Unit 3.

Optical metrology and basic instrumentation

3.1. - Introduction to optics

Part of physics that studies the laws and phenomena of light. The study of optics is
divided into 2 parts, geometric optics and physical optics.

The first deals with the phenomena of luminous radiation in homogeneous media
without considering their nature or origin; the second studies the speed, nature and
characteristics of light.

3.2. - Geometric optics

Geometric optics is based on Snell 's (or Descartes' , according to other sources)
phenomenological laws of reflection and refraction. From them, it is enough to do
geometry with the light rays to obtain the formulas that correspond to the mirrors,
diopter and lenses (or their combinations) , thus obtaining the laws that govern the
optical instruments to which we are accustomed.

Geometric optics uses the notion of a light ray; It is an approximation of the

behavior that corresponds to electromagnetic waves ( light) when the objects
involved are much larger than the wavelength used; This allows us to ignore the
effects derived from diffraction, a behavior linked to the wave nature of light.

Snell: angles of index (i) and refraction (r) between two media, these angles are
measured with respect to the vector normal to the surface between the media.

3.3. - Physical optics

Physical optics is the branch of optics that takes light as a wave and explains
some phenomena that could not be explained by taking light as a ray. These
phenomena are:

■ Diffraction: is the ability of waves to change direction around obstacles in their

path, this is due to the property of waves to generate new wave fronts.
■ Polarization: it is the property by which one or more of the multiple planes in
which light waves vibrate is filtered, preventing their passage. This produces
effects such as glare elimination.

3.4. - Difference, advantages and disadvantages of analog and digital

instruments.

The difference between an analog instrument and a digital one in optical metrology
is in the way the results are displayed, typically with a needle display for analogues
and with numerical displays for digital ones. The analog ones have the problem of
non-linearity of the needles (they have springs) and the digital ones, which use the
same type of sensor as the analog ones, convert the measurement signal (typically
voltage or current) to digital values through converters. analog-digital. The
advantage of digital instruments comes when the measurement requires a
calculation, which is much easier to perform in a digital instrument, since it can
have microprocessors that take care of that task.

With an analog instrument the processed signal changes continuously with the
variable it is measuring. Its advantage is that it is more rudimentary and is low cost.

With a digital instrument the processed signal is discrete, its advantage is that it
is easy to read the result of the instrument and the easy ability to interact the result
with the computer.

3.5. - Optical instruments

MICROSCOPES: The applications of these devices are intended

fundamentally for measuring lengths, but its measurement field is smaller and is
consequently used for measuring relatively small parts, rulers, tools, etc.

The very small object to be examined is placed on a glass plate called an object
holder, placed at a distance slightly greater than the focal length of the object,
illuminating it from the bottom using a flat mirror. A real, magnified image is formed
within the focal length of the eyepiece, which in turn produces an even larger virtual
image at some point between the observer's near and distant point.

COMPARATORS: They are amplifiers that allow length measurement by

comparison. The amplification system used in these devices is the reflection lever.

PROFILOMETERS: In these devices the image of the profile of the piece is

magnified by a microscope and projected by means of mirrors on a ground glass
screen. The increase in the dimensions of the pieces in the projected image can be
10, 20, 50 and up to 100 times.

Measurements of the projected profile can be made on the screen with graduated
rulers, taking into account the magnification of the image. Regular measurements
are made with graduated protractors made of transparent material.

MAGNIFIER: Allows the eye to see an image at a visual angle greater than the
angle at which it would see the object without its intermediary. The ratio between
the two angles represents the angular increase.

TELESCOPES: Astronomical telescopes are divided into reflectors and refractors.

A refractor can be constructed using 2 simple lenses, similar to a compound
microscope.
A large focal length lens acts as an objective, its mission being to collect as much
light as possible. The eyepiece is a short focal length lens. The objective forms a
real and diminished image of a celestial body, which in turn is observed through the
eyepiece.

THEODOLITES: Precision instrument that consists of a horizontal circuit and a

vertical semicircle, both graduated and equipped with glasses, to measure angles in
their respective planes.

LEVELS: Levels are used to inspect flat surfaces and right angles. Although these
tools are not actually classified as calipers, they serve basically the same purposes.

Most levels used in the machine shop are of the spirit or bubble type and are used
in a wide range of workpiece adjustments and machine tool installation.

PHOTOGRAPHIC CAMERAS: Photographic cameras somewhat resemble the eye

in some details, providing, like the eye, a real and inverted image of objects. The
camera requires a light meter to properly maintain the aperture.

3.6. - Mechanical instruments

OPTICAL DEVICES FOR MEASURING ROUGHNESS: They are generally

reserved for use in laboratories and metrology rooms, due to the delicacy of their
handling.

MEASURING BENCHES OR MACHINES FOR MEASURING LENGTHS: These

machines are fundamentally intended for measuring lengths, although with suitable
accessories some of them can also be used for angular measurements.

GAUGE BLOCKS: These tools are used to carry out calibration, precision
operations and to calibrate other measurement tools.

COMPARATORS: They are amplifiers that allow measuring a length by

comparison, after being calibrated.

MECHANICAL EXTENSION COMPARATORS: Also known as contact

comparators, the most common types are:

-magnification by gears

-expansion by lever.

UNIVERSAL COMPARATORS: They are more recent construction devices that,

due to their reduction in size and the arrangement of their probe, allow
measurements in difficult places and even impossible for normal comparators.
BALANCE RING METER: It is a radial torque meter that uses a hollow annular
body to convert the differential pressure corresponding to a differential into static
pressure, in the rotation that is transmitted to the recorder or indicator.

MANOMETER: The most commonly used manometer is the U-tube type, partially
filled with appropriate liquid. This type of manometer is one of the most used to
measure pressures, fluids under steady state conditions; In general, capillary
effects are neglected.

