a message to him by her nurse offering to
deliver up the stronghold to him if he would make her his wife, to
w hich Shapur returned an enthusiastic affirmative. Malika then
caused her father and his chief warriors to be made drunk, and
opened the gates to the Persians. Ta’ir was captured, brought before
Shapur, and beheaded. All the Arab prisoners had their shoulder-
blades removed, and Shapur thus earned the sobriquet o f Z u ’l-aktaf,‘
or ‘Lord o f the shoulders’).21
Shapur in Rum
After a while Shapur felt a desire to visit R um , to acquaint himself

w ith its resources and constitution, w hich he did in the guise o f a
religious merchant. But he was betrayed by a renegade Persian at
Caesar’s court, and flung into a dungeon sewn up in an ass’s hide.
T he key o f the dungeon was entrusted by Caesar to his wife, and by
her to her confidante, a girl o f Persian descent. M eanwhile Caesar
took advantage o f the situation to invade and ravage Iran, whose
forces, deprived o f their King and leader, collapsed before him. The
Persian girl, not realising at first w ho he was, was sympathetic to
Shapur’s plight, and eased the torm ent o f the ass’s skin by soaking it
w ith warm milk. W hen he told her w ho he was, she promised to
effect his release. She fixed a day w hen the whole city was busy
attending a festival; during the day she secured two horses, arms, and
provisions from Caesar’s stables and stores, and at night she freed
Shapur, and they rode away as fast as they could.
The next night they spent w ith a hospitable gardener and his wife
on the border, and they told Shapur of the miseries and massacres of
Caesar’s invasion. Shapur then sent the gardener, w ith an impression

o f his royal seal, to the local high priest. The latter, realising that this
signified that the King had returned, inform ed the com m ander-in-
chief, and before long a large army was assembled. Caesar had
established his headquarters at Taisafun (Ctesiphon), passing the time
in idle dissipation, and Shapur took him by surprise by a night attack.
T he camp was sacked, 12,000 Rom ans slain, and Caesar captured. In
a subsequent interview Shapur berated him for his cruelties (being
particularly riled by memories o f the ass’s skin), and demanded
reparation for the ravaging o f Iran. Finally, Caesar’s ears were
cropped, a ring was put in his nose, and he died in captivity.
Shapur, in his turn, carried fire and sword into the border
provinces o f R um , and was m et by an army under Caesar’s brother
Yanus (Julian); Shapur was victorious and an immense booty taken.
The Rom ans then placed Bazanush on the throne, and his first act
was to w rite a letter to Shapur, the contents o f w hich virtually
am ounted to a cry for mercy. In his reply, Shapur could not resist
making a further reference to the ass’s skin, but professed peaceful
intentions, and sum m oned Bazanush to a conference to discuss
terms. M ost im portant o f these were a huge tribute, and the ceding
o f Nisibin (Nisibis), a strategic border fortress. The inhabitants at first
rose in opposition to being put under Persian rule, but the revolt was
quickly stamped out.
Mani
The last major event o f Shapur’s reign was the appearance o f the false
prophet and painter Mani (Manes).22 Shapur sum m oned him to a
debate w ith the Zoroastrian priests, in which he was put to
confusion; the king then had him flayed, and his skin, stuffed w ith
straw, hung on the city gate. Soon after this Shapur died, leaving the
throne to his brother Ardashir.
R E I G N S OF A R D A S H I R II, S H A P U R III & B A H R A M IV
N othing o f interest is recorded o f these Kings o f the Shahnama.

R E I G N OF Y A Z D A G I R D I
Arabian Education o f Prince Bahram
Yazdagird I was a son o f Shapur III; Firdawsi accuses him o f

oppression and neglect o f justice, but in reality it seems to have
been his toleration, and even encouragem ent, o f C hristianity that
earned him the sobriquet o f ‘the Sinner’. H e was persuaded by
his counsellors to send away his young son Bahram to Arabia, to
be brought up under the care o f M unzir and N u m a n , princes
o f Hira, and he was there well instructed in every princely
accom plishment.
PLATE 40 Bahram G ur hunting w ith Azada

O nce he was out hunting accompanied by a girl musician named

Azada, w ho pertly challenged him to perform several feats o f archery
w hich she thought impossible. But Bahram was successful in all o f
them, and w hen Azada imprudently suggested that the performance
o f such feats must be devil’s work, Bahram threw her to the ground
and trampled her under his camel.23 Later, M unzir made Bahram
display his skills so that a report could be sent to his father, and this he
did by unerringly shooting four running ostriches w ith four
consecutive arrows. M unzir then had a likeness o f him, hunting on
camel-back, taken by the best available painters, and sent to
Yazdagird, and it was followed at intervals by further pictorial
bulletins o f the young prince’s progress. These fired Yazdagird with
desire to see his son, so he was sent to the Persian court w ith N u m a n
as companion.
Despite the warm welcome he received, Bahram chafed at the
position he was given at court, after his free outdoor life in Arabia,
and one evening, w orn out by constant attendance on the king, he
fell asleep at his post. Yazdagird was furious and banned him from the
court. H e was eventually reinstated by the intervention o f Tainush,
the envoy o f R um , and returned to M unzir in Arabia.
Mysterious Death of Yazdagird
M eanwhile Yazdagird was taken ill, and by the advice o f his

counsellors sought a cure at the spring o f Sav, near Tus in Khurasan.
W hen he arrived at the spring a strange white horse rose out o f the
water; and though it fiercely resisted all the efforts o f the royal
grooms to capture and subdue it, w hen the king himself drew near
and placed a saddle on its back, it remained docile and motionless.
But w hen Yazdagird passed behind it to adjust the crupper, it lashed
out w ith its rear hoofs, kicking him in the head and killing him, and
then vanished once m ore beneath the water.
R E I G N OF B A H R A M V ( B A H R A M G U R )
Bahrain Wins the Croum
T he nobles refused to crown Bahram, fearing that he w ould resemble

his father, and chose an elderly man o f the royal stock named
Khusraw. W hen the news reached Bahram in Arabia, M unzir and
N u m a n furnished him w ith troops, and he invaded Iran, whilst the
neighbouring nations took up a threatening attitude. An envoy,
Jawanwi, was sent to Bahrain’s camp to protest, but after an interview
w ith M unzir he professed his allegiance to Bahram, advising him to
advance into Iran, where he would be well received. So Bahram
entered his patrimony, and justified his invasion to the assembled
Persians. In the course o f his speech he proposed a choice by ordeal
betw een Khusraw and himself: let him and his rival try to seize the
crown from betw een two raging lions. This was agreed. Khusraw
declined the priority to which, as the senior, he was entitled, and
Bahram, having confessed his sins and purified himself, clubbed the
lions, sat on the throne betw een their corpses, and assumed the
crown. The unsuccessful (by default) candidate was the first to offer
his homage and congratulations.
Anecdotes of Bahram Gur
Bahram G ur (‘wild ass’, so called from his addiction to hunting that

animal) began his reign by pardoning his subjects for their initial
rejection o f his claims, and rem itted all arrears of taxes. Firdawsi treats
his reign at considerable length, beginning w ith a series o f anecdotes,
in most o f which the King mingles incognito with his subjects o f all
classes.
1. The W ater-Carrier & the Jew
In the first o f these Bahram was, as was his habit, enjoying the chase,
w hen he engaged a local in conversation, enquiring about local
conditions and characters. The local inform ed him that in the
neighbouring city lived two contrasting characters: Lambak, a water-
T H E S A S A N I AN D Y N A S T Y 101
carrier, poor but generous and hospitable, and Baraham a Jew, rich
and miserly. Bahrain’s curiosity was aroused and he decided to
investigate. H e first issued a proclamation that water sold by Lambak
was bad. H e then w ent to the w ater-carrier’s house pretending to be
an army captain, and requested lodging for the night. Lambak
received him warmly and entertained him lavishly; in fact he
persuaded him to stay three nights, though as a result o f the
proclamation he had to pawn the tools o f his trade in order to
procure sufficient provisions. O n the third evening the King himself
cooked the meal, and in the m orning excused himself and returned
to the chase.
In the evening he knocked on Baraham ’s door, posing as a
m em ber o f the hunt w ho had lost his way, but his request for
PLATE 41 Bahram G ur at the house o f Lambak

lodging was at first curtly refused. How ever in the end he was
allowed to bed dow n outside the door, and the Jew stipulated that
he must clear up his horse’s droppings in the m orning. In Bahram ’s
presence his ‘host’ was served w ith a lavish meal but offered not so
m uch as a m outhful to his guest. N ext m orning the King returned
to the palace, donned his crown, and gave a state reception to
w hich both Lambak and Baraham were bidden. T he Jew was made
to sit dow n whilst the King sent a servant to his house w ith
baggage-animals and orders to strip it o f all contents and bring them
to him. So vast was the treasure w ithin that m ore baggage-animals
had to be procured, and even then m uch was left behind. Bahram
presented Lambak w ith a hundred camel-loads o f this treasure,
distributing the rem ainder to the poor, and scornfully dismissing
Baraham w ith four small coins.
2. Ban on W ine-D rinking
T he next story begins, like the foregoing, with Bahram at the chase;
this time his quarry was lions. A pair o f them rushed at him, but one
after the other, so that having transfixed the male w ith an arrow, he
was able to slay the lioness w ith his sword. This was observed by the
owner o f the land, who congratulated Bahram on his prowess, saying
that these lions had long been a plague to him. He made a great feast
for the king, not realising w ho he was (though he remarked on his
likeness to the king). N ext m orning, w hen Bahram was drinking
w ith his courtiers, they were joined by a noble villager o f the
neighbourhood bearing gifts o f fruit. He was cordially invited to
partake, which he did, somewhat to excess, and finally excused
himself in some disorder, rode into the country, and lay down to
sleep it o ff W hilst he was thus unconscious, a crow came and pecked
out his eyes, as a result o f w hich he expired. W hen he heard o f this
melancholy event Bahram immediately forbade all wine drinking
throughout his dominions.
It happened that at this time a young shoe-maker was m arried to a
virtuous wife, but found him self unable to consum m ate the
marriage. H e confided his problem to his m other, w ho produced
wine from a hidden stock w ith w hich she plied him generously, and
then bade him go to it again. This time he was successful, and, full of
THE SASANIAN DYN AS TY 103
euphoria, and the fumes still in his head, he strode into the street.
There he encountered one o f the royal lions w hich had broken loose,
and, nothing daunted, leaped upon its back. The lion was clearly
startled, but accepted the situation philosophically, while the youth
grasped its ears to steer it and to steady himself. The keeper soon
came up w ith them, secured the lion, and lost no time in reporting
this phenom enon to the King. Bahram heard the whole story from
the lad’s m other, w hich caused him to laugh heartily and to lift the
ban on drinking wine.
3. The Deserted Village
O nce m ore the King was hunting, but being wearied in the heat,
and having found no game, he rode into a prosperous and populous
village to rest awhile. The population came out to view the royal
cortege, but none o f them did obeisance. So Bahram, by this time in
a foul temper, cursed the village and its inhabitants. R uzbih the high
priest was w ith him, and took this for a command, so he harangued
the villagers, saying that the king was m uch pleased w ith them, and
decreed that all were raised to noble rank - men, w om en and
children — and thus all were made equal. The result was bloody
chaos; youths m urdered their elders and then fell upon each other,
those w ho were able fled away, no crops were sown, trees withered,
and streams ran dry.
A year passed, and Bahram , once m ore h u n tin g in the
neighbourhood, was horrified to find the village desolate and
alm ost u n in h ab ite d . H e o rd ered R u z b ih , w h o was again
accompanying him, to put matters right w ithout delay, drawing
on the royal treasury for whatever was required. R uzbih searched
the area, and at last found an old m an w ho told him the sad story
o f the ruin o f the village, w hich he blamed on the decree
prom ulgated by the K ing’s minister. R uzbih therefore appointed
him governor on the spot, bidding him dem and w hatever he
wanted, including craftsmen to assist him, and a body o f the
unemployed to restore the population, but each man to m aintain his
own proper rank and position in society. In a year’s tim e prosperity
was restored to the village, the king was delighted, and R uzbih was
richly rewarded.
4. The M iller’s Daughters
T he first night out on a m o n th ’s hunting expedition w ith his

entourage, Bahram G ur had reached a town, on the outskirts o f
w hich he saw a fire burning near a mill, w ith the tow n elders seated
round it. A little apart from them , the village maidens were seated,
feasting and telling stories. Bahram was gratified to hear one o f the
revellers propose the king’s health in flattering terms w ith a
stentorian voice. R iding up closer to the gathering, he was
approached by four o f the girls, each o f rare beauty, w ho were the
daughters o f the miller; they sang him a song in the king’s praise. At
this point the miller, w ho had been hunting on his own, appeared
and bowed himself low before the distinguished looking visitor.
Bahram, handed him a golden goblet o f wine, and asked him why his
daughters were not yet m arried. The old man replied that there were
no suitable husbands to be found locally, and the susceptible m onarch
immediately offered to m arry all four, brushing aside their father’s
protest that he was a poor man, and could afford no dowry. So the
four village beauties were safely installed in the king’s overflowing
w om en’s quarters. The girls’ parents sat up all night congratulating
themselves, and recalling that Bahram had m arried their daughters
for their own worth, w ith no consideration o f wealth or birth. In the
m orning the village headman called on them to offer his felicitations,
expressing his satisfaction at his close friendship with one whose son-
in-law was the King.
5. The Treasures o f Jamshid
O n a subsequent hunting expedition Bahram was approached by a

local landlord demanding a private interview. H e revealed to the king
that while working on an irrigation channel on his land, he found
that the rush o f water had uncovered the m outh o f a deep hole,
where he had reason to believe a treasure was buried. Bahram
sum m oned a working party, and soon a door was disclosed. W hen
this was opened a vast chamber was revealed, filled w ith treasures o f
every kind — gems, coins and jewelled golden figures o f buffalo and
other animals and birds. U pon one o f the buffaloes was found the seal
o f King Jamshid. Despite the urging o f the courtiers, Bahram refused
PLATE 42 Bahram Gur finds the treasure of Jamshid
to appropriate any o f the treasures to himself, but after suitably

