J Civil Struct Health Monit
DOI 10.1007/s13349-017-0251-6
ORIGINAL PAPER
Existing metallic bridges in Egypt: current conditions
and problems
Maha M. Hassan1 • Sherif A. Elsawaf2 • Hussein H. Abbas2
Received: 21 June 2017 / Accepted: 7 October 2017
 Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2017
Abstract Several metallic bridges are present in Egypt and
form an important part of the transportation network. Many
of these bridges exceeded the intended design life. Cur-
rently, deterioration of bridge conditions is pronounced and
is leading to many problems. In addition, it is feared that
lack of corrective procedures may lead to failure within a
few years. Periodic maintenance and major repair activities
during a structure service life are mandatory to sustain a
satisfactory performance that preserves public safety and
extends the service life. The current work is carried out to
summarize the most frequent structural problems and
defects faced during inspection campaign of a group of
metallic bridges in Egypt. Reported problems include but
are not limited to corrosion, fatigue cracks, and permanent
deformations in structural elements. Data are collected
through an extensive investigation of several metallic
bridges in Egypt. The study included visual inspection,
structural analysis under the action of loads imposed by
latest design codes, fatigue assessment of different bridge
components, and field tests. Observations include problems
or defects related to steel superstructure, pedestrian side
walkways, sleepers and rails system, bracing systems, in
& Maha M. Hassan
mahamoddather@eng.cu.edu.eg
Sherif A. Elsawaf
sherif.elsawaf@ehafconsulting.org
Hussein H. Abbas
habbas@ehafconsulting.org
1 build a suitable database of the status of in-service bridges.
Department of Structural Engineering, Cairo University,
Gamaa Street, Orman, P.O. Box 268, Giza, Egypt
2 investigated by several researchers. Hai [1] and Hai et al.
Department of Structural Engineering, Al Azhar University, 1
Al Mokhaym Al Daem, Gameat Al Azhar, Nasr City, Cairo,
Egypt
addition to reinforced concrete substructures. The study is
meant to shed light upon the current conditions of vital
structures and explore the available practical repair
techniques.
Keywords Assessment
Bridges
Damage
Egypt

Inspection
Metal
1 Introduction
One of the oldest railway networks across the world exists
in Egypt. Large number of bridges was built during the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In addition, several
metallic bridges exist as part of the roadway network that
has been built during the last two centuries. Hence, a
considerable number of bridges have been in service for
more than 100 years. During their service life, steel bridges
are exposed to environmental changes, increased loads,
corrosion, and poor maintenance applications which results
in overall deterioration and inability to achieve satisfactory
performance. Accordingly, structural assessment combined
with application of required remedies is a pressing issue in
order to avoid local or global failure. Existing bridges in
Egypt serve both railway and roadway traffic over the
entire country. They include a large variety of lengths,
load-carrying capacity, structural systems, geometric
dimensions, and materials. The current work focuses on
metallic railway and roadway bridges. It is part of the
performed effort to analyze current bridge conditions and
Inspection and monitoring of existing bridges have been
[2] explored the status of the railway bridges in Vietnam
and listed the main deficiencies. The most critical observed
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deficiencies were corrosion and deterioration due to aging.
Spyrakos et al. [3] and Ermopoulos and Spyrakos [4]
performed complete assessment of a nineteenth century
railway bridge and suggested possible repair procedures.
Bancila et al. [5] presented the Romanian methodology in
assessment of failure and malfunction in steel bridges
accompanied with some case studies. Zhou [6] estimated
the remaining fatigue life of existing bridges based on
field-measured stress range histograms under actual traffic
loads for three major highway bridges. Accordingly, a
procedure was proposed for evaluating fatigue life of
existing bridges. Frangopol et al. [7] studied the bridge
reliability including the monitored data in structural
assessment and prediction models of bridges. Morales and
Bauer [8] reviewed the accumulated fatigue and remaining
life of highway bridges with service life time over 50 years
in Canada. Oliveira and Camacho [9] collected a large
database for in situ vibration frequencies of bridges in
Portugal. The study was part of the efforts for using con-
tinuous vibration monitoring of bridges in damage detec-
tion [10]. Hassan and Abbas [11] exhibited results of field
vibration measurements for major steel railway bridges in
Egypt.
Generally, structural failure of a bridge can be defined as
the condition when sudden collapse occurs or when signs
of local defects prevent the bridge from fulfilling its pur-
pose. The local defects include corrosion, deterioration,
cracks, excessive vibration or deformation, in addition to
various aging signs. Causes of bridge failure can be cate-
gorized as design deficiencies, corrosion, construction and
supervision mistakes, accidental overload and impact,
scour, lack of maintenance or inspection, and force majeure
[12, 13]. In order to preserve the existing bridges at a
functional level, rehabilitation and repair methodologies
have to be applied. Ghosh and Ghoshal [14] discussed the
possible rehabilitation procedures through assessment of
three case studies from Bangladesh, Malaysia and India.
The authors focused on the efficiency of innovative repair
schemes for extending the service life of existing steel
bridges and improving their durability and serviceability
with minimum cost and time. Caglayan et al. [15] inves-
tigated the capability of old railway bridges to accommo-
date heavier axle loads through a series of dynamic tests,
acceleration measurements, and finite element simulations.
Abbas and Hassan [16] investigated the influence of
applied repair methodologies for a case study railway
bridge in Egypt.
The current study is part of an extensive assessment
practice for a group of steel bridges constituting part of the
railway and roadway network in Egypt. The study con-
sisted of different phases including visual inspection,
modeling, static and dynamic load tests, material tests, and
repair recommendations. In this paper, focus is given to the
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main defects and problems found during the inspection
campaign of 76 railway steel bridges in addition to several
roadway bridges in Cairo governorate which is the capital
of Egypt. Findings of visual inspection of different bridge
components are exhibited. In addition, investigation of the
frequent structural problems and defects is listed. The study
targets rating the current condition of bridges in Egypt in
order to preserve the current bridge inventory.
2 Description of bridges
The current study focuses on several metallic railway and
roadway bridges located in Egypt. Data regarding the dif-
ferent considered bridges were collected through checking
of the available as-built drawings, calculations, and
inspection reports. Many of the considered bridges have
been subject to repair works and in some cases major
rehabilitation. Figure 1a–p shows general view of sample
bridges investigated in the current study. Tables 1 and 2 list
the inspected railway and roadway bridges. Railway
bridges are grouped based on the location and working
line; meanwhile, roadway bridges are grouped based on the
structural type: group 1 incorporate riveted sections and
group 2 incorporate welded sections. Generally, the studied
bridges include: truss and plate girders, simple and con-
tinuous systems, and fixed and movable bays, riveted and
welded sections. Figure 2a shows age distribution of
inspected bridges. A percentage of 42.1% of the considered
bridges have been in service for more than 100 years.
Figure 2b shows distribution of different spans. Most of
inspected bridges fall in the span length between 10 and
20 m. Figure 2c summarizes the used structural systems.
Simple beams are the most observed system which presents
the most suitable system for the majority of bridges based
on span lengths. Figure 3a–c shows sample elevation of
selected bridges showing the employed structural system.
The inspected roadway bridges included four main
bridges as listed in Table 2. Kasr El Nil Bridge is a road-
way bridge constructed in 1933. It connects Tahrir Square
in downtown Cairo to modern Cairo Opera complex toward
the southern end of Gezira Island. The total length of the
bridge is 1932 m. The bridge consists of a number of bays
serving two traffic lanes in each direction. The construction
system of the bridge is four continuous steel girders with
variable depth as shown in Fig. 1m. Two bays of the bridge
are movable bridge. El Sanaie bridge is located on a road
connecting the road of Faraj and Sebtia areas. The length of
the bridge is about 497 m. Inspection showed that the
width of the bridge is about 13.00 m divided into three
lanes, in addition to a side walkway of about 1.45 m in
both directions. The construction system of the bridge is
three continuous steel girders over six bays with a length of
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Fig. 1 General view of sample bridges

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Fig. 1 continued

Table 1 Summary of inspected railway bridges

Group Inspected bridges

Group 1 Khott Bridge—Masraf Basandella (1)—Masraf Basandella (2)—Masraf Ammar (2)—Bahr Belqas—Masraf El Emmom (4)—
Ebshan—Bahr El Adma—El Malah—Abou Sha’asha’—Zawya—Tabarya—Masraf El Emmom (7)
Group 2 Sabal El Ganouby—Sabal El Shamaly—Nenaia—Sersaweya Canal—Shaab Shenwaan—Tanata Canal—El Malah—El
Rahebein—Berket El Sabe—Abou El Akhdar El Asloogy—Menouf—Masraf Tta—Masraf Sabal bel Eraqia—Meshla—Terat El
Kased
Group 3 Moheet El Khatatba—Kellin—Sahel Morkos—El Khandaq El Sharqy (Dmanhour)—El Shamasma—Masraf (10)—Masraf (11)—
Saeedi Mahalet Malek—Delta Meet Bara—Meadya—El Khandaq El Sharqy (Tawfekya)
Group 4-A Sawahelya—Diroot—Ibrahimya Assiut—Malah Assiut—Old and New Abou Shosha—Kasel Kom Ombo
Group 4-B Kantara Qebly—Raswa
Group 5 Harrery Tunnel—Delta Tunnel—Ganabeya El Qorasheya—Teraat El Kased—Kafr Saqr—El Nezaam—Juhayna
Group 6 Abo El Nomros—El Ayyat—Maktafia—Elwy El Demeerdash—Elwy EL Waziz—Teraat El Khaleeg El Masry—El Ibrahimya—
Abd Allah Wahby
Group 7 Imbaba—Banha—Dessouk and Rahmania—Edfina—Kafr El Zayat—Kanater—Mansoura—Marazek—Zefta—Old and New
Gerga—Noubarya—Shola Tunnel

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Table 2 Summary of inspected roadway bridges rest on transversal frames consisting of girder with double
Group Inspected bridges
cantilevers and two braced columns in the longitudinal
direction. The longitudinal beams are topped by a floor
Group 1 Kasr El Nil Bridge—Galaa—Sanaei consisting of a slab and a concrete slab. There is a metal
Group 2 Mohamed Naguib fence on either side of the bridge; however, there are no
sidewalks. Galaa Bridge was built in 1914 with a total
length of 145 and 19 m width. The bridge supporting
system is composed of two riveted trusses connected by
about 8.0 m each, in addition to four metal frames with
cross girders. The bridge has two fixed bays and two
span 18.5 m and two cantilever beams of length 8.5 m in
movable bays (swing type).
both directions. The road is a concrete slab loaded with
metal slabs based on secondary longitudinal beams, about
1.25 m long and secondary cross-beams, about 2.0 m
3 Assessment and inspection campaign
away. Mohamed Nagube bridge consists of two traffic
lanes. It transfers the traffic from the direction of ELMarge
The inspection campaign included the study of 76 steel
El Gadida as well as branching across the subway to the
bridges within the railway network in Egypt in addition to
direction of Mohamed Naguib Street. The bridge consists
several roadway bridges at Cairo province. The current
of a number of metal bays, starting and ending with con-
study focuses on the encountered problems and defects at
crete bays. Each of the three main girders is located in the
different members of bridge. The study was performed
longitudinal direction of the bridge, connecting them with
starting at the end of 2014 and till the end of 2017. Age of
secondary cross-girder in the main direction. Main girders
the inspected bridges ranges between 27 and 119 years at

25-50 11 0-10
6 0 10-20
50-75 8 11 20-30
75-100 5 30-40
14 2
32 100-125 40-50
50-60
10 60-70
70-80
80-90
44
24

(a) Distribution of Age of Bridges (b) Distribution of Span Length

1
Simple Beam
2
14 Continuous Beam
Simple and Continuous Beams
3 Simple Truss
43 Continuous Truss
13
Simple Arch with Ties

(c) Used Structural System

Fig. 2 Inspected railway bridges

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Fig. 3 Sample structural system of inspected bridges
the beginning of inspection campaign. It should be men-
tioned that the last detailed inspection of most of these
bridges was performed in 1985. In addition, Egyptian
National Railways (ENR) performs periodic visual
inspection of these bridges on a regular basis. Generally,
each bridge has a person in charge who inspects different
bridge components and reports any defects to higher
authorities.
Visual inspection phase presents a very important part of
the assessment study. The different elements of the
inspected bridge were extensively investigated to pinpoint
defects for further investigation. Inspection focuses on
critical positions such as steel sections and connections,
concrete slabs, piers, abutments, drainage system, lighting,
and handrail guards. The visual inspection was performed
by means of several teams at the same time. At the begin-
ning of the inspection phase, the existing structural draw-
ings and previous inspection reports (if available) were
studied. Accordingly, the structural system of the bridge is
fully understood and any reported repair procedures are
recorded. Previously prepared inspection forms and
checklists are employed to perform a close-up visual
examination of the different components [17]. Boats and
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ladders were employed to access far zones of the bridge in
order to ensure investigation of all areas. The inspection
intensity depended upon the importance and criticality of
the structural element. Each steel member was viewed from
all sides along its length. Dimensions of structural elements
were measured and compared to the original as-built
drawings in order to record any section losses. Increased
attention was given to the tension zones of fracture critical
members. Similarly, compression members were checked
for buckling or deformations. Sections and connections
were inspected for loose or missing rivets or bolts. Steel
bearings were checked for cracks or surface corrosion.
Substructure elements representing piers, side walkways, or
roadway lanes were inspected for spalling, cracks, scaling,
reinforcement corrosion, or material deterioration. The
common observed defects include corrosion, fatigue cracks,
aging, missing rivets, poor condition of concrete, in addi-
tion to inadequate lighting or drainage facilities. Moreover,
some bridges suffer from problems related to vehicle col-
lision, or poor maintenance applications. In the following
sections, the frequently observed defects are listed and
discussed for the different bridge components. Moreover,
practical repair procedures will be explored.
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Start
Check the available as-built drawings, calculations, previous
inspection reports…etc.
Perform visual inspection of the different bridge components
and pinpoint the defects.
Determine the material properties of the metallic and concrete
components through material tests.
Construct preliminary finite element models using the available
as-built drawings.
Perform static load tests and dynamic properties tests in order to
specify the bridge response under the applied loads.
Update finite element models using the static and dynamic test
results.
Check different members and connections using straining
actions from models under the effect of new loads.
Determine the remaining fatigue life of fatigue-critical
members based on axle load and occurrence data received from
Specify the type and extent of defects based on the previous
steps.
Study available repair alternatives and prepare drawings and
bill of quantities.
End
Fig. 4 Bridge assessment procedure
The main observed defects for the inspected bridges
were surface to severe corrosion, permanent deformations
in members, missing rivets, cracks, improper repair appli-
cations, loss of connecting rivets, spalling, cracks, scaling,
reinforcement corrosion, material deterioration, poor con-
dition of concrete, in addition to inadequate lighting or
drainage facilities.
Observations from the visual inspection phase were
recorded and used to determine the suitable repair proce-
dures. Consequently, FE models were developed based on
the as-built drawings and the visual inspection observa-
tions. Static and dynamic tests were performed to validate
the built models. Hence, models are used to analyze the
bridge performance under the increased axle loads. In
addition, fatigue assessment study was performed consid-
ering the records provided by Egyptian National Railways
(ENR). A flow chart summarizing the principle steps for
the assessment procedure is shown in Fig. 4.
3.1 Steel superstructure: corrosion
Corrosion and loss of protective coating are one of the most
observed defects in metallic structures. Bridges are usually
exposed structures which are subjected to large tempera-
ture changes in addition to humidity. The above reasons
combined with lack of maintenance and repair procedures
lead to corrosion. Lee [18] proposed a method for recog-
nizing bridge coating rust using color image processing as
an accurate, efficient, and fast method. The method was
developed by Shen et al. [19] by proposing a rust defect
recognition method based on colour and texture features of
coating.
For the group of inspected bridges, the severity of
corrosion ranged from surface light corrosion to serious
corrosion leading to decreasing the sectional area
(Fig. 5a–c). Corrosion is caused by an electro-chemical
process that leads to the oxidation of iron. It is commonly
observed at the bottom levels of metallic bridges (floor
elements) subjected to water vapor arising from waterways
beneath the bridge. For some bridges, severe corrosion
was observed leading to pitting or creating holes through
the steel plates (Fig. 5a–d). In other bridges, corrosion was
not serious and only observed throughout the protective
coating layer (Fig. 5e). In some cases, corrosion was
observed at bottom of columns after removing poured
protective reinforced concrete pedestals (Fig. 5f). For the
inspected bridges, dimensions of sections were measured
upon removing the rust area. It was found that in most
cases the thickness of section elements decreased by about
1–2 mm. Based on the structural analysis study, it was
decided that sections do not need strengthening. However,
in some special cases, the area of the section decreased
greatly and steel plates were added to compensate for the
lost area as shown in Fig. 3h in Saida Eisha bridge. Fig-
ure 6 shows the distribution of corrosion severity for the
inspected bridges. Classification is based on a subjective
criteria set by inspectors during visual inspection. Guide-
lines, stipulated in Japan Bridge Association report [20],
classify corrosion based on type, thickness and color tone.
Most of the inspected bridges were characterized by good
to fair section condition with light rust at localized zones.
Meanwhile, 17.8% of the inspected bridges were having
severe to bad section conditions. The age of these bridges
ranged between 50 to 119 years with 62% exceeding
100 years. It was also observed that for this category
bridges are located on the Nile River with severe envi-
ronmental conditions.
Repair procedure includes determining the extent of
corrosion. If severe corrosion is observed, member could
be replaced or strengthened with additional plates to sub-
stitute the missing steel area. For the case of light corro-
sion, the corroded layer needs to be removed. Afterwards,
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Fig. 5 Corrosion signs at different inspected bridges

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1.4%
Severe to Bad
8.2%
16.4% Bad to Fair
Fair to Good
Good
74.0%
Fig. 6 Distribution of corrosion severity for different inspected
bridges
epoxy fillers and appropriate painting systems are applied.
Generally, actions should be taken to avoid circumstances
leading to corrosion. This includes ensuring the availability
of a proper drainage system and periodic maintenance
procedures.
3.2 Steel superstructure: fatigue cracks
Different structural elements in metallic bridges are sub-
jected to stress cycles due to varying applied loads.
Depending on the number of applied cycles and connection
details, fatigue cracks might initiate at fatigue-prone
members and connections [21]. Accordingly, for the
inspected bridges, fatigue cracks were investigated at the
fatigue-critical members, near weld lines, and around rivet
heads. Cracks were observed at the slotted stringer-to-cross
girder joint (Fig. 7a, b) in two different bridges. These two
bridges were the only ones employing the slotted connec-
tion detail. In addition, they were built using welded sec-
tions. Both bridges have been in service for less than
30 years; however, high stress values under applied live
loads were observed in the cracked cross girder of both
Fig. 7 Fatigue cracks in different inspected bridges
bridges. Most of the inspected bridges were constructed at
a time when data concerning fatigue were not available.
Hence, the used details did not account for such effects. In
addition, overload or collisions could lead to fatigue
damage [1]. Fatigue defects are critical and need immedi-
ate repair as it may lead to immediate failure of the affected
element. The different investigated bridges were assessed
considering records for axle loads and the remaining life
time was determined accordingly. After analyzing the floor
beams shown in Fig. 7a, b, it was found that stresses due to
standard train loads specified by the Egyptian Code [22]
exceed fatigue limit requirements for slotted detail cate-
gory. Hence, strengthening applications were recom-
mended including repair of existing cracks in addition to
increasing the strength of floor beams through addition of
steel plates. For the inspected bridges, the remaining fati-
gue life for different members was estimated using the
traditional S–N method [23]. However, this method might
underestimate the actual remaining fatigue life of bridge
[6]. Field measurements present an accurate alternative in
estimating fatigue remaining life in addition to many
innovative measurement methodologies [24–26]. Fatigue
cracks may not appear due to corrosion; hence, it is rec-
ommended to investigate the fatigue-critical members upon
removing rust by sand blasting.
3.3 Steel superstructure: connecting elements
(rivets and bolts)
The common method of construction for most of the
inspected bridges was the use of rivets in connecting dif-
ferent parts. During the inspection campaign, it was
observed that the rivets were missing at some connections
(Fig. 8a–d). Generally, such missing rivets are replaced by
high strength bolts. However, replacement bolts were also
reported to be damaged at many locations (Fig. 8a, b). For
the different inspected bridges, it was found that less than
5% had missing rivets for about 20% of the inspected
connections. In addition, most of these bridges exceeded
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Fig. 8 Connecting element condition at sample bridges
100 years in service. Generally, connections were thor-
oughly investigated considering their location and the
affecting straining actions. It was generally observed that
the defects are common in the connections of the lower
bracing system connections. This can be attributed for the
assumptions and simplifications made during the design
phase at the time of bridge construction. Bracing members
were only designed to support loads caused only by wind
effects. Meanwhile, these members are affected by the
passage of trains as the whole bridge transmits the applied
loads through interaction between their members. This was
observed during load testing of the different studied
bridges as measured strain values exceeded the calculated
values considering simplified 2-D models. This was also
confirmed upon building 3-D finite element models. Repair
procedures include mainly replacement of rivets with high
strength bolts and in some cases increasing the number of
bolts by introducing new holes or changing gusset plates.
In some cases, strengthening of bracing members was
needed due to observed yielding, especially at gusset plate
zone.
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3.4 Steel superstructure: bearings
Bridge bearings convey forces due to different loading
effects between the steel superstructure and the sub-
structure. They also accommodate the expected move-
ment in the bridge due to temperature changes, train
loads, or lateral loads. Railway bridges are characterized
by expected heavy forces at the supports. Hence, all the
studied bridges employ mechanical steel bearings except
for New Gerga bridge and Abo Shosha Bridge which
employed elastomeric pot bearings. Meanwhile, the
inspected roadway bridges employed elastomeric bear-
ings or simple steel bearing plates. During visual
inspection, the common defects of the bridge bearings
included light or heavy corrosion, misalignment, sheared
bolts, and loss of restraining blocks, and cracking of
concrete pad (Fig. 9a–d). Repair practices include refur-
bishment, lubrication, replacement of damaged parts,
jacking, and levelling. Generally, bearing conditions were
fair for all inspected bridges except for the defects shown
in figures.
J Civil Struct Health Monit
Fig. 9 Defects in bearings at sample bridges
3.5 Steel superstructure: collision and impact
Several bridges were damaged due to collision of trains or
elements on board. Figure 10a shows a replaced vertical
member in Marazek Bridge after a derailment accident in
2002. Train wagons crashed through several floor beams in
addition to main truss members resulting in loss of parts of
these members. Figure 10b, c shows a common observed
defect due to collision of items on board of train. Fig-
ure 10d shows permanent deformation in bridge column
due to vehicle collision. In these cases, straightening repair
procedures are applied in conjunction with adding steel
plates to substitute the plastically deformed parts.
3.6 Steel superstructure: inadequate repair
procedures
In some cases, inadequate or poor repair methods result in
serious damage to bridge superstructure. Figure 11a shows
poor welding applications from one side only of the gusset
plate observed at the bracing level of New Gerga Bridge.
Site welding was employed to replace existing lower
bracing members. Such application may cause the forma-
tion of fatigue cracks at the welded floor beams.
In 2016, replacement of wearing surface of Kasr El Nil
Roadway Bridge was performed. Bridge expansion joints
were closed as continuous asphaltic layer was laid above
bridge slab as shown in Fig. 11b. This resulted in imme-
diate cracks at the wearing surface layer. In addition, ver-
tical and horizontal deformations were observed at the
movable bay of the bridge as shown in Figs. 9d and 11c.
In Mohamed Naguib Bridge, the structural system of the
bridge consisted of simply supported successive bays. Due
to observed movements at the expansion joints, it was
decided to connect ends of main beams to the supporting
frames as shown in Fig. 11e. Hence, the structural system
of the main beams changed from simply supported beams
to continuous beams. This led to constraining the bridge in
the longitudinal direction due to temperature deference
between hot and cold seasons. Consequently, diagonal
buckling waves were observed in main beams as shown in
Fig. 11f.
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Fig. 10 Collision and impact defects at sample bridges
3.7 Traffic lane and sidewalks: reinforced concrete
slab deck
Deck slab represents major part of roadway bridges. For
inspected railway bridges, deck slabs are employed for
traffic lanes or pedestrian sidewalks. In Zefta Railway
Bridge, adjustments to the structural system of the bridge
were made to accommodate a roadway lane instead of a
railway track. Generally, reinforced concrete slabs were
inspected for spalling, cracking, efflorescence, dampness,
potholing, delamination, or corroded reinforcement. In
some cases, the concrete cover was lost and the steel
reinforcement was exposed and corroded. Figure 12a–d
shows observed defects for the different bridges. These
defects were observed in approximately 10% of the
inspected bridges. Repair includes replacement of the
corroded steel reinforcement, using epoxy-based materials
to connect the new reinforcement to the existing rein-
forcement, and pouring of concrete.
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3.8 Traffic lane and sidewalks: wearing surface
and expansion joints
Inspection of the roadway lanes included examination of
the used wearing surface layers and used expansion joints.
In addition, some bridges employed timber as part of the
sidewalks. Figure 13a–f shows a sample of the observed
defects for the different considered bridges. Defects can be
categorized into cracking or settlement of the wearing
surface layer, misalignment, closing by dust or due to
excessive movement, missing some elements or leakage of
expansion joint and poor condition of timber. Repair works
include replacement of expansion joints according to the
expected movement, removal and replacement of the
wearing surface layer, and replacement of timber with
more durable material.
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Fig. 11 Samples of inadequate repair procedures
3.9 Traffic lane and sidewalks: guardrails and mesh
Guardrail and mesh represent an important part that
improves traffic safety. In the studied bridges, they are used
to separate the traffic lane from surroundings. Non-rigid
rails are generally observed consisting of steel posts, steel
horizontal bars, and steel mesh. The observed defects,
shown in Fig. 14a–d, include damage due to collision,
missing parts of the rail, misalignment, and corrosion.
Repair works include replacement of damaged or missing
parts, aligning works, removal of corroded layer, and
repainting.
3.10 Rail and sleepers
Rails and sleepers constitute an important part of the rail-
way system. They have a direct impact upon the service-
ability of the passing trains. In addition, cracked sleepers or
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Fig. 12 Samples of reinforced concrete slab deck defects
loose rails will increase the dynamic effects on the steel
structure and lead to unexpected stresses in its members.
Generally, poor conditions of the sleepers in addition to
many missing connecting elements were observed for the
different inspected bridges (Fig. 15a–b). Recommenda-
tions for repair include replacement of the poor sleepers,
tightening of loose bolts, and substituting the missing
connecting elements.
3.11 Drainage systems
Specifications and guidelines specify the minimum diam-
eter and slope for drainage pipes, outlets, and drip grooves.
Great care is required such that the system does not dis-
charge on the concrete or steel surface leading to damage
or corrosion. Generally, drainage problems are caused by
blockage of pipes with rubbish or debris. During visual
inspection, it was observed that most of the inspected
bridges did not include a clear drainage system (Fig. 16a,
b). Such improper drainage properties resulted in dis-
charging on the superstructure and substructure as seen in
Fig. 16c, d. Recommendations include introducing a drai-
nage system that ensures discharging of water, grease, or
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lubricates away from the steel superstructure. In addition,
regular removal of debris and rubbish in the pipes is
required.
3.12 Lighting
Illumination of bridges helps to highlight their structural
and architectural features. In addition, it is required by
different guidelines and specifications for safety purposes.
Most of the inspected bridges have insufficient lighting
services or power supply systems (Fig. 17a, b). The rec-
ommendations include introducing new lighting schemes
that enhance the esthetics of bridges and show their his-
torical significance and ensuring the availability of the
required power supply.
3.13 Substructure elements: piers and abutments
Piers and abutments represent an important part of the
bridge as they convey loads to the soil. In the inspected
bridges, the substructure elements were composed of
reinforced concrete and covered with protective stony
layer. They were checked for scour or erosion. Moreover,
J Civil Struct Health Monit
Fig. 13 Samples of wearing surface and expansion joints defects
measurements were made using surveying equipment to
check the vertical alignment of the piers and abutments and
to record any possible movements. In addition, bearing
seats were checked for cracking or spalling especially near
the edges. Finally, the concrete surface was checked for
any deterioration signs, especially in areas exposed to
roadway drainage. Figure 18a, b shows a sample of the
observed defects including cracks, loss of the concrete
cover and appearance of reinforcement steel.
3.14 Excessive vibrations and serviceability
Traffic-induced vibrations can result in unsatisfactory
behavior of bridges and discomfort for the users. Generally,
this problem does not affect structural safety; however, it
affects regular users’ confidence in the structure. In the
Kanater Bridge, excessive vibrations were reported during
previous assessments of the bridge. This was the only
bridge to suffer from this problem. Additional rigid frames
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Fig. 14 Samples of guardrails and mesh defects
Fig. 15 Samples of rail and sleepers defects
were added near supports in order to increase the cross-
sectional rigidity as shown in Fig. 19 based on the study
performed by Zaki and Abu-Hamd [27]. Possible solutions
include adding dampers, bracing members, or decreasing
the velocity of trains.
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J Civil Struct Health Monit
3.14.1 Conclusions
This paper presents summary of common defects observed
during an inspection campaign including 76 railway
bridges in Egypt in addition to several roadway bridges in
Cairo governorate. The study was composed of different
phases including visual inspection, tests, modeling, and
J Civil Struct Health Monit
Fig. 16 Poor and lack of drainage systems in inspected bridges
Fig. 17 Insufficient lighting in sample of inspected bridges
piloting possible repair or rehabilitation procedures. The
current paper focuses on the observed defects in the steel
superstructure and the concrete substructure during visual
inspection phase. The following main conclusions can be
drawn:
• The study showed that the status of the inspected
bridges ranged between good to fair with poor signs in
some cases.
• In most cases, existing sizes of members coincide with
the available design drawings and documents related to
bridge. However, changes in member sizes were
observed due to repair procedures applied throughout
the service life of the bridge.
• Service life of many bridges has exceeded 100 years.
Hence, continuous monitoring of these bridges is
crucial.
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Fig. 18 Piers and abutment defects
Fig. 19 Rigid frames added near supports, Kanater Bridge
• The explored defects included corrosion, fatigue initi-
ation cracks, loss of connecting elements, collision
damage, concrete cracking, failure of expansion joints,
poor conditions of sleepers, improper drainage or
illumination system, in addition to excessive vibrations.
• In some cases, poor applied maintenance procedures
that affect the structural system of the bridge can lead
to severe consequences including partial or complete
failure.
• Determination of fatigue life of different member
requires reasonable and detailed record of actual traffic
during service life of bridge. In Egypt, the given
records are usually larger than actual traffic which may
lead to under-estimating the remaining fatigue life of
members.
• Corrective actions and suitable maintenance should be
performed for observed defects. In addition, periodic
inspection plan and continuous monitoring should be
considered for the existing bridge inventory in Egypt.
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J Civil Struct Health Monit
Acknowledgements The authors wish to express their sincere
appreciation to the structural team at EHAF Consulting Office for the
technical support. The authors also would like to acknowledge the
support provided by the Egyptian National Railways (ENR).
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