MEASUREMENT MICROSCOPE: The applications of these devices are similar to

those of measuring machines, but their measurement field is smaller, consequently
being used for the measurement of relatively small parts, gauges, tools, etc.

LEVELS: Straight edge rulers and squares are used to inspect flat surfaces and
right angles:

MICROMETER: It is a device that measures the displacement of the spindle when it

is moved by turning a screw, which converts the rotary movement of the drum into
linear movement of the spindle. This displacement is amplified by the rotation of the
screw and the diameter of the drum.

CALIBRATORS: The vernier is an auxiliary scale that slides across a main scale to
allow exact fractional readings of the minimum division.

3.7. - Pressure gauges

Pressure is one of the most important parameters in process pipelines and is

defined as the amount of force exerted per unit area, which can be measured by
different areas (table 1). Our entire environment is subject to atmospheric pressure
(which varies depending on height and being an atmosphere at sea level) which
added to the relative pressure (also called manometric) gives us an absolute
pressure value.

Table 1 Pressure units and their conversion factors

Pascal bar N/mm 2 kp/m 2 kp/cm 2 Torr
1 Pa (N/m2)= 1 10-5 10-6 0 102 atm
0 102x10-40 987x10-5 0 0075
1 bar(daN/cm 3 ) 100000 1 01 10200 1 02 0 987 750
=
1 N/mm? = 106 10 1 1 02x105 102 9 87 7500

1 kp/ m2 = 9 81 9 81x10-5 981x10-61 10-4 0 968x10-4 0 0736

1 kp/cm 2 = 98100 0 981 0 0981 10000 1 0 968 736
1 atm (760 Torr): =101325 1 013 0 1013 10330 1 033 760
1 Torr (mmHg) = 0 00133 1 33x10-4 13 6
1
0 00132 000132 1
133
Gauge pressure, as its name indicates, is measured with a manometer which is
based on the principles of hydraulics for its operation. There are several types of
pressure gauges, some of which are described below:

Open tube manometer: this type of manometer consists of an inclined tube in which
a liquid such as mercury is introduced, which is connected to the pressure
measurement system and in the other it is open to the atmosphere, the tube is
graduated. indicating the pressure read.

Bourdon type pressure gauges: consist of a graduated face and an indicator needle
articulated to a flexible, curved and flat metal tube called Bourdon which when
subjected to pressure tends to straighten causing the needle to move and indicate
the pressure on the face. This type of pressure gauge has a precision that ranges
from 1% to 3%.
Piston manometer: consists of a piston attached to the system pressure, an
unbalancing spring, needle and graduated face. As the pressure increases, the
piston moves, exerting a force against the unbalance spring, which causes the
needle to move, indicating the reading on the face.

Diaphragm manometer: it is formed by a sheet or diaphragm which transfers the

distortion to a needle which shows the indicated reading.

Bellows manometer: it uses a metal bellows as an elastic medium, which receives

the force from a liquid, which causes it to stretch, transmitting the movement to a
needle, indicating the indicated pressure on a faceplate.

In order to obtain correct pressure readings, it is necessary to calibrate the pressure

gauges at regular periods of time as well as perform preventive maintenance to
avoid errors and ensure the proper functioning of the equipment.

3.8. - Torque meters

Torsion meters are those that measure the deflection of an element, in addition to
seeing the maximum limits of torsion that this element can withstand.

3.9. - Mechanical stress meters

When we analyze efforts we always come across the types of efforts called
uniformly distributed. These forces are divided into pure tension, pure compression
or pure shear. A typical example of pure tension is that of a bar in tension, given a
force F that is applied by the pins at the ends of the bar, it can be thought that the
effort is uniformly distributed along the bar.

Within mechanical stress there are two fundamental phenomena:

Deformation: When a tensile stress is applied to a straight bar, the bar elongates.
The degree of elongation is called deformation, and is defined as the elongation
produced per unit length of the bar.

Elasticity: Elasticity is the property by which a material can recover its shape and
dimensions after being subjected to a stress. When a certain stress load is passed,
the material denotes deformation, leaving, for example, in the case of tension, a a
little longer and a little narrower.

3.10. - Hardness meters

A durometer or metal hardness meter is a device that measures the hardness of

materials, there are several procedures to carry out this measurement.

The metal hardness meter applies a standardized force to a penetrating element,

also standardized, which produces an imprint on the material. Depending on the
degree of depth or size of the print, we will obtain the hardness .

Within each of these procedures, there are various combinations of loads and
indenters, which will be used depending on the sample to be tested.
3.11. - Coordinate measuring instruments (X, Y, Z)

The position of a point in space is defined, in Cartesian coordinates, by the relative

values of the three axes X, Y and Z with respect to a reference system. Using
series of points, it is possible to construct the geometric element that passes
through them or that is closest to them.

The Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) can be defined as "a machine that uses
three mobile components that move along guides with orthogonal paths, to
measure a piece by determining the X, Y and Z coordinates of the points of the
same with or without a contact probe and displacement measurement system
(scale), which are found on each of the axes". As the measurements are
represented in the three-dimensional system, the CMM can perform different types
of measurements such as: dimensional, positional, geometric deviations and
contour measurements.

A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is therefore an absolute precision

measuring instrument capable of determining the dimension, shape, position and
"attitude" (perpendicularity, planarity, etc.) of an object by measuring the position of
different points on its surface. own surface.

Coordinate measuring machines (CMM) are used for the following applications:
■ Control of the correspondence between a physical object and its theoretical
specifications (expressed in a drawing or in a mathematical model) in terms of
dimensions, shape, position and attitude.
■ Definition of dimensional geometric characteristics (dimensions, shape, position
and attitude) of an object, for example a mold whose theoretical characteristics
are unknown.