rewarding the finder, had it sold and the proceeds distributed among
the poor. This generous action inspired a fervent eulogy from an
ancient sage named Mahiyar comparing Bahram favourably w ith
Faridun and Jamshid himself, and declaring that he was under the
guidance o f the angel Surush.
6. The Unobliging M erchant
After another hunt in sultry weather King Bahram was suffering from
the colic. H e stopped, incognito o f course, at the house o f a certain
m erchant and asked for a night’s lodging. The m erchant made him
comfortable, and Bahram, handing him some money, asked if he
m ight have some roasted almonds and cheese. The m erchant had no
almonds in the house, and felt no inclination to go out to buy them,
but after some delay, produced a roasted fowl from the larder, w hich
he placed before Bahram on a tray. The king was angry, not only at
receiving the w rong kind o f food for his ailing stomach, but also for
being kept waiting for it, and rebuked the m erchant accordingly. The
latter retorted vigorously that as a guest he should be satisfied w ith
w hat was put before him. The rest o f the evening passed in silence. In
the m orning, as he was preparing to depart, Bahram was detained by
the m erchant’s young apprentice, who, after a visit to the bazaar
served up a delicious meal in w hich almonds and cheese were
prom inent, with plenty o f wine on the side. W hen the king
eventually returned to his palace, he had the m erchant and his
apprentice brought before him. H e placed the apprentice among the
nobles and presented him w ith a bag o f gold, but decreed that his
master should henceforth be his slave, and pay him a sum o f m oney
twice a m onth from his savings. So Bahram Gur showed his
contem pt for avarice.
7. Bahram G ur changes His M ind
O ne day Bahram decided to enjoy a m o n th ’s hunting o f the wild ass

in Turan. After a couple o f days o f this pastime, he encountered a
hairy dragon w ith breasts like a w om an’s, w hich he quickly
despatched with a couple o f arrows. Intrigued by its curious
anatomy, he cut open its body and found there the corpse o f a youth
it had swallowed whole. D uring this operation he became half blind
and dizzy from the dragon’s foul exhalations, and rode off in search o f
sleep and water. H e was hospitably received by a country wom an and
her husband, who, not know ing w ho he was, made him comfortable
w ith a good wash and a simple meal. N ext day his hostess provided a
m eal o f roast lamb despite her husband’s protests at such
extravagance. Still feeling queasy, Bahram was unable to get to sleep,
and asked her to tell him a story. Instead she complained to him o f
various deceits and swindles practised on the villagers by passing
courtiers and officials, w hich gave him a sleepless night, and
THE SASANIAN DY NASTY 107
PLATE 43 Bahram Gur at the house of the Countryman
determ ined him to act the tyrant himself, as those w ho acted so

seemed to prosper.
N ext m orning his hostess, having charged her husband w ith
making a pot o f porridge, went out to milk her cow. But the udder
was dry, and no milk would come. This, she loudly inform ed her
husband, was a sure sign that the king’s heart had turned from justice
to tyranny. Bahram heard her words plainly, and immediately
repented o f his foolish thoughts, praying earnestly that he m ight
never again be tem pted to swerve from justice. M eanwhile his hostess
revisited the cow, and this time the milk came plentifully, w hich gave
her joy and relief. After he had partaken o f the porridge they had
prepared for him, Bahram asked them to take his riding-w hip and
hang it on a tree outside the house (that being the sign o f a royal
resident), which they did w ithout thinking. But w hen they noticed
that all passers-by dism ounted and saluted w hen they saw the whip,
they realised w ith a shock w ho their guest was, and hastened to offer
their loyal devotion and hum ble apologies for shortcomings in the
entertainm ent provided. Bahram, laughing, made the old man
headman o f the village, and rode on his way.
8. Bahram G ur adds Three to his Harem
Shortly after this, Bahram set out on a hunting expedition o f great

magnificence: twenty camels bore the royal pavilion and other
paraphernalia o f the chase, seven elephants were employed in
conveying the imperial throne, each m em ber o f the hunt was
attended by thirty pages richly apparelled, the falconers had charge of
160 hawks and 200 falcons and peregrines, and an orchestra
accompanied the expedition wearing crowns and riding on a
hundred camels.24
D uring the hunt a favourite black hawk, a present to Bahram from
the Khan o f Chin, flew away and was lost to sight. In following it,
the king and his party came upon a rich estate, a garden w ith a pool
where an old man was seated w ith three beautiful girls. This was
Barzin, a wise local lord, but disaffected towards the king, and in
consequence somewhat apprehensive at Bahrain’s arrival. However
w hen the king explained that he was looking for his lost black hawk,
Barzin was able to reassure him that he had seen it a few minutes ago
in one o f his trees, and it was soon secured by the falconers.
T he old man then called for wine, w hich was brought in
abundance, and the whole party sat down to enjoy his hospitality.
Fired by the wine, Barzin then proposed a musical interlude by the
girls, one singing, one dancing, and one playing the harp. The king
readily approved o f this, and asked w ho the girls were; the old man
proudly replied that they were his daughters. So, accompanied by
Faranak on the harp, Shambalid danced, and M ah-Afrid rendered a
song in fulsome praise o f the king. Bahram was entranced and,
draining his massive crystal cup, requested Barzin’s approval o f his
proposal o f marriage to all three daughters. This was willingly given,
and Bahram ’s latest three acquisitions were packed off to the royal
w om en’s quarters in three golden litters attended by forty R om an
slaves.
Bahram remained for some time drinking w ith Barzin, a whip
suspended over the door to proclaim his presence, and then returned
to his palace. H e spent a week in his harem, then a second week

hunting w ith R uzbih and a retinue o f a thousand. W ild ass were
plentiful, and it was their mating season. Bahram conceived a novel
way o f displaying his prowess w hen a couple o f them began
copulating w ithin easy range o f his bow; a single arrow pierced and
slew both animals, and this rather cruel and cowardly feat was loudly
applauded by his retinue.
9. Bahram G ur makes a Further Addition to his Harem
N ext, Bahram shot a pair o f lions on the edge o f a forest, and a little
further on came across a large flock o f sheep. T he head shepherd
replied to the king’s enquiry that the sheep belonged to a very rich
jew eller nam ed Mahiyar, w ho had a beautiful daughter, and gave
him directions to the jew eller’s house. Bahram pursued his way to
the village alone, while Barzin, left behind, gave way to a violent
tirade against the king for his womanising, saying that he had heard
from one o f the eunuchs that the palace contained nearly a
thousand w om en, and that at this rate the king w ould soon fade
away.
Arrived at the jew eller’s house and hearing sounds o f revelry,
Bahram again pretended to be a huntsm an w ho had lost his way, and
was readily admitted to a feast followed, as usual, by a drinking
session. M ahiyar was very proud o f his daughter Arzu, and got her to
sing a couple o f songs for the entertainm ent o f his unexpected guest.
Almost inevitably, Bahram was enraptured and immediately asked the
hand o f Arzu in marriage. She was very willing, but her father
counselled Bahram to sleep on it and make his decision in the
m orning. But the king was all impatience, and Mahiyar, overruled,
pronounced them man and wife. However she returned to her room
before dawn, and one o f Bahram ’s servants hung the royal whip over
the house door. By m orning a considerable num ber o f Bahram ’s
troops had seen it and assembled outside. The porter was the first to
realise the true situation, and woke his master, w ho was feeling some
effects o f the pervious night’s indulgence, and the latter hastened to
enlighten his daughter. M eanwhile Bahram awoke, called for Arzu,
w ho attended him w ith wine, and they were soon joined by her
father full o f compliments and apologies for imagined irregularities
whilst in his cups. The king brushed these aside, and M ahiyar put on
another feast to w hich the king’s men, still waiting outside, were all
admitted. The festivities closed w ith another song by Arzu w ith her
harp, and R uzbih appeared w ith forty R om an eunuchs and a litter in
w hich the king’s latest conquest was duly conveyed to the royal
bower.
10. Bahram G ur & the Miser
T he very next day Bahram, again attended by R uzbih, started on

another great hunt lasting a m onth and rounded off by a night o f
feasting and revelry in the royal camp. The bag o f game was so large
that all the dwellers in the neighbourhood were supplied w ith meat
at little or no cost. At length the king decided to make for hom e,
and, coming to a town, ordered all the baggage train to push on and
leave him there incognito. H e asked where the headman lived, and
was directed to an apparently ruined house. The owner, whose name
was Farshidward, greeted him, but pleaded destitution, showed him
the filthy floor and tottering walls, and protested that he was unable
to offer any accom modation or hospitality.
So Bahram departed m uch displeased, and on the road he m et a
thorn-gatherer busy at his occupation. T he king asked him w ho
was the chief man in the tow n he had just left, and the th o rn -
gatherer replied that it was one Farshidward, a miser, w ho, though
possessed o f vast wealth and num erous herds o f sheep and camels,
chose to live in squalor and isolation. Bahram rejoined his party, and
detached a hundred m en under Bihruz, guided by the th o rn -
gatherer (w hom he provided w ith gold and a noble steed), to the
place w here Farshidward’s flock and herds were grazing. In addition
to those they found huge stores o f food and concealed hoards o f
gold and treasure. O n receiving their report, the king made an
order that all this should be confiscated and distributed to the
deserving poor, for though Farshidward had legally harm ed
nobody, nor obtained his riches dishonestly, yet the fear o f G od
was not in him, and he had never used his hoarded wealth for his
ow n or anybody else’s benefit.
T H E SA S A N IA N D Y N A S T Y 111
11. A Great H unting Expedition
It was not long before another full-scale royal hunt - 30,000

participants — was organised, the intended quarry this time being
lions. O n arrival at the hunting ground, Bahram bade all to an all-
night revel. O n the following day he slew two lions at close quarters
w ith his sword, and later an aged counsellor dissuaded him from any
further slaughter o f the noble beasts. So he returned to camp for
another drinking bout. As he raised his great crystal goblet, the king
delivered a speech in praise o f his forebears, Ardashir and Faridun,
and issued an order that during the impending hunt no damage
should be done to standing crops or fruit trees, on pain o f a year’s
im prisonm ent.
The following day was devoted to the chase o f the wild ass, and
Bahram showed his skill by shooting one straight through the body
length-wise, so that the arrow was completely buried, and by cutting
another in two w ith a single sword stroke. Loud applause greeted
these feats. H e then pressed on to Baghdad, where he spent a
fortnight in music and revelry before travelling on to Istakhr
(Persepolis), the old capital. H ere he beautified the w om en’s quarters,
and loaded the occupants w ith m oney and gifts.
Victories of Bahram Gur
But this halcyon existence had to end; neighbouring monarchs had

received reports o f Bahram ’s indolence and luxury, and the Khan25
and Caesar both prepared to invade Iran. Even Bahram ’s counsellors
expostulated w ith him for his lack o f spirit and for wasting his time in
hunting and feasting, and there arose an atmosphere o f discontent
and despair throughout the land. But the king was secretly gathering
his forces, w hich he placed under the comm and o f his brother Narsi.
However the dispirited opposition took the law into its own hands,
and sent a deputation to the Khan o f C hin offering the submission o f
Iran. The Khan was delighted, and occupied the north-eastern city o f
Marv. But Bahram swiftly brought his army to the neighbourhood
by forced marches, and was inform ed by his spies o f the slack security
arrangements maintained at M arv by the Khan. After resting his
troops for a day, he made a surprise attack on the Khan and inflicted
on him a crushing defeat, the Khan himself and 300 o f his noblem en
being made prisoners.
W hen he had rested a while at Marv, Bahram m arched his m en
against Bukhara. H e signally defeated the Turkman host, and
received a deputation from them, begging for mercy, and offering
submission and tribute. To this he acquiesced, at the same time
restraining his troops from further bloodshed. H e established the
river Jihun (Oxus) as the boundary betw een the two kingdoms, and
appointed Shahra, a trusty warrior, as governor o f Turan.
H e then wrote a letter to his brother Narsi describing his campaign
and victories. Narsi meanwhile received a deputation o f all those
w ho had been concerned in the traitorous submission to the Khan,
begging him to entreat his royal brother to grant them mercy and
forgiveness. Bahram freely pardoned them all, and after a state
thanksgiving made a progress through the realm, distributing largesse
and repairing caravanserais and bridges on the way. This culminated
in a trium phal entry into Taisafun (Ctesiphon) the capital, w here he
was happily reunited w ith his brother Narsi. Bahram then sent a
circular letter to all his chiefs and provincial governors, full o f piety
and good advice, and appointed Narsi governor o f the great north
eastern province o f Khurasan.
Bahram then turned his attention westwards, and noted that
Caesar’s ambassador was still at court awaiting an audience. H e was
assured that the ambassador was a noble, wise, learned, and modest
man, but also heard that his staff were ill-conditioned and held the
Persians in low regard. The ambassador was warmly received in
audience by Bahram, w hom he greeted and com plim ented w ith
equal warm th, announcing that he had seven questions to put to the
wise m en o f the Persian court. These, o f a rather esoteric and
philosophical nature (the ambassador was a Platonist) were answered
w ithout difficulty and at some length by the Persian H igh Priest,
w hich earned him a robe o f honour and other royal gifts. T he two
m en continued their high-flow n discussions at court next m orning,
after w hich Bahram gave the ambassador leave to depart, loaded w ith
rich gifts. H e also made a wide distribution o f largesse to his chiefs
and officials, accompanied by a long and edifying speech that brought
tears to the eyes o f his audience.
Bahram Gur in India & his Return
Later, the king was w arned by one o f his ministers o f the hostile
activities o f Shangul, King o f H ind (India) on his eastern frontier.
Bahram decided to deal w ith the m atter himself, in the guise o f an
ambassador, bearing a letter o f stern adm onition. H e departed,
ostensibly on a hunting expedition, but w hen he was near the
border rode off w ith a select party, and soon reached Shangul’s
m agnificent palace. H e was readily adm itted to the latter’s presence,
and was provided w ith a golden throne to sit on. B ut w hen the
letter was read to Shangul by a scribe, his face grew dark, and he
gave an angry and bombastic answer. Bahram replied by proposing a
debate or com bat betw een chosen m en o f Iran and H ind, at w hich
Shangul, som ew hat mollified, suggested that they sleep on it, and
meanw hile enjoy a feast together. By way o f entertainm ent, he put
on a wrestling m atch betw een two Indian champions, after w hich
Bahram offered to wrestle w ith the victor. H e overthrew the
cham pion w ith o u t difficulty, and after further potations the
com pany sought their beds.
In the m orning the Indian king amused himself for some time on
his polo-ground, and then invited Bahram to show his skill in
archery, w hich he did to such effect that he excited Shangul’s
suspicion that he must be something m ore than a mere ambassador.
W hen this was put to him, Bahram disclaimed anything o f the kind.
But Shangul instructed a trusty courtier to approach him, and invite
him to stay on in India, and receive a great estate and high
advancement, an offer which Bahram politely but firmly declined,
saying that he was anxious to return home.
But Shangul was determ ined to bring Bahram down, and asked
him to deal w ith a giant rhinoceros in a w ood nearby. Bahram readily
agreed if a guide could be provided. The guide dilated on the
immense size and ferocity o f the monster, as they approached its lair,
but decamped before they reached it. Bahram ’s Persian followers
tried to dissuade him from such a perilous encounter, but the king
rode at the beast full tilt, disabled it w ith a shower o f arrows, and then
dism ounting drew his sword and cut off its head. Shangul made a
great feast to celebrate this victory, but he was still uneasy, and next
day he sent Bahram off w ith another guide to rid the land o f a huge
PLATE 44 Bahram Gur and the Rhinoceros
poisonous dragon, promising to pay tribute in full to Iran if he should

be successful. They found the dragon by a stream, w rithing horribly
and w ith fire flashing from its eyes. As before, Bahram, disregarding
his followers’ entreaties, made straight at it and then wheeling to left
and right as he poured in his arrows - poisoned on this occasion -
into its body and head, from w hich poured blood and poison. As it
wallowed helplessly, he strode up to it, drove his sword into its heart,
and severed its head w ith his battle-axe. After rendering thanks to the
Almighty, he had the monstrous corpse m ounted on wagons and
conveyed to Shangul.
The Indian king was sorely disappointed at this result, especially as

Bahram ’s exploits had w on the hearts o f his people, and his ministers
strongly advised him to cease plotting for the downfall o f his Persian
guest. So Shangul changed his m ind completely, gave Bahram his
beautiful daughter Sapinud in marriage, showered rich gifts on him
and his Persian followers, and made a great feast for all comers, which
lasted a week.
M eanwhile news o f Bahram ’s prowess and o f his marriage to
Shangul’s daughter had reached the Faghfur o f C hin (Emperor o f
China) w ho wrote a letter inviting him to Chin, and promising him a
warm welcome and leave to depart at will. But Bahram took offence
to the opening phrase o f the letter in w hich the Faghfur announced
himself as ‘m onarch o f the w orld’, a title to w hich Bahram
considered that he alone was entitled. H e therefore returned a
rather stiff answer, declining the proffered hospitality, and the m atter
was dropped.
Bahram was happy w ith his new wife, w ho soon discovered his
true identity, and together they plotted to escape to Iran. They chose
a day w hen Shangul and all his court would be absent, attending a
festival, and rode off unobserved. W hen they reached the Indus, they
comm andeered a boat, and crossed safely to the Persian shore. But
Bahram ’s absence had been noted and immediately reported to
Shangul, w ho made all speed and caught up w ith them near the
river-crossing. However, after initial and mutual recriminations they
were fully reconciled, and parted, Shangul back to India, and Bahram
with his wife hom e to Iran. Here they received a tumultuous
welcome, led by Bahram ’s son Yazdagird, and his brother Narsi w ho
was now High Priest. The king gave an audience, and an edifying
speech to his subjects, and then took his wife to the fire-tem ple o f
Azargashasp, where the marriage was blessed and she received
instruction in the Zoroastrian religion.
After a short time, Shangul felt a strong desire to see his daughter
again, so, accom panied by seven Indian kings and a num erous
entourage, he visited Iran and was kindly received by his son-in-
law. There were the usual lavish feasts, drinking sessions, and
hunting expeditions, but the father was enabled to spend some time
w ith his daughter, and was entranced by her new estate. At length,
after two m onths, the hour o f departure arrived, but before he left
Shangul drew up a docum ent bequeathing all his treasures and his
kingdom to Bahram. So he returned hom e w ith his suite and many
precious gifts.
Having ordered an account to be made o f all the royal treasure, and
finding it ample to cover the rem ainder o f his life, Bahram rem itted
all taxes throughout his dominions. Yet there was still some unrest
and crime which he endeavoured to remedy by appointing new and
capable governors in all the provinces. H e m et complaints from the
poor that they had no music for their rustic revels by asking Shangul
to send 10,000 gypsies from India. W hen these arrived, they
thw arted all his attempts to make them settle down as agriculturists,
and earned a living wandering through the villages making music for
the peasants. Soon after this Bahram died peacefully, having
bequeathed the crown to his son Yazdagird.26
R E I G N S OF Y A Z D A G I R D II & H U R M U Z D III
N othing o f interest is recorded o f these kings in the Shahnama.
R E I G N OF P I R U Z
Crushing Defeat of Piruz
T he next king was Piruz (or Firuz), son o f Yazdagird II and older
brother o f H urm uzd III. He was at first a builder o f cities, but later
made war on the Khan (see note 25) in breach of the treaty made
w ith him by Bahram G ur after his successful campaign. Khush-
nawaz, the K han’s son, sent Piruz a letter o f protest, but the king
persisted in his impious course. In the battle that followed, Piruz and
his troops were lured by a feigned retreat o f the K han’s m en into a
concealed ditch. The enemy then wheeled upon them as they
struggled in utter confusion, and inflicted a crushing defeat w ith
heavy casualties, Piruz himself being among the slain.
T H E SASANIAN DYNAS TY 117
PLATE 45 Defeat and death of Piruz
R E IG N O F B A L A SH
P iruz Avenged
Balash was a younger son (or possibly brother) o f Piruz and was
crowned as his successor, but in view o f his youth Sufarai, a
prom inent and experienced nobleman, was appointed to gather and
com m and an army to avenge the death o f Piruz. The preliminary
exchange o f letters served only to exacerbate feelings on both sides,

and a great battle was fought; Khush-nawaz was worsted, and took
refuge in a fortress. By the subsequent negotiations all the Persian
prisoners taken w hen Piruz was defeated were freed, including his
elder son Qubad. Sufarai then prevailed upon Balash to abdicate, and
Q ubad ascended the throne.
FIR ST R E IG N OF Q U B A D
Rebellion
At first Sufarai remained as chief minister, but after a while he

returned to his native Shiraz. In his absence he became the victim o f
court slander and intrigue, as a result o f w hich Q ubad sent Shapur of
Rayy, his com m ander-in-chief, to bring Sufarai in bonds from
Shiraz. Following the advice o f his counsellors, and in spite of
Sufarai’s signal services to the crown, Q ubad had him executed. This
provoked a rebellion; Q ubad was confined in charge o f Sufarai’s son
Rizm ihr, and Jamasp, Q ubad’s younger brother, was put on the
throne.
R E IG N OF JA M A SP
Temporary Absence of Qubad
B ut R izm ih r helped Q ubad to escape northw ards, and on his way

he m et and m arried a local ch ief’s daughter, leaving her almost
im m ediately to take refuge w ith the Khan; Q ubad had a pact w ith
the Khan, and the latter lent him a form idable body o f troops
to assist his restoration. O n m arching south into Iran, he was
greeted by the news that his wife had presented him w ith a son,
and w hen he also heard that her father was a descendant o f Faridun
he was doubly gratified. T he child was nam ed Kisra. Q ubad was
m et by a deputation o f nobles w ho im plored him to resume the
crow n, assuring him that Jamasp was willing to stand down. A nd so
he did.
THE SASANIAN DYN AS TY 119
S E C O N D R E IG N OF Q U B A D
Prince Kisra & the Mazdakites
Some time after this a certain Mazdak, a man o f noble birth and great
talent, appeared at court, professing and practising a kind o f
communism, and Q ubad was at first sympathetic to his views. But
Mazdak complained to the king that the prince Kisra was opposed to
his teaching. So Kisra arranged a debate betw een Mazdak and a
group o f Zoroastrain sages in w hich Mazdak had the worst o f it, and
Q ubad turned him over, along w ith three thousand o f his followers,
to the prince. Kisra had all the Mazdakites buried head downwards
w ith their feet in the air. H e then brought in Mazdak him self to view
this discouraging spectacle, w hich he facetiously called his ‘garden’,
and had him hanged high and shot to death w ith arrows. After this
Q ubad bestowed the throne on Kisra, w ho was then renamed
Nushirwan (‘o f imm ortal spirit’).
R E I G N OF N U S H I R W A N
Insolence & Defeat of Caesar
Nushirw an began his reign by reorganising the realm into four

provinces; taxes were reduced, and agriculture, w hen necessary, was
subsidised; the administration o f justice was reformed. At a military
review he submitted himself to inspection and drew the regulation
pay like all the rest. He was rightly called ‘Nushirwan the Just’. He
made a tour o f his empire, attending to suppliants, and built a great
wall in the pass betw een Iran and Turan. After he had chastised some
trouble-makers in various parts o f his dom inion he received a visit
from M unzir the Arab o f Hira, complaining o f the overbearing
behaviour o f Caesar, and requesting permission to attack him. A
stern letter was sent to Caesar, which called forth a provocative reply,
and Nushirwan called together his counsellors to consider the
situation. The decision was for war. Nushirwan first admonished his
troops on their behaviour, not to harm civilians, fruit trees, nor
crops, and the army m arched on R um . Several strongholds were
PLATE 46 E nthronem ent o f Nushirw an
captured, a victory was gained over Caesars general Farfurius

(Porphyrius?), and the great city o f Antakiya (Antioch) was taken.
O n his return, Nushirwan built a city to accommodate his R om an
prisoners, and received tribute from Caesar.
Revolt of N ushzad
O ne o f N ushirw an’s wives was a Christian, and her son Nushzad was
brought up in that faith. W hen he was grown up, the king fell ill, and
Nushzad took this opportunity to raise a rebellion, having heard a
false report o f the kings death. Nushirwan entrusted the task of
putting down the rebellion to R am Barzin, giving him strict orders
T HE SASANIAN DY NASTY 121
PLATE 47 D eath o f Nushzad
that Nushzad should not be harmed. Nevertheless, he was mortally

w ounded in the battle, and his body was consigned to his m other for
Christian burial.
B uzurjm ihr as Dream Interpreter
N ushirw an one night had a strange dream w hich none o f his sages
was able to interpret. So he sent them out to various parts o f the
country to try to find one sufficiently versed in dream interpreta
tion for the purpose. O ne o f them reached M arv in the far n o rth
east, and there by chance encountered a youth nam ed Buzurjm ihr,
w ho said he had the skill. H e interpreted the king’s dream as
signifying that a young m an in female disguise had penetrated the

royal harem. This was found to be the case, w hen N ushirw an had
carried out a close and detailed inspection, and the young m an and
his half-sister, w ho had instigated the affair, were hanged. As a result
o f this, Buzurjm ihr was highly honoured, and becam e the king’s
chief minister. In his h onour N ushirw an instituted a weekly
banquet, o f w hich seven were held in succession. All the wise m en
and the king him self attended, w ith Buzurjm ihr in the place o f
honour, and m any philosophical m atters were learnedly and
lengthily discussed.
The Misfortunes of Mahbud
Nushirw an had a vizier named M ahbud, a blameless man w ith two

young sons whose privilege it was to serve the king w ith food. But
M ahbud excited deep jealously in a certain chamberlain named
Zuran, w ho conspired w ith a Jewish sorcerer to ruin him. They
contrived that the Jew should cast an evil eye on the food, thus
rendering it poisonous, as it contained milk. W hen the food was
brought in, Zuran warned the king that an attempt was being made
on his life. So the two sons o f M ahbud, w ho had brought the food in,
were made to eat it, and both fell dead. M ahbud and his whole family
were thus destroyed.
Some time later, on a royal hunting expedition, the conversation
betw een Nushirwan and his companions, amongst w hom was Zuran,
turned on witchcraft and sorcery. Zuran, w ithout thinking, observed
that food made w ith milk could be poisoned by a look from a
sorcerer. The king’s suspicions were aroused, and in a later, private,
conversation he drew out the whole story from Zuran, who
endeavoured to place the entire blame on the Jew. H e was
immediately put in fetters, and the Jew, being seized, revealed
everything. Two gibbets were erected and the two wretches hanged
side-by-side, to be finished off w ith stones and arrows. Nushirwan
was able to locate four survivors o f M ahbud’s family, and bestowed
on them the fortunes and possessions o f Zuran and the Jew.
TH E SASANIAN DYN AS TY 123
N ushirwan marries the K h a n ’s Daughter
After this, the Khan, in his admiration o f Nushirwan, fitted out a

large caravan o f valuable presents w hich he sent off to Iran
accompanied by an envoy o f high rank. But on the way they had
to pass through the land o f the Haitalians, whose King Ghatkar
intercepted and plundered the caravan. The Khan was enraged, and
marched his army against Ghatkar. A stubborn battle ensued which
was eventually w on by the Khan, and the Haitalians enthroned a new
king, Faghanish, to replace Ghatkar.
PLATE 48 N ushirw ans envoy and the K hans daughters

N ushirwan was w orried at the news o f the K han’s victory; he was,

after all, the successor o f the old enemies Afrasiyab and Arjasp,
whereas the new king o f the Haitalians was descended from Bahram
Gur. So Nushirwan determ ined to lead his army against him. But the
Khan, w hen he heard o f this, stifled his instinctive irritation, and sent
ten envoys to Nushirwan w ith presents and a letter urging peace
betw een them. Nushirwan agreed, and the Khan then offered him
one o f his daughters in marriage, an offer which the king graciously
accepted.
T he delicate mission o f choice was entrusted to M ihran Sitad, a
wise old chief, w ho was strictly instructed by his master to make a
very careful choice, having regard to the status o f the princess’s
m other, her disposition and accomplishments. W hen M ihran Sitad
had arrived and been greeted by the Khan, the girls were paraded
before him. Five o f the princesses were finely dressed and elaborately
adorned, but the sixth, w ho was her father’s favourite and whose
m other was a queen, wore no m ake-up and was dressed in ordinary
rather w orn clothes. The wise old envoy was not deceived, and
picked the sixth w ithout hesitation, and she was duly despatched,
under his protection, to her new hom e w ith a numerous entourage.
At this happy consumm ation the Khan w ithdrew to his own country,
leaving several provinces in Persian hands, while Nushirwan returned
to his capital at M ada’in (Ctesiphon).
Introduction of Chess
N ext, an envoy arrived from the Raja o f Hind, bearing many gifts,
amongst which were a chess-board and set of chess-men. H e made a
rather original proposal that if the Persians could work out how the
game was played, and correctly identify the various pieces and their
moves, they might call on the Indians for tribute, but if they failed,
let the reverse obtain. The king asked for a w eek’s grace, and w hen all
the sages at court had laboured in vain, Buzurjm ihr was sent for, and
solved the whole thing in a day and a night, m uch to the chagrin o f
the Indian envoy. H e then turned the tables on the Indians by
inventing the game o f word (backgamm on), and bore it, at
N ushirw an’s bidding, to the Raja, to w hom he explained its
mysteries. H e then returned in trium ph w ith two thousand camels

bearing Indian tribute.
[The poet here embarks on a digression relating the story o f the

origin o f chess.]
A famous Indian king, Jamhur, had a son named Gav, but died w hen
the latter was still an infant. Gav’s m other then m arried her late
husband’s brother Mai, w ho ruled the kingdom during the infancy of
Gav, and had a son by him named Talhand. But Mai also died w hen
the boys were no m ore than seven and two years old, and the
counsellors made their m other queen. W hen they were o f age both
princes were eager for the succession, and sat together at an assembly
o f the nobles, w ho were bidden to choose betw een them. But no
decision could be reached, the princes quarrelled, and in the end
both parties took up arms, and a battle was fought after Gav’s efforts
at reconciliation had failed.
In this battle Gav was victorious, but Talhand prepared to renew
the conflict, and a second battle took place by the sea. This time
Talhand’s heart failed him in the midst o f the battle, and he swooned
and died on his elephant. His m other at first blamed Gav for his
brother’s death, but in order to assure her o f the true course o f events
he instructed his wise m en to make a plan or model o f the whole
battle, w ith all the protagonists and their moves, thus showing how
Talhand was surrounded and gave up the ghost. And so the game of
chess was invented.
The Book of Kalila wa Dimna obtained
At the court o f N ushirwan there was a certain celebrated physician

named Barzwi, w ho found reference in an ancient Indian manuscript
to a m ountain herb capable o f reviving the dead. So he volunteered
to travel to India to find it. His search was in vain, but his Indian
guide put him in touch w ith an aged sage, w ho told him that he, too,
had puzzled over the manuscript reference, and had concluded that it
must be metaphorical: the herb is the wise man and the m ountain is
knowledge. H e told Barzwi that in the R aja’s treasury was a book
containing this knowledge, called Kalila,27 w hich m ight also perhaps

be figured as the vital herb. The Raja was reluctant to hand over the
book, but at length agreed to let Barzwi read it in his presence. So
Barzwi, seated before the Raja, read a chapter a day, com m itting it to
m em ory as he went along, and sending a transcription, chapter by
chapter, to Nushirwan. O n his return he requested that w hen
Buzurjm ihr made a fair copy o f the whole book for the king, he
should include an account o f him, Barzwi, and the story o f how he
obtained it.
Buzurjmihr & the Locked Casket
O ne day w hen B uzurjm ihr was accom panying N ushirw an on a

hunting expedition, they becam e separated from the m ain body o f
huntsm en; and the king, feeling tired, lay dow n and dozed on the
grass. As he did so the clasp securing his jew elled arm let becam e
detached, and whilst he was asleep a bird swooped dow n and
carried it off. W hen he awoke and missed it, the king blam ed
B uzurjm ihr for the loss and flung him into prison. Soon after this
Caesar sent an embassy to N ushirw an bearing, in addition to the
usual gifts, a locked casket, w ith a message that if the Persians could
divine the contents o f the casket w ithout opening it, he w ould pay
his usual tribute, but if they failed, no tribute was payable. W hen
none o f the wise m en at court could offer any solution, the king
realised that Buzurjm ihr was his only hope. So w ith a good deal o f
embarrassment he set him free w ith a clean suit o f clothes and a fine
saddled horse, and im plored him to forget the hardships he had
endured.
B uzurjm ihr accordingly took up and exam ined the casket before
the w hole court. Now, on his way to the palace B uzurjm ihr had
encountered three w om en, one m arried w ith a child, the second
m arried but childless, and the third unm arried. H e took this as an
om en from w hich he deduced the answer: ‘T he casket contains
three pearls, one pierced, one half-pierced, and one unpierced.’ T he
casket was opened, and its contents were found to be exactly as he
had said.
Nushirwan’s Last Campaign
After a long section devoted to N ushirw an’s w it and wisdom , the

epic arrives at his last campaign against R u m . T here was a new
Caesar, young and inexperienced, who, on receiving a polite
message from N ushirw an congratulating him on his accession,
treated the Persian envoy w ith studied discourtesy, and sent him
back w ith an insulting reply. N ushirw an imm ediately gathered his
troops and penetrated deeply into Caesar’s dom inions, taking the
cities o f Halab (Aleppo) and Saqila, and defeating the R om an
general Batarun (Marcian). B ut the enem y checked him by flooding
a great trench. At this point N ushirw an found him self short o f
m oney and supplies, and sent an envoy to raise loans in the adjacent
cities. In one o f these lived a very rich shoe-m aker, w ho offered to
advance the w hole sum required if the king w ould arrange for his
son to be educated at court. N ushirw an showed his wisdom and
foresight by returning the m oney and turning the offer dow n as a
probable cause o f trouble in the next generation. Envoys now
arrived from R u m w ith rich gifts and abject apologies for young
Caesar’s uncouth behaviour; a heavy tribute was im posed on the
R om ans, and peace was made.
N ow aged 74, Nushirwan turned his thoughts to the appointm ent
o f a w orthy successor, and fixed on his son H urm uzd. T he youth was
duly questioned on philosophy and morality by Buzurjm ihr and, his
answers being satisfactory, he was officially proclaimed heir apparent.
Lastly, Nushirw an had an ominous dream, w hich was interpreted by
Buzurjm ihr as signifying the birth o f the prophet M uham m ad and
the trium ph o f Islam over the religion o f Zoroaster.28 H e died a few
years after this, and was followed shortly by his wise and faithful
m inister Buzurjmihr.
R E I G N OF H U R M U Z D IV
The Rise of Bahram Chubina
H urm uzd’s reign opened auspiciously, but before long he turned on

his father’s surviving ministers and put four o f the foremost o f them
PLATE 49 Casket brought to H urm uzd containing N ushirw an’s prophecy
to death. O ne o f them was the Treasurer, Bahram Azarmihan, w ho

had injudiciously displayed to the king in a casket, a roll o f silk on
w hich was w ritten by the hand o f Nushirwan the text o f a prophecy
foretelling H urm uzd’s tragic fall. The king took this to be an attempt
to underm ine him, and had the old statesman m urdered in prison.
The kingdom was then threatened by enemies on every side: Sawa
the Turk from the east, Caesar from the west, the Khazars from the
north, and the Arabs from the south. However his armies dispersed
the Khazars, and in consequence Caesar and the Arabs withdrew; but
Sawa remained. The aged M ihran Sitad advised the king that there
was a great w arrior amongst his subjects, Bahram C hubina by name,
and bade him seek him out to lead the army against the Turks. H e
was soon located, came to court, and was made com m ander-in-
chief.
T H E S A S A N IA N D Y N A S T Y 129
O n his way to encounter Sawa, a local wom an complained to

Bahram Chubina that one o f his officers had taken hay from her
w ithout paying for it. Bahram promptly had the guilty man executed.
An exchange o f abusive messages between Sawa and Bahram Chubina
was naturally followed by battle, before which Bahram Chubina put
up an earnest prayer for assistance to the Almighty, while Sawa’s pagan
sorcerers vainly chanted their spells. W hen the battle joined, Bahram
Chubina was everywhere, rallying the Persians w hen they seemed to
be breaking, and causing Sawa’s elephants to turn tail by ordering his
archers to aim for their trunks. H e soon spotted Sawa and transfixed
him w ith an arrow, and at this the Turks gave way and fled, the
Persians pursuing them with great slaughter.
PLATE 50 Sawa Shah pursued by Bahram C hubina

Bahram Chubina & Parmuda
T he severed heads o f Sawa and his chieftains, together w ith the

prisoners and m uch spoil, were sent to King H urm uzd, and the king
w rote Bahram Chubina a letter o f congratulation, bidding him
pursue and overthrow Sawa’s son Parmuda. This order was obeyed
forthw ith, and Parmuda fled to his stronghold o f Awaza, where he
was besieged. H e sent a message to Bahram Chubina begging for
quarter, and this was forwarded to the king. The request was granted,
and Parmuda was sum m oned to appear before H urm uzd. W ithout
asking Bahram C hubina’s permission, the young man set out for the
court, at which the Persian general was extremely angry, sent out
troops to bring him back, and sternly upbraided him, giving him a
cut w ith his whip. H e then sent Parmuda off once more, w ith the
treasure found in the stronghold o f Awaza.
The young man was kindly received by H urm uzd, but he
complained o f being whipped and insulted by Bahram Chubina, and
at the same time intelligence reached the king that his general had
retained certain items from among the spoils. After making a pact
w ith Parmuda and sending him on his way hom e laden w ith gifts,
H urm uzd sent a furious letter to Bahram Chubina together w ith a
derisory gift o f a distaff, a spinning wheel and a set o f w om en’s
clothes. O n receipt o f these, Bahram Chubina put on the clothes,
seated himself at the spinning wheel, the distaff in his hand, and
showed himself thus to his men. The soldiers were outraged at the
insult offered to their general, and abjured their allegiance to the
king.
Bahram Chubina proclaims himself King
In the course o f a hunting expedition Bahram Chubina came upon a

palace in the forest, w hich he decided to enter and explore, leaving
his horse in charge o f his followers. After a while, becom ing
apprehensive, one o f them entered the palace, w here he found
Bahram seated w ith a beautiful princess, w ho at once gave orders for
the entertainm ent o f the whole retinue. She urged Bahram to seize
the throne, a proposal that troubled him, but he nevertheless had
T HE SASANIAN DYNAS TY 131
himself proclaimed the following day. O ne o f his nobles, Kharrad

Barzin, was horrified at this, and fled w ith the news to King
H urm uzd. M eanwhile Bahram Chubina called a m eeting o f his chief
nobles to canvas their views on the m atter o f his taking the crown.
All spoke in favour o f it except his sister Gurdiya; however he
followed the majority, and celebrated the occasion w ith a great feast.
H e established his position by a cordial exchange o f letters w ith the
Khan, and sought to destroy Khusraw the Crow n prince by turning
his father against him. For this purpose he issued and circulated
coinage bearing Khusraw’s image and superscription, and in a
sarcastic letter to H urm uzd he praised the prince’s abilities (so unlike
his father!), thereby inflaming the king’s jealousy to the extent o f
giving orders for his murder. But Khusraw was given timely warning
by a sympathetic chamberlain, and made good his escape.
T he king sent an army against Bahram C hubina under Ayin
Gashasp, but the latter was m urdered on the way. The m urderer
carried his severed head to Bahram Chubina, but the general had had
a high opinion o f Ayin Gashasp, and hanged his m urderer forthwith.
H urm uzd’s army, now leaderless, dispersed, some to jo in Bahram
Chubina, and some to Khusraw. At this crisis Khusraw’s uncles,
Bandwi and Gustaham, w ho had been im prisoned on suspicion
w hen their nephew fled the court, broke out o f prison and incited
the troops against King H urm uzd, w hom they dethroned and
blinded.
War between Khusraw & Bahram Chubina
Khusraw and Bahram C hubina were now open rivals for the throne,
and as their two armies approached one another, the two leaders held
an abortive parley. Khusraw offered Bahram a high position at court,
Bahram scornfully refused, and the parley degenerated into an
undignified slanging match. Bahram then staged a night attack w hich
was at first successful, but in an encounter on the bridge o f Nahravan
Khusraw, displaying great valour, caused Bahram to retreat. But
Khusraw’s army and resources were seriously depleted, and his father,
w hom he contrived to visit in his distress, advised him to seek the aid
o f Caesar. W hen his party were already on the road to R u m , Bandwi
and Gustaham turned back, entered the palace, and strangled the
w retched H urm uzd w ith a bowstring.
R E I G N OF K H U S R A W ( P A R V I Z )
W ith a handful o f loyal attendants Khusraw sped on his flight to

R u m , and while resting at a monastery on the way was overtaken by
a party o f Bahram C hubina’s troops. H e escaped, however, by the
help o f Bandwi, w ho had caught up w ith him, and now donned the
crown and royal robes and showed himself on the roof, while
Khusraw galloped away unnoticed. Bandwi gave him time to get well
away before he admitted the deception; he was taken before Bahram
Chubina, w ho put him in chains.
PLATE 51 Khusraw consults a herm it o f R u m

Although by this time Bahram Chubina was widely accepted as

King, he had not been officially recognised as such, nor had he been
crowned, so w ith this in mind, he assembled all the chief m en o f Iran
to debate the matter. O pinion was evenly divided, but in the end
Bahram C hubina wrote out a declaration o f his kingship, to be
ratified by all the nobility; those w ho refused m ight jo in Khusraw in
exile.
M eanwhile Bandwi in his confinem ent succeeded in beguiling his
gaoler, Bahram son o f Siyawush, into a plot to m urder Bahram
Chubina. Bahram therefore freed Bandwi, and arranged w ith five
accomplices to m urder Bahram Chubina as he played polo. H e took
the precaution o f donning a shirt o f mail under his dress, but his wife,
w ho was secretly in love w ith Bahram Chubina, noticed this, and
sent a message warning him to beware. So w hen Bahram Chubina
arrived at the polo ground he tapped the players on the back by way
o f greeting, thus detecting his would-be slayer by the answering
chink o f mail. By this means he identified Bahram son o f Siyawush as
the villain, and cut him down w ithout hesitation. As soon as Bandwi
heard o f this he decamped as fast as he could.
Caesar's Talisman
Khusraw pursued his journey towards R um , not w ithout adventure.

W hen he reached the city o f Warigh, after receiving encouraging
advice and timely warnings from a local herm it, he was m et by an
envoy o f Caesar w ith a welcoming message, so he sent a return
embassy, w ith strict instructions to m ind their bearing, behaviour,
and language whilst asking Caesar’s help in regaining the kingdom.
But though at first favourable to the request, after consultation w ith
his philosophers, Caesar returned a negative answer. However, w hen
Khusraw indicated that in that case he would seek solace w ith the
Khan, Caesar changed his tune and a treaty was drawn up, Persia
yielding territory in return for present assistance.
Caesar then had a talisman constructed, consisting o f a life-size and
lifelike figure o f a weeping wom an on a throne bewailing her dead
husband, and bade the Persian envoys visit her and try to make her
speak. They failed, one after the other, till finally Kharrad Barzin, the
chief envoy, was called upon to try. H e observed the figure closely,
and noticed several features about her that seemed mechanical rather
than hum an, and told Caesar so. Caesar com m ended him highly, and
this led to a conversation on the religion o f the Hindus and
Christianity, culminating in praise o f the religion o f Zoroaster, and o f
the Persian Kings in their practice o f it.
The War Renewed
Caesar sent not only troops to the aid o f Khusraw, but also his
daughter Maryam in marriage to him, w ith a numerous train and
rich gifts. Khusraw received them w ith great satisfaction, m arried
M aryam immediately, and com bined the Persian troops w ith his
R om an allies, putting all under the com m and o f Caesar’s brother
Niyatus. W hen the army was in m otion, Khusraw was joined by
Bandwi and Mawsil, an Arm enian w ho had sheltered him in his
flight; and he visited a neighbouring fire-temple to pray solemnly for
aid in the coming struggle.
H earing o f Khusraw’s movements, Bahram Chubina wrote letters
to the Persian chiefs urging them to abandon Khusraw and jo in up
w ith him, but the bearer o f the letters was so impressed by the
splendours o f the royal camp that he handed over the letters to
Khusraw himself. The king com m ended and rewarded him, and sent
him back to Bahram C hubina w ith a packet o f forged letters,
purporting to come from the chiefs addressed and pledging their
support.
T he armies confronted one another for their first battle, and Kut, a
R om an champion, rode out and challenged Bahram C hubina to
single combat. But Bahram cut him through from helm et to breast,
bound the corpse to its horse, and sent it back to Khusraw’s camp. In
the general engagement that followed, the Rom ans, dismayed by the
fate o f their champion, were defeated w ith great slaughter.
In the second battle on the following day Khusraw decided to
dispense w ith his R om an allies, and attacked Bahram C hubina w ith
his Persian troops. Bahram ’s elephant was overwhelmed by their
arrows, as was the horse he then m ounted. But he fought so
desperately on foot that he drove the Persians back, and even
Khusraw himself was in m ortal danger till he was saved by the

intervention o f the angel Surush.
O n their third encounter Khusraw and Bahram C hubina were
brought face-to-face, and the king landed a heavy blow o f his mace
on Bahram ’s helmet, causing him to retire; w hereupon the royal
troops, Persians and Rom ans together, made a massive charge, and
the army o f Bahram Chubina was dispersed. The victorious Khusraw,
astutely enough, proclaimed quarter to all w ho submitted, an offer
readily accepted by most o f Bahram C hubina’s chief warriors, and
the usurper and his remaining followers beat a hasty retreat. Persian
scouts on the following m orning found his camp abandoned. A body
o f cavalry was sent in pursuit, while Bahram and his m en made their
way towards Chin; however the pursuers were trapped in a reed-bed
fired by Bahram ’s troops. Their leader was captured and sent back to
Khusraw.
Having plundered the camp o f Bahram Chubina, the King sent a
letter to Caesar announcing his victory, w hich was answered by a
cargo o f rich gifts and a robe o f honour. The feast o f celebration was
somewhat m arred by a religious altercation betw een the Christian
Niyatus and the Zoroastrian Bandwi, but it was happily resolved by
the tact o f Maryam. Khusraw then called a parade o f his R om an allies
and sent them hom e w ith ample rewards, at the same time bestowing
provinces and patents on his Persian chiefs.
Bahram Chubina in Chin
Bahram C hubina eventually reached the court o f the Khan o f Chin,

where he and his followers were warmly welcomed. There was a
great man at the K han’s court named Maqatura, w ho called every
m orning on the Khan, and w ent away w ith a thousand gold pieces.
Bahram C hubina felt that the kindly Khan was being imposed upon,
and urged him to resist such shameless cupidity, w hich he did, w ith
Bahram’s backing. Maqatura, o f course, was furious, and challenged
Bahram C hubina to a duel the following m orning. H e began the
fight w ith a shot that struck Bahram harmlessly on the belt. Bahram ’s
return shot pinned his adversary to his saddle, and he expired, to the
Khan’s secret satisfaction.
PLATE 52 Bahram C hubina kills the Lion-ape
N o t far from the K han’s palace on a bleak m ountain side, there

lived a m onster know n as the Lion-Ape (shir-kappi), w hich had killed
and eaten the Khan’s favourite daughter and many others besides, and
the queen besought Bahram Chubina to rid the land o f it. This he
undertook to accomplish the following m orning. He left his
companions at the foot o f the m ountain and advanced alone. The
m onster rose from a pool where it had been wallowing, to be m et by
three arrows in quick succession from Bahram ’s bow; he then came
to close quarters, speared it in the belly, and finished by cutting it in
two.
As a result of this encounter, Bahram Chubina became the greatest
m an in Chin, and m arried one o f the K han’s daughters. News o f his
successes and prosperity duly reached Khusraw, w ho wrote an ill-
judged letter to the Khan, full o f violent abuse o f his guest. T he Khan
replied in a dignified missive, reproving Khusraw for his bad
manners, so unw orthy o f his distinguished family. Bahram C hubina
offered to lead a host to conquer Iran, and this suggestion was
accepted by the Khan and his ministers. Khusraw was alarmed w hen
news o f this reached him, and he sent the experienced Kharrad
Barzin, w ith a load o f gifts, on a mission to the Khan.
Murder of Bahram Chubina
H e was well received, and gained the K han’s confidence, but he

failed to shake the latter’s faith in Bahram ’s integrity. So Khar rad
Barzin ingratiated himself w ith the queen by curing one o f her
daughters o f an internal complaint. At the same time he became
intimate w ith an elderly and indigent Turkman named Q ulun, a
relative o f the slain Maqatura, and so harbouring a grudge against
Bahram Chubina. This man agreed to assist him in his plans. At
K harrad’s behest the queen obtained for him an impression o f the
K han’s seal, w hich he used to secure a pass for Q ulun to visit
Bahram ’s camp. All w ent as planned. Q ulun obtained access to
Bahram on the pretext o f delivering to him a letter from his wife, the
K han’s daughter, and stabbed him fatally w ith a knife concealed in his
sleeve. Bahram cried out, and his attendants swarmed into the room
and beat the m urderer to death. Bahram Chubina expired in the
arms o f his sister Gurdiya. The Khan destroyed the house o f Q ulun
and all his surviving relatives, and punished the queen for her part in
the plot; Kharrad Barzin made good his escape to Iran. News o f the
m urder was joyfully received at the Persian court; Khusraw was m uch
relieved, and richly rewarded Kharrad Barzin for his efficient
planning.
Activities of Gurdiya
T he K han’s next step was to propose m arriage to Gurdiya, but

she po in ted out that it m ight be th o ught ill-tim ed in view o f
her b ro th e r’s recent death, and asked for a perio d o f four m onths
for her m ourning. She consulted w ith her counsellors, urging,
w ith historical precedents, that any m ingling o f Iranian and
Turanian blood was doom ed to disaster. T hey prudently left the
decision to her, so she started off for Iran w ith a select body o f
troops. T he K han was very angry w hen he heard o f her flight, and
im m ediately dispatched an arm y in pursuit under his b rother
Tuw urg. After four days they came up w ith G urdiya’s party,
w hereupon she engaged T uw urg in single com bat and slew him ,
whilst her troops drove off the m en o f C hin. She then w rote
a letter to her surviving b ro th er G urdw i to inform him o f the

situation.
Khusraw was by now comfortably settled on the throne; his
thoughts turned to the m urder o f his father H urm uzd and he realised
that the murderers, his uncles Bandwi and Gustaham, were still at
large. Bandwi was at hand, so he was fettered, his hands and feet were
lopped, and he died as a result. Gustaham was in Khurasan, and was
sum m oned to appear before the king. H e suspected what m ight be in
store for him, and took refuge w ith his followers in the forests o f
Mazandaran, leading the life o f a robber chief.
B ut w hen he heard o f the exploits o f Gurdiya, and that she was not
far away, he rode out to m eet her. H e told her o f Khusraw’s latest
blood-shedding adding that a like fate probably awaited her if she fell
into his hands, and w hen he w ent on to propose marriage, she
accepted him. But her brother Gurdwi was called into consultation
w ith Khusraw, w ho was still intent on avenging his father, and they
devised a plan. Khusraw wrote Gurdiya a letter promising her
marriage and amnesty, and advancement for her followers if she
would destroy Gustaham. This proposition was reinforced by an
enclosed letter from her brother, and the two letters were entrusted
to G urdw i’s wife, w ho easily gained access to Gurdiya. O n reading
the letters, Gurdiya had no hesitation in falling in w ith the plan. She
suffocated the drunken Gustaham in his bed, and took com m and o f
his troops, w hom she led southwards to the King’s court. Khusraw
was delighted, and m arried her w ithout delay. Shortly afterwards she
gave an impressive display o f her amazonian prowess before the king
and his chief wife Shirin (who had some misgivings on the matter),
finishing up by draining a large bum per o f wine at a draught. The
king made her overseer o f his extensive household.
D uring a drinking bout one night, Khusraw noticed that one o f
the goblets was inscribed w ith the name o f Bahram, and this
rem inded him o f his old enemy Bahram Chubina and o f the city o f
R ayy w hich he had made his residence. So he deliberately dispatched
as governor an evil man w ho subjected the inhabitants to intolerable
oppression, broke down the gutters from their roofs, and had all the
cats in the city destroyed. Gurdwi was inform ed o f these outrages,
and besought his sister to prevail upon Khusraw to relieve the city
from its afflictions. She responded by introducing into the court a
T HE SASANIAN DYN AS TY 139
cat, bejewelled, dressed as a child, and m ounted on a horse. This

caused such m errim ent to Khusraw and his courtiers that he
immediately granted her request, and the city was saved.
Birth o f Shirwi
In the sixth year o f Khusraw’s reign his wife Maryam, Caesar’s

daughter, gave birth to a son, Shirwi, for w hom the astrologers
predicted an evil fate. But his father took little heed o f this, and
proudly announced the birth to Caesar. Caesar sent a letter o f
congratulation, to w hich he added a request for the return o f the
True Cross, captured by Ardashir,29 a request w hich Khusraw, none
too politely, refused.
PLATE 53 Khusraw at Shirin’s palace

Khusraw & Shirin
In his youth Khusraw had as a mistress, Shirin, w hom he lost sight o f

during his struggle w ith Bahram Chubina. Later, w hen a royal
hunting party passed by her dwelling, she showed herself, and
rem inded Khusraw o f their form er happiness, so he added her to his
harem. But Shirin became jealous o f Maryam, and secretly gave her
poison. Shirwi meanwhile was growing up frivolous and irrespon
sible, so that Khusraw confined him to the palace, w here he passed
his time in debauchery w ith his young companions.
Barbad the Minstrel
A bout this time Sarkash, the court musician, felt his position
threatened by a younger perform er named Barbad, and contrived to
have him denied access to the court. But Barbad found a friend in the
person o f M ardwi the gardener, w ho arranged for him to be present,
but unseen, w hen Khusraw took his pleasure in the garden at the
N ew Year. So Barbad dressed himself in green and, carrying his harp,
climbed into the branches o f a great cypress tree, beneath w hich the
king soon took his place to drink wine. W hen he played and sang,
Khusraw and all the court were enraptured, but nobody could
discover where he was. At length he came down and stood before the
king, w ho forthw ith made him chief musician. W hen his behaviour
became known, Sarkash was disgraced.
Fall of Khusraw
But in his latter years Khusraw turned from justice to oppression; his
sole aim was to increase his wealth. The people began to leave their
homes, and some sought refuge in R um . Two traitors, Guraz and
Farrukhzad, invited Caesar to invade and take over the kingdom , and
very soon his armies were in m otion. By a crafty ruse, however,
Khusraw induced him to retire. But the trouble at hom e became
serious; fighting broke out betw een the rebels and the royal troops, in
w hich the latter were worsted. Shirwi was released from his house-
PLATE 54 Khusraw and Shirin listening to the music of Barbad
arrest, and hailed as king w ith the royal name o f Q ubad (II).
Awakened by the noise, Khusraw attem pted to conceal himself in the
garden, but he was caught there by Farrukhzad and the rebels. He
was placed on an elephant and conveyed to Taisafun w here he was
kept in strict confinem ent, whilst his son Shirwi ascended the throne
as Q ubad II.
R E I G N OF Q U B A D II ( S H I R W I )
M urder o f Khusraw
Q ubad began by sending a message o f extenuation and excuse to his

imprisoned father, w ho returned a long answer o f self-justification.
This gave Q ubad a fit o f remorse, but the chiefs were solidly against
PLATE 55 Suicide o f Shirin on the corpse o f Khusraw

THE SASANIAN DYNAS TY 143
the deposed king. However they were prevailed upon to treat

Khusraw well for a m onth to see w hether he w ould change his
attitude. D uring this time he was constantly visited and tended by his
faithful queen Shirin. Poor Barbad the minstrel was distraught w hen
he heard o f Khusraw s fall, and after composing and singing a dirge,
he cut off his fingers and burned his instruments.
T he m onth o f grace passed. Yielding to pressure from the nobles,
Q ubad reluctantly agreed to their plan to have Khusraw secretly
m urdered. The horrid task was entrusted to a miscreant named M ihr
H urm uzd, w ho visited the wretched Khusraw in his prison and
stabbed him to death. At the same time the rebels had fifteen o f his
sons massacred. Q ubad then sent for his step-m other Shirin and,
incredibly, proposed marriage to her. She scornfully rejected his
unnatural offer, only requesting that she might be allowed to look
once m ore on the face o f her m urdered husband in his coffin, and
having embraced the corpse, she took poison. Q ubad himself was
poisoned shortly after, and Ardashir (III) a young boy, was placed on
the throne.
R E I G N S OF A R D A S H I R III, G U R A Z , P U R A N D U K H T ,
A Z A R M I D U K H T & F A R R U K H Z A D 30
Period of Confusion
Ardashir III came to the throne in AD 628 and during the next four
years five successive monarchs reigned. Ardashir was m urdered after
six months, and his successor, the usurper Guraz (or Farayin), m et
the same fate after a mere fifty days. After him came two queens,
Purandukht and Azarmidukht, daughters o f Khusraw, both o f w hom
died (or were murdered) w ithin a few months o f accession. The
form er signalised her reign by the execution o f Piruz, the m urderer
o f Ardashir III, w ho was bound to an unbroken colt w hich was then
driven at high speed, vainly trying to rid itself o f its helpless rider, till
it finally rolled upon him and he died miserably Farrukhzad’s was the
last, and shortest, o f these unhappy reigns; he survived one m onth on
the throne before being poisoned by a slave.
R E I G N OF Y A Z D A G I R D III
The Arab Invasion
So began the reign o f the last o f the Sasanians, a young grandson o f

Khusraw. At first he seemed to have inaugurated an era o f peace and
tranquillity, but before long the Caliph ‘U m ar sent his general Sa‘ad
b. Waqqas to invade his dominions from the south. Against him
Yazdagird fielded his com m ander-in-chief, w ho bore the auspicious
name o f Rustam . The armies m et at Qadisiyya on the Euphrates. O n
the eve o f the battle Rustam , w ho had some skill in astrology, wrote
his brother a letter full o f evil foreboding. He also w rote to Sa‘ad,
endeavouring to delay or prevent hostilities, but the Arab returned a
scornful answer. The two leaders m et in single combat31 in the
middle o f a dust-storm. R ustam killed Sa‘ad’s horse, and dism ounted
in order to see his adversary m ore clearly through the dust, but it was
blown into his eyes, and Sa‘ad, taking advantage o f his m om entary
blindness, cut him down. At the news o f their leader’s fall, the
Persians fled, w ith the Arabs in hot pursuit.
Flight & Murder of Yazdagird
Yazdagird decided to retire to Khurasan, where he could be in easy

reach o f potential allies, the Turks and Chinese. The governor o f
Marv, a traitor named M ahwi, received him obsequiously, but incited
his neighbour Bizhan the Turk to come and capture Yazdagird, w ho
had few troops w ith him. Bizhan’s m en quickly put the royal guards
to flight, and Yazdagird, after fighting heroically for some time on his
own, managed to get away, and took refuge in a mill, where he spent
the night. The miller arrived in the m orning, and was astonished to
find a richly-clad w arrior among the hay. But w hen Yazdagird sent
him out on an errand, he was stopped and questioned by M ahw i’s
m en, w ho felt sure, from his description, that the well-dressed
stranger was indeed the fugitive king. The miller was taken before
M ahwi, w ho sent him back to his mill w ith an escort o f cavalry, and
orders to kill his involuntary guest. The miller stabbed Yazdagird, the
soldiers stripped the body and the miller flung it into the mill-stream.
It was recovered and given decent burial by some neighbouring

monks, w ho were later slaughtered by Mahwi.
The Bitter End: Firdawsi Signs O ff
M ahwi now assumed the crown, giving out that it had been
bequeathed to him by Yazdagird himself, and filled the highest posts
w ith his creatures. But Bizhan the Turk heard the true story, and
m arched against him to avenge the m urdered king. M ahwi was run
down, captured, mutilated, and bound to a horse w hich was turned
loose in the desert. His second-in-com m and, Guraz, and his three
sons were burned to death. Bizhan himself, whose record in these
terrible events is not wholly creditable, went mad and com m itted
suicide. And so, like a Jacobean tragedy, amid madness, mutilation
and murder, the mighty Sasanian dynasty finally collapsed, and the
great epic comes to an end. In his epilogue the poet Firdawsi tells us
that he wrote the final lines on the day o f Ard in the m onth of
Sapandarmad in the year o f the Flight 400 (AD 1010).
NOTES
1 Readers who have had the benefit o f a classical education will doubtless
have noticed a similarity between Rustam ’s panoply as depicted here (and in
other illustrations to this volume) and classical Greek portrayals in sculpture
or vase painting o f Heracles wearing the skin of the Nemean lion. Rustam
wore his tiger-skin surcoat (babri-bayani) constantly, as vouched for by
Firdawsi, and it appears from the earliest (early fourteenth century)
representations o f the hero onwards. But the mask of a leopard on his
helmet has to wait another hundred years. Its first appearance was at Shiraz
in 1411 in a richly decorated anthology commissioned by the outstanding
patron and bibliophile (but disastrous polititian) Iskandar Sultan, a grandson
of the great conqueror Timur, or Tamerlaine (British Library MS
Add.27261, f.298b). Classical remains are still common in Asia Minor,
and it may be that a figure o f Heracles with the grinning mask of the
Nemean lion on his brow was observed and noted by one of Tim ur’s
officers during his Ottom an campaign or even by Prince Iskandar himself,
who accompanied his grandfather on this occasion. But the latter had a
lively mind, and was quite capable of thinking of the idea himself. The
sevenfold plume on Rustam ’s helmet is a unique feature and quite consistent
with the genius of the greatest painter of the time, Sultan Muhammad.
2 E.G. Browne, A Literary History o f Persia, London 1908, Vol. II, p.132.
3 A typical passage as translated by Browne (op. cit. Vol II, p.81):
Long years this Shahnama I toiled to complete,

That the King might award me some recompense meet,
But naught save a heart wrung with grief and despair
Did I get from those promises empty as air!
Had the sire of the King been some Prince of renown
My forehead had surely been graced by a crown!
Were his mother a lady of high pedigree
In silver and gold had I stood to the knee!
147
148 T H E P E R S I A N B O O K OF K I N G S
But, being by birth not a prince but a boor

The praise of the noble he could not endure!
A complete English version, running to almost 200 lines, will be found in

Warner Vol. I, pp.40-44.
4 Pahlavi was the pre-Islamic Persian language spoken by the Sasanians.
M odern Persian is fairly close to it, but has adopted the Arabic script and a
great many Arabic words and phrases. In the Shahnam a Firdawsi deliberately
reduced his use of Arabic words to a bare minimum. The only people
familiar with Pahlavi in the poet’s time would be adherents of the ‘old
religion’ (Zoroastranism), as it was the language of their scriptures.
Zoroastrians used, and still use, old Persian names rather than the usual
Muhammad, ‘Ali, Husayn, which are o f Arabic origin.
5 The last Kayani monarch is Iskandar (Alexander the Great) who is claimed
as a rightful heir to the Persian throne, and whose amazing travels and
adventures are mostly derived from Pseudo-Callisthenes, an obscure writer
o f the Ptolemaic period. His compilation is the main source of the various
Alexander epics found in mediaeval Europe, Asia and Ethiopia.
6 In a well-known miniature of this subject by the great master Sultan
Muhammad, angels are depicted swooping down on the enemy, ‘peeling off’
in turn, and dive-bombing the demons with rocks, whilst the animals take a
lively part in the discomfiture of the latter. See Dickson & Welch, The
H oughton Shahnam a , Cambridge (Mass.) and London 1981, Vol. I, pl.4; S.C.
Welch, R oyal Persian Manuscripts, London 1976, pl.4; and C. Welch, Wonders
o f the Age, Cambridge (Mass.) 1979, pi.9. This and subsequent wars of the
early Kings with the demons may represent a folk-memory of the struggles of
the Aryan invaders, ancestors of the modern Persians, against the aboriginal
inhabitants, who are described as black, rude, coarse and ugly. (See Ali Sami,
Shiraz, Shiraz 1958, pp.5f.) The Japanese have similar legends of their early
struggles with the aborigines (Ainu) whom they called ‘Earth-Spiders’.
7 Iblis is the Arabic equivalent of Ahriman, the Evil Principle of the
Zoroastrians. Its use by Firdawsi probably indicates a passage adopted from
an Arabic version of a Pahlavi original.
8 This banner of the leather apron, known as dirafsh-i-Kavani (‘flag of Kava’)
accompanied the victorious armies o f the Sasanians and possibly of the
Achaemenids, into battle. It was a sort of national Palladium. But at the fatal
battle of Qadisiyya (AD 636) it was captured by the Arabs. By then the
original leather apron was almost concealed by an accretion of jewels and
other embellishments, and is said to have measured 22 x l5 feet. Its value was
estimated 75 years ago at ^30,000. The savage Arabs broke it up and sold
the jewels separately.
9 The early Persians were cattle-breeders and, like the cowboys of N orth
America, were expert in handling the lasso. Many examples of its effective
use in battle will be encountered as the narrative proceeds.
NOTES 149
10 This is known as the Battle of the Twelve Rukhs, as it is held to include the
combat of Bizhan and Human, described above, as well as the eleven duels
here enumerated.
11 The Persian word for rhinoceros is karg, which is often confused with gurg
(wolf), the Persian letters G and K being very similar in appearance. But
Persian painters who have illustrated this story often depict a rhinoceros,
which is a more formidable adversary for a hero to tackle, and its terrible
horn is also more suited to the evisceration of Gushtasp’s horse (see below).
The same confusion occurs later in the adventures of Isfandiyar and Bahram
Gur. The rhinoceros is sometimes depicted as a unicorn. See R .
Ettinghausen, The Unicorn (Freer Gallery of Art, Occasional Papers, Vol.I,
no. 3), Washington, D.C., 1950.
12 The practice o f marriage with the next-of-kin was in accordance with the
Magian (Zoroastrian) religion.
13 See note 11.
14 Evidently quite a different breed from the benign creature who saved the
baby Zal and brought him up!
15 Bahman may claim to be the first historical character to appear in the
Shahnama, though Gushtasp has sometimes been equated with Hystaspes;
earlier attempts to identify Kay Khusraw with Cyrus have been shown to be
futile. Bahman was called diraz-dast (‘long hand’) and is thus identifiable
with Artaxerxes Longimanus (BC 465-425). However his successor in the
Shahnama, Q ueen Humay, has no historical counterpart. Her son Darab
corresponds to Darius II (BC 424—404), and Dara (Alexander’s half-brother
in the epic) is, o f course, the ill-fated Darius III (Codomannus) (BC
336-330). The chronological confusion is obvious, but from here onwards
the often fabulous or fictitious events o f the Shahnama are enacted in a
broadly historical framework.
16 See note 12.
17 Though now the main focus of Muslim pilgrimage, the Ka‘ba, or Holy House,
has a long and chequered pre-Islamic history. Briefly, it is said to have been
founded by Adam, rebuilt by Abraham after the Flood, and supplied by the
archangel Gabriel with the famous Black Stone, of volcanic origin and set in
the south east corner o f the building. Later, however, idolatry was introduced
into Mecca after a certain Amr b.Luhayy brought back an idol called Hubal,
which he had been given on his travels by the Amalekites. Soon hundreds of
idols were installed in and around the Ka‘ba till they were all destroyed by
Muhammad in AD 629, and the Ka‘ba was cleansed. As well as Hubal, they
included the three daughters o f Allah, al-Lat (mentioned by Herodotus as
Alilat), al-‘Uzza, and Manat, whose favourable mention in the ‘Satanic Verses’
(Quran LIII.19, 20) caused much embarrassment to the Prophet.
18 It is wasted effort to try to trace or follow Iskandar’s travels (as here related)
on a map; they defy all the laws of geography and most other laws. The
reader is recommended to relax, with disbelief suspended, and so to enjoy
149
150 T H E P E R S I A N B O O K O F K IN G S
these extraordinary adventures, speculating, perhaps, on their origin, and

comparing them with the folklore of other cultures. The literature on the
Alexander epic is vast, and open to those who wish to explore the subject
further, (cf. note 4 above).
19 The Sasanian kings regarded themselves as divine beings, and legitimate
successors of the ancient Kayanians, inheritors of the Royal Splendour {fan-
i-kayani) or Divine Right, by virtue of which they alone could wear the
crown o f Iran. The Royal Splendour was capable, as here, of taking visible
form, and without it usurpers, such as Bahram Chubina (see below), were
foredoomed. See Browne, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 128.
20 This is presumably a garbled reminiscence of the capture of the Rom an
Emperor Valerian in AD 258. It will be seen that Shapur II is also credited
by Firdawsi with the capture of a Rom an Emperor; this is evidently due to a
confusion of the two Shapurs.
21 O ther accounts make Shapur dislocate their shoulders, or string the captives
together by boring holes in their shoulders. But the title Z u ’l-aktaf may be
simply honorific, ‘The broad-shouldered’.
22 Actually Mani was executed by Bahram I in AD 273. This seems to be
another case of confusion between the two Shapurs; Mani first appeared in
the reign of Shapur I. See Browne, op. cit., Vol. I, pp.154 ff.
23 The poet Nizami (1140-1202) devotes a whole poem of his Khamsa
(‘Q uintet’), the H aft Paykar (‘Seven Portraits’), to Bahram Gur. His version
o f this story is better known than that of Firdawsi, and is provided with an
amusing sequel and a happy ending. Bahram’s rather brutal action, as given
here, finds no place in Nizami’s version, where the girl’s name is Fitna.
24 Startling as they may appear, these figures may not in fact be very much
exaggerated. The celebrated rock reliefs o f Taq-i-bustan depicting two great
royal hunts comprise, apart from a multitude of huntsmen and hunt
servants, large numbers of elephants and camels, both loaded and ridden, a
quarry of innumerable deer and wild boar, the King (Khusraw) shooting the
former at full gallop, and picking off the latter from a boat, and a full
orchestra in the background.
25 Here the Khan apparantly represents not the Emperor of Chin, but the
chieftain of the W hite Huns (or Haitalians, or Ephthalites) who periodically
threatened the northern frontiers of Iran.
26 Omar Khayyam’s well-known lines, as rendered by Fitzgerald:
‘And Bahram, that great hunter —the wild ass

Stamps o ’er his head, but cannot break his sleep’
allude to the more dramatic account of Bahram’s death, in which, whilst in

pursuit of a wild ass, he followed it into a deep cleft (or quicksand?) from
which he never emerged. This version is given by the historians Tabari and
Mirkhwand. O m ar’s lines contain a pun on gur, which in Persian can mean
either ‘a wild ass’ or ‘a grave’ and a more literal translation of the lines is:
NOTES 151
‘Bahram who hunted the wild ass (gur) all his life
See how the grave (gur) has hunted him down.’
See Peter Avery & John Heath-Stubbs, The R u b a ’iyat o f O m ar K hayyam ,

London 1979, p.55.
27 This book is the celebrated Fables of Bidpai, known to the Persians as K alila
wa D im na. It probably originated in India, as related here by Firdawsi, but
has subsequently appeared in various forms and at various periods
throughout the civilised world, from Aesop to La Fontaine.
28 M uhammad was born in AD 570, and Nushirwan died about nine years
later.
29 According to the Shahnam a the True Cross had been captured by Ardashir,
but in fact it was carried off by Khusraw when he took Jerusalem in AD
615. After Khusraw’s death it was restored to the Emperor Heraclius.
30 These are the names, and order of succession, of monarchs during the
confused period 628—632, as given in the Shahnam a. But many variations
are to be found in both eastern and western historians. As Gibbon says (ed.
J.B. Bury. 1898, Vol.V p.93) ‘The glory o f the house of Sassan ended with
the life of Chosroes [Khusraw]; his unnatural son enjoyed only eight months
the fruit of his crimes; and in the space o f four years the regal title was
assumed by nine candidates, who disputed, with the sword and dagger, the
fragments of an exhausted monarchy. Every province and each city of Persia
was the scene of independence, of discord, and of blood, and the state of
anarchy prevailed about eight years longer, till the factions were silenced and
united under the common yoke of the Arabian caliphs.’ Guraz is better
known to history as Shahr-baraz. The abysmal decline of the Sasanian
empire may be attributed to the prolonged and exhausting wars with R om e
and Byzantium (in the words of Gibbon) ‘undertaken without cause,
prosecuted without glory, and terminated without effect.’
31 In fact Rustam and Sa‘ad did not meet at the battle of Qadisiyya. The Arab
leader was prevented by boils from taking an active part in the battle, while
Rustam, taking refuge from a sand-storm among the baggage, was injured
by a falling bale, and killed by an Arab named Hillal. The final and decisive
battle (not mentioned in the Shahnam a) took place at Nahavand in AD 642,
and the fugitive Yazdagird was murdered ten years later.
TABLE OF THE
KINGS IN THE
SH A H N A M A
Reign Reign
Name Name (in years) (dates)
Dynasty (Persian) (Latin) (Shahnama) (Historical)
Pishdadian Gayumarth 30
Hushang 40
Tahmurath 30
Jamshid 700
[Zahhak] 1000*
(usurper)
Faridun 500
Minuchihr 120
Nawdar 7
Zav 5
Garshasp 9
Kayanian Kay Qubad 100

Kay Ka’us 150
Kay Khusraw 60
Luhrasp 120
Gushtasp 120 BC
Bahman Artaxerxes 99 465-425
(Longimanus)
Humay 32
(Queen)
Darab Darius II 12 424-404
Dara Darius III 14 336-330
Iskandar Alexander 14 330-323
(The Great)
BC-AD
Ashkanian 200 249-226
(Parthian) Ardawan Artabanus IV AD209-226
153
Reign Reign
Name Nam e (in years) (dates)
Dynasty (Persian) (Latin) (Shahnama) (Historical)
Sasanian Ardashir I Artaxerxes 40 226-240

Shapur I Sapor 30 240-271
Hurmuzd I Hormisdas 1 271-272
Bahram I Varanes 3 272-275
Bahram II Varanes 19 275-292
Bahram III Varanes 4 months 292
Narsi Narses 9 293-301
Hurmuzd II Hormisdas 9 301-309
Shapur II Sapor 70 309-279
Ardashir II Artaxerxes 10 379-383
Shapur III Sapor 5 383-388
Bahram IV Varanes 14 388-399
Sasanian (ctd) Yazdagird I Isdigertes 30 399-420

Bahram V Varanes 63 420-440
(Gur)
Yazdagird II Isdigertes 18 440-457
Hurmuzd III Hormisdas 1 457-459
Piruz Peroses 11 459-483
Balash Pallas 5 483-487
Qubad I Cabades 487-498
(1st Reign)
Jamasp 43 498-501
Qubad Cabades 501-531
(2nd Reign)
Nushirwan Chosroes I 48 531-578
Hurmuzd IV Hormisdas 12 578-590
Khusraw Chosroes II 38 590-628
(Parviz)
Qubad II Cabades 7 months 628-629
(Shirwi)
Ardashir III Artaxerxes 6 months
Guraz (Farayin , 50 days
Shahr-baraz)
> 629-632
Purandukht 6 months
(Queen)
Azarmidukht 4 months
(Queen)
Farrukhzad 1 month
Yazdagird III Isdigertes 20 632-652
* less one day.

SELECT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ATKINSON, J., T he Shah N a m eh , Oriental Translation Fund, 1832; reprinted

Chandos Classics, 1886.
A serviceable abbreviation o f the Shahnam a up to the death of Rustam
(including the B a rzu N a m a ). In prose and verse.
BROW NE, Prof. E.G., A Literary H istory o f Persia, London, 1908, 2 Vols.
An excellent account of Firdawsi’s sources and the background of the
Shahnam a (Vol. I, pp.l 10-123), and of the poet’s life and achievement (Vol.II,
pp. 129-145), by the greatest o f our Persian scholars.
COYAJEE, Sir Jehangir C., Studies in Shahnam eh, Bombay (Taraporevala) n.d.
(c.1939).
Text o f a series o f lectures delivered by the former Principal of the
Presidency College, Calcutta, to the K .R. Cama Oriental Institute, Bombay.
Amongst other things, it draws intriguing parallels between the Shahnam a
and various western myths, such as A rthur’s R ound Table and the Holy
Grail.
LEVY, R ., T he E pic o f the K ings, U N ESC O Persian Heritage Series, 1967.
Good prose translations o f selected passages.
NOLDEKE, Th., ‘D as iranische N ationalepos ’ in Grundriss der iranischen Philologie,
Strassburg 1896: English translation by L. Bogdanov in Journal o f the K .R .
C am a O riental Institute, No.6, Bombay 1926.
A magisterial monograph on all aspects of the Shahnam a itself, and of its
background and sources.
NORGP^EN, J., & DAVIS, E., Preliminary Index o f S h a h -N a m e h Illustrations,
Ann Arbor (University of Michigan Center for Near Eastern & N orth
African Studies), 1969.
An invaluable index and survey of the illustrations in some 130 Shahnam a
manuscripts, together with innumerable dispersed miniatures.
PAVRY, B., T he Heroines o f A ncient Persia, Cambridge 1930. Stories of 21
Queens and Ladies retold from the Shahnam a.
155
156 T H E P E R S I A N B O O K O F K I N G S
R O B IN SO N , B.W., Persian Painting & the N a tional Epic (British Academy

Hertz Lecture, 1982) Proceedings o f the British A cadem y 1 9 8 2 , London 1983.
An account of the development of Persian painting in illustrations to the
Shahnam a.
W A R N E R , A.G., & E., T he S hahnam a o f Firdawsi, 9 Vols, London,
1908—1925. (Trubner’s Oriental Series).
The only English translation o f the whole epic: in blank verse with copious
notes and commentaries.
W ELCH, S.C., A K in g ’s B ook o f K ings, N ew York (Metropolitan Museum of
Art) 1972.
A lavishly-illustrated study o f the celebrated Shah Tahmasp (‘H oughton’)
Shahnam a, by the eminent scholar who spent ten years studying the
manuscript and its paintings.
W ICKENS, G.M., ‘The Imperial Epic of Iran: a Literary Approach’ in Iranian
C ivilisation and Culture, McGill University, Montreal 1972, pp. 133-144. A
study o f Firdawsi’s literary methods, illustrated by a detailed analysis of his
account o f the reigns o f Ardashir I and Shapur I.
W ILKINSON, J.V.S., T he S h a h -N a m a h o f Firdawsi, Oxford 1931 (with an
Introduction on the paintings by Laurence Binyon).
A study of the Royal Asiatic Society’s magnificent manuscript of c.1440;
narrative is confined to the subjects illustrated.
W ILM O T-BU X TO N , E.M., The Book o f R u stem (Harrap’s ‘Told through the
Ages’ series) London 1916.
Adapted from A tk in so n (above) as a children’s introduction to the epic.
INDEX
Abtin, father of Faridun; 15 Arnawaz, sister of Jamshid; 15, 17

Abu Mansur b Muhammad, Arsaces, see Ashk
patron; 4, 10 Arwand, river; 15
Abu Mansur al-Ma‘mari, official; 4 Arzhang, demon leader; 28
Afrasiyab, King of Turan; 4f, 21, Arzhang, Turanian warrior; 46
23, 30-33, 38-41, 45ff, 50-53, Arzu, daughter of Mahiyar; 109f
55, 59-62, 124 Ashk, founder of the Ashkanian
Ahran, Rom an nobleman; 66ff (Parthian) Dynasty; 87
Ahriman, Zoroastrian evil Ashkabus Turanian champion; 47f
principle; 13 Ashkanian Dynasty (Parthians); 5,
Akwan, demon; 5I f 87ff
Alburz, mountain; 23 Ashkash, Persian warrior; 57
Alkus, Turanian warrior; 32 Asjadi, Ghaznavid court poet; 2
Aiwa, Rustams squire; 48 Awaza, fortress; 130
Andalus (Spain); 81 Awfi, biographer; I f
Andariman, son of Arjasp; 74 Awlad, local chief in Mazandaran;
Antakiya (Antioch); 120 28
Arabia and the Arabs; 17, 96, 98f, Ayin Gashasp, Persian nobleman;
128, 144 131
Arash, see Ashk Azada, slave-girl of Bahram Gur;
Ardashir I, 1st Sasanian King; 87f, 99
91-94, 111, 139 Azargashasp, fire-temple; 115
Ardashir II, 10th Sasanian King; Azarmidukht, Sasanian Queen;
97 143
Ardashir III, 25th Sasanian King;
143 Babylon; 86, 93
Ardawan, last Parthian King; 87f Baghdad; 111
Aristotle, tutor to Iskandar; 86 Bahman, castle of; 43
Arjasp, King of Turan; 68ff, 73f, Bahman, son of Isfandiyar; 74, 76,
124 78, 83
157
Bahman, son of Ardawan; 89 Bizhan, Ashkanian; 87

Bahram, Persian warrior; 38, 45f Bizhan the Turk; 144f
Bahram I, 4th Sasanian King; 95 Black Demon; 11
Bahram II, 5th Sasanian King; 95 Bogdanov, L, translator; 1
Bahram III, 6th Sasanian King; 95 Brahmins, Indian holy men; 83
Bahram IV, 12th Sasanian King; Brazen Hold, Arjasp’s fortress; 70,
97 73, 92
Bahram V (Gur), 14th Sasanian Browne, Professor EG; I f
King; 98-116, 124 Bukhara, central Asiatic city; 112
Bahram, son of Siyawush; 133 Buzurjmihr, vizier to Nushirwan;
Bahram Azarmihan, treasurer to 120f, 124, 126f
Hurmuzd IV; 128
Bahram Chubina, usurper; Caesar (Qaysar), general name for
128-140 Rom an and Byzantine
Balash, 18th Sasanian King; 117 emperors; 65—69, 94, 96f, 11 If,
Balkh, north-eastern city; 37, 69f 119f, 126ff, 131, 133ff 139f
Bandwi, uncle of Khusraw; Cats; 133f
131-135, 138 Caucasus, mountains; 84
Baraham, Jewish miser; 101 f Chahar maqala (‘Four
Barbad, court musician; 140, 143 Discourses’); 1
Barbaristan, King of; 30 Chess, introduction and origin;
Barzin, local lord; 108f 124f
Barzwi, physician and traveller; Chin (China); 17, 50, 85, 115,
125f, 135ff
Batarun (Marcian), Rom an Chingish, Chinese warrior; 49
general; 127 Christianity; 98, 120f, 134f
Baysunghur, Timurid prince; 5 Cowell, Professor Edward; 7
Bazanush (Jovian), Rom an Ctesiphon, see Taisafun
general; 94, 97 Cyrus, founder of the
Bazur, Turanian sorcerer; 46 Achaemenid Dynasty; 6
Bidarafsh, Turanian warrior; 68f
Bih-Afrid, daughter of Gushtasp; Daqiqi, Samanid poet; 2f, 10
69 Dara, Kayanian King; 79, 88
Bihruz, officer under Bahram Darab, Kayanian King; 78f
Gur; 110 Darabjird, city built by Darab;
Bihzad, Siyawush’s horse; 42 79
Birmiya, cow that fostered Demavend, mountain; 16
Faridun; 15 Demons (dip); 5, 11, 13, 24f, 28,
Bishutan, brother of Isfandiyar; 43, 51ff
7Of, 73 Dilanjam, Caesar’s daughter; 66
Bistun (Behistun), sculptured Dirafsh-i-Kavani (‘Flag of Kava’),
rock; 55 national standard; 15
Bizhan, son ofGiv; 45, 51, 53-57, Dragons; 11, 17, 27, 66f, 71, 83,
60, 65 106, 114
IN D E X 159
Dreams; 15, 18, 23, 38, 41, 47, Gahar of Gahan, Turanian
65, 79, 88, 120, 127 warrior; 50
Gang Bihisht, Turanian fortress;
Elephants; 20f, 52f, 55, 71, 78, 81, 60f
108, 125, 129, 134, 141 Gang Dizh, Turanian fortress; 39,
62f
Faghanish, Fiaitalian King; 123 Garshasp, last Pishdadian King; 21
Faghfur, Chinese Emperor; 62, Garsiwaz, brother of Afrasiyab;
85,115 38ff, 53f, 63f
Failakus (Philip ofM acedon); 79 Gav, Indian prince; 125
Faramurz, younger son of Gayumarth, 1st Pishdadian King;
Rustam; 41, 75, 78 11
Faranak, mother of Faridun; 15f Ghatkar, Haitalian King; 123
Faranak, daughter of Barzin; 108 Ghazna, city of Afghanistan; 2
Farat (Euphrates), river; 78 Giv, son of Gudarz; 41-43, 45ff,
Farayin, see Guraz 50, 53f, 57f, 65
Farfurius (Porphyrius?), Rom an Gloom, Land of; 84
general; 120 Gog and Magog (Yajuj and
Fariburz, son of Kay Ka’us; 43, Majuj), northern barbarians; 85
46f, 57, 65 Gudarz, paladin, father of Giv; 33,
Faridun, 5th Pishdadian King; 36, 41, 57ff, 63, 65
15-18, 23, 63, 66, 105, 111, Gudarz, Ashkanian; 87
118 Gulistan Palace Library, Tehran,
Farrukhi, Ghaznavid court Baysunghur’s Shahnama; 5
poet; 2 Gulnar, mistress of Ardashir; 88f
Farrukhzad, name assumed by Guraz (Farayin, Shahr Baraz),
Gushtasp (qv) in R um traitor and usurper; 140, 143
Farrukhzad, traitor and usurper; Guraz, officer under Mahwi; 145
140f, 143 Gurazm, relative of Gushtasp; 69
Farshidward, brother of Piran; 58f Gurdafarid, amazon; 33
Farshidward, brother of Isfandiyar; Gurdiya, amazon, sister of Bahram
70 Chubina; 131, 137f
Farshidward, miser; 110 Gurdwi, brother of Bahram
Farud, son of Siyawush; 33, 44ff Chubina; 138
Faskun, rhinoceros of; 66 Gurgin, Persian warrior; 53f, 55
Firangis, daughter of Afrasiyab; Gurgsar, Turanian warrior; 70f, 73
38-43, 47 Gurwi, murderer of Siyawush; 40,
Firdawsi, author of the Shahnama; 58, 60
Iff, 87, 98, 100, 145 Gushbistar, a monstrous savage;
Florence, National Library, earliest 86
Shahnama Manuscript; 5 Gushtasp, 5 th Kayanian King;
Flying Machine of Kay Ka’us; 31f 65-70, 74, 76, 78
Four Treasures of Kaid; 80f Gustaham, paladin, brother of Tus;
Fur (Porus), Indian King; 3 I f 59f, 65
160 T H E P E R S I A N B O O K OF K I N G S
Gustaham, uncle of Khusraw; Iskandar (Alexander the Great),

131f, 138 last Kayanian King; 79-87
Gypsies; 116 Islam; 127
Ispahbud of Tabaristan; 3
Habash (Ethiopians); 83 Israfil, Angel of the Last
Haftwad, ruler of Kerman; 91, 93 Judgement; 84
Haitalians (Ephthalites, W hite Istakhr (Persepolis), ancient
Huns); 123f capital; 111
Hajjir, Persian warrior; 33, 35
Halab (Aleppo); 127 Jamasp, counsellor of Gushtasp;
Hamavan, mountain; 46f 68f, 74
Hamavaran (Yemen), King of; 30 Jamasp, 20th Sasanian King,
Harum, city of women; 83 brother of Qubad; 118
Hinduism; 134 Jamhur, Indian king; 125
Hira, Arab kingdom; 98, 119 Jamshid, 4th Pishdadian King; 13,
Hum, captor of Afrasiyab; 63f 15, 104f, (treasures of) 105
Human, Turanian commander; Jandal, minister of Faridun; 17
brother of Piran; 46f, 49, 57 Jarira, daughter of Piran; 38, 45
Humay, Queen, daughter of Jawanwi, Persian envoy; 100
Gushtasp; 69, 78 Jihun (Oxus), river; 43, 112
Hurm uzd I, 3rd Sasanian King;
94f Ka‘aba, the Holy House at Mecca;
Hurm uzd II, 8th Sasanian King; 81
95 Kabtun, King of Egypt; 81
Hurm uzd III, 16th Sasanian King; Kabul, city of Afghanistan; 77f
116 Kabul, King of; 18, 47, 76ff
Hurm uzd IV, 22nd Sasanian King; Kafur, the man-eater; 50
127f, 130ff, 138 Kaid, Indian king; 79ff, 94
Hushang, 2nd Pishdadian King; Kaidrush, son of Queen Qaydafa;
I lf 81
Kalahur, Mazandarani warrior; 30
Iblis (the Devil); 13f, 31 Kalila wa Dimna , Indian book of
Ighrirath, brother of Afrasiyab; 21 fables; 125f
Ilyas, King of the Khazars; 67f Kamus, Turanian champion; 47ff
India; 15, 65, 79-86, 93f, 113ff, Kanauj, Indian city; 81
125 Karma’il, Persian patriot; 15
Indus, river; 115 Kava, blacksmith and patriot; 15
Iraj, youngest son of Faridun; Kayanian Dynasty; 5, 23-87
17f Kay Ka’us, 2nd Kayanian King;
Irma’il, Persian patriot; 15 24ff, 28, 30-33, 35, 37f, 60,
Irman, frontier province; 53 63ff
Isfahan; 88 Kay Khusraw, 3rd Kayanian King;
Isfandiyar, son of Gushtasp; 6, 38, 41ff, 46f, 51f, 54-64,
69-76, 78, 92 (treasures of), 86
I N D E X 161
Kay Qubad, 1st Kayanian King; Mada’in, area round Taisafun, qv

23f, 87 Mah-Afrid, daughter of Barzin;
Kerman, south-eastern city; 9I f 108
Khan of the Haitalians; 111, 116 Mahbud, vizier to Nushirwan;
Khaqan, or Khan, of Chin 122
(Emperor of China); 47—50, Mahiyar, sage; 105
108, l l l f , 118, 123f, 131, 133, Mahiyar, jeweller; 109
135f Mahmud, Sultan of Ghazna; Iff,
Kharrad Barzin, Persian grandee; 10
131, 133, 136f Mahwi, traitor and usurper; 144f
Khazars, north-western people; Mai, Indian king; 125
67, 128 Makran, Indian kingdom; 63
Khazarwan, Turanian warrior; 21 Malika, daughter of Ta’ir the
Khizr, Iskandar’s guide; 84 Arab; 96
Khurasan, north-eastern province; Mani, arch—heretic; 97
1, 99, 112, 138, 144 Manizha, daughter of Afrasiyab;
Khush Nawaz, son of the Khan; 51, 53-56
116f Manuscript copies of the
Khusraw, Persian aspirant to the Shahnama; 5
crown; 100 Maqatura, Chinese grandee; 135
Khusraw (Parviz), 23rd Sasanian Mardwi, royal gardener; 140
King; 131-144 Marv, north-eastern city; l l l f ,
Khutan, district on the borders of 121, 144
China; 41, 55 Maryam, daughter of Caesar;
Kisra, Prince, see Nushirwan 134f, 139f
Kitayun, daughter of Caesar; 66f, Mawsil, Armenian friend of
69, 74, 76 Khusraw; 134
Kuhram, son of Arjasp; 74 Mazandaran, Caspian province;
Kujaran, city of Haftwad; 91 25, 27f, 70, 138
Kundrav, minister of Zahhak; 16 Mazandaran, King of; 25, 28
Kurds, people on western Mazdak, heretic and communist;
frontiers; 15, 91 119
Kut, Rom an champion; 134 Mecca, Arabian city of
pilgrimage; 81
Lahhak, brother of Piran; 58f Mihrab, King of Kabul; 18f
Lambak, a water-carrier; lOOff Mihrak, tribal chieftain; 91, 94
Lambton Worm, in English Mihran, Indian sage; 79
folklore; 91 Mihran Sitad, high priest and
Lion-ape (Shir-kappi), monster; envoy; 124, 128
136 M ihr Hurmuzd, murderer of
Lubab al-Albab (‘Pure minds’); 1 Khusraw; 143
Luhrasp, 4th Kayanian King; 65, M ihr-i-Nush, son of Isfandiyar;
68f 75
Mihrnush, daughter of Mirak; 94
162 T H E P E R S IA N B O O K O F K IN G S
Minuchihr, 6th Pishdadian King; Palashan, Turanian warrior; 45

18, 21 Papak, tribal king; 88
Mirdas, Arabian king, father of Parmuda, son of Sawa the Turk;
Zahhak; 13 130
Mirin, Rom an nobleman; 66ff Parthians, see Ashkanian Dynasty
Misr (Egypt); 81 Pashang, father of Minuchihr; 18
Muhammad the Prophet; 10, 127 Pashang, King of Turan; 21, 24,
Munzir, Prince of Hira; 98ff, 119 30
al-Muqaffa, translator from Phraates II , Parthian King; 87
Pahlavi; 4 Pilsam, Turanian warrior; 32, 41
Mutaqarib, metre; 1 Piran, Turanian hero and
counsellor of Afrasiyab; 38f,
Nahid, daughter of Failakus; 79 40-43, 45ff, 48ff, 54, 55,
Nahravan, bridge of; 131 57-60
Nard (backgammon); 124 Piruz, 17th Sasanian King; 116ff
Nariman, great-grandfather of Piruz, murderer of Ardashir III;
Rustam; 21 143
Narmpai, tribe subdued by Pishdadian Dynasty; 5, 11—21
Iskandar; 83 Polo; 38f, 67, 93, 133
Narsi, 7th Sasanian King; 95f Puladwand, Turanian ally; 5Of
Narsi, brother of Bahram Gur; Purandukht, Sasanian Queen;
11 If, 115 143
Nastihan, Turanian warrior; 58
Nastur, son of Zarir; 69 Qadisiyya, battle of; 144
Nawdar, 7th Pishdadian King; 21 Qaydafa, Queen of Andalus; 81
Nawruz , New Year festival; 13 Qaysar, see Caesar
Nishapur, north-eastern city; 4 Qubad I, 19th Sasanian King; 118f
Nisibin (Nisibis), frontier fortress; Qubad II (Shirwi), 24th Sasanian
97 King; 139-143
Nyatus, brother of Caesar; 134f Qulun, Turanian warrior; 23
Nizami al-‘Arudi, author; Iff Qulun, murderer of Bahram
Noldeke, Professor T; 1, 87 Chubina; 137
N u man, Prince of Hira; 98ff
Nusha, daughter of Narsi; 96 Raja of Hind, Indian king; 124ff
Nush-Azar, son of Isfandiyar; 75 Rakhsh, Rustam’s charger; 23,
Nushirwan (Kisra), 21st Sasanian 26ff, 32, 48f, 51, 76ff
King; 118-128 Ram Barzin, high priest and
Nushzad, rebel son of Nushirwan; general; 120
120f Rayy, northern city; 138
Rhinoceros; 66f, 70, 113
Ostriches; 99 Rizmihr, son of Sufarai; 118
Royal Splendour (farr); 13, 88f
Pahlavi, earlier form of the Persian Rudaba, mother of Rustam; 18,
language; 14f 20, 78
INDEX 163
Ruhham, son of Gudarz; 48, 50, Shahrinaz, sister of Jamshid; 15, 17

57 Shahwi, son of Haftwad; 93
R u ’in, son of Piran; 58 Sham (Syria), King of; 30
R um (Rome, the West); 17, 65, Shamasas, Turanian warrior; 21
68, 78f, 96f, 119, 127, 131ff, Shambalid, daughter of Barzin;
140 108
Rushanak (Roxana), daughter of Shangul, King of India; 50
Dara; 79, 81 Shangul, Indian king; 113-116
Rustam, national hero; 5f, 20—24, Shapur I, 2nd Sasanian King; 93f
26, 30-38, 41, 44, 46-58, 61ff, Shapur II, 9th Sasanian King; 95ff
65, 69f, 73-78, 87 Shapur III, 11th Sasanian King;
Rustam, Persian commander at 97f
Qadisiyya; 144 Shapur of Rayy, general under
Ruzbih, high priest and minister Qubad; 118
to Bahram Gur; 103, 109f Shida, son of Afrasiyab; 60
Shidasp, counsellor to Tahmurath;
Sa‘ad b Waqqas, Arab commander 13
at Qadisiyya; 144 Shiraz; 88, 118
Sacae, warlike tribe; 87 Shirin, wife of Khusraw; 138,
Sada, festival of; 12 140, 143
Safavid Dynasty; 7 Shir-kappi, see Lion—ape
Salm, son of Faridun; 17f Shirwi, see Qubad II
Sam, grandfather of Rustam; 18, Shu‘ib, Arab warrior; 79
21, 76 Shushtar, bridge at; 94
Samangan, frontier city; 32 Simurgh, fabulous bird;
Sapinud, daughter of Shangul; 115 (benevolent) 18, 20, 76,
Saqila, dragon of; 66 (malevolent) 71
Saqila city of Rum ; 127 Sind, province of western India;
Sarkash, court musician; 140 86
Sarv, King of Yemen; 17 Sipand, fortress taken by Rustam;
Sasan, Sasanian ancestor; 78, 88 21
Sasanian Dynasty; 5, 78, 87f, Sipanjab, border province; 41
91-145 Sistan (Zabulistan), eastern border
Sav, a spring near Tus; 99 province ; 18, 21, 30, 33, 35,
Sawa, Turanian ally; 50 37f, 47, 51, 65, 69, 74, 76, 78,
Sawa the Turk; 128ff 87
Seven stages of Rustam; 26—30 Siyamak, son of Gayumarth; 11
Seven stages of Isfandiyar; 70—74 Siyawush, son of Kay Ka’us;
Shaghad, half-brother of Rustam; 36-41, 47, 50, 57ff
76ff Siyawushgird, city built by
Shahra, governor of Turan; 112 Siyawush; 39, 41f
Sudaba, wife of Kay Ka’us; 30, 37,
Shahr Baraz, see Guraz 41
Shahrgir, Ardashir’s general; 93 Sufarai, Persian grandee; 117f
Suhrab, son of Rustam; 32—35 Water of Life; 84

Surkha, son of Afrasiyab; 41 W hite Castle; 33
Surush, angel; 16, 65, 105, 135 W hite Demon; 25, 28ff
World’s End; 85
Tabari, historian; 4 W orm of Kerman; 91-94
Tabaristan, Caspian province; 3
Tahmina, wife of Rustam; 32f, 36 Yajuj and Majuj, see Gog and
Tahmurath, 3rd Pishdadian King; Magog
12f Yanus (Julian), brother of Caesar;
Tainush, son of Queen Qaydafa; 97
82 Yazdagird I, 13th Sasanian King;
Tainush, Rom an envoy; 99 98f
Ta‘ir, Arab chieftain; 96 Yazdagird II, 15th Sasanian King;
Taisafun (Ctesiphon), Sasanian 115f
capital city; 97, 112, 124, 141 Yazdagird III, last Sasanian King;
Talhand, Indian prince; 125 144f
Talisman, sent by Caesar; 133 Yemen, south-eastern Arabia; 17,
Talking Tree; 85 86
Tazhav, renegade Persian; 45f
True Cross; 139 Zabulistan, see Sistan
Tukhar, counsellor to Farud; 44 Zahhak, usurper and tyrant; 5,
Tur, son of Faridun; 17f 13-16, 19
Turan; 5, 17, 21, 30, 32, 38, Zal, father of Rustam; 18—23, 25f,
40-47, 50, 53, 57, 59f, 68f, 65, 69, 74, 76, 78
106, 112, 119 Zanga, officer under Siyawush; 38
Tus, birthplace of Firdawsi; 1, 4, Zardusht, see Zoroaster
99 Zarir, brother of Gushtasp; 4, 65,
Tus, paladin, son of Nawdar; 33, 68f
36, 43f, 46ff, 50, 65 Zav, 8th Pishdadian King; 21
Tuwurg, brother of the Khan; 137 Zawara, Brother of Rustam; 75f,
Twelve Rukhs, battle of; 57—59 78
Zhanda Razm, uncle of Suhrab;
‘Umar, Caliph; 144 34
‘Unsuri, Ghaznavid court poet; 2 Zoroaster, and Zoroastrianism;
60f, 71, 97, 115, 119, 127, 134f
Warazad, King of Sipanjab; 41 Zuran, chamberlain to
Warigh, city of Rum ; 133 Nushirwan; 122

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F R O N T I S P I E C E R ustam lassoing the King o f Sham (p.30)

Published 2013 by Routledge

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

Routledge is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2002 B.W. Robinson

Typeset in Bembo by LaserScript Ltd, Mitcham, Surrey

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Library o f Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN 13: 978-0-700-71618-0 (hbk)

List o f Illustrations xiii

Introduction: The Poet & the Poem 1

EPITOME OF THE SHAHNAMA

6 The Unobliging Merchant 105

Murder of Bahram Chubina 137

he illustrations are taken from three MSS: Keir Collection III.

Frontispiece: R ustam lassoing the King o f Sham (Leipzig,

13 Kay Ka’us in his flying machine (L f.l8a) 31

44 Bahram G ur and the R hinoceros (O f.463b) 114

he Shahnama (‘Book o f Kings’) is the Persian national epic, and is

THE POET &

he first draft o f the Shahnama (‘Book o f Kings’) was completed

K .R . Cama O riental Institute, N o .6, Bombay 1925) and E.G.

PLATE 1 Firdawsi and the three poets

that about a thousand couplets by Daqiqi are included in the

‘And should the reply w ith my wish not accord,

PLATE 2 Prince Baysunghur receiving his new recension

recent times as historical, and despite the misguided efforts o f

fantastic hyperbole, rem em bering that to the oriental m ind such

irdawsi devotes the first 230-odd couplets o f the Shahnama to a

he first King was Gayumarth, w ho dwelt on a m ountain

PLATE 3 G ayum arth the first king and his court

Hushang was succeeded by his son Tahmurath, under whose rule

The Splendour o f Jamshid

Jamshid son o f Tahmurath succeeded his father, ushering in what was

The Tyranny of Zahhak

PLATE 4 Jamshid teaching the crafts

The Coming of Faridun

M eanwhile in Iran Jamshid’s overbearing pride and tyranny were

PLATE 5 Faridun crossing the Arwand

sorcery, but his minister, Kundrav, saw Faridun enthroned in the

Faridun & his Three Sons

treasure she had amassed during her years o f seclusion, and

PLATE 6 M ourning for the m urdered Iraj

Zal & Rudaba

W ith the accession o f M inuchihr the scene o f action moves to the

m eeting w ith her, climbing up to her apartment in a high tower o f

PLATE 7 Zal w ooing R udaba

Birth & Early Exploits o f Rustam

R udaba’s pregnancy was difficult, and a portentous birth was

PLATE 8 R ustam and the mad elephant

trampling the citizens. The boy seized his grandfather’s mace,

War with Turan

M inuchihr was succeeded by his son Nawdar, an oppressive

R ustam ’s Quest for Kay Qubad

this juncture Zal decided to send Rustam to fetch Kay Qubad, a

PLATE 9 R ustam catches his horse R akhsh