ENG 403

Studies In English Syntax

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 Ibadan Distance Learning Centre Series

ENG 403

Studies In English Syntax

BY

M. T. LAMIDI, PhD
University of Ibadan

Published by
Distance Learning Centre
University of Ibadan

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© Distance Learning Centre
University of Ibadan,
Ibadan.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

First Published 2011

General Editor: Prof. Bayo Okunade

Series Editor: Mrs. Temitope A. Omoloye

Typesetted @ Distance Learning Centre, University of Ibadan

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General Introduction and Course Objectives

This course studies some current theoretical issues in transformational generative syntax. It

aims at sharpening students’ intellect in syntactic analysis, while at the same time teaching

them the different methods of identifying and accounting for grammatical features in

sentences. The course is principally on Chomsky’s Government and Binding theory

(otherwise known as Principles and Parameters theory). As the course is a direct precursor to

the Minimalist Program, students who acquire it at the undergraduate level are expected to

find it less tasking to study the advanced level of the course. Therefore, this book is

deliberately simplified, especially for students who will be reading largely on their own. The

knowledge acquired here enables them to distinguish grammatical structures from

ungrammatical ones, and explain their convictions on the status of structures with adequate

justifications. It is also meant to mould students and whet their appetite as young linguists

preparatory to taking advanced courses in this area. Students should note that ENG 303 is a

prerequisite to this course; and knowledge of the course is assumed in the current book.

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Lecture One: Government and Binding Theory

Introduction

You must have heard about Noam Chomsky, that Jewish American linguist. He is associated

with transformational generative grammar. We are going to discuss part of his contributions

to linguistics in this course. There have been different models of Chomsky’s transformational

generative grammar. The Government and Binding (GB)theory is one of the more recent

ones. It is modular in nature and the modules interact to ascertain the grammaticality or well

formedness of structures in a language. Although the theory is designed for all languages, it is

used in this lecture principally to discuss English language structures. Discussions of other

languages are, therefore, incidental (meant to buttress some points or exemplify concepts not

found in the English language).

Objectives:

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. Name the different modules of GB.

2. Discuss the organization of grammar in GB.

3. Explain the concept Universal Grammar.

Pre-Test:

1. What is transformational grammar?

2. Name the different models of transformational grammar.

3. What is Universal Grammar?

CONTENT

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GOVERNMENT AND BINDING THEORY

This theory is also called Principles and Parameters Theory (PPT). The theory contains seven

self-subsisting modules which are self-contained units that can interact with other units. Each

module or sub-theory has a set of principles which interact with one another within the

module. For instance, theta theory can interact with X-bar theory through the Projection

Principle. PPT shows that some complexities of particular constructions could be related to

general rules rather than ad hoc rules. So, differences in languages are considered to result

from each language setting different parameters for each of the grammatical sub-systems.

This brings us to the concept of Universal Grammar.

Universal Grammar

One of the definitions of grammar is that it is a body of internalised rules. This definition is

directly relevant to Universal Grammar (usually abbreviated as UG). Universal Grammar is

the grammar which describes the general inborn tendency to learn a language. Humans have

thebiological gift to use similar structures in languages, although there are peculiarities that

distinguish the languages. Thus UG is a set of rules that all humans possess by virtue of

having certain common genetic features which distinguish them from other organisms.

The theory of UG is expected to meet two conditions:

i. It must be compatible with the diversity of existing and possible grammars.

ii. It must be constrained and restrictive in the option it permits.

UG contains fundamental (core) principles which restrict the class of attainable grammars

and narrowly limit their form. There are also parameters (periphery) that have to be filled by

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using the language. Core principles refer to features that all languages have in common. All

languages select these features from a pool. Here are some:

Language Acquisition Device (LAD): LAD refers to the inborn tendency in humans to acquire

language. Each normal person has the natural endowment to speak a language. The language

a person eventually speaks depends on the environment in which she/he is born and raised.

Hence, a child born of Igbo parents may end up speaking Russian if she/he grows up in

Russia.

Lexicon: The lexicon is the repertoire of all the words in a particular language. Each native

speaker of a language has acquired an assemblage of words in that language through daily

experience in interacting with speakers of that language. This is a universal feature. However,

each word in the lexicon has distinctive features depending on its class. Such features are

usually peculiar to a language from which the words originate. It follows then that the lexicon

of a language will contain words that are different from those of other lexicons of other

languages.

Structure Dependency: This concept refers to the knowledge of the structural relationship of

words in the sentence rather than on the sequence of words. In each language, there is a

relationship between the performer of an action, what he did, how he did it and the recipient

of the action. This relationship is captured in the concepts subject, object, complement, etc.

These components of a basic sentence are usually arranged according to the specifications of

a language. In English, for example, the order is subject, verb, object (SVO); but, in Izon, it is

subject, object, verb (SOV). The respective speakers of these languages know these structures

without ever going to school to learn them.

Head Parameter: Each phrase is endocentric. This means that all the words in a phrase

converge on a particular word in that phrase. That word, which happens to be the most

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important in the phrase, is the head. So each phrase in all languages has a head, but there are

variations as to where the head occurs in each language. The head can occur as the first word

in a structure (in which case we say the structure is head first) or as the last word in a

structure (in this case the structure is head last). Now, it is normal for a language to exhibit

only one of these two types. Hence we hear of head-first or head-last languages. For

instance, English is a head-first language while Izon is a head-last language.

Word Order: Words in languages make up word groups/phrases, clauses and sentences.

However, languages have specific word orders. English and Yoruba languages, for instance,

have SVO sentence pattern, while the Izon language has SOV sentence pattern. Here are

some examples from the languages.

S V O

English Adam loved Eve.

Yorùbá Ade re ata.

Ade harvest pepper

‘Ade harvested pepper’

S O V

Izon i. Okoro oboribei batei

Okoro goat kill

‘Okoro killed a goat’

ii. Esinkumo fiyai fitei

Esinkumo food eat

‘Esinkumo has eaten the food.’

In addition, differences obtain in the following phrases:

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 Yorùbá i. ilé kan [Noun + Determiner]

house one

‘a house’

ii. owó yìí [Noun + Determiner]

money this

‘this money’

Hausa i. mutumin nan [Noun + Determiner]

man that

‘that man’

ii. mutane uku [Noun + Determiner]

man three

‘three men’

English i. a house [Determiner + Noun]

ii. this money [Determiner + Noun]

iii. three men [Determiner + Noun]

As we can see from a comparison of structures in English and the Nigerian languages above,

there is a difference in word order: while the determiner precedes the noun in the English

examples, the noun occurs before the determiner in Hausa and Yorùbá.

Movement: Movement occurs in languages, but boundaries (called barrier/bounding nodes)

are created in languages across which excessive movement is forbidden. A principle guides

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movement and how far an item can move. In English, the bounding nodes are NP, S’ and S;

but in Yorùbá S and NP are bounding nodes.

Resumptive Pronoun: When movement occurs, it often leaves a residue of movement, a trace.

