Heavy Machinery Manual

NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL
UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND

SCIENCE
PREPARATION OF A MANUAL FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF

MAINTENANCE AND COSTS OF HEAVY MACHINERY IN
CIVIL CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES
PROJECT PRIOR TO OBTAINING THE ENGINEERING TITLE

MECHANIC
NEY XAVIER BURBANO CIFUENTES

supervisionwp@hotmail.com
EDISON JOSÉ SANDOVAL TAPIA

ejstphoenix@hotmail.com
DIRECTOR: ING. JAIME VARGAS

jaimevargas@epn.edu.ec
Quito, May 2008

CONTENT
NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL...............................................................................1
UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE...........................1
MAINTENANCE AND COSTS OF HEAVY MACHINERY IN CIVIL
CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES...................................................................................1
STATEMENT................................................................................................................12
CERTIFICATION..........................................................................................................13
THANKS........................................................................................................................14
DEDICATION...............................................................................................................15
SUMMARY...................................................................................................................16
PRESENTATION..........................................................................................................17
CHAPTER 1...................................................................................................................18
CIVIL CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY....................................................................18
1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAVY MACHINERY..........................................18
Figura 1.5 Motor grader...........................................................................................24
Figura 1.6 front push excavator...............................................................................26
Figura 1.7 Crawler backhoe.....................................................................................27
Figura 1.8 Backhoe on wheels.................................................................................29
Figure 1.15 Jaw crusher (single effect)......................................................................42
Figure 1.16 Jaw crusher (double effect).....................................................................43
Figure 1.23 Stem - Coupling and Spoons...................................................................61
Figura 1.24 Rod Probe.............................................................................................64
Figura 1.27 Cable Probe..........................................................................................66
Figura 1.28 Spoon Probe (Benoto)..........................................................................67
Figura 1.29 Small Well Excavation Tools...............................................................67
Figure 1.37 Hammer...................................................................................................68
Figure 1.38 Driving device.........................................................................................69
Figure 1.39 Piling With Mass (by hand and with a winch)........................................70
Figure 1.40 Single and Double Acting Steam Hammer.............................................71
Figure 1.43 Hydrohammer.........................................................................................73
Figure 1.44 Construction crane and Derrick crane.....................................................74
Figure 1.48 Discontinuous Asphalt Plant...................................................................87
Figure 1.51 Asphalt finisher.......................................................................................90
Figure 1.52 Vibratory Compactor Roller...................................................................92
Figure 1.54 Impact compactor....................................................................................94
Figure 1.70 Views of Draga de Rosario.....................................................................95
EPISODE 2....................................................................................................................96
MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT.............................................................................96
2.1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................96
2.2 DEFINITION OF MAINTENANCE..............................................................96
2.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF MAINTENANCE..................................................97
2.4 EVOLUTION OF MAINTENANCE..............................................................98
2.5 MAINTENANCE OBJECTIVES.................................................................108
2.7 INFLUENCE OF VEHICLE RENEWAL ON MAINTENANCE POLICY. 49
111
2.8 INTERRELATIONSHIP WITH AREAS COMPLEMENTARY TO
MAINTENANCE.....................................................................................................112
2.9 MAINTENANCE PLANNING OF A COMPANY.....................................114
2.10 STRATEGIC PLANNING............................................................................116
2.11 TACTICAL PLANNING.................................................................................122
Figure 2.2 Global Tactical Maintenance Planning Process......................................124
Table 2.5 Service Request........................................................................................140
Table 2.6 Planning and Programming......................................................................141
Table 2.7 Execution..................................................................................................141
2.11 OPERATIONAL PLANNING.........................................................................141
Criticality..................................................................................................................143
Maintainability..........................................................................................................143
High priority.............................................................................................................144
Medium priority........................................................................................................144
Low Priority..............................................................................................................144
CHAPTER 3.................................................................................................................146
COSTS.........................................................................................................................146
3.1 MACHINERY COSTS 54..............................................................................146
• Ownership or Possession Costs :.......................................................................146
• Operating costs:.................................................................................................146
• General Costs:...................................................................................................147
3.2 THEORY OF DEPRECIATION AND AMORTIZATION 55......................147
3.3 AVERAGE INVESTMENT, MONEY INTEREST, TAXES, INSURANCE 62
..................................................................................................................................159
2 .4 OPERATING EXPENSES...........................................................................164
Table 3.2 Coefficients for repair (working condition method)................................173
Table 3.3 Continued.................................................................................................178
Figura 3.1 Tire life estimators................................................................................181
Table 3.4 Continued.................................................................................................184
Table 3.14 Example of Replacement Theory...........................................................199
CHAPTER 4.................................................................................................................200
HEAVY MACHINERY CONTROLS.........................................................................200
4.1 FLEET MANAGEMENT.............................................................................200
Preventive maintenance is understood as:................................................................200
Corrective maintenance is understood as:................................................................200
Research of company needs.....................................................................................202
Determination of evaluation parameters...................................................................202
Organization chart....................................................................................................202
Reports......................................................................................................................202
Maintenance management........................................................................................202
Preventive Maintenance...........................................................................................203
Predictive Maintenance............................................................................................203
Controls over:...........................................................................................................203
Operations.................................................................................................................203
4.2 MAINTENANCE TOOLS............................................................................207
4.3 MAINTENANCE MANAGER.....................................................................210
4.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF A PROGRAM..........................................................216
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE...........................................................................216
Table 4.2 Bulldozer tractor maintenance chart.........................................................221
Table 4.3 Preventive Maintenance Monitoring........................................................223
4.5 PERIODIC INSPECTIONS OF HEAVY MACHINERY.................................223
Table 4.4 Caterpillar machinery inspection table.....................................................225
4.6 OIL ANALYSIS AS A MEASURE OF........................................................227
PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE.............................................................................227
Table 4.5 Oil change frequency criterion.................................................................228
5 changes are reduced in the year (regarding only the engine)................................232
VP-VO-30....................................................................................................................232
VP-VO-41....................................................................................................................233
4.7 CONTROL OF CONSUMPTION AND REPAIRS.....................................234
4.8 SPARE PARTS CLASSIFICATION............................................................234
4.9 FAULT ANALYSIS......................................................................................235
CHAPTER 5.................................................................................................................237
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......................................................237
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES.............................................................................239
CHAPTER 3 132
STATEMENT................................................................................................................12
CERTIFICATION..........................................................................................................13
THANKS........................................................................................................................14
DEDICATION...............................................................................................................15
SUMMARY...................................................................................................................16
PRESENTATION..........................................................................................................17
CHAPTER 1...................................................................................................................18
Figura 1.24 Rod Probe.............................................................................................64
Figure 1.37 Hammer...................................................................................................68
EPISODE 2....................................................................................................................96
2.1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................96
111
MAINTENANCE.....................................................................................................112
Table 2.7 Execution..................................................................................................141
Criticality..................................................................................................................143
High priority.............................................................................................................144
Medium priority........................................................................................................144
Low Priority..............................................................................................................144
CHAPTER 3.................................................................................................................146
COSTS.........................................................................................................................146
3.1 MACHINERY COSTS 54..............................................................................146
• Operating costs:.................................................................................................146
• General Costs:...................................................................................................147
..................................................................................................................................159
Table 3.3 Continued.................................................................................................178
Table 3.4 Continued.................................................................................................184
CHAPTER 4.................................................................................................................200
Reports......................................................................................................................202
Controls over:...........................................................................................................203
Operations.................................................................................................................203
VP-VO-30....................................................................................................................232
VP-VO-41....................................................................................................................233
4.9 FAULT ANALYSIS......................................................................................235
CHAPTER 5.................................................................................................................237
4.1.1.1
4.2 IMPLEMENTATION OF A MAINTENANCE PROGRAM
PREVENTIVE…………………………………………………… ……. 202
4.2.1 METHODOLOGY TO DETERMINE THE OPTIMAL FREQUENCY
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE………………………………………………202
4.2.2 PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SCHEDULING THE
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE …………………………………………...204
4.2.3 ACTIVITIES AND MAINTENANCE CYCLES...........………………...206
4.4.45 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE MONITORING AND MONITORING
208
4.5 PERIODIC INSPECTIONS OF HEAVY MACHINERY 209
4.5.1 ADVANTAGES OF VISUAL MAINTENANCE CONTROL............…..212
4.6 OIL ANALYSIS AS A MAINTENANCE MEASURE
PREDICTIVE……………………………………………………………..213
4.6.1 EXAMPLE OF MAINTENANCE APPLICATION
FLEET BASED ON OIL ANALYSIS (SEQUENCE OF THE
STATEMENT................................................................................................................12
CERTIFICATION..........................................................................................................13
THANKS........................................................................................................................14
DEDICATION...............................................................................................................15
SUMMARY...................................................................................................................16
PRESENTATION..........................................................................................................17
CHAPTER 1...................................................................................................................18
Figura 1.24 Rod Probe.............................................................................................64
Figure 1.37 Hammer...................................................................................................68
EPISODE 2....................................................................................................................96
2.1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................96
111
MAINTENANCE.....................................................................................................112
Table 2.7 Execution..................................................................................................141
Criticality..................................................................................................................143
High priority.............................................................................................................144
Medium priority........................................................................................................144
Low Priority..............................................................................................................144
CHAPTER 3.................................................................................................................146
COSTS.........................................................................................................................146
3.1 MACHINERY COSTS 54..............................................................................146
• Operating costs:.................................................................................................146
• General Costs:...................................................................................................147
..................................................................................................................................159
Table 3.3 Continued.................................................................................................178
Table 3.4 Continued.................................................................................................184
CHAPTER 4.................................................................................................................200
Reports......................................................................................................................202
Controls over:...........................................................................................................203
Operations.................................................................................................................203
VP-VO-30....................................................................................................................232
VP-VO-41....................................................................................................................233
4.9 FAULT ANALYSIS......................................................................................235
CHAPTER 5.................................................................................................................237
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STATEMENT
We, Ney Xavier Burbano Cifuentes, Edison José Sandoval Tapia, declare under
oath that the work described here is our authorship; who has not previously been
submitted for any degree or professional qualification; and, that we have consulted
the bibliographic references included in this document.
The National Polytechnic School may make use of the rights corresponding to this
work, as established by the Intellectual Property Law, its Regulations and current
institutional regulations.
Ney Xavier Burbano Cifuentes Edison José Sandoval Tapia

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CERTIFICATION
I certify that this work was developed by Ney Xavier Burbano Cifuentes and Edison
José Sandoval Tapia, under my supervision.
ING. JAIME VARGAS

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THANKS
To my dear Mother, Bertha Cifuentes for her care, to my

Father, Ney Burbano for the faith in me, to my brothers
for their love, to my family for their support, to my friends
for the moments shared, to my teachers for the acquired
knowledge.
Ney Burbano C.
After a long time of having studied at this glorious Faculty and having struggled
with many adversities, I want to thank God because I am convinced that I am in
this world because of his love. To my parents and siblings for always giving me
their support and understanding. To my family, for their words of encouragement.
To Daisy, Miriam, Mario, Paúl, Pablo, Andrés, Jimmy, Jorge and other
colleagues, for giving me their friendship and affection. To all the faculty
professors for the training received.
Edison Sandoval T.
Edison Sandoval
To Eng. Jaime Vargas, who as thesis director
T. has been our
unconditional contribution to this project.
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DEDICATION
With all my love to my beautiful daughter María José

and to my beloved wife Karla To my parents Ney and
Bertita To my brothers Jenny and Diego This is for all
of you.
Ney Burbano C.
To God who has guided me

To Fanny and Segundo, my parents, who are my strength
To Marcela and César, my brothers, who have supported me
To my grandparents Manuel, Victor and my niece Alejandra.
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SUMMARY
Mechanical Engineering is directly linked to civil constructions in some aspects;

One of the most important is the maintenance of heavy machinery, the Mechanical
Engineer is the professional called to develop adequate management of this
equipment for its optimal performance, in this way it will be possible to obtain the
greatest benefits in the use of these machines.
This research begins by studying the characteristics of heavy machinery that can
be found in the local environment, in civil construction companies, after this a
compilation of the types of maintenance that exist and their management is carried
out, subsequently the relevant aspects are addressed. To maintenance costs of
heavy machinery, finally the types of controls that must be carried out for the
correct development of the maintenance activity are studied.
This project will serve as a consultation tool for recently graduated professionals
who need to know aspects related to the maintenance of heavy machinery and its
administration. Having adequate knowledge of these topics will allow you to
achieve better performance in your activities.
Edison Sandoval
T.
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PRESENTATION
The following job is aimed at people who require knowledge about how to carry out
maintenance in companies that work with heavy machinery.
Among the tasks of mechanical engineers is that of handling the maintenance of

heavy machinery, the preparation received at the university does not partly cover
aspects related to these machines, and the engineer really has to learn to know
them on the fly, this leads to difficulties and problems in their work.
Improvement of their development can be achieved with information about it.
At the level of leadership and middle management, the engineer is in charge of the
administration of machinery maintenance, and must be trained to make decisions
regarding these machines. By knowing how they perform, you can be sure not to
make mistakes with the decisions you can make. take.
By investigating heavy machinery and its aspects, you will achieve: Management of
maintenance times, acceptable wear percentages, consumption, spare parts and
maintenance costs, etc. By knowing these topics, there will be improved work and
better development.
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CHAPTER 1.
CIVIL CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY
Hand in hand with the development of humanity, civil engineering works become
more advanced to meet the increasingly demanding needs of society. Mechanical
Engineering has been applied to create and develop more efficient and appropriate
machines that can allow this advancement. . The so-called heavy machinery is
used to carry out all types of work, from housing construction to projects that
challenge the genius of human beings such as underwater tunnels or bridges that
will unite continents. Thus, without the help of these equipment and technologies,
the projects that human beings consider could not be carried out.
1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAVY MACHINERY44
• Earthmoving machinery.
• Excavation machinery.
• Loading machinery.
• Machinery for hauling and transportation
• Aggregate treatment machinery.
• Drilling machinery.
• Drilling, pinning and driving machinery
44 VILLEGAS, LIBORIO; Machinery and construction course ET070

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• Lifting machinery
• Machinery for bituminous pavements.
• Compaction machinery.
• Specific machinery for ports.
1.1.1 EARTHMOVING MACHINERY
Among the machines that move earth there are the following:
1.1.1.1 Crawler Bulldozer Tractor
It is a crawler tractor that is used to mount bulldozers, rippers, winches, cranes,

cable layers and side booms. They are classified by the net engine power from 40
to more than 500 hp and by their maximum travel speeds from 8 to 11 km/h.
Tractors with diesel engines, torque converters and transmissions (gearboxes) of

the so-called low-power type, develop traction forces on the drawbar of up to 90%
or more of their weight with the equipment mounted. . 45
Bulldozer tractors can perform the following applications:
Excavation : Cutting in hard or frozen ground or digging trenches, very hard ground
can be opened thanks to the tilting or angled blade.
In case of even harder ground, a ripping accessory is used in order to obtain a

more effective result.
45 MARKS, LIONEL; Mechanical Engineer's Manual; McGraw Hill; volume 2, 1996; Mexico; P. 1029
3 .. . -_____... . .
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0
Uniformization: The irregularities of the terrain resulting from excavation can be

uniformized by means of a fine operation of the blade.
The basic method consists of fully applying the load of the blade against the soil
and sand with a machine at low speed.
A very flat finished surface can also be obtained by reversing the machine with the
blade floating, which drags across the surface.
Earthworks : A bulldozer excavates and transports the mud going forward. The
distance of each route should preferably be a maximum of 70 m. Excavation on a
slope should always be carried out in a downhill direction for the most effective
results.
Tree felling : A tree from 10 to 30 cm. in diameter, it can be knocked down by

giving it 2 or 3 blows with the blade raised from the ground, then turn back with the
machine and lower the blade and cut into the ground, breaking the roots and
pushing them forward while digging.46
46 KOMATSU; Komatsu Operation Manual

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1
Figure 1.1 Crawler Bulldozer Tractor
Source: Panamericana Construction Magazine March 1996 page. 25
1.1.1.2 Bulldozer tractor on wheels47
It is a wheeled tractor, it is the ideal machine for pushing work over long distances,
on soils made of loose materials without or with little rock, on flat or downhill
terrain. It has a speed three times greater than chain tractors and moves easily
within the construction site.
Their mobility, ability to maneuver and good speed make wheeled tractors
especially suitable for carrying out work involving the movement and accumulation
of materials as well as general cleaning. Its lower maintenance costs, compared to
track undercarriages, are clearly noticeable when working in highly abrasive soils.
47 CATERPILLAR; Caterpillar Latin America products brochure; 1998

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2
Typical applications include: pushing work (coal, loose soil, debris), scraper loading
and forestry tasks.
Figure 1.2 Wheeled Bulldozer Tractor
Source: Caterpillar Latin America products brochure 1998
1.1.1.3 forestry tractor48
If your job involves handling bulky materials that require the use of a robust
machine equipped with cables or grippers, chain or wheeled forestry tractors are
used.
Figure 1.3 Tracked forestry tractor
Source: Brochure The entire range of Cat, Caterpillar tractors and forestry tractors
Figure 1.4 Wheeled forestry tractor
48 CATERPILLAR; Brochure The entire range of Cat tractors and forestry tractors; Caterpillar
2
3
Source: Brochure The entire range of Cat, Caterpillar tractors and forestry tractors
1.1.1.4 Motor grader
The motor grader consists of a long main frame that supports the engine, blade,
axles and all control controls. Initially the chassis was not articulated, although
today all of the main machines are articulated.
The characteristic curved section blade is long and shallow to make it suitable for
the profiling work that is generally entrusted to it.
The blade can rotate 360° horizontally, it can be raised or lowered and tilted
vertically, as well as moved laterally, for long reach to the sides of the machine.
The blade is mounted on a crown that allows it to rotate horizontally, this crown in
turn can move on the drawbar and in its rear part by ball joints and connecting
rods.
Its work is on wheels and traction is confined to the rear axles; steering to the front
wheels and control can be mechanical, hydraulic or mixed.
2
4
Figura 1.5 Motor grader
Source: The authors (construction via Zamora Yanzatza)
1.1.2 EXCAVATION MACHINERY
It is a machine that can carry out excavation, leveling, spreading of material and
compaction with the bucket; On many occasions it serves as a crane in assemblies
of elements that must be at considerable heights and have heavy weights.
Within earth excavation machines, several types must be distinguished according

to the way of carrying out said operation, since with a basic structure the work
equipment can change according to the specific tasks to be carried out.
It is necessary to specify that here the word “excavate” has a precise meaning
since it involves making an effort to disintegrate a consolidated material.49
49 DIAZ DEL RIO, MANUEL; Construction Machinery Manual; McGraw Hill; 2001; Spain Page 449
2
5
This is not a loading job. Excavators can have various digging and loading tools
such as draglines, clamshells, backhoes and front-end excavators.
An important evolution has also taken place in the seventies, when the high-power
hydraulic mechanisms that gave rise to hydraulic excavators were developed.
Until then, excavators were simply fundamentally mechanical equipment. Currently,

hydraulic excavation equipment has an increasing presence on construction sites,
due to its great flexibility and undoubtedly competitive operating cost.
All machines have a common basic structure, which remains unchanged when
applying the different work equipment.
1.1.2.1 Push excavators
Also called an excavator shovel, it is a machine that performs the same basic
excavation functions as a simple hand shovel. They are these: drive the spoon, lift
the load, turn it and then pour the contents already in the turned position. 50 .
Front-load excavators mean high productivity and shorter cycle times in rock
loading and quarrying applications. On the loading front, it can withstand the
toughest jobs.
50 CATERPILLAR; Caterpillar Performance Manual; Edition 25; 1994; P. 4-117

2
Figura 1.6 front push excavator 6
Source: The entire range of Cat excavators. Caterpillar
1.1.2.2 Dragline excavators51
It consists of a bucket that is thrown attached to cables, collecting dirt inside when
charging these. Once the bucket has been loaded, it is hung in such a way that it
does not spill the earth, and can be kept suspended and rotated to deposit the load
in any other nearby position, within the reach of the boom.
1.1.2.3 Backhoes 52
The backhoes rest on the bottom of the pit being excavated and attack above that
level.
Small machines are used for leveling roads, excavating foundations and
basements, mining clay, digging ditches and trenches, etc. Large sizes are used in
quarries, mines, heavy construction, the largest ones separate the overlayer in the
exploitation of coal and minerals in open pits.
The uses of these machines can be divided into two groups:
51 DIAZ DEL RIO, MANUEL; Construction Machinery Manual; McGraw Hill; 2001; Spain
52P. 451
9
MARKS, LIONEL; Mechanical Engineer's Manual; McGraw Hill; volume 2, 1996; Mexico; P. 10-
40
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1) Loading, where strong machines with more or less short relative working range
are used to excavate material and load it for transportation;
2) Clearing, where a machine with a very long reach between excavation and
emptying is used, both to excavate the material and to transport it to the landfill.
Figura 1.7 Crawler backhoe
Source: Caterpillar Latin America Products
1.1.2.4 Clam spoon 10
It has a device that, by dropping it from an elevated position, collects the material
to be lifted between its valves, closing them with a
10
DIAZ DEL RIO, MANUEL; Construction Machinery Manual; McGraw Hill; 2001; Spain
P. 452
2
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cable system, which allows the lifting to proceed since then the material will not
spill.
1.1.2.5 Wheeled excavators 53
Wheel excavators combine the most important advantages of track excavators,

such as their 360º turning capacity, long reach, great digging depth, high maximum
loading height, digging force and lifting capacity, with the great mobility that They
provide them with their undercarriage on wheels.
Wheeled undercarriages allow you to work on paved streets, squares, parking

areas, etc., without damaging the pavement. Their mobility allows them to move
quickly and independently from one place to another, providing greater flexibility in
planning the work program.
Wheeled excavators are excellent material handlers, capable of loading or

unloading trucks with different types of buckets or being equipped with special
attachments such as cab lifts and dipper arms and material handling booms.
Equipped with optional auxiliary hydraulic circuits, they can work with a wide variety
of special implements, such as ditch cleaning buckets, buckets, bivalves, grapples
and hammers.
Optional stabilizers and/or dozer blades can be bolted to its undercarriage to

increase machine stability during lifting.
11
12
MARKS, LIONEL; Mechanical Engineer's Manual; McGraw Hill; volume 2, 1996; Mexico; P.
10-30
53DAEWOO; Daewoo 170 WV Excavators Commercial Brochure
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Figura 1.8 Backhoe on wheels
Source: Daewoo Hydraulic Excavator Solar 170 WV Commercial Brochure
1.1.3 LOADING MACHINERY
As their name indicates, these machines are used to load materials and are the
following:
1.1.3.1 Crawler loader 12
This machine has a front bucket that can be raised, dumped, lowered and tilted
with control, usually hydraulic.
3
0
exam There are special buckets for many uses such as shovels, bulldozer, clamshell
bucket or scraper.
3
Its SAE capacities are 0.7 to 5 yd . It is also available with grapples for logs and
logs. These loaders can perform the following applications:
Excavation of basements and foundations, swimming pools, ponds and trenches;

truck and hopper loading; placement, dissemination and compaction of soil on
garbage in landfills. It is also used to remove grass; removing slag from rolling
mills, driving and loading logs and logs.
Figure 1.9 Track loader
Source: Caterpillar products brochure
12
10-30
3
1
1.1.3.2 front tire loader54
This machine with pneumatic tires, four-wheel drive and front-mounted hydraulic
bucket. It is available in SAE capacities from 0.5 to 20 yd 3 (0.4 to 15 m 3 ) for materials
3 3
weighing 3000 lb/yd (1800 Kg/m ) and larger buckets are available for lighter
materials.
These machines can load material from one place to another, supply crushing plants,
asphalt plants, concrete plants, dump trucks, etc. Its main function is, as its name
indicates, “loading”.
This highly mobile equipment is used for handling and loading materials of all kinds on
firm surfaces.
Figure 1.10 Front wheel loader
Source: CASE 621B sales brochure

1.1.3.3 Mixed tire loader 14
It is a machine with four-wheel drive, with tires; It is usually of the articulated, hydraulic
type, with a front-mounted bucket, which can be raised, lowered, turned and tilted with
54 MARKS, LIONEL; Mechanical Engineer's Manual; McGraw Hill; volume 2, 1996; Mexico; P. 10-31
3
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hydraulic power.
Its working weight capacity can reach up to 150,000lb with engines of up to 700 hp
and its travel speed ranges from brake speed to around 20 mi/h for thrust and travel.
It is excellent for push loading self-propelled scrapers, grading cutting, spreading and
compacting fill, and breaking up loose materials and spreading them over firm or
sandy soil for distances up to 500 feet.
Figure 1.11 Mixed Tire Loader
Source: Caterpillar products brochure

Its useful tractive effort on hard ground is limited to about 60% of weight, compared to
90% for tracked machines.
1.1.4 MACHINERY FOR HAULING AND TRANSPORTATION
Within the transport elements it is necessary to distinguish two large groups:
• Loading and transport elements with the same machine.
18
P. 517
3
3
• Transport items only.
1.1.4.1 Trails 15
The machines that carry out loading and joint transportation receive the generic
English name of SCRAPERS and in Spanish they are known as traillas.
Its foundation is as follows: they are made up of a metal box that runs on wheels
(although in the past caterpillars were also used for movement), said box has a
transverse window at the bottom that hides a highly resistant sheet metal and its front
end is sharpened and finished with manganese steel blade; The scraper moves
autonomously or dragged by a tractor.
During the filling process, the plate that closes its bottom is lowered, leaving the sharp
part in contact with the ground; As the tractor advances, the earth cut by the blade
rises up the inclined plane formed by the sheet metal and fills the free volume of the
harrow box.
The volume of the trailer boxes is very varied and the common models range from 1 to
30 m 3 in capacity.
Figure 1.12 Trailla
Source: Commercial Manual CAT 621F,623F,627F Wheel Tractor Scrapers Page. 8
1.1.4.2 Transport items only 16

14
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4
The only transportation elements commonly called dump trucks are very heavy-duty
trucks, with diesel engines, with a rear-discharge dump box.
They are usually manufactured in capacities of 12 to 350 tons. The flush capacity of
the dump box, in cubic yards, is more or less 2/3 of the capacity in tonnage, they have
a low-power transmission with 10 gears or “speeds” and can reach up to 36 km/h with
gross vehicle weight of 172800 lb.
These vehicles can perform the following applications:
They are used in the transportation and unloading of materials such as sand and
aggregate material for asphalt in their buckets loaded with a mechanical shovel, as
well as feeding material for crushers, asphalt finishers, etc.
As an indication, road trucks can overcome slopes of 12 to 14 percent on dry and non-
slippery roads, while construction trucks can reach slopes of the order of 20 percent.
Likewise, the boxes of a construction truck and a road truck are different, from the
point of view of their robustness, given that the construction trucks have much more
consistent sheet metal, which reaches up to 25mm. Of thickness.
The headers transport the other machines from one place to another, such as loaders
and backhoes, when the distances are considerable for said machines; They can also
tow dump boxes or tanks of water, fuel, etc.
Small trucks and vans serve as transportation for the people who supervise the works.
They can also transport mechanical elements in repair, spare parts, supplies to the
warehouse or workshop, etc.
Figure 1.13 Construction Truck (Dumper)
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Source: 775D Quarry Dumper Commercial Brochure
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Figure 1.14 Head
Source: Actros Commercial Brochure, A new class of Mercedes Benz trucks
1.1.5 MACHINERY FOR AGGREGATE TREATMENT. 55
The volumes and yields achieved in the production of aggregates in any major, and
even medium-sized, work are so high that crushing must necessarily be mechanized.
Aggregate treatment equipment is made up of feeders, crushers (crushers) and

conveyor belts.
1.1.5.1 The feeders56
To regulate the performance of a crusher, there is nothing better than dosing its feed.
The type of feeding, logically, depends on the frequency with which the transport
elements that attend it are poured into the inlet hopper of the crusher.
Giving continuity to this feeding, in principle unregulated (or very difficult to regulate)
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and at the same time standardizing production over time is the purpose of the feeder.
The following can be mentioned as advantages of the feeders:
a) They prevent overloading of the crusher, admitting only the volumes for which it is
prepared with optimal performance.
b) They protect the rest of the installation by avoiding overloads on belts, screens,
etc.; These receive only a limited and predetermined volume, which does not damage
their mechanisms.
c) They guarantee sufficiently uniform production, alleviating irregular rhythms and

possible minor breakdowns during loading, blasting, etc.
The most used types of feeders are the following:
Reciprocating feeder, consisting of a tray with reciprocating movement, the material

arrives at one end and is poured out at the other, dropping only the quantity for which it
is calibrated. The feeding volume can be modified just by varying the travel of the
reciprocating movement. which is normally done using an eccentric.
The chain feeder is essentially made up of an endless chain on which plates are fixed.
As it advances, it collects the product at one end and pours it out the other. The
feeding speed depends on the speed of movement of the chain, which varies within
very wide limits.
All crusher types accept any of the feeder types listed.
1.1.5.2 Types of crushers and their basic application 19
There are many types of crushers, although due to the arrangement of their
mechanisms and the principles on which they are based, the following can be cited as
the most important and widespread:
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• of jaws;
• rotating and cone;
• of hammers;
• of rollers;
• ball mills.
The crushing or crushing of materials plays a very important role in the treatment and
production of raw materials of multiple types. In many techniques, crushing represents
the fundamental process from which subsequent treatment processes are carried out.
Examples of the normal use of crushing are the coal and mineral treatment industries,
grinding cement clinker and obtaining aggregates for concrete, for different purposes:
for roads, dams, ports, railways, etc.
In the treatment of solid rock materials, two types of crushing are fundamentally
distinguished: coarse or primary and fine or secondary; The first can be divided into
prior crushing and intermediate crushing.
In construction technology, fine crushing is frequently subdivided into two stages

(secondary and tertiary), as is the case in cement manufacturing.
The raw materials from the quarry or mine undergo a first crushing, which constitutes
prior crushing, until they reach sizes between 50 and 150 mm, depending on the case.
The intermediate crushing of the resulting product generally produces materials of

smaller sizes, close to 10 mm. Although it depends on the purpose for which they are
intended
Aggregates, in public works (if cement manufacturing is excluded) it is not normal to

continue with crushing processes to reduce the material to a powdery state.
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1.1.5.3 Machines for primary crushing 20
A prior clarification must be made. For practical purposes, what defines the capacity of
a crusher to act as primary are two parameters: the maximum dimension of the
product arriving from the quarry and the silica content of the stone to be treated.
Thus, for example, percussion crushers or hammer mills should not be used with rocks
with a high silica content, as the operating costs would be very high.
Another very widespread concept is that the aforementioned percussion and hammer
mills produce very regular (cubic) stone. This is not so. With the machines appropriate
to the type of rock, a production of very regular size can be obtained.
The most suitable machines for this type of work are large jaw crushers and larger
gyratory mills:
Percussion and hammer crushers are also used for intermediate sizes.
The flexibility that is necessary to have in choosing a machine can be understood if we

take into account that the productions achieved in large jaw crushers can reach up to
400 m3/hour.
Cone and centrifugal crushers can accept feed sizes that can reach up to 1.5 m,
resulting in materials ranging from 50 to 150 mm.
1.1.5.4 Machines for fine or secondary crushing57
As will be seen later, the most commonly used types are ball, cone, roller or hammer
mills (their production varies depending on the resistance of the material), as well as
cone crushers, with a crushing chamber of horizontal trend.
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1.1.5.5 jaw crushers58
They consist of a chamber, called "machaqueo", prismatic in shape; Its upper and
lower faces are open: through the first the material enters without crushing and
through the other it comes out already crushed.
Of the other four faces, three are fixed and the remaining one is mobile; This is
precisely called the "moving jaw" and the one in front of it is called the "fixed jaw."
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As the main parts in the single-acting crusher, in addition to the two jaws that have
already been mentioned, there is the eccentric, which makes the movement of the
mobile jaw oscillating, approaching and withdrawing in relation to the fixed jaw.
This movement allows not only the crushing itself, in its approach period, but also
favors the lowering of the material by gravity during the jaw separation phases.
The normal thing is that the eccentric is located in the upper part of the mobile jaw,
while in the lower part, which has a fixed point around which the jaw pivots, a piece is
located, called a knee pad, against which the tension spring compresses the mobile
jaw.
Any sudden compression of an excessively hard material causes the knee pad to
break, a piece that is inexpensive and easy to replace and prevents the breakage or
damage from affecting either of the two much more expensive jaws.
There is also a regulation cradle against which the knee pad is applied and on whose
position depends the opening of the lower end of the crushing chamber and, as a
consequence, the maximum size of the stone produced by the crusher.
The inclination of the mobile jaw can be played with to sufficiently reduce the vertical
axis of the ellipse traveled by a point of the mobile jaw, so that a compromise can be
reached between acceptable wear and operating cost of the machine.
On the other hand, the choice of the eccentric, the inclination and length of the
connecting rod, the location of the mouth give a wide range of variants.
The rotation of the shaft must be in such a direction that the jaw favors the descent of
the material, which improves performance.
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With this type of single-acting jaw crusher, due to the vertical component of the
movement of the mobile jaw, the possibility of crushing somewhat cohesive materials
is achieved, while its use is not recommended in the case of abrasive materials.
Figure 1.15 Jaw crusher (single effect).
Source: Commercial Brochure Nordberg C Series Jaw Crusher Metso Minerals

More complex, but with a more perfect design, is the double-acting jaw crusher, which
consists of a parallelepiped open on its upper and lower faces. Of the other four faces,
three are fixed and the fixed jaw is implanted in one of them; The other face is mobile
and consists of a flat jaw, although convex and grooved configurations are also
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adopted.
The mobile jaw is fixed to a jaw holder, articulated in its upper part on a tree that
oscillates between the side plates.
The movement of the shaft is achieved by a connecting rod articulated on a transverse

eccentric shaft, which forms an elbow with two articulated plates; the assembly by
means of a clamping spring.
At the ends of the eccentric shaft there are two inertia flywheels; one of them is used
to receive the driving energy through trapezoidal or flat belts.
The mobile jaw runs through a circular sector; Variations in the opening of the lower
part determine the granulometry of the crushed product.
Figure 1.16 Jaw crusher (double effect).
Source: Manuel Diaz del Río Construction Machinery Manual. McGraw Hill, 2001 page523
The transmission of movement to the lower part of the mobile jaw is carried out, in
many cases, directly, without the presence of articulated plates,
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supplying the insurance effect of these by elastic couplings mounted between the
flywheel and the eccentric shaft.
Since in these crushers the movement of the mobile jaw has practically no vertical
component, its wear is relatively low.
The jaws of crushers of this type often have a series of grooves whose cross section
resembles a saw. There can be multiple variants of this type of saw section, depending
on whether the grooves and ridges are more or less pronounced.
Steering wheel rotation speeds range between 230 and 300 rpm. and the hourly
energy consumption is 0.7-0.8 CV/t. They are designed for crushing materials as long
as the silica content of 50% is not exceeded, or breaking loads of 3,000 kg/cm 2 ; They
have an admission capacity of 2,500 mm and outputs of 1,000 t/hour.
Jaw crushers are classified by the opening of their feeding hole (rectangular), normally
expressed in centimeters; Thus, the following sizes are common: 20x50, 25x60,
25x90, 38x60, 40x90,65x100.
1.1.5.6 Gyratory crushers 23
More rational in design than those with jaws, the rotating ones have the peculiarity that
the moving parts have a circular movement. Now, these moving parts can be the tree
or axis that is generally suspended in the upper part and whose lower part has a
circular path; If the axis is kept fixed, the turning movement is carried out by the
concaves (a much less frequent case).
"Concave" is understood as the truncated conical pieces with which the casing is lined
inside, against which, in its descent, the rocky material breaks due to strong
compression, as the available space is progressively reduced. The concave
corresponding to the axis has its larger base downwards and corresponds to the
smaller base of the concave fixed in the outer casing.
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Logically, the concaves, which are the parts that wear out over time, are replaced with
some ease.
The concaves have a shape similar to the casing that serves as their support and can
be fixed to it by keyways or a metal cast (zinc) in the space between them and the
casing. This system is the most used in cases of gyratory crushers of a certain
importance. Modern gyratory crushers have a crushing chamber of decreasing volume
that actually includes a pre-crushing chamber and an immediately lower final crushing
area.
The rotation speed ranges between 300 and 700 rpm and energy consumption is 3 to
5 CV /h per m 3 of production.
A variant of the gyratory crushers is the cone mill or crusher, used with soft stones and
also used as a secondary crusher given its ease of producing fines, due to the strong
conicity of the crushing head and the concave chamber, much larger than in the pure
rotating ones.
The movable jaw is a cone with a pronounced obtuse angle, which is driven by an
eccentric shaft. The fixed mandibular of conical or truncated conical shape is mounted
on the frame, regulating the opening with it.
To indicate the size of cone crushers, the diameter of the feed mouth is used, normally
expressed in meters. The following are normal: 0.50m, 0.60m, 0.90m, 1.30m, 1.65m.
There are also mills whose mobile jaw is of the spherical type. In the crushing chamber
of this type of device, a self-grinding phenomenon occurs due, fundamentally, to the
small inclination of said chamber, which is beneficial to obtain large reductions in the
material.
Although the primary and secondary gyratory crushers apparently have the same
shape, the working chambers of the primary crushers are cones with a smaller angle
at the vertex, while the working chamber of the secondary gyratory crushers is much
more inclined to achieve a greater reduction. size of the material provided, already of
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sufficiently small size; This allows the material to be crushed to remain in said
chamber for longer.
Hourly energy consumption is 0.4 to 0.5 HP/t. Gyratory crushers accept radially
between 400 and 800 mm a reduction ratio of 1:4 to 1:5, while cone mills accept
maximum sizes of 400 mm. and reduction ratios from 1:4 to 1:7.
Figure 1.17 Cone Crusher
Source: Commercial Brochure Nordberg HP Series Cone Mills Metso MInerals

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1.1.5.7 Impact and percussion (or hammer) crushers 24
Specifically, impact crushers accept a stone size between 500 and 3,000 mm, with a
reduction ratio of 1:8 to 1:12; In most cases it is used as a series (or secondary)
complement to cone or jaw crushers.
They consist of a very robust metal casing, which has two openings: an upper one,
where the product to be crushed is poured, and a lower one, for the outlet of the
crushed material.
A rotor that rotates at high speed is equipped with throwing bars at its generators that
project the material against the breaking plates of semi-hard material. The hourly
energy consumption is 1.4 CV/t. They are manufactured for hourly productions of
1,000 t and more.
Inside the casing of percussion crushers there are one or two multiple hammers (it is
rare that three are available) that rotate at high speeds (1000 to 1,500 revolutions per
minute). When the stone enters and falls on the hammers, it is thrown against the
casing that surrounds them, breaking the stone due to the impact.
The crushing limit occurs when the stone is so reduced in size that it can pass
between the hammers, or between them and the casing, without being propelled
again. They are built with a rotor diameter of 300 to 2500 mm.
The performance of hammer crushers is higher than that of jaw and rotary crushers,
but they have the limitation of only accepting small stone; They are very sensitive to
the type of rock stratification which can produce irregular sizes not suitable for certain
applications.
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1.1.5.8 cylinder crushers
They consist of two or three cylinders with parallel axes that rotate very close together
24
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The cylinders drag the material that falls on them towards their closest generators; The
size of the stone obtained depends on the separation between them.
Normally, roller crushers have a similar limitation to hammer crushers, as they accept
small material with high performance.
The cylinders have replaceable liners that can be replaced. There are several types of
sleeves and their profiles depend on the type of rock chosen and the granulometry
desired in the operation.
It is common to find roller mills in series taking advantage, for example of three rollers,
one of them as an intermediary, which crushes the input rock on part of its surface and
the previously reduced product on another part of its surface.
It should not be fed with sizes larger than 1/20 of the cylinder diameter. Its use is
limited to materials with less than 15 percent silica, or 2,000 kg/cm2 of compressive
strength.
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1.1.5.9 Ball Mills 26 9
When the aim is to obtain very small aggregates, ball mills are used, which consist of a
rotating drum into which the material to be crushed and a large number of steel balls
are introduced. When the set of balls and the stone rotate, they suffer reciprocal blows
that pulverize it, resulting in crushed products of great fineness.
Figure 1.18 Ball mill
Source: Manuel Diaz del Río Construction Machinery Manual. Mc Graw Hill, 2001 Page. 528
1.1.5.10 Barmac 27 impact crushers
The Barmac (tertiary) rock-on-rock crusher constitutes one of the newest crushing
technologies available in the aggregate treatment industry.
Consisting of a centralized feed inlet, a plate controls the flow of material into the rotor
by selecting the appropriate opening size. The excess material, unable to pass through
the rotor, is transported as a waterfall.
The crushing chamber, in which the rotor and cascade material are combined.
The rotor accelerates the material continuously towards the crushing chamber, the
particle exit speeds vary from 50 to 105 m/s.
A constant curtain of suspended particles circulates through the crushing chamber.

The particles pass for 5-20 seconds before they lose their energy and rush out of the
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ALLIS MINERAL SYSTEMS; Britagem Faco Manual; P. 3.16
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chamber 0
Figure 1.19 Barmac
Source: Nordberg Barmac VSI SeriesB Crusher Commercial Brochure metso minerals
1.1.5.11 Aggregate conveying elements 28
As a complementary element for the extraction, use and classification of aggregates is

the conveyor, which fulfills the specific function of moving the materials between two
points of different or equal height.
In general, the conveyor elements do not have a greater range than that necessary to
communicate the fundamental parts of a crushing installation, which, as is known, are:
crusher, screens and silos, or the place
production and employment. Among the elements for transporting aggregates are the
following:
1.1.5.11.1 Conveyor belts
There are various circumstances that require continuous conveyor belt transport; In
general, it is necessary to previously specify the type of material and the transport
O.
capacity, as well as to avoid exceeding slopes greater than 15 Conveyor belts, in
most cases, are used when the materials to be transported are granular and non-
cohesive; Significant lengths can be achieved under exceptional conditions.
The advantages of belt transportation include: the low maintenance cost and the
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possibility of unloading at any point along its path, as well as the ability
subsequently adapt the facilities to other works or conditions.
The lengths obtained with tapes exceed 10 km in certain industrial facilities, and there
are even earthen dams built with materials brought from more than 15 km. In normal
public works installations, each tape rarely exceeds 100 m in length.
The conveyor belt is made up of the following elements:
• Tape support structure (generally metallic).

• Motor cylinder, generally placed at the top of the belt (when it is not horizontal)
so that the loaded side of the belt is traction.
• Return and tensioning head or drum.
• Upper belt support rollers.
• Bottom rollers.
• Plastic material band with widths ranging between 40 and 100 cm.
Due to the layout conditions, the tapes can be horizontal or inclined; The inclination of
the latter is limited for reasons of adhesion, although it is normal for belts or drive belts
with blocks or ridges to prevent the material from slipping.
Regarding the motor and tensioning heads, it should be added that they are normally
made of sheet steel and that they may, in some cases, have special roughness, to
facilitate starting with a loaded belt and avoid skidding efforts that could destroy the
belts due to heating.
The upper rollers can be arranged in different shapes, such as: single roller, double
roller, topical roller, catenary roller, etc.; while return ones are generally smooth and
unique.
The support structures are metallic, normally and made of laminated profiles, or full
core in those with small spans.
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The weak point of continuous belt conveyors is precisely the tread, which can2have
thicknesses between 7 and 3 mm on its outer face and between 3 and 1.5 mm on its
inner face. The belt, whose cost can represent more than 50 percent of the total belt,
must be well sized and its textile reinforcement must be adequate for the work
required.
1.1.5.11.2 bucket elevators
They can be of covered or uncovered construction, depending on the material to be

lifted and the environmental conditions, such as wind, rain, etc., that may damage the
load.
Although bucket elevators are normally vertical, they can be arranged on inclined
planes.
A primary element of this type of transport is the unloading system, which can be
gravity or centrifugal, depending on the case.
Translation speeds normally range between 1 and 4 m/s, reaching widths of 1 m. Its
3
elevation is rarely higher than 50 m. and its capacity does not exceed 400 m /h.
There is a wide range of buckets, which vary depending on the materials being
transported.
1.1.5.11.3 redler conveyors
For continuous transport, endless chains inserted in closed boxes are frequently used,
moving masses of dusty but non-cohesive material in their movement.
The chain slides on the bottom or on suitable rails and the dragging of the material is
facilitated by the presence of transverse bars fixed to the chain.
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Although this type of device is only used in factories and industrial facilities of a certain
category, due to the heavy investment it represents, it is interesting to mention them
here due to the little space they occupy and the material impossibility of losing the
transported product. circulates in closed spaces.
Its great flexibility regarding entry and exit points of the material is extraordinary.
Normally, no more than 800 t/s are transported at speeds less than 2 m/s. The box
sections range between 100 x 700 and 800 x 2,000 mm; Its total length is generally
less than 200 m.
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1.1.5.11.4 Archimedes screw. 4
For the transport of very fine aggregates, the Archimedes screw can be used, which
consists of an endless screw enclosed in a cylinder or box with a rectangular section
that surrounds it at a short distance from its external helix.
Although Archimedes' thyme is frequently used to simultaneously transport with the
washing of an aggregate using a stream of water, it can also be used as a simple
transport element.
1.1.5.12 Aggregate classification equipment 29
Aggregates are rarely found in nature in the most convenient proportions for the
purpose for which they are intended.
Among the main applications of classified aggregate the following can be mentioned:
• Aggregate for high resistance concrete.
• Bases and subbases for road grading
• Ballast of railway superstructures.
It can be easily understood that in most of the problems of separating aggregates in

graded sizes, the solution consists of passing the mass of aggregates, successively,
through metal meshes or perforated sheets.
As a general rule, perforated sheets are arranged according to circles of the same
diameter, while wire mesh is arranged according to square holes; It is advisable to
take these details into account when choosing the type of mesh, in order to allow a
certain size to pass through, since stones the size of its diagonal can pass through a
square hole.
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Except in those cases in which there is adhesion between two types of aggregates, the
basic screening element is solely and exclusively perforated sheet metal or wire mesh.
There have been many types of screens used, although today the following are really
applicable:
1.1.5.12.1 Fixed manual type:
This type does not need further explanation, as it is essentially a wooden frame with a
O
metal mesh inside. The frame is arranged with an inclination of approximately 50 and
when thrown against it the granular materials are separated into two sizes: the smaller
one, which passes through the mesh and the larger one, which remains at the foot of
the screen.
1.1.5.12.2 Type of tray with eccentric masses.
It fundamentally consists of one or two screening planes fixed to frames, to which

eccentric rotating masses have been attached that, in a certain position, compensate
for their accelerations, while in other positions they produce components in different
directions, causing accelerations of the material and causing the fall. of them through
the holes of the screen, when their size is smaller than these; When its size is larger,
the material slides along the meshes or perforated sheet.
To encourage this sliding or advancement of the material, the screening planes are
arranged with a certain inclination. The vibration speed is usually less than 1000
oscillations/minute.
Figure 1.20 Vibrating Screen or Screen

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Source: CBS Metso Minerals Screening Brochure
1.1.5.12.3 Tray type with electromagnetic drive:
The system is similar to the previous one, although the fall of the material is not
caused by a mechanical procedure. The system most in use takes advantage of the
coupling or breaking of circuits of powerful electromagnets that transmit a strong shock
to the material to be screened.
1.1.5.12.4 Rotary cylindrical type:
When the screening system was mechanized at the beginning of the century, this type
was the first used. The screening obtained is very coarse and of poor precision, below
2 mm. It essentially consists of a large drum made of perforated sheet metal or metal
mesh fixed on a rigid cylindrical frame.
This drum has an inclination and rotates at a low speed.
5
1.1.5.13 Complete aggregate treatment facilities 59 7
Although they can be very complex depending on the types of aggregates obtained, an
elementary one is mentioned, consisting of a feeder, crusher, screen and conveyor
belts, in an arrangement that can be closed or open circuit.
Figure 1.21 Complete Crushing Plant
Source: The authors (Photo of equipment working in Calderón Guayllabamba)
1.1.5.12.5 DRILLING MACHINERY60
They are machines that are used to drill hard ground, either to later introduce an
explosive charge or to make tunnels or channels. There are four most used heavy rock
drilling systems and they are the following:
• Percussion drilling
• Simultaneous rotation drilling and crushing (by tricone)
• Rotary and cutting drilling
• Drilling by abrasive rotation and cutting (probes with coring).
59DIAZ DEL RIO, MANUEL; Construction Machinery Manual; McGraw Hill; 2001; Spain
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1.1.6.1 Percussion drilling 8
It is the most used in public works and consists of a vehicle that is generally tracked
and a drill or hammer that can have an extendable arm, which is the ideal solution for
difficult terrain where greater capacity and maneuverability are required. They are
called Track Drill.
Figure 1.22 Track Drill
Source: The authors (Photo taken during the construction of the Zamora-Yanzatza highway)
1.1.6.2 Rotary drilling and simultaneous crushing
It is an increasingly developed method. Initially it was used in the drilling of oil wells
and has been adapted almost exclusively in public works for blasting large open pit
quarries and hard rocks. They are recommended for rocks with a breaking load of up
to 5000 Kg/cm2. The energy is transmitted by the drilling head, which receives it
through the different steel bars. The tricone of the head, in its impact and rotation
against the rock, crushes it.
1.1.6.3 Rotary and cutting drilling

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It has been used up to the present in soft rocks up to a breaking load of 15,000
Kg/cm2. The energy is transmitted through steel tubes, at the end of which hard metal
plates exert pressure on the rock, which detaches or fragments. They are little used in
public works.
1.1.6.4 Abrasive rotation drilling and cutting
It has normally been used when it is desired to obtain a core of the drilled rock, which
requires the use of hollow tools. In this drilling, the core is obtained either in the form of
pulverized rock or by billing the column of rock that is drilled.
There are devices to prevent the loss of the drilled material, such as straps, retaining
balls, etc.
1.1.7 POLLING MACHINES 32
On many occasions it is necessary to know the geomechanical characteristics of the

land where any type of construction is going to be located. This reconnaissance of the
terrain can be done in two ways: either with drilling of the successive strata for real
knowledge of their characteristics, or without the need for drilling and using systems
based on electrical conductivity or shock waves through the same terrain. This last
system will not be treated in this project, since it belongs to another perfectly defined
technique.
Terrain recognition equipment or survey equipment can be of two types: manual and
mechanical, depending on where the energy that drives them comes from.
It will not be included in the survey carried out by hand using a mine bar or with Palissy
type probes, given their low performance and their operating cost, which makes them
practically prohibitive, except for very superficial surveys.
The reconnaissance of the terrain, in many cases, requires not only the drilling of a
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drill, but also, frequently, the casing of the same to prevent the crumbling of the
particles. The penetration of the tube is carried out by hitting its upper part with a
hammer, or by hydraulic pressure exerted by a jack.
Mechanical drilling equipment is generally composed of two basic constituent

elements: the motor mechanism and the drilling tool.
The motor mechanisms depend, naturally, on the available energy source and can be
powered by a diesel, electric, gasoline engine, etc., depending on the case.
As regards the drilling tool, two fundamental parts must be distinguished: the head of
the tool itself, or element that is in contact with the ground being drilled at all times and
the bar that transmits the actions of the element. engine at the head.
The drilling head is generally with a cutting edge and is called a trepan; There are
different models depending on the type of rock, bowling, etc.
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Likewise, at the end of the stem there are various devices for collecting debris, or
spoons that allow its evacuation.
Figure 1.23 Stem - Coupling and Spoons
Source: Manuel Diaz del Río Construction Machinery Manual. Mc Graw Hill, 2001 Page 378
There are two fundamental types of drilling machines according to the characteristics
of their execution, percussion equipment and rotation equipment.
Percussion equipment, as its name indicates, produces drilling by means of a repeated

blow and, in general, does not allow the extraction of complete cores of the material
drilled.
Rotating equipment has the advantage that its advance disturbs less the physical
characteristics of the terrain to be crossed and allows, in most cases, the extraction of
a core that perfectly identifies the strata crossed.
Certain light excavators and tractors have supports for drilling equipment that offer,
compared to ordinary drilling equipment, such as the trestle and drilling cap, the
advantage that the entire installation is easily moveable on construction sites.
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The ability to rotate the davit or support, or any other ad hoc device facilitates the
progress of the drilling work. These advantages can only be truly appreciated in works
where a large number of drillings have to be made.
With voluminous drilling jobs of the same type, careful planning is necessary in certain
works, which if carried out correctly means considerable savings.
Drilling work in construction can basically be grouped into three categories:
1. Research drilling, the objective of which is to examine the subsoil geologically and
hydrogeologically, as well as to carry out test work.
2. Perforations that can be expanded later.
a) Small diameter holes for mounting anchors
b) Large diameter drilling with or without casing, such as piles and drainage wells.
3. Drilling for auxiliary construction measures.
a) Small diameter drilling for bonding and freeze excavation work.
b) Large diameter drilling for the use of supports and pillars in construction, or for
support in the manufacture of walls or anchored walls.
It remains to be added that in all types of ground drilling the eventual presence of
water must be taken into account, which frequently imposes specific techniques on the
drilling itself.
1.1.7.1 Percussion drilling equipment
In general, percussion drilling equipment has a limitation in the depth that can be
reached with them, due to the strong friction on the walls of the drill.
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There are several types of percussion drilling equipment, which we are going to list:
• Ordinary rotary hammer.

• Rod probes.
• Rocker probes.
• Oscillating cable probes.
• Clam spoon probes.
The rotary hammer allows you to comfortably reach depths of up to 5 m in any

direction of the ground, whether vertical, horizontal or inclined. Its drilling speed is
relatively high, but the cost of the necessary drill bits makes it generally prohibitive to
attempt drilling deeper than 5m.
Rod probes constitute an important mechanical element for drilling work. With it you
can easily reach depths of up to 150 m, in relatively fast conditions if the rock to be
drilled is not excessively hard.
The bar, which is generally screwed, must be extended as the drilling is carried out.
The lifting of the drilling tool is carried out either by hand or by means of a winch and is
subsequently dropped, producing the required drilling; the cycle is to repeat itself
continuously.
Hole diameters range between 0.3 and 0.4 m for medium depths.
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Figura 1.24 Rod Probe
Source: Manuel Diaz del Río Construction Machinery Manual. McGraw Hill, 2001; Page 380
When the depth is high and to avoid damaging the rod, the movement of the drill bit is
isolated from the rest of the probe stem using ratchets or similar devices.
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Figura 1.25 Ratcheting device for drilling
The rocker probe is based on the alternative up and down movement produced in the
cable that supports the drilling tool when it is activated by a motor, through a
connecting rod and crank mechanism.
In rocker probes and to give more speed to drilling, it is customary to ballast the stems
or bars on which the drilling tool is mounted.
Figura 1.26 Rocker Probe
The depths obtained can be important, as percussive reciprocating motion is rarely

less than 60 joules/minute; For the depths normally used in public works, an average
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speed between 30 and 60 m / day can be expected.
The cable or American probes are similar to the rocker probes, but in the former the
alternative up and down movement is produced simply by collecting and releasing the
cable.
Drilling depths achieved using cable probes rarely exceed 200 m; Steel cables with
diameters of no less than 18 mm are normally used. To increase the impact, the stem
is ballasted, until reaching total loads of about 1t.
Figura 1.27 Cable Probe
Source: Manuel Diaz del Río Construction Machinery Manual. Mc Graw Hill, 2001 page 381
Clam spoon probes are based on a spoon-shaped device with cutting and retractable
edges that, after being stuck into the ground by their own weight, can collect between
their edges, when closed, soft material that they subsequently raise to the surface
using a cable system.
In general, in these types of large diameter drilling, with a spoon, the hole is piped to
prevent it from collapsing, due to its frequent softness.
These casing devices are introduced into the hole produced using special
reciprocating or oscillating machines.
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Sometimes bentonite muds are used to maintain the cohesion of the ground
throughout the drilling time.
This type of machines or very similar ones are used for the construction of foundation
piles.
Figura 1.28 Spoon Probe (Benoto)
Figura 1.29 Small Well Excavation Tools
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1.1.8 NAIL AND DRIVING MACHINES61
To obtain a good foundation in deep soils, in many cases it is necessary to drive piles
or drive sheet piles, which is carried out by procedures known since ancient times and
which have now been mechanized.
For the removal or removal of sheet piles and piles, the same machines used in the
nailing are also used.
The device commonly used for nailing or driving is the pile driver, a mechanical
element that has a vertical (or inclined) plane on which the pile or sheet pile is held or
fixed and the element to be driven slides. These pile drivers can be supported by
excavator booms or guides that are equipped with hanging sliders that offer the same
result in practice as if it were a fixed and independent pile driver.
Figure 1.37 Hammer
Manuel Diaz del Río Construction Machinery Manual. Mc Graw Hill, 2001 page 386
61 Manuel Diaz del Río Construction Machinery Manual. Mc Graw Hill, 2001 page 386
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Figure 1.38 Driving device
The driving element, itself, does not hit directly on the piece to be driven, since in
many cases it will destroy it with the frequent blow. The head of the piece to be driven
is protected by means of caps or sleeves or cast pieces; In many cases they have a
wooden upper part to receive the first impact, thus protecting the structure of the piece
that is driven.
1.1.8.1 Hammer with a mace
The most basic driving system is a hammer that, in general, does not exceed 500 kg.
of weight and that in small works it is raised by hand to a height that almost never
exceeds one meter; produces 4 or 5 blows per minute.
When the mace is powered by winches, its weight reaches 2.51 and the heights range
between 2.5 and 4 m; 20 to 35 blows per minute are thus produced. It is normal that,
as with drilling devices, there is an automatic ratchet that releases the hammer when
reaching the required height.
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Figure 1.39 Piling With Mass (by hand and with a winch)
1.1.8.2 steam hammer
For many years the steam hammer has been used as the only driving element at great
depths, obtaining interesting results.
The steam hammer can be single or double acting, depending on whether it is used to
drive the piece through the hammer's own weight, or through the joint action of the
hammer and the steam.
It is very common in single-acting machines, in which the cylinder itself acts as a

hammer, to have a valve that makes the upper part of the cylinder active in steam.
The lifting of the striking cylinder occurs in another movement of the valve that allows
the top of the cylinder to be filled with steam.
Single-acting steam hammers weigh between 1 and 101 and the maximum fall height
does not generally exceed 2 m; Its hitting frequency is 25 to 60 blows per minute. This
type of hammer is generally used with a pile driver, or supported by a crane or similar
machine.
The double-acting steam hammer has a mobile piston whose rise and fall is done
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more frequently than in the case of the single-acting hammer (150 to 300 blows per
minute).
The movement of said piston is carried out in accordance with a distribution valve
attached to its side and which drives it in one direction or another. The weight of
double-acting hammers varies between 0.5 and 7 t; Its pistons weigh between 40 and
1,000 kg, depending on the case.
Figure 1.40 Single and Double Acting Steam Hammer
1.1.8.3 Compressed air hammers
Compressed air hammers, single or double acting, are powered by this energy source
at pressures of 7 to 8 kg/cm 2 . Its operating devices are in every way similar to steam
ones, but they have the notable drawback that the decompression of the air, which
goes from 7 kg/cm2 to atmospheric pressure, produces such cooling that in cold
climates it produces frost or ice on the outside of the cylinder itself; hence its use is
limited.
1.1.8.4 Vibration driving

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Vibration driving has been used for years, with great success, especially for sheet
piles.
This driving is carried out with a vibrator, composed of two symmetrical elements with
eccentric loads, which in one phase of its operation produces a vertical component
that achieves driving.
The motors are isolated from the vibrators by means of chains or V-belt devices, to
prevent vibrations from affecting them.
The weight of such vibrators, which are also used as starters, does not exceed 3 t; The
rotation of the vibrators occurs at speeds between 500 and 1,000 rpm
Figure 1.42 Vibration Driving
Manuel Diaz del Río Construction Machinery Manual. McGraw Hill, 2001 391
1.1.8.5 Piling with water jet
Driving in sand often presents serious difficulties. They are generally avoided by
providing high pressure water darts (8 kg/cm 2 or greater) at the tip of the pile, or in
housings on its faces (through which they are passed), which facilitate the evacuation
of the sands of the area near the tip of the pile.
This type of driving is highly recommended in those areas where rejection is 100% (in
sandy soils).
1.1.8.6 Hinge of drawers
Locks are used to drive compressed air caissons, which allow, through a set of
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interlocked gates, the exit and entry of personnel and materials through
decompression or controlled compression.
Figure 1.43 Hydrohammer
Source: IHC Hydrohammer technical specifications brochure

1.1.9 LIFTING MACHINES62
The lifting elements used in civil engineering are multiple and large machinery is based
on simple systems such as:
• mechanical jacks
• Hydraulic jacks
• manual lathe
• Differential lathe
• Differential mechanism
• mechanical winch
As a combination of the aforementioned elements, compound lifting machines are

created.
62 Manuel Diaz del Río Construction Machinery Manual. Mc Graw Hill, 2001 page. 423
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1.1.9.1 Light construction crane
This crane, whose loads generally do not exceed 3 tons, has a very small arm,
normally less than 5 m; The lifting height is not more than 35m. in general. The cable
is collected at speeds not exceeding 2.5 m/s.
1.1.9.2 Derrick Crane
There are multiple devices called Derrick cranes, although the most common is the
vertical mast placed in position by means of two braces that form a non-deformable
structure reminiscent of a tetrahedron, with a triangle that serves as a base.
Suspended from the vertical mast is the boom, from which the loads hang.
The possibility of turning the pen is great; Its movement is limited exclusively by the
braces. The swing of the boom is done through a joint placed at the foot of the mast.
There is another type of derrick crane without rotation limitation, in which the braces
have been replaced by 3 or more umbrella-shaped braces, which keep the mast
vertical.
Derrick cranes are often built with elements of fortune in the works; It has great
flexibility and can load up to 200 t, with 20 m arms, in port facilities.
Figure 1.44 Construction crane and Derrick crane

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1.1.9.3 mobile cranes
They are cranes that have been mounted on tracks or wheeled chassis and can be
another device for normal excavators, since they take advantage of all the turning and
lifting elements of said machines. However, specialized cranes are becoming more
common, both in tracked and tire versions.
It is normal to equip these cranes with a complementary boom at the end, to reach
greater distances, at the expense of reducing their load at the tip. The use of tire
cranes has become increasingly widespread, due to their ease of movement.
These cranes, like those that run on caterpillars, but in a more special and critical way,
must be prepared with a wide support base, which is achieved by means of deployable
legs that are often operated by hydraulic mechanisms. Frequently, these legs support
the entire load, leaving the wheels unsupported, to prevent tire deformation from being
a compromising instability factor in the lifting operation.
In tire cranes, it is common for the boom to be a box and not a lattice, and even a
telescopic type that can be self-deployed by hydraulic means. Extension and retraction
are carried out mechanically or by hydraulic systems, held in position by means of a
pin.
The field of action of the mobile crane has been expanded by the advance in the use
of multi-section telescopic booms, which can be extended to lengths of 25 m and
more. When installed on a fast truck, or tracked chassis, a boom can be extended
hydraulically, making it a very adaptable tool.
The boom sections slide on self-lubricating, anti-friction mounts, which reduce loading
and minimize maintenance needs.
The telescopic movement is carried out by means of hydraulic cylinders and is

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automatically synchronized, so that each section of the boom extends or retracts at the
same time in equal lengths, thus saving the time necessary to equalize said lengths
and guaranteeing the simplicity of operation.
The additional boom can be extended in just a few minutes; It is normally attached by
hinges to the boom head and generally folded against the underside of the boom when
not in service.
The hydraulic systems are driven directly by the diesel engine and consist of triple
gear pumps. The fluid is transferred, through a rotary coupling and control valves, to
cylinders and a rotating superstructure.
In general, the main pump is used for lifting movements, boom angle variation and
telescopic system. The intermediate pump is used in the turning movement and the
smaller pump is used to operate the hydraulic jacks, as well as for lifting; In case of
heavy loads, it is planned to work with the primary pump. The main lifting cylinder is
generally located at the rear end of the boom and its oscillation is carried out by one or
two large diameter cylinders.
Figure 1.45 Telescopic Wheeled Crane
Source: Commercial brochure JCB Crane 540-170

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1.1.9.4 tower cranes
Tower cranes, which have a mast and a crosshead, are very frequently used in
building works. The mast, in some models, is self-extending.
In building cranes it is normal for there to be self-lifting devices on which, once the first
modules are placed, the structure of the crane itself can be raised. On the other hand,
taking advantage of the opening of a light well or the elevator shaft, a crane can be
used without lateral supports.
In these cases, the crane rests on the last two finished floors, which are suitable for
absorbing vertical loads. The crane has cables, chains, or hydraulic jacks, which
facilitate the lifting of the crane structure.
Other devices in which the mast is kept complete are based on the extension of the
crane at the top, through additional sections that allow the simple lifting of the mast
itself.
Tