A SPECTS OF CONVEYOR BELTING

G. Davies Manage r: Te chnical Se rvice s De pt Goodye ar Tyre and R ubbe r C o. Unive rsity of the W itwate rsrand S.A. Institute of Mate rials Handling S.A. Institution of Me chanical Engine e rs

1. SUMMA RY Factors in the com positions of m ode rn conve yor be lting. Prope rtie s of conve yor be lt fabrics and various m e thods of construction. C ove r conside rations and typical we ar rate s O pe rating te nsions and factors of Safe ty. Splice lim itations and re pair facilitie s. 2.0 INTRODUCTION Som e whe re , som e how, C onve ye r be lting touche s the live s of e ve ry single pe rson in the civilize d world, e ithe r dire ctly or indire ctly. W he the r it is a pie ce of wood de stine d to be m ade into pape r, an article of baggage at an airport, a stick of cane de stine d to be sugar , a lum p of iron ore de stine d for the blast furnace , coal for the powe r station, corn for silos, transport for pe ople or production line s for factorie s. The list is ne ve r - e nding, and without conve yor be lting, the world as we k now it would com e to a halt. This of course can be said about m any othe r com m oditie s and about transport in ge ne ral and I only m e ntion it be cause he rs in South Africa whe re the re is an acce nt on m ining, conve yor be lting be com e s a vital strate gic com m odity for the we ll-be ing and continue d prospe rity of the country. You m ay be surprise d to k now that this country of ours consum e s in e x ce ss of 900 k ilom e te rs of conve yor be lting annually which probably m e ans the re is ove r 5 000 k ilom e te rs in ope ration. Le t us the re fore look at som e of its history. 2.1 HISTORY Transporting bulk m ate rials by conve yor be lts date s back to approx im ate ly 1795; m ost of the se e arly installations handle d grain ove r re lative ly short distance s. The first conve ye r be lt syste m s we re ve ry prim itive and consiste d of le athe r, canvas, or rubbe r be lt trave lling ove r a flat or troughe d woode n be d. This type of syste m was not an unqualifie d succe ss but it did provide ince ntive for e ngine e rs to conside r conve yors as rapid, e conom ical and safe m e thod of m oving large volum e s of bulk m ate rial from one location to anothe r. During the e arly 1920's, the C olonial Dock installation of the H.C . Frick C om pany in the U.S.A., to quote a particularly note worthy installation, showe d what be lt conve yors could do in long distance hauling. This installation was unde rground and handle d run of m ine coal ove r som e 8 k m . The conve yor be lt consiste d of m ultiple plie s of cotton duck and natural rubbe r cove rs, which we re the only m ate rials use d to m anufacture be lting at that tim e . Although outm ode d by today's standards, this m ate rial handling syste m was se le cte d in pre fe re nce to rail haulage , which has prove d to be a prope r

choice , in m any subse que nt applications. During W orld W ar II natural com pone nts be cam e so scarce that the rubbe r industry was force d to cre ate synthe tic m ate rials to re place the m . Today, conve yor be lting is be ing produce d with an alm ost e ndle ss list of polym e rs and fabrics to m e e t the de sign re quire m e nts of any conve ying situation. Possible use s of conve yor be lting have broade ne d conside rably since the Frick installation and have today be com e the ve ins and arte rie s of alm ost e ve ry basic industry. Today around any proce ssing activity whe re m ate rials have to be handle d, store d, or dispe nse d, the be lt conve yor can be se e n doing a job. The conve yor is tak e n for grante d as an obe die nt se rvant re ady to m ove m ountains at the touch of a button. The re is hardly any sight pre ttie r to a proce ss ope rator than the sm ooth ribbon flow of spe cification size m ate rial on a conve ye r be lt. But if a conve ye r fails e ve rything has to shut down, and the conve yor the n be com e s the "lousy pie ce of junk ", that cause d the ope ration to lose m one y. THAT's whe n the conve yor tak e s an IMPO R TANC E. Ask som e one to de scribe conve yor be lting - we ll, its just fabric and rubbe r she e ting - ye s, te n out of te n. Ask som e one to de scribe the diffe re nce be twe e n good conve ye r be lting and bad conve ye r be lting and the answe r ne e ds som e e x plaining, e x ce pt that bad doe s not last as long as good. The se cre t lie s in having the right rubbe rs bonde d with the right adhe sive s to the right fabrics to give a balance d product for e ach conve ye r. Along with the de ve lopm e nt of conve yor be lting, standard spe cifications have be e n e stablishe d. Som e of the m ost note worthy be ing the ISO DIN, NC B Flam e R e sistant ,spe cifications and the S.A.B.S. C onve yor Be lt Spe cifications 1173/77 and 971/80. So it should be use ful for the e ngine e r de signing such e quipm e nt as we ll for the m ining and m ate rials handling m e n who run the m achine s and the ir conve yors to k now about the m ode rn day de ve lopm e nt of conve yor be lting. 2.2. CONVEYORS DESIGNED A ROUND THE BELT Be cause conve yors are re lative ly sim ple whe n com pare d with othe r units in a proce ssing plant, the y ofte n lack the atte ntion give n to the "producing" units. Howe ve r, conve yors should be look e d at as inte gral parts of the proce ssing plant, with Equal claim to a share in the profits of the ope ration. In fact a good m any ope rations owe the ir succe ss to the e fficie ncy of the ir conve yors. O n the othe r hand a good m any ope rations are the "he adache " proble m s to a syste m of poorly ope rate d, poorly

m aintaine d, and ill chose n conve yors. Unfortunate ly, m any e ngine e ring jobs on be lt conve yor syste m s are done without prope r

conside ration be ing give n to the be lting at the initial . stage s of de sign. Since be lting is ge ne rally the m ost e x pe nsive single ite m , of the syste m , as we ll as virtually the only m ajor com pone nt that ne e ds occasional re place m e nt, it would be good practice to se le ct the be lting first, on the basis of the re quire d tonnage , spe e d and layout. C onside ration of standardisation in be lt width and be lt

spe cifications should be applie d at this point. Afte r the basic conve yor layout and pre lim inary be lting re quire m e nts have be e n e stablishe d , the e ngine e ring of the supporting structure s such as idle rs, pulle ys e tc. can be com ple te d.

The use r should k now e nough about be lt - conve yor de sign to de cide what he ne e ds and how m uch of a com prom ise be twe e n what is e conom ically justifie d and what is pe rfe ct de sign, can be m ade . A be lt conve yor can be put toge the r with alm ost any k ind of e quipm e nt. It can be abuse d and ne gle cte d, ye t the be lting will k e e p on m oving. It will run ove r idle rs that have not turne d for ye ars and drag through accum ulations of m ate rial that it is suppose d to carry and that has burie d the idle rs which are suppose d to m ak e its running e asy. It will e ve n, be cause of m isalignm e nt of the conve yor fram e , cut its way through ste al m e m be rs. C e rtainly the conve yor will work unde r the se conditions, though the use r pays he avily for it, but if the be lt is tre ate d prope rly, it will re spond with ye ars and m illions of tons of incre ase d life and se rvice . The ultim ate ope rating cost pe r ton k ilom e te r of a be lt conve yor syste m de pe nds prim arily on sk illful e ngine e ring of the syste m and the suitability of the be lt. The se le ction of the be lt is one of the m ost im portant conside rations in the de sign of a be lt conve ye r. The be lt carrie s the m ate rial and transm its the powe r to m ove the load, and it is the part m ost subje ct to we ar. The de sign and the e ngine e ring of be lt - conve yor e quipm e nt m ust be dire cte d to k e e ping the be lt in ope ration, prote cting the be lt and prolonging the life of the be lt. It would be ne fit the ultim ate use r to consult a re pre se ntative of the be lt m anufacture rs, at the tim e whe n the initial e ngine e ring studie s are m ade and to re ach an agre e m e nt on the de sign spe cifications. The ge ne ral de sign of be lt conve yors is not the topic of this pape r. It can be obtaine d from re le vant publications. The following re m ark s are to be unde rstood m e re ly as re com m e ndations for the corre ct configuration of conve yor e le m e nts which are re quire d to inte ract with the be lt. 2.2.1 BELT TRA INING W ithin the scope of re cognise d standards, the supplie r of the be lt guarante e s the straight in line m anufacture of his be lts. The asse m bly of a be lt conve ye r should re sult in a straight line -up. Howe ve r, whe n running, be lts m ay ne ve rthe le ss run off-line due to outside influe nce s such as rain, wind, off ce nte r loading, de fle ction of the conve yor fram e work e tc. The de sign of a conve yor m ust tak e that into account. It is com m on practice to have a m inim um cle arance be twe e n e ach e dge of the be lt and conve yor structure or any obstacle s of 50 to 100 m m de pe nding on the width of the be lt. Howe ve r, for long, highly stre sse d costly be lts it is we ll worthwhile giving conside ration to incre asing the se dim e nsions. The sim ple st m e thod to train a be lt corre ctly is to trough the be lt sufficie ntly on the top and bottom strand e .g. top strand troughing m inim um 20, bottom strand troughing m inim um 10. Furthe r, the m ate rial should be fe d ce ntrally onto the be lt. Usually no e x tra e quipm e nt should be ne ce ssary. Should training idle rs be re quire d, such de signs are to be pre fe rre d which cannot dam age the be lt e dge s ( e .g. ve rtical side guide idle rs). Tilting the troughing idle r forward (not ove r two de gre e s) in the dire ction of be lt trave l produce s a se lf aligning e ffe ct, howe ve r, this m e thod has the disadvantage of e ncouraging acce le rate d pulle y cove r we ar due to incre ase d friction on the troughing rolls. It should the re fore , be use d as sparingly as possible , e spe cially on the highe r angle idle rs.

2.2.2 FEEDING OF MA TERIA L ONTO BELT De sign of chute s is not the topic of this chapte r as it will be ade quate ly cove re d by anothe r de le gate . Howe ve r, it m ust be said that the succe ssful ope ration of a be lt conve yor re quire s : first that the conve yor be lt be loade d prope rly; se cond that the m ate rial carrie d by the be lt be discharge d prope rly. The se two re quire m e nts are ve ry im portant and m ust be give n m ost care ful conside ration if the be lt conve yor is to function as inte nde d. 2.2.3 BELT CLEA NING Many m ate rials conve ye d on be lts are stick y. Portions cling to the conve ying surface of the be lt and are not discharge d with the re st of the m ate rial at the discharge points. C le aning m ate rial from the be lt surface be fore it e nte rs the re turn run of the conve yor is im portant. Failure to ge t the be lt cle an allows m ate rial to transfe r from the be lt surface to idle r rolls and snub pulle ys and to fall unde r the conve yor. Mate rial build up on the rolls and snubs nullifie s the training job whe n the rolls we re cle an. In som e case s the be st possible cle aning is insufficie nt, and ste ps m ust be tak e n to m itigate the e ffe cts of a dirty be lt. Dirt can be k e pt from building up an the snub pulle ys by using soft rubbe r cove rings or by scraping dire ctly against the pulle y. R ubbe r disc re turn rolls pre ve nt dirt from building up on the rolls and thus save a training proble m . The re are num e rous e ffe ctive de vice s available which I'm sure will be ade quate ly cove re d by the othe r de le gate whe n he discusse s chute de sign, howe ve r, the re is anothe r m e thod which avoids the ne e d of cle aning the be lt rathe r than providing a m e ans of doing the cle aning. This m e thod involve s twisting the be lt 180 de gre e s afte r the be lt passe s the discharge pulle y or inte rnal drive . Thus, the pulle y or cle an surface of the be lt is in contact with the re turn idle rs. A sim ilar twist m ust be m ade at the opposite e nd of the conve yor to bring the conve ying cove r up again at the tail pulle y. W hilst this m e thod is finding m ore and m ore use , it is re com m e nde d from a be lt standpoint that twisting be lim ite d to those case s whe re stick y m ate rial cannot be ade quate ly cle are d by m ore conve ntional m e thods. The twist incre ase s te nsion at the be lt e dge and re duce s ce nte r te nsion. This m al-distribution of te nsion can le ad to be lt buck ling and e ve n longitudinal fold-ove rs if the twist le ngth is inade quate and/or othe r fe ature s of the twist and its installations are not prope r. 2.3 CONVEYOR BELTING 2.3.1 General W hile a be lt conve ye r syste m is com pose d of m any im portant parts, none is m ore e conom ically im portant than the conve ye r be lt itse lf, which, in m ost case s will re pre se nt a substantial part of the initial cost. The re fore , the se le ction of the conve yor be lt m ust be m ade with gre at care . A conve yor be lt is sim ply a m e ans to an e nd - a m e ans far transporting m ate rial from a starting point A to a finishing point B. To pe rform the work of m oving m ate rial from A to B m e ans that the be lt de ve lops stre sse s within it. The se appe ar as longitudinal te nsion stre sse s, prim arily induce d by the drive pulle y; be nding stre sse s whe n the be lt passe s around the pulle ys; fle x ing stre sse s, cause d whe n the be lt passe s ove r the idle rs and inde te rm inate stre sse s, induce d by im pact of the load on the be lt surface .

2.3.2 Belt Carcass As the he art of the conve ye r syste m is the conve ye r be lt, so too is the carcass the he art of the latte r, which has to m e e t the stre sse s alre ady m e ntione d. W ithin re ce nt ye ars be lt m anufacture rs, have be e n able to supply the industry with be lts having characte ristics far supe rior to those form e rly available ; due to inte nsive re se arch and de ve lopm e nt both in m ate rials and in te chnique s of m anufacture . The se ne w be lts have highe r te nsile stre ngths and gre at fle x ibility and whe n prope rly installe d and m aintaine d have a m uch longe r se rvice life . At this point it m ay be appropriate to e x plain what a m ode rn day be lt carcass is m ade of. The old type m e thod of building-up a conve yor be lt from m ultiple laye rs of cotton duck . Som e tim e s as m any as e ight plie s, up to about 600 k N/M ultim ate te nsile stre ss has be e n supe rse de d in se ve ral ways :

1. The form e r range of te nsile stre ngth has be e n e x te nde d up to 2500k N/m by the use of se m i synthe tic and synthe tic fibre s.

2. The num be r of plie s which was form e rly a m inim um of 3 but ge ne rally 4 to 6 has be e n re duce d
to 2 with a te nsile stre ngth of 1000k N/m and e ve n to one ply be lts

3. The introduction of the te x tile - fre e ste e l cord be lt with te nsile stre ngths anywhe re from 500 to
6300k N/m . A varie ty of synthe tic or m an-m ade fibre is now he avily use d in conve yor be lts, whe re cotton once was pre dom inant. Historically four m ain groups of conve yor be lting m ate rials e x ist.

1. C otton (natural and se m i-synthe tic m ate rials)

R ayon

2. Nylon (polyam ide ) (100% synthe tic m ate rials)

Te rlye ne (polye ste r)

3. Mix ture of bond 2 4. Ste e l cords

Form e rly all fabrics ware wove n e ntire ly with cotton. The n for a pe riod, rayon be cam e quite popular due to its incre ase d te nsile stre ngth. Nylon was first use d only as transve rse fibre s in cotton or rayon fabrics. The n with the de ve lopm e nt of he at se tting proce sse s and spe cial we ave s of fabric to re duce be lt e longation in se rvice , nylon re ce ive d m uch gre ate r use as the longitudinal m e m be r. It has good re sistance to m oisture plus e x ce lle nt abuse and im pact re sistance , m ak ing it an outstanding

construction for all type s of se rvice . Polye ste r has m any of the sam e qualitie s as nylon with slightly be tte r m oisture re sistance and is be com ing incre asingly popular for applications whe re im pact is not of prim e im portance . O pe n m e sh fabric or space d cord plie s are som e tim e s use d as bre ak e rs unde r a be lt cove r, and this incre ase d adhe sion of cove r to carcass m ay he lp distribute im pact force s. The tre atm e nt give n synthe tic fabrics along with spe cial fabric we ave s has gre atly incre ase d be lt cove r adhe sions. Due to this, bre ak e rs are not use d as m uch as the y once we re . Groups 1 and 3 have falle n into disuse in this country, howe ve r, the y are still use d in som e countrie s whe re ce rtain prope rtie s are re quire d. The se cond group are the m ate rials which pre dom inate in South African m anufacture d be lting as the y are m ore suite d for the punishing conditions e x pe rie nce d in our m ining ope rations. Group four re pre se nts ste e l cord conve yor be lting m ade up from high te nsile wire , spun into rope s of

10m m diam e te r and m ore . The use of such be lting has grown e norm ously in South Africa since the m id 1970's. 2.3.2.1 Properties In the com parison of the various m ate rials we shall also include cotton as the only natural fibre , be cause this m ate rial is still be ing use d as re inforce m e nt for som e conve yor be lting and as an indication of the supe riority of m an-m ade fibre s. 2.3.2.2 Breaking Strength An im portant de sign param e te r is the bre ak ing stre ngth i.e . the force re quire d to bre ak the yarn. This force is e x pre sse d in Ne wton (1k g force = 9.81 Ne wtons). Since the total bre ak ing stre ngth is influe nce d by the yarn count, calculations are base d on the spe cific stre ngth or te nacity, which is e x pre sse d in m N/te x . For ste e lcords the re lative stre ngth is com m only e x pre sse d in N/m m An illustration of the re lative yarn stre ngths of 4 re inforcing m ate rials is shown in figure 1. The re lative stre ngth is e x pre sse d both in te nacity (m N/te x ) and te nsile stre ngth (N/m m ). 2.3.2.3 Elongation Elongation at bre ak (i.e . the pe rce ntage e longation at the m om e nt whe n the yarn bre ak s) is also a fre que ntly use d prope rty. The se value s are shown in figure 2. More im portant than e longation at bre ak is the e longation at lowe r loads or work ing e longation. W e could for e x am ple , ask ourse lve s : "W hat is the e longation of a conve yor be lt at a load of 10% of the nom inal stre ngth?". or "W hat load should (or can) be applie d to achie ve a ce rtain e longation?". The load at a ce rtain e longation is k nown as the m odulus. Use ful inform ation on this point is provide d by the load - e longation curve s, whe re by the bre ak ing stre ngth has be e n se t at 100 (se e figure 3). It should be re alise d that m odulus and e longation are de pe nde nt on the k ind of m ate rial, howe ve r, within e ach m ate rial it is possible by m e ans of proce ssing to vary the e longation, m odulus and shrink age . 2.3.2.4 Resistance to Rotting and Influence of Moisture Nylon and polye ste r, in contrast to cotton and rayon are fully re sistant to rotting and the influe nce of m oisture ; ste e l will corrode afte r a pe riod of tim e . A distinction should be m ade be twe e n brass-coate d or galvanise d ste e l. Brass coate d ste e l is affe cte d a lot soone r by m oisture . 2.3.2.5 Classification In accordance with S.A.B.S. 1173/77 the whole be lt bre ak ing stre ngth of conve yor be lts is e x pre sse d in k ilone wtons pe r m e tre . The m ax im um pe rm issible work ing te nsion be ing 10 pe rce nt of the C lass. The classification in le ngthwise dire ction is shown in figure 4. As an e x am ple whe n a be lt has a C lass of 500k N/m , it could be m ade out of 2 plie s of 250, 3 plie s of 160 or 4 plie s of 125. The be lts in the se case s would be de signate d C lass 500/2, 500/3 and 500/4 re spe ctive ly. The stre ngth in the we ft is le ss and varie s from 20 to 40 pe rce nt of the warp stre ngth.

So far we have discusse d the various carcass m ate rials which are available , now we will e x plore the num e rous constructions which are available in South Africa. 2.3.3 CA RCA SS CONSTRUCTIONS Most conve ye r be lt carcasse s are m ade of one or m ore plie s of wove n fabric. Som e high-te nsion carcasse s e m ploy a single laye r of paralle l ste e lcords. C onve yor be lt fabric is m ade of warp yarns which run le ngthwise , and we ft yarns or filling, which run transve rse ly. Four type s of we ave patte rns are com m only use d : plain we ave , straight - warp we ave , solid - wove n we ave and wove n - cord we ave . Plain W e ave . Most be lt carcasse s are form e d with a plain we ave ; that is, the warp and we ft yarns alte rnating across e ach othe r. Since the warp yarns are the te nsion or load carrying m e m be rs, the fabrics are de signe d with the dom inant stre ngth in this dire ction. This can be accom plishe d by using a gre ate r num be r of e nds pe r unit width of warp; by using large r, stronge r yarns in the warp; or, in som e instance s by using a com bination of both of the se te chnique s. Straight - W arp W e ave . In this we ave , the te nsion be aring warp yarns are e sse ntially straight with little or no crim p. Fill yarns are laid above and be low the warps, and the warps and the fills are he ld toge the r with binde r warp yarns. Solid-W ove n W e ave . This we ave consists of m ultiple laye rs of warp and fill yarns he ld tightly toge the r with binde r warp yarn. The m ajor type s of conve yor be lt carcasse s on the South African m ark e t are :-

a. O ne -ply type b. Two-ply type c. Multi-ply type d. ste e lcord type a. One-ply type
O ne -ply type be lts m ay be groupe d into Solid-W ove n and m ono-ply be lts. Solid-W ove n Be lt This is a carcass whe re 3 plie s are inte rwove n to form a single one . The ce nte r-ply m ade from high te nsile polyam ide or polye ste r, carrie s the te nsion load and is prote cte d by top and bottom plie s m ade from we ar- re sistant cotton, thus se rving in a way as prote ctive cove rs. It is usually im pre gnate d and cove re d with PVC with re lative ly thin top and bottom cove rs, ge ne rally le ss than lm m . Abrasion re sistance is provide d by the com bination of PVC and the top and bottom yarns of the fabric. Be ing fire -re sistant it ge ne rally se rve s for unde rground coal-m ining only Mono-Ply Be lt This is a straight warp we ave with te nsile stre ngth up to about 630 k N/m rubbe r cove re d only.

b. Two-Ply Type
For all-round conve yor applications. Te nsile ratings from 160 k N/m to 1000 k N/m and in widths up to 1800m m . The carcass is com pose d of two-plie s of plain-we ave fabric, e ithe r, of all - nylon or polye ste r - nylon construction (N.N. or E.P.) with an e x tra thick laye r of rubbe r be twe e n the m , thus providing prope rly e ngine e re d, highly e ffe ctive load support. The ne e d to spe cify e x tra plie s of carcass fabric, m e re ly to achie ve satisfactory load support and im pact re sistance , is e lim inate d. This be lt can be splice d to an e fficie ncy of 100 pe rce nt. (Se e figure 7).

c. Multi-Ply Type
The carcass of the m ulti-ply be lt is usually m ade up of thre e or m ore plie s of plain we ave N.N. or E.P. fabric which are bande d toge the r by a rubbe r com pound. Be lt stre ngth and load support characte ristics vary according to the num be r of plie s and the fabric

use d, but practical conside ration lim it the num be r of plie s to a m ax im um of six . Multi-ply and two-ply be lts have be e n standardise d by S.A.B.S. 1173 an the basis of classification according to the m inim um full thick ne ss bre ak ing stre ngth of the finishe d be lting in k ilone wtons pe r m e tre of width. Te nsile ratings are from 160 - 2500 k N/m and widths up to 2 m e tre s and m ore .

d. Steelcord Type
Ste e lcord type conve yor be lts are m ade with a single laye r of paralle l galvanise d ste e l cords, com ple te ly im be dde d in rubbe r as the te nsion e le m e nt. Ste e lcord be lting is produce d using a broad range of cable diam e te rs and spacings, de pe nding prim arily on the de sire d be lt stre ngth. This be lting is classifie d by its ST rating which is the m inim um bre ak ing stre ngth in k ilone wtons pe r m e tre of width. Te nsile ratings are from ST500 to ST6300 which is 2,5 tim e s that of the m ulti-ply fabric be lt. Howe ve r, not only can ste e l cords withstand m uch highe r te nsions than fabric plie s, but the actual de sign of the m ode rn-day, fabric-fre e , ste e lcord be lt give s a conside rably longe r life , e spe cially whe re he avy or sharp-e dge d m ate rial is to be conve ye d. As the one laye r of ste e l cords has, e ve n with high te nsions, lim ite d thick ne ss, the ste e lcord be lt allows for the provision of ve ry thick cove rs, up to 25m m in som e case s. Be cause of the all-rubbe r construction, this type of be lt is e m ine ntly suite d for de e p troughing idle rs, e ve n ve ry narrow be lts can be troughe d at 45 de gre e s. The ir gre at stre ngth and low e longation m e ans that the y can be ope rate d on long distance s with fe w transfe r points, with shorte r tak e -up lim its and can be pe rm ane ntly splice d to an e fficie ncy of 100 pe rce nt. (Se e figure 5). 2.3.4 Belt Covers Be lt cove rs m ay be thought of as prote ction for the be lt carcass. The cove rs m ust withstand the we ar, cutting and gouging of the m ate rial be ing conve ye d. The cove rs also m ay have to re sist he at, oil, or che m ical de te rioration. In a fe w case s, the se conditions m ay be so m ode rate that no prote ction and no be lt cove rs are re quire d. In othe rs, abrasion and cutting m ay be so se ve re that top cove rs as he avy as 20,0m m or m ore are re quire d. R ubbe r or rubbe r-lik e com pounds are use d for the top and bottom cove rs of conve yor be lting and for banding toge the r various com pone nts of the be lt carcass. The se com pounds are provide d by m ix ing rubbe rs or e lastom e rs with various che m icals in orde r to obtain re inforce m e nt and to de ve lop the physical prope rtie s ne ce ssary for se rvice conditions. By de finition, an e lastom e r is an e lastic, rubbe r-lik e substance . In the case of conve yor be lting, the te rm is e x te nde d to re fe r to all the the rm ose tting m ate rials which re quire de finite tim e s and

te m pe rature for cure , such as natural and synthe tic rubbe rs, as we ll as such the rm oplastic m ate rials as polyvinyl chloride plastic (P.V.G.) Many ye ars ago, a range of te nsile stre ngths and e longation was adopte d by the rubbe r industry for e stablishing the quality of the grade s of cove rs. At that tim e , only natural rubbe r was available ; thus, te nsile stre ngth and e longation we re the crite ria for e valuating rubbe r com pound quality. At the pre se nt tim e , howe ve r, the re is a wide choice of rubbe rs or e lastom e rs available , and e ach can be utilize d alone or ble nde d with othe rs to obtain a gre at num be r of com binations with inte rm e diate prope rtie s, particularly suitable for a wide varie ty of se rvice conditions. The range s of te nsile stre ngths and e longation spe cifie d pre viously are no longe r ne ce ssarily valid as m e asure s of the quality of the cove r and, spe cifically, of its abrasion re sistance . It is possible to classify cove rs by the basic e lastom e r use d, but e valuation of the quality of the cove r should be base d on its suitability for particular se rvice , rathe r than on the k ind of e lastom e r it contains. Each cove r has characte ristics which, whe n prope rly utilize d, will provide a conve yor be lt for the lowe st cost pe r unit of m ate rial carrie d unde r spe cifie d conditions of se rvice .

Be cause the prim ary function of the cove r is to prote ct the carcass, it m ust re sist the we aring affe cts of abrasion and gouging, which ve ry according to the type of m ate rial conve ye d. The top cove r will ge ne rally be gre ate r in thick ne ss than the bottom cove r, be cause the conce ntration of we ar is usually on the top, or carrying side . The optim um de sign would m e an that the cove rs would we ar out in norm al se rvice at the sam e tim e as the carcass. This the ore tical "total be lt", failure afte r long and use ful se rvice will se ldom be achie ve d, but the de signe r should se e k this goal. Since the carcass of a conve yor be lt will fail ve ry rapidly once the cove rs have worn away, a ve ry sm all pre m ium for upgrading quality or adding cove r gauge m ay be we ll re paid in te rm s of ove rall be lt life . Table s and sugge stions are provide d as guide line s for the de signe r, but e x pe rie nce d judge m e nt in this are a is the k e y. The final de cision on cove r gauge and quality m ust be te m pe re d by the de signe r's k nowle dge of the application, or sim ilar applications. 2.3.4.1 Top Cover Ide ally, it is de sirable to furnish a cove r quality and thick ne ss whe re se rvice life will m atch that of the carcass. Since the re are so m any possible variations of work ing conditions, such a se le ction is difficult and ofte n is achie ve d only afte r e x pe rie nce with various com binations of carcasse s and cove rs. C e rtainly, if e x pe rie nce with pre vious be lts is on re cord, it should not be ignore d. Loss of cove r by abrasion with carcass re lative ly intact would indicate that succe e ding be lts could profitably carry a he avie r or be tte r quality cove r. Se ve re cutting of the cove r without se rious abrasion loss would indicate a loading proble m that would be he lpe d by m ore cove r but probably could be handle d m ore

e conom ically by im prove d loading. Failure due to othe r cause s with cove r re lative ly intact would indicate e ithe r le ss cove r or im prove m e nt of the conditions producing failure . The obje ct of any loading paint is to introduce m ate rial to the be lt in such a m anne r that the le ast cove r we ar is e x pe rie nce d. Ide ally, m ate rial should approach the be lt at the sam e ve locity as the be lt is trave lling and paralle l to dire ction of be lt trave l. Also, the m ate rial should have as little ve rtical fall as possible . Practically, howe ve r, such re sults are rare ly obtaine d. Loading on an incline can incre ase cove r we ar rate sharply com pare d to le ve l loading. This is be cause of load turbule nce and slippage as the load se ttle s an the be lt and re ache s be lt spe e ds. In one particular case whe re re cords we re k e pt, a be lt loade d on a 14 de gre e slope had top cove r we ar roughly thre e tim e s gre ate r than the be lt , onto which it e m ptie d with le ve l loading. All the we ar that occurs on a be lt cove r is not cause d by the spe e d diffe re ntial be twe e n m ate rial be ing loade d and the be lt. This is e vide nce d by the fact that som e long be lts show as m uch cove r we ar as short be lts conve ying the sam e m ate rial as a part of the sam e be lt syste m . The only logical e x planation of such a re sult is that we ar also m ust be cause d by m ove m e nt of the load on the be lt as it passe s ove r the idle rs. Idle r spacing and be lt te nsion m ust be k e pt in prope r re lation, and ade quate transve rse stability of carcass m ust be provide d to try to hold this load-shifting we ar to as low a value as possible . Analysis of cove r we ar on worn be lts ge ne rally shows cove r we ar in proportion to load de pth; that is, top cove r we ar follows a patte rn sim ilar to the cross se ction of the load. The re have be e n a fe w rough rule s use d for pre dicting tonnage life of be lt cove rs handling ce rtain m ate rials, particularly bitum inous coal, whe re the re is a conside rable re cord of e x pe rie nce available . Howe ve r, the re are so m any variable s, e ve n within the handling of a single m ate rial, that any

worthwhile form ula for de te rm ining tonnage life is ne x t to im possible . Som e typical we ar rate s m e asure d an Grade 'M' cove rs are as follows in m illim e te rs pe r m illion tons :

C oal

: 0,25 to 0,050

O ve rburde n : 0.025 to 0.075 Aggre gate O re : 0,038 to 0,054 : 0,075 to 0,125

The se of course are ge ne ral figure s be cause of the m any variable s that affe ct the m . For e x am ple , m e asure m e nts on a coal fe e de r be lt showe d cove r we ar to be as m uch as 0,17m m pe r m illion tons, which probably is the e x tre m e high we ar rate for coal. 2.3.4.2 Bottom Cover The pulle y side or bottom cove r is ge ne rally lighte r in gauge than the carrying side or top cove r be cause of the diffe re nce in we ar re sistance ne e de d. The bottom cove r's prim ary function is to re sist be lt we ar against the troughing idle r rolls and pulle ys. A thick e r bottom cove r also he lps cushion a he avily loade d be lt ove r the troughing idle r rolls. Bottom cove r quality is alm ost always the sam e as that of the top cove r. R e com m e nde d bottom cove r gauge s are as follows :

1. Up to 750m m width

: 1,6m m

2. 750m m width and ove r

: 1,6 to 2,5

3. Ste e l cord be lts are de pe nde nt on cable diam e te r

If pre vious be lt history include s failure due to bottom cove r we ar, use the he avie r gauge lack ing be lt history, e x ce ssive m ate rial spillage an the re turn run or sub-standard m ainte nance also indicate s the use of he avie r gauge s. Howe ve r, e fforts should first be m ade to pre ve nt spillage and to im prove m ainte nance . Highly stre sse d be lts such as ste e l cord usually justify the e x tra prote ction of a he avy bottom cove r 2.3.4.3 Edge Cover High adhe sion le ve ls, and the fact that conve yor be lts constructe d with nylon or polye ste r carcasse s are unaffe cte d by m oisture , pre ve nts ply se paration at the e dge . This m e ans that it is no longe r ne ce ssary to spe cify e dge cove rs as was the case with the olde r cotton-duck type fabric be lts. 3.0 OPERA TING TENSIONS A ND FA CTOR OF SA FETY S.A.B.S. 1173 which cove rs ge ne ral purpose te x tile re inforce d be lting de fine s m ax im um work ing te nsion as the te nsion in k ilone wtons pe r m e tre e qual to 10 pe rce nt of the m inim um full thick ne ss bre ak ing stre ngth of the be lting. Howe ve r, the value of the safe ty factor will de pe nd an the conditions gove rning spe cific installations i.e . the m ax im um work ing te nsion of a C lass 1000 be lt will be

100k N/m . At pre se nt the re is not an S.A.B.S. standard available for ste e lcord be lting, howe ve r, the ge ne rally acce pte d factor of safe ty is 6,7 : 1. In orde r to use this factor it is norm al practice to se e k the approval of the be lt supplie r. As a guide , the following factors of safe ty m ay be use d :

Carcass Construction Operating tension Starting tension

Nylon/Nylon (N.N)

10 : 1

7,0 : 1

Polye ste r/Nylon (E.P.) 10 : 1

7,0 : 1

Ste e lcord (ST)

6,7

5,0 : 1

Adve rse e nvironm e ntal se rvice factors such as he at, acid, e tc. will m ost lik e ly le ad to an incre ase in the above factors of safe ty. 4.0 SPLICE LIMITA TIONS C onve yor be lts can be splice d e ndle ss by m e ans of m e tal faste ne rs or by vulcanising. The plate -type faste ne r has a pull-out stre ngth that is som e what le ss than the stre ngth of the be lt itse lf, howe ve r, individual be lt m anufacture rs should be consulte d in this re spe ct. Be lts of ste e l cord construction are m ade e ndle ss by vulcanise d splicing only. A calculate d dispe rsal of the cut e nds a nd ove rlappe d cable s in the splice are a m ak e s the stre ngth in the splice as gre at as the sum of the stre ngth of the individual cable s in the be lt. (Fig. 5) Fabric be lts can also be vulcanise d e ndle ss with a vulcanise d splice . W hile this m e thod doe s not provide a splice as strong as an undisturbe d be lt se ction, it is ve ry strong and is fre e of local stre sse s. In any one se ction of the splice , only one of the plie s will be discontinuous; he nce , the gre ate r the num be r of plie s, the gre ate r the te nsile e fficie ncy of the splice . Use of this type joint incre ase s the pe rm issible te nsion rating as com pare d to a faste ne d joint. (Fig. 6) For splicing of 2 ply be lts the "JUMP" type splice s as illustrate d in Fig. 9, is re com m e nde d as this type of joint provide s 100 pe rce nt e fficie ncy. 5.0 SA FETY DEVICES A ND REPA IR FA CILITIES W ith all the safe ty de vice s such as pull cords, be lt lim it switche s, chute plugging switche s, drive pulle y be lt slip switche s, m agne tic de te ction and m agne tic re m oval of tram p irons e tc., be lt conve ye r ope ration has be com e quite autom atic. A be lt conve ye r of se ve ral k ilom e te rs in le ngth m ay re quire only two or thre e m e n for ope ration or m ainte nance , Howe ve r, the re is one type of accide nt for which pre ve ntive e quipm e nt has long be e n ne ce ssary. If som e type of tram p iron, loose ne d ste e l sk irt, or loose ne d scrape r pe ne trate s through the be lt and

be com e s we dge d at a transfe r or loading point, a long le ngth of e x pe nsive be lt m ay be slit e ntire ly. This is be cause the we dge d m ate rial can follow and be guide d along be twe e n two cords in a ste e l cord be lt or be twe e n groups of warp (le ngthwise ) strands in a fabric ply be lt. Espe cially whe re long, e x pe nsive be lting is use d, som e type of rip de te ction de vice should be available for stopping the be lt if a rip ge ts starte d. R e ce ntly dom e stic as we ll as som e ove rse as be lting m anufacture rs have such de vice s and have had the m installe d for in fie ld se rvice . Spe cially traine d cre ws should be e m ploye d to carry out splicing and re pair ope rations. As in all othe r things the choice of vulcanise r and aux iliary e quipm e nt is of prim e im portance and such units should be che ck e d out re gularly to e nsure availability at short notice . Don't ove rlook the possibility of using "cold" vulcanisation in addition to or in com bination with "hot" or conve ntional vulcanisation in e ffe cting such re pairs. R e gular consultation with the be lting m anufacture rs will e nsure your be ing k e pt up to date with re spe ct to be tte r m e thods and m ate rials for this m ost im portant aspe ct of ope ration. Such re pair cre ws should always be e ngage d in a re gular sche dule of pre ve ntive m ainte nance , so that trouble if and whe n it doe s occur will be containe d within m anage able lim its. Finally, particular care should be tak e n with the storage of be lt re pair m ate rials, particularly in are as of difficult clim atic conditions, he re the instructions of the supplie r should be strictly adhe re d to. 6.0 CONCLUSION I have atte m pte d to cove r the broad fie ld of conve yor be lting with its pe culiaritie s, type s of m ate rials re quire d and history as brie fly as possible and this le ave s m e to close with a fe w words about the future . The future is ce rtainly not stagnant. Ne w fibre s have be e n de ve lope d, which are stronge r than ste e l and have alre ady be e n built into conve ye rs for fie ld e valuation. Ste e l wire , originally de signe d for the tyre industry, is be ing wove n into a m at for use in conve yor be lting. A priority e x ists in De ve lopm e nt and R e se arch C e ntre s to produce longe r we aring be lt cove rs, stronge r fabric carcasse s with m ore im pact re sistance . I can confide ntly pre dict the rubbe r industry will continue to m ak e , a m ajor contribution to the furthe r de ve lopm e nt of be lt conve yor syste m s.

Fig. 1 Relative Yarn Strength of 4 Materials

Fig. 2 Elongation at Break

Fig. 3 Stress Strain Curves of 4 Materials

Fig. 4 Belting Class and Fabric Strengths

Fig. 5 A rrangement of Steelcord Splices

Fig. 6 Stepped Multi-ply Splice - 3 Ply

Fig. 7 Stepped 'Jump' Type Splice - 2 Ply