In Yorùbá, this may be realized as a resumptive pronoun; but in English it is realized as a

trace

i. Whomi did you see ti

ii. Tai ni ói ra bàtà?

Who foc 3sg buy shoe

‘Who bought shoes?’

As we can see from the foregoing, all languages have the features listed above, which serve

as the core features; but each also has peculiarities that distinguish it from other languages.

The relatedness of the modules and grammars in Government and Binding are discussed

in terms of interacting sub-systems. These are in two parts:

a. The sub-components of rule systems, and

b. The subsystems of principles

We discuss them below:

The sub-components of rule systems

The sub-components of rule systems refer to the organization of grammar in the PPT. It

contains the workings of the following components of the grammatical theory:

Lexicon

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 Syntax

(a) Categorial Component

(b) Transformational Component

LF Component

PF Component

The relationship of these components to one another is shown in the following diagram:

Lexicon

D-Structure

Move - α

S-Structure

PF LF

Fig 1. The Organization of Grammar in GB Theory

The Lexicon contains all the words in a language. It is a sort of human dictionary that every

speaker of a language possesses in his/her brain. Each word in the lexicon contains

morphological, syntactic, phonetic, pragmatic, categorial and contextual features. Syntax

deals with the working together of the different parts of the grammar. The Categorial

component interacts with the lexicon to form base rules; and both work together to form D-

Structure. The D-structure shows the logical positions of words in a phrase before any

transformation occurs. It specifies the subcategorization possibilities in the language. In other

words, it arranges words in a frame to ensure that they are logically arranged to form the

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intended meaning. In the transformational component, items in the D-structure are converted

to the S-structure through the Move alpha (Move-α) rule. The move- α rule has replaced the

earlier language- and construction-specific rules of the Standard Theory. It is now able,

principally, to move anything anywhere; but independent principles will dictate what can

move, where a moved item can be deposited and how far it can move.

The output of Move-α rule is S-structure. The S-structure exhibits the products of

transformations, especially movements which leave traces behind. Thus, features such as

movement, co-indexing and filter occur at S-structure. Phonetic Form (PF) represents the

actual pronunciation of items in the output grammar. It presents the normal phonetic

representations of structures to enable people pronounce the expressions. Logical Form (LF)

represents the output of grammar at the meaning end. This means that the meaning of the

construction will be at par with that accepted in the society. It has to be logical and, when

said to an ordinary person, have a specific meaning.

Deep structure and Surface structure differ from D-structure and S-structure,

respectively. While meaning is realized at the deep structure but not at the surface structure,

meaning is realized at the S-structure. Compare the meanings of the following expressions

from Riemsdijk and Williams (1986).

i. The editor did not find many mistakes

ii. Many mistakes were not found by the editor.

While the first sentence means that the mistakes are few, the second suggests that the

mistakes are so many that the editors didn’t find them. Examples such as these made scholars

to conclude that transformations may not preserve meaning; hence the difference between

deep structure/ surface structure and D-structure/S-structure.

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Modularity of Grammar

The sub-system of principles refers to the seven modules that make up the PPT. This is why

the theory is said to be modular in nature. The seven modules, also called sub-theories, are X-

bar (Xˈ), Theta (θ), Control, Case, Government, Binding and Bounding. In the grammar they

often interact to contribute to the grammaticality or structures. Each of them will be discussed

in details in subsequent lectures. In the next lecture we shall discuss X-bar theory.

Summary

In this lecture, we introduced Chomsky’s transformational grammar and discussed universal

grammar, which consists of core linguistic properties that are considered universal and

peripheral linguistic properties that are peculiar to each language. We also described the GB

theory as modular, consisting of interacting subsystems which account for the grammaticality

of structures. We concluded with a discussion of the organization of grammar in the theory.

Post-Test

1. What is the difference between principles and parameters?

2. What is the lexicon?

3. Define/describe the following: movement, word order, structure dependency,

4. How do D-structure and S-structure differ from Deep Structure and Surface

Structure?

5. Discuss how grammar is organised in the GB theory.

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Lecture Two: X-Bar Theory

Introduction

The X-bar theory is one of the modules of the government and Binding theory. It is a further

development in the theory of the lexicalist hypothesis where the head is paramount. In what

follows, we explore the details of the sub-theory and provide ample examples to illustrate

concepts. In discussing these items, we also inject some aspects of pedagogy, which you are

expected to learn thoroughly.

Objectives:

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. describe the concept ‘head of a phrase’.

2. identify the head of a phrase.

3. identify the specifier in a phrase.

4. identify complements and adjuncts in a phrase.

Pre-Test:

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1. What is a phrase?

2. What is a key word?

3. What are attributes?

4. What are adjuncts?

CONTENT

X-BAR THEORY

Xˈ theory is one of the modules or sub-theories of the Government and Binding theory. It

gives primacy to the head since the head is the key word in a phrase. All the words in a

phrase contribute some meaning to the head; otherwise, such words are redundant in the

phrase. The head can also stand for the phrase wherever it occurs without affecting the sense

or meaning of the structure. This means that the other words merely provide additional

information about the nature of the head.

The phrase is incomplete and, therefore, remains meaningless without the head. This

means that heads are obligatory in phrases. In the following examples, the phrases have no

heads. Can you make a guess at the meanings of the respective structures? Is it even correct

to call them phrases?

i. the new______________

ii. a fairly used worn out black___________

iii. some important___________

iv. a lonely ugly old tall black___________

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 In all these structures, there are no key words. All the words in each number contain

attributes which should describe a particular noun. However, the noun, which should serve as

the head is missing. Hence the structures are meaningless. How can we make them

meaningful? We will just add a key word at the end of each structure, and immediately, each

becomes a phrase. What type of phrase are these? They are noun phrases because each is

headed by a noun. Put a noun at the end of each phrase and you’ll get something like the

following:

v. the new students

vi. a fairly used worn out green dress

vii. some important questions

viii. a lonely ugly old tall black woman

There are different types of phrases. These are noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP),

adverbial phrase (AdvP), adjectival phrase (AdjP) and prepositional phrase (PP). Following

the examples above, can you write other phrases? Here are my examples:

Adjectival Phrase : i. very busy

ii. quite intelligent

iii. hardly audible

iv. so naughty

v. somehow memorable

Adverbial Phrase: i. very quickly

ii. so brilliantly

iii. quite legibly

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 iv. rather quietly

v. very seriously

Prepositional phrase: i. On the table

ii. in the garden

iii. of the town

iv. about tortoise

v. at the bank

Verb Phrase: i. see the house

ii. play your game

iii. bring the food

iv. love your neighbour

v. respect your elders

From the foregoing, we can deduce the following:

i. Heads are endocentric. Each non-head word contributes to the head syntactically and

semantically. Syntactically, they qualify the head; semantically, they specify or

contribute to the meaning of the head.

ii. The head is obligatory. It is the most important word in a phrase; without it, the

phrase is meaningless.

iii. The head is a lexical entry that contains categorial, thematic and subcategorization

features which determine the type of the phrase.

iv. Heads can be functional or lexical items. Functional items (also called functors) are

i.e. grammatical words, while lexical items are carriers of meaning. Functors

belong to a closed class. Examples are articles, prepositions, complementizers and

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 tense/negative markers. Lexical words are many and new ones are created as

occasion demands; just as old ones die out.

The features of the head are summed up in the Projection Principle. It states that heads are

projected from the lexicon to the D-structure and the LF. This means that the features of a

particular head stick to it from when it occurs in the lexicon till when it merges with other

words. In other words, they are represented at each level of syntactic representation. The

features remain with the word and contribute to the meaning. Finally, it occurs physically in a

sentence.

The concept of Projection Principle also leads to the Endocentricity Principle. According

to this principle, projected heads may be pre- or post-modified. Specifiers and attributes, for

instance, may premodify a head, while complement and adjunct may postmodify it: e.g.

i. The young man in the car

ii. The box of matches on the table

In the first example, the article the and the adjective young premodify the head man and the

prepositional phrase (PP) in the car postmodifies it. Note too that the complement of the

preposition the car also postmodifies in, which is the head of the PP. In the second example,

the head is box; but two prepositional phrases postmodify it. The first one, which is closer to

the head, is of matches. It is a complement (since it specifies the type of box and therefore

completes its meaning). The second is on the table. It is an adjunct (since it does not

contribute directly to the meaning of the box, but only gives information about its location).

The occurrence of two prepositional phrases in the second example shows that complements

come before adjuncts when they co-occur in a phrase.

The properties of the X-bar theory are summed up in the X-bar schema below. It is

the structure used to analyse different kinds of phrases. Notice too that the concept phrase

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extends beyond the definition in traditional grammar. In traditional grammar, a phrase is a

group of words that lacks a finite verb. In the current grammar, a phrase is any construction,

whether it is a word, a word group (or phrase in the traditional grammar sense), a clause or a

sentence. We can use the X-bar schema to analyze each of them.

XP

Spec (specifier) X'

Xˈ PP (Adjunct)

X (Head) PP (complement)

Fig ii. X-Bar Schema

The X-bar schema is a general figure for analysing different structures regardless of their

patterns. The bar refers to the mark placed on each node label. The item without a bar is the

head, and it stands for the lexical category which has neither specifier nor

adjunct/complement. The item with a single bar refers to the combination of the head and a

complement/adjunct. It is called an intermediate category (coming between the smallest and

the largest categories). The item with two bars is the phrasal category, consisting of the head,

the complement/adjunct and a specifier. Note that the phrasal category can be written as Xˈˈ

or XP (X being a variable that represents N, V, Adj etc.).

The Noun Phrase

The noun phrase is a group of words with a noun as the key word or head. The noun is the

only obligatory item in the phrase. This means that the NP can be as little as a word (lexical

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category) or as large as a noun plus a specifier and a complement (phrasal category). Let’s

take the combinations one after the other. Some of the phrases are analysed; you should

analyze the others; and if you have problems in doing this, discuss with your tutor.

Specifier and Head:

The specifier is an optional part of a noun phrase. The specifier node is often occupied by

articles or determiners. But the node may also not be filled.

i. babies

ii. the boy

iii. that tall man

iv. my fellow students

v. some boys

NP

Spec N'

some boys

NP

Spec N'

AdjP N

some young men

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Specifiers, attributes and complements

Attributes are the qualities of a noun. Usually, they come before the noun as adjectives. Since

they can also be phrases, they are represented as AdjP. The complement is the structure that

completes the meaning of the head which it qualifies. Without the complement, the head still

lacks some meaning. Hence, complements are always closer to the head than do adjuncts.

The following are expressions where the specifier, the complement and the head co-occur in

a structure.

i. the leader of the people

ii. many incredible stories about the tortoise

iii. a false account of the birth of the king

NP

Spec N'

AdjP
Nˈ

Aˈ N PP

Pˈ

P NP
A

Spec N'

many incredible stories about the tortoise

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 NP

Spec N'

AdjP Nˈ

Aˈ N PP

P NP

A Spec N'

N PP

P
ˈ
P NP

Spec N'

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A false account of the birth of the king
Compounding

Compounding entails joining two items of the same grammatical status. Such items can be

NPs, VPs, AdjPs etc. Here are some examples.

i. men and women

ii. the man and his friends

iii. a leader of the people and his followers

iv. he and she

v. the producer and director of the film

vi. the proprietor and principal of the school

vii. loud and clear

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viii. simple but delicate

ix. tall and strong

x. shouted and cursed

xi. Do your best and leave the rest

xii. up and down

Some of these are analyzed below:

NP NP

NP CONJ NP NP CONJ NP

Nˈ Nˈ Nˈ Nˈ

Pro Pro N N

he and she men and women

AdjP PP

AdjP CONJ AdjP PP CONJ PP

Aˈ Aˈ Pˈ Pˈ
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A A P
P
Note, however, that it is not in all cases that the phrasal, intermediate and lexical categories

will be represented in an analysis. If a head has no specifier and/or complements/adjuncts, we

may prune the trees and skip the aspects of intermediate and lexical categories, and write just

the word under the node. When this is done on two of the analyzed examples above, the

results are the following: NP AdjP

NP CONJ NP AdjP CONJ AdjP

men and women loud and clear

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Specifiers, head, complement and adjunct

We have identified specifiers and complements above. The only one left out is the adjunct.

The adjunct conveys information about the head, but such information is not germane to the

understanding of the meaning of the head. In other words, the head can still be meaningful

even when the adjunct is removed. In essence, the adjunct provides additional information on

the head of a phrase. Such information is couched in prepositional phrases. In the following

examples, we analyze phrases that contain adjuncts:

i. The cup of tea on the table

ii. Some exciting stories in the papers

iii. The views of people with foresight on the issue

iv. The news of his arrest in the park at night

NP

Spec N'

Nˈ

N PP Pˈ

Pˈ P Spec Nˈ

P NP

the cup of tea on the table

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Note that of tea is the complement, while on the table is an adjunct. Of tea provides more

relevant information about cup (which is the head of the NP) than on the table does.

Complex NPs

Complex NPs refer to noun phrases that contain an embedded clause. Such NPs can function

in different places where nouns can occur, i.e. as subject, object, complement, apposition, etc.

Here are examples:

i. The boy who plays soccer

ii. The fact that she arrived late

iii. A house which Hauwa built

iv. The stubborn boys that we know

NP

Spec N'

N CP

Spec

C IP
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Spec
Prepositional Phrase

The prepositional phrase is headed by a preposition. It has a noun (phrase) as its complement.

Here are some examples:

i. obviously within the party

ii. right at the time

iii. quite in the lead

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 PP

Spec Pˈ

P NP

Spec Nˈ

right at the time

The Adjectival Phrase

The adjectival phrase is headed by an adjective. Like all adjectives, it either serves as an

attribute to a noun or occurs after the verb as predicative adjective. Consider the examples

below:

i. so astoundingly clear

ii. quite incredibly simple

iii. rather totally ignorant

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 AdjP

Spec

AdvP Adj

So astoundingly clear

The Verb Phrase

The verb phrase is a group of words with a lexical verb as the head. It can have specifier such

as the aspect marker, have, and it can have complements and or adjuncts. In the following

sections, these are exemplified.

Specifier and head

In this type of structure, an aspect marker occurs before the main verb which serves as the

head of the whole phrase.

i. has come

ii. may have slept

Iˈ

I VP
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Spec VP
Head and complement

In this structure, the main verb (precisely a transitive verb) serves as the head and the object

of the verb automatically becomes the complement. Notice that the complement completes

the meaning of the verb.

i. wrote a new book

ii. bought many boxes

iii. owns a good car

iv. wash these plates

VP

Vˈ

V NP

Spec

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wash these plates

Heads and adjuncts

In some cases, the main verb (this time around, an intransitive verb) may not be followed by

a noun phrase. Rather, it is followed by an adverbial which does not complete the meaning of

the verb, but just provides additional meaning. Note that adjuncts can be stacked (e.g. as in

(ii) below where two adjuncts occur sequentially after the verb came.

i. travelled during Christmas

ii. came into the bedroom at midnight

iii. wait for him in the Garden of Eden

Heads, complements and adjuncts

Complements and adjuncts can also co-occur with the head. When this happens, the

complement follows the head and the adjunct follows the complement.

i. drive the car to Yenagoa

ii. invite some boys from Amassoma

iii. put your books in the bag

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Head and complex complementation

i. write what you know

ii. say that you are happy

iii. call me when you are ready

The Inflection Phrase/Sentences

The inflection phrase refers to the sentence. It is assumed that the inflection node is the head

of the IP (or sentence). So the subject of a sentence serves as its specifier while verb phrase

serves as its complement. Find sample analyses below.

i. Betty ate the food.

ii. The boys have completed the assignment.

iii. We must take the book from him.

IP

Spec Iˈ

I VP
NP
Spec
Det N
V NP

Spec

the boy has won a prize

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The Complementizer Phrase

The Complementizer Phrase is the largest phrase in this grammar. Really, it is a frame where

movements and traces of movements are indicated. It then means that it makes room for

movements and gaps (traces).

i. Why did Soji arrive late?

ii. Should Hamza write a letter?

iii. The man who wrote that book is bright.

iv. Where could Alice have gone?

CP

Spec

IP
C

Spec Iˈ

I VP
NP
Spec
Det N
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Vˈ AP
In this tree diagram, where moves from the sentence final position and lands in the specifier

position of the CP, leaving a trace with its index. Could also moves from the Inflection (I)

node of the diagram and lands at the head position of the complementizer phrase (C). Note

that, although the second movement has no index, the inflection node is not occupied by any

other item.

Summary

In this lecture, we have discussed the concept and features of the head of a phrase. We also

distinguished different types of phrases and with tree diagrams indicating how to analyze

each of them.

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Post Test

1. Explain the concept ‘endocentricity’.

2. What is X-bar schema?

3. What is the difference between an attribute and an adjunct?

4. Analyze the following structures:

i. slept on the mat during the time

ii. Feyi asked if Darah had arrived.

iii. They praise the boy who plays well.

iv. beat the drums with some sticks

5. What are the features of a head?

Lecture Three: Theta Theory

Introduction

Another theory in the PPT is theta theory. It deals with the relationship between nouns (called

arguments) and the verb in a sentence. The major principle in this sub-theory is the theta

criterion. It shares some features with the projection principle of the X-bar theory. In this

lecture, we discuss these relationships and the consequences for the grammaticality of

expressions in English.

Objectives:

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

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1. describe the concept ‘argument’

2. identify internal and external arguments

3. distinguish different arguments

4. appreciate the application of the theta Criterion

Pre-Test:

1. What are the types of verb you know?

2. What is the difference between the subject and the object of a verb?

3. What relationship obtains between the verb and the nouns in a sentence?

CONTENT

THETA THEORY

Theta theory deals with the assignment of theta - (θ-) roles to nouns or nominal elements.

Nouns and nominal elements are called arguments. Theta theory states whether or not an

argument functions as subject, object or complement in a sentence.

There are three types of arguments. These are

a. True arguments

True arguments are nouns, pronouns or noun clauses that have referents in the real world.

This means that we can identify what the true arguments refer to in our society. True

arguments are base generated, i.e. they occupy positions such as subject and object of verbs

in sentences. In such positions, called theta positions (i.e. positions where they can relate

37 | P a g e
directly with the verb), they are capable of being replaced with other nominals, such as

nouns, pronouns, noun phrases or noun clauses. Consider the following examples:

1a. Ure likes food.

1b. She likes akamu.

2a. Ben put the cup on the table.

2b. The young man put that thing on the table.

3a. What Tunji wants is a wife.

3b. Tunji’s need is a wife.

In the (a) examples above, the words Ure, food, Ben, cup, table, job, What Tunji wants etc.

are arguments. Their referents can be found in our environment; i.e. we can relate to their

meanings. In the (b) examples, these items have been successfully replaced with other

nominals.

b. Quasi-Arguments

Quasi-arguments refer to a special class of predicates and have interpretations peculiar to the

situation described by those predicates. These are usually weather verbs (verbs indicating

weather conditions). Examples are:

i. It is raining.

ii. It is hot in this room

The quasi argument in these sentences is it. Why? We think they are not true arguments

because they do not have a specific referent. In addition, they cannot be replaced by any other

nominal as the unacceptability of the following shows.

iii. ? The rain is raining.

38 | P a g e
 iv. ? The heat is hot in this room.

c. Non-Arguments

Non-arguments refer to nominals which do not refer to any object in the society. The

positions they occupy are not base generated (i.e. no argument is put there at the D-structure).

The words put in such positions are occupying them only to satisfy the Extended Projection

Principle (a principle that requires all sentences to have a subject). When items are moved

into the position, the non-argument disappears. Hence, non-arguments are said to be

pleonastic (or dummy) elements. The following are examples of non-arguments:

i. There is a man at the door.

ii. It seems that Joy is happy.

iii. It appears that Kike is hungry.

After an item is moved to the non-argument position, the following sentences result:

i. A man is at the door.

ii. Joy seems to be happy.

iii. Kike appears to be hungry.

As we can see, the words in bold in the first set of examples have given way to another set of

words in bold in the second set. Notice again that there is no change in meaning when each

pair is compared. It follows that the items there and it as they occur in the first set of

examples are dummy elements.

This means that there are Argument positions (A-positions) and non-argument, Aˈ-

(called A-bar) positions. In A-positions, arguments are assigned theta- (usually represented as

θ-) roles. This follows from the requirement of Theta Criterion. The theta criterion is a

39 | P a g e
principle which states that: An argument bears only one θ-role and only one θ-role is

assigned to an argument. Hence, there are different theta roles, such as agent, patient, goal,

benefactive, instrument, source, theme, etc., and these are assigned to arguments, depending

on their positions and their relationships with the verb in a sentence. (Please refer to your

course material on ENG 303 for detailed discussion of these). Conversely, no theta role is

assigned to Aˈ-position because the position is not base generated.

We can also classify an argument as internal or external argument. The argument that

occurs before a verb (e.g. as subject of a verb) is referred to as external argument. The

argument that occurs after the verb (e.g. as its object) is called an internal argument.

The verb-argument relation is guided by three features.

1. Obligatoriness

The relation between a verb and an argument is obligatory because the argument

derives its interpretation from a subject or object of the verb by the θ-role the verb

assigns to it. Besides, an argument cannot stand aloof in a sentence; it must be an

argument of a verb.

2. Locality

The argument must not be too far away from the verb. Recall that in constructing

phrase structure, the verb selects the type of noun that goes with it (sub-

categorization).

3. Uniqueness

The relationship between the verb and the argument is also unique as a result of the

control which the verb has over the argument. The verb can be a one-place, two-place

or three-place predicate.

Summary

40 | P a g e
In this lecture, we have discussed the relationship between the verb and other nominals that

co-occur with it. We classified nouns as arguments, non-arguments and quasi-arguments, and

presented the roles played by theta criterion in ensuring that arguments have constant

meaning. We also distinguished internal arguments from external arguments. Finally, we

identified obligatoriness, uniqueness and locality as features that define the relationship of a

verb and the argumnts

Post-Test

1. What is theta Criterion?

2. What is the difference between internal and external arguments?

3. What are the differences between arguments, non-arguments and quasi-arguments?

Lecture Four: Government Theory

Introduction

When you see ‘government’, your mind may readily go to the concept of councillors,

governors and presidents. That is not what this topic deals with. Rather, you’re going to see

features of grammatical relations that are similar to the devolution of power among people in

41 | P a g e
government. Government theory deals with the closeness of heads to other words that depend

on it. Apart from the features of the head (discussed under X-bar theory) the head also serves

as a governor in phrases (i.e. it has some syntactic influence on the words).

Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. describe the concept ‘government.’

2. identify ‘governors’.

3. distinguish types of government.

4. understand which item governs another in particular constructions.

Pre-Test:

1. What are the types of head you know?

2. What is the relationship between the head and the complement in a sentence?

3. What is a barrier?

CONTENT

GOVERNMENT THEORY

Government is defined as a relationship between two items, in which no barrier intervenes so

as to cut off one from the other. This means that the two items must share the same maximal

or phrasal category before one can govern the other (m-command). In addition, there should

be no barrier between a governor and what it governs. A barrier may be a constituent such as

CP, IP or NP that prevents the two items from sharing the same phrasal category. E.g.

42 | P a g e
We know that Joy is happy.

In this sentence, the inflection node on the verb know has positive features for Tense and Agr

(i.e. we can say whether the tense is present/past and whether the verb agrees with the

subject). This makes it possible for the Inflection node to govern the word we in the subject

position of the sentence. The same happens to Joy (the subject of the embedded noun clause),

which is also governed by Infl. In essence, the heads serve as governors and the governed

items are those that relate to them directly. Government by heads may be in different forms.

This may be the specifier of an Inflection head (as discussed in the example above), the

object of a verb or the object of a preposition. Here are further examples:

i. Ade loves her

ii. He drove through the gate.

iii. *John speaks fluently English.

Ade is governed by the finite Infl, and her is governed by the verb love which happens to be

the head of the VP. In (ii) he is governed by the finite Infl, and the gate is governed by the

preposition through. However, there is a problem with (iii). The word John is governed by

the finite Infl, but speaks cannot govern English because the word fluently intervenes between

the governor (what governs) and the governee (what is governed). Hence, it constitutes a

barrier to government in that section of the sentence, thereby making the sentence

ungrammatical. From the foregoing discussion, you can see that there are different types of

governors. These are: [+TNS/AGR] finite inflection, lexical verb, and preposition.

There are also different types of government. These are:

1. Head government: the head government occurs between heads of phrases such as

verbs, prepositions, Infl and lexical items that depend on them.

i. kick the ball

43 | P a g e
 ii. on the roof

iii. The boy passed his exams

iv. This girl is happy

In these examples, the heads are in bold.

2. Lexical government: This is also called Proper government. Lexical government

occurs when the item governed by one of the heads specified above leaves a trace

after movement; e.g.

i. The boyi was seen ti.

ii. Janei was the girl he loved ti.

In these examples, two items, James and boy, are moved from the sentence final positions

and each is co-indexed to its trace. However, the trace occurs immediately after a lexical

verb, which happens to be the head of the VP. The head verb had governed the words in the

original positions before they moved. Now that they have been moved, their traces still occur

adjacent to the verb. It is assumed that the verbs still govern the respective traces of the

moved words. Hence, this kind of government is called lexical/proper government.

3. Antecedent government: This type of government involves the government of the

trace by a moved element.

i. Whati did you say ti?

ii. Whoi ti broke the glass?

In some structures as in the above, the moved element is a wh-word (rather than an

NP). The moved element is also co-indexed with the trace. Apart from the fact that the traces

are properly governed by the verb say in (i) and head governed by the Infl in (ii), the wh-

44 | P a g e
words are said to govern the traces. Since they serve as antecedent to the traces, the wh-words

are said to antecedent-govern the traces.

One major feature of government is the principle of c-command (category command).

The notion of c-command says that two elements c-command each other if they are

dominated by the same branching node and neither of them dominates the other. In terms of

government, the governor (i.e. the heads that govern their complements) c-commands its

complement and therefore governs it. For the NPs in subject position, however, the relevant

concept is M-command (maximal command), in which case the governor and the governee

are dominated by the same maximal node.

The other condition is adjacency. Adjacency refers to the closeness of the governor

and the governee. No item is expected to intervene between the governor and its governee.

Otherwise, the sentence will be ill-formed. Note that there is a close relationship between

Government theory and Case theory. We’ll explore this in the next lecture.

Summary

In this lecture, we have discussed the relationship between the head and its complement in

terms of government. We identified different types of head as well as different types of

government. We conclude that there is affinity between government and case sub-theories.

Post Test

1. What is head government?

2. What is the difference between proper government, antecedent government and head

government?

3. What is c-command/m-command?

45 | P a g e
 4. What are the conditions for government?

46 | P a g e
Lecture Five: Case Theory

Introduction

Welcome to lecture five. Do you think we are going to discuss a theory about court cases? No

at all! We aren’t discussing such in a book of grammar! Just like we did in the last lecture, we

shall be looking at the relationship of the head to its complement. We shall be looking at how

Cases are assigned to arguments just as cases are assigned to baby lawyers by the head of a

legal chamber. Come along as we go through the intricacies of Case assignment in grammar

(and this type of Case is written with initial capital letter. ).

Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. distinguish between morphological Case and abstract Case

2. identify the types of Cases recognised in contemporary grammar

3. relate Case theory to government theory

4. account for the ungrammaticality of expressions that violate Case rules

Pre-Test

1. What is Case in traditional grammar?

2. What is the usual relationship between the head and its complement?

3. What is lexical/proper government?

47 | P a g e
CONTENT

CASE THEORY

Nouns perform different syntactic roles in a sentence. Such roles are captured in the

designation of the functions of such nouns in sentences. These are referred to as Cases. Many

languages, such as Latin, Greek and Kiswahili, have extensive declensions and conjugations

for realising different Cases. Such Cases are referred to as morphological case. Some

languages, however, do not have such declensions. Cases in such languages are marked

without any conjugation; only pronouns show such Case features. Such Cases are referred to

as abstract Case, i.e. the Cases are assigned based on the assumed positions of the nouns in

the sentences. Since morphological Case is less common among languages, abstract Case,

which is common among several languages, is considered universal. In current linguistic

theory, Case theory deals with the assignment of abstract Case.

Case Assignment

Four cases are recognized in this theory: these are nominative, accusative, genitive and

oblique cases. Nominative case is assigned by [+TNS] [+AGR] Inflection elements,

accusative case is assigned by lexical verbs, oblique case is assigned by prepositions and

genitive case is assigned by the apostrophe ‘s (as in (teacher’s table) or by the preposition of

as in the cover of the book.

These modes of Case assignment mean that Case assignment can be structural or

inherent. It is structural when it is assigned through proximity to a Case-assigner; it is

inherent when it is assigned by a non-Case assigner. Structural case depends on government;

inherent case depends on θ-role. Structural Case is based on the notion of head +

48 | P a g e
complement. In a VP, for instance, the verb is the head and it is assumed to assign accusative

Case to its complement/object, e.g.

i. Kick Audu

ii. Praise Ngozi

iii. Ride a bicycle

In the prepositional phrase, the same happens. The preposition is assumed to assign oblique

Case to its complements. Here are some examples:

i. On the way

ii. To the palace

iii. Of the twins

The next is the nominative Case. This case is assigned by the finite Inflection to the subject of

the sentence.

i. Tracy ran away.

ii. Ammangi slept off.

iii. Tare cried.

The nouns in the above sentences function as subjects of their respective clauses. They are

assigned nominative Case by the finite Inflection.

The last in the series is the genitive Case. This case is assigned by the ‘s attached to a

noun. In some Cases however, of can mark the genitive Case. Examples of genitive Case

marking occur in the following examples:

i. Fatima’s friend

ii. a friend of mine

iii. your lawyer’s robe

49 | P a g e
iv. the son of the soil

In the first example, the apostrophe ‘s serves as the genitive Case assigner; in (ii) the

preposition of serves as the Case assigner. Notice that of as genitive Case marker is different

from of as preposition. The former shows possession whereas the latter shows structural

relationship between words.

Case Filter

The major principle in Case theory is Case Filter. It prohibits the occurrence of a noun or

nominal in places where case is not assigned. Put in another way, any noun which occurs in a

place where no Case is assigned is said to violate Case Filter, and subsequently renders the

sentence ungrammatical. Here are some violations of the principle:

i. *Jare envious Mary.

ii. *Audu jealous us.

iii. *She persuaded Patrick he PRO to talk.

In the first two examples, the nouns do not have Case because there are no Case assigners in

the structures. Both envious and jealous are adjectives, and adjectives are not case assigners.

Thus, the two cannot assign Case to the NPs Jare, Mary, Audu and us. In the last example,

she has nominative Case from the finite Infl; Patrick has accusative Case from the verb

persuade; but he has no Case assigned to it because there is no Case assigner nearby. The

non-finite embedded clause is also too weak to assign a Case to he. Thus, the sentence

violates Case filter and the structure is thereby ruled ungrammatical.

Case is usually assigned under government. This is because both Case and

government sub-theories involve structural relationships between the Case assigner/governor

and the Case assignee/governee. This means that the condition for government and Case by

heads is similar. The relevant condition is c-command:

50 | P a g e
A c-commands B iff

(i) A does not dominate B and B does not dominate A

(ii) The first branching node dominating A also dominates B

Exceptional Case Marking

In cases where NPs occur in positions that are not normally assigned Case, another item,

especially a preposition or a verb, usually occurs nearby to assign Case to the NP. In this

sense, the structure avoids Case Filter violation. E.g.

i. For John to fail is ridiculous.

ii. We expect Sule to come.

IP

Spec Iˈ

I VP
CP
Spec
Spec Cˈ
Vˈ
C IP

Spec

I VP

For John to fail is unacceptable

IP

Spec Iˈ

51 | P a g e I VP
NP

V
In (i) the TNS and AGR features in the sentences are too weak for INFL to assign Case to

John. So, the nearest Case assigner, for, assigns case to the NP. In (ii), the tense and

agreement features of the embedded clause are also weak. So, the Inflection cannot assign

Case to Sule. The verb of the matrix clause, therefore, takes the initiative to assign accusative

Case to it. This kind of Case assignment, where the nearest Case assigner is too weak and

another Case assigner assigns a Case across a major barrier is called exceptional Case

marking.

Summary

In this lecture, we have discussed the different forms of Case assignment as well as the

different types of Case. We went further to discuss concepts such as Case filter, c-command

and finally exceptional Case marking.

Post Test

1. Describe the cases assigned in the following sentences:

52 | P a g e
 a. Aisha took the book to Mariam.

b. The class teacher welcomed the students.

c. Bala cut the meat with a knife.

d. Alice saw Hauwa in the market.

e. The king’s servants cleaned the palace.

f. The laces of the shoes are loose.

2. What is the difference between abstract Case and morphological.

3. Explain the concept, exceptional Case marking.

4. What is Case Filter?

5. How far is it true to say that Case is assigned under Government?

53 | P a g e
Lecture Six: Control Theory

Introduction: Pronouns are of different types. They occur in different positions in a

sentence. They can also be physically present or null in a sentence. Our concern in this

sentence is to look at the different interpretations of the null pronoun in sentences. The

pronominal element is usually controlled by elements within or outside the sentence. This is

where the principle of control applies. Control has to do with the item that controls the null

pronominal element in an embedded clause of a sentence.

Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. describe and interpret the concept ‘PRO.’

2. identify obligatory and optional controls.

3. discuss features of PRO.

4. appreciate the application of the Theta Criterion.

Pre-Test:

1. What is theta criterion?

2. What is the difference between a finite and non-finite embedded clause?

3. What relationship obtains between the verb and the nouns in a sentence?

CONTENT

CONTROL THEORY

54 | P a g e
Control structures involve a relation holding between the subject or object of a matrix clause

and the null pronominal subject of an embedded infinitive clause.

i. Alao wants PRO to pray.

ii. Alao wants Ngozi PRO to pray.

PRO is a pronominal element. It is base-generated, but lacks phonetic content at S-Structure.

Like any other NP, it is guided by the Projection Principle, which requires that projected

items be represented at D-Structure, S-Structure and LF. It also uses θ-criterion.

What is PRO?

To arrive at the meaning of PRO, we can use a componential analysis of the features that can

be combined to form NPs. These are as follows:

(a) [+anaphor] [+pronominal] = PRO

[+anaphor[ [- pronominal] = trace

[-anaphor] [+ pronominal] = pro

[- anaphor] [- pronominal] = names

(b) [+referential] [-overt]= PRO

[+referential] +overt] =lexical names/pronouns

[-referential] [ + overt] =expletives

[- referential] [- overt] =dummy pro (non-lexical expletive)

As we can see above, the feature [+anaphor] means that the item can function as an anaphor

and so can have an antecedent. The feature [+pronominal] indicates that the item so described

does not have an antecedent. The feature [+referential] means that the item being described

has a referent; the feature [+overt] indicates that the item is physically written in a sentence.

The negative features indicate that the items being described do not have such features.

55 | P a g e
 So, if we look at section (a) above, PRO is both an anaphor and a pronominal. It

means that the PRO can stand alone and can also have an antecedent. A trace has an

antecedent, but cannot stand detached from its antecedent and be meaningful. The pro has no

antecedent, but it can stand alone and be meaningful. In section (b), PRO has a referent, but it

is not overt (not physically written/pronounced in a sentence). Expletives (i.e.

pleonastic/dummy elements) have no reference, but they are overt. The dummy pro has no

referent and is not overt. Lexical names/pronouns have referents and are physically

written/pronounced in a sentence.

Our major concern is with the PRO which has to be interpreted in the subject position

of the infinitival clause.

Features of PRO

i. PRO occurs in argument positions of verbs. Its distribution is restricted to the subject

position of infinitival clauses.

ii. It is base-generated; it is not a product of movement.

iii. Its position is not Case-marked by normal heads, though it is assumed that is has a

null Case assigned it.

iv. PRO is both an anaphor and a pronominal (this can be verified under (a) above).

Types of Control

There are two types of control. These are functional or syntactic control and anaphoric or

semantic control. Functional control ensures that the grammatical features of the controller

and the controlled word (NP) are identical; e.g. in terms of the features of category, number,

56 | P a g e
person, gender, etc. Anaphoric control requires identical reference between the anaphor and

its antecedent.

Hence PRO in the following sentences is interpreted as having the features of the

respective antecedent:

i. They want PRO to pray.

ii. You like PRO to dance.

iii. She pretends PRO to be asleep.

iv. We chose PRO to go by air.

v. Titi asked Bayo PRO to leave.

vi. Nnena wants Pat PRO to dance.

If the PRO in any of the sentences above has different meanings and/or person/number

features different from those found in the antecedents (printed in bold), the sentences

automatically become meaningless and ungrammatical.

How do we know that the PRO exists in such positions? The fact can be traced to

Theta Criterion, which states that an argument bears a theta role and a theta role is assigned to

an argument. The fact is that we can intuitively say that an NP should occur as the performer

of an action in a sentence. If that noun or performer is not physically written, and we can

trace the meaning to a nearby noun, we can conclude that the noun we are looking for has no

phonetic content, i.e. it is base generated.

Control can also be obligatory or arbitrary. In obligatory control, the controller and

the controllee occur in the sentence. In arbitrary control, only one NP occurs in the sentence.

Obligatory control may be associated with functional control, while arbitrary control may be

attributed to semantic control e.g.

a. Obligatory Control

i. Joy asked John PRO to leave.

57 | P a g e
 ii. Kasali is eager PRO to eat.

iii. Wasiu is ready PRO to sleep.

There is obligatory control in the above examples because the PRO in each example can only

be interpreted as the antecedent NP in the sentence. PRO in (i) is controlled by the object,

while it is controlled by the NP in the subject position in the other instances. Thus, PRO in (i)

refers to John, PRO in (ii) refers to Kasali, and PRO in (iii) refers to Wasiu.

b. Arbitrary Control

i. PRO driving a car is a pleasure.

ii. PRO to err is human.

In arbitrary control, the controller of the PRO is not within the sentence. Thus, the controller

of the PRO in (b) above is any third person NP.

Summary

In this lecture, we have discussed the features of the empty pronominal element, PRO. We

also identified and discussed the features and types of control, and the influence of theta

criterion on control structures.

Post Test

1. What is the meaning of control?

2. What is the difference between anaphoric and syntactic controls?

3. What is the difference between obligatory and arbitrary control?

4. Identify the different types of NPs in English.

5. What are the features of PRO?

58 | P a g e
Lecture Seven: Bounding Theory

Introduction

One of the major transformations in this theory is movement. Movement relates to the

extraction of an NP or WH-element from an extraction site to a landing site (where it is

deposited). The moved element often leaves a trace, and both are co-indexed to indicate the

syntactic and semantic relationships of both. However, the movement of an item from one

position to the other is regulated in the grammar. There are boundaries across which

59 | P a g e
movements may not be permitted; hence, the term bounding theory. This aspect shall engage

our attention in this lecture.

Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. describe bounding nodes.

2. discuss movement transformation.

3. discuss subjacency condition.

Pre-Test:

1. What is transformation?

2. What is the difference between wh-movement and NP-movement?

3. What is a barrier?

CONTENT

BOUNDING THEORY

Bounding theory defines the boundaries for the movement of elements. Recall that Move-

alpha moves any category anywhere. Bounding theory deals directly with the application of

Move-alpha rule to constituents. The sub-theory has a major principle called Subjacency

Condition. This principle controls the movement of an item from one position to another

within a sentence. It does not allow movement across more than one barrier (called ‘bounding

node’). In fact, the more bounding nodes an element crosses, the more ungrammatical it is

likely to become. Barriers in the English language are NP and S. In the following examples,

IP stands for ‘sentence’.

60 | P a g e
 i. Waoju asked him [CP whati [IP he had bought ti?]

ii. Whati did [IP Yusuf ask you ti?]

In (i), what moves across an IP, but in (ii) what moves across an IP. The two sentences are

grammatical.

In some cases, however, long distance movements occur. In this sense, an item is not

allowed to move from the extraction site to the landing site in one fell swoop. Rather, item

can move in cycles across a barrier for a movement. This movement is referred to as the strict

cyle condition. This condition is to prevent a violation of subjacency condition.

Consider the following sentences; the first is analyzed for clarification:

i. [CPWhati does [IPKareem say [CP ti [IPhe had done ti?]]

ii. [CP Whoi did [IP Biola claim [CP ti [she dad met ti?]]

CP

Spec

C IP

Spec Iˈ

I VP
NP
V

Vˈ

Spec

C IP

Spec

61 | P a g e I VP
In each of these two sentences, there are two clauses: a main clause and a subordinate clause.

The wh-elements move from the sentence final position in the subordinate clause and makes

temporary landing at the specifier position of the subordinate clause before finally moving to

the permanent landing site: the specifier position of the matrix clause. Note that it leaves a

trace at each position where it lands. We can then see the different traces as a path which

constitutes a chain of movements.

If a sentence does not obey the strict cycle condition, it will violate the subjacency

condition. Consequently, it will become ill-formed as the following examples indicate:

iii. *[CPWhati does [IPBisi know [CPwhen [IP Tola kick ti?]]

62 | P a g e
iv. *[CPWhoi will [IPBisi find [CP where [IP Bassey knows ti?]]

The problem with these sentences that the words what and who have crossed more than one

barrier at a movement. In the process, the movement violated the strict cycle condition and

the subjacency condition.

The further consequence of the subjacency condition is that items cannot be moved

out of certain constructions. These are called island constraints. Some of them are discussed

below:

A. Complex NP constraint

This constraint does not allow the movement of any item from a sentence dominated by a

noun phrase e. g.

i. He believed [NP the argument that [IP the world is flat.]]

ii. *Whati did [IPhe believe [NP the argument that [IP ti is flat?]]]

iii. [NP The fact that [IP Obama won the election] surprised McCain.]]

iv. *Whoi is [NP the fact that [IP ti won the election] surprised McCain?]

In the asterisked examples, the words what and who have crossed the NP barriers (which

happen to be islands). The sentences are, therefore, ill-formed.

B. Sentential subject Constraint

In this constraint, no movement is allowed from a sentential subject of a sentence, i.e. a

sentence which is the subject of another sentence. E.g.

i. [IP Flying a kite on a major road] can be dangerous.

ii. *Whati is [IP flying ti on a major road] can be dangerous?

63 | P a g e
 iii. Beating drums within court premises is not allowed.

iv. *Whati is [IP beating ti within court premises] is not allowed?

In these examples, too, the movement out of the sentential island made the sentences ill-

formed. The word what is extracted from a sentence (or a clause) that functions as the subject

of another sentence.

C. Co-ordinate Structure Constraint

In this constraint, the movement of any item from a conjoined structure is disallowed. Here

are some examples:

i. Ekiye and Juliet went to school.

ii. *Whoi did [NP Ekiye and ti] go to school?

iii. Ebiere [VP bought a stamp and posted the letter].

iv. *What did Ebiere [buy ti and post the letter?].

v. Father rebuked Jack and Jill.

vi. *Who did father rebuke [NPJack and ti?]

Notice that the conjoined items in (i & v) are NPS, while that in (iii) contains conjoined VPs.

In both cases, movement out of the coordinate structure is barred. Violations will result in

ungrammaticality as exhibited in the asterisked examples.

Summary

In this lecture, we have discussed movements of wh-elements and the rules guiding such

movements within sentences. We have noted the importance of the subjacency condition and

the strict cycle condition in the grammaticality of expression. Finally, we discussed Island

Conditions, where there is restriction of movements on specific constructions.

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Post Test

1. What is subjacency condition?

2. What is strict cycle condition?

3. What is an Island?

4. What is a constraint?

Lecture Eight: Binding Theory

Introduction: The Lord says whatsoever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; and

whatsoever you loosen on earth shall be loosened in heaven. That is a regular invocation by

prayer warriors. ‘What has this got to do with syntax?’ You would ask. Little of course! But

that little does fill the mouth! The word bind and its literal meaning are at issue here. This

lecture deals with how words bind (connect with) each other for purposes of correct

interpretation of NPs.

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Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. explain the meaning of ‘binding.’

2. discuss binding principles.

3. interpret binding relations.

Pre-Test:

1. What is the difference between an anaphor and a pronoun?

2. What is the difference between an argument position and a non-argument position?

3. What relationship obtains between the verb and the nouns in a sentence?

CONTENT

BINDING THEORY

Binding theory deals with the interpretation and distribution of NPs occurring in a sentence.

There are three types of NPs. These are anaphors, pronominals and R(eferring)-expressions.

Anaphors are reflexive and reciprocal pronouns, pronominals are personal pronouns and R-

expressions are names. The anaphors and reflexives complement each other. This means that

where one occurs, the other does not. This complementarity is determined through a binding

relationship between NPs in a sentence.

What is Binding?

Binding is defined as follows:

A binds B iff

(i) A is co-indexed with B.

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 (ii) A c-commands B.

Binding occurs between a binder and a bindee. A binder has a c-command relationship with

the bindee, and both of them are co-indexed.

e.g. Jimohi loves himselfi.

*Kunlei’s friend likes himselfi

In the first example, Jimoh c-commands himself. Jimoh is a binder and himself is a

bindee. In the second example, however, Kunle does not bind himself; friend does. But friend

is the head of that phrase. It is not co-indexed with himself. Therefore, the sentence is

ungrammatical.

Binding Principles

Binding theory explains the distribution of anaphors, pronominals and R-expressions. The

three NPs are distributed according to their nature in sentences. This distribution is guided by

the binding principles, which are the core principles of the binding theory. These principles

are defined as follows:

Principle A

An anaphor must be bound in its governing category. An anaphor is a reflexive pronoun or a

reciprocal pronoun. It must have an antecedent nearby if the sentence must be meaningful.

This is the import of Principle A.

e.g. The snakei hurt itselfi.

The boysi fought each otheri.

The childreni helped one anotheri.

Principle B

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A pronominal must be free in its governing category. A pronominal is a pronoun. It can

stand alone and be meaningful in sentences. So it is not necessary for it to have an antecedent

nearby. Here are examples:

He is happy.

She likes cocoyam.

They celebrated the success.

She loves him.

Principle C

R-expressions must be free everywhere. R-expressions refer to nouns and names. Just like

pronouns, R-expressions have independent meaning. They do not require any antecedent

nearby to be meaningful. Below are some examples:

e.g. Nnenna is happy.

Bashir arrived early.

Kayode is very tall.

Bassey met Agnes in the room.

Summary

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In this lecture, we have defined binding and discussed binding principles as well as the

distribution of the different NPs in English.

Post Test

1. What is binding?

2. What are binding principles?

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References

Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on Government and Binding. Dordrecht: Foris Publications

Chomsky, N. 1986. Barriers. Cambridge Mass.:MIT pRESS

Horrocks, G. 1987. Generative Grammar. London & New York: Longman.

Jackendoff, R. 1977. X-Syntax: A Study of Phrase Structure. Cambridge Mass: MIT Press.

Lamidi, M. T. 2008. Aspects of Chomskyan Grammar. Ibadan: UP PLC.

Ndimele, O-M. 1992. Parameters of Universal Grammar: A Government Binding Approach.

Owerri: African Educational Services.

Webelhuth, G. 1995. Government and Binding Theory and the Minimalist Program. Oxford

& Cambridge: Blackwell.

van Riemsdijk, H. and Williams, E. 1986. Introduction to the Theory of Grammar.

Cambridge Mass.: MIT Press.

Yusuf, Ore. 1998. Fundamentals of Syntax and the Study of Nigerian Languages. Ijebu-Ode:

Shebiotimo Press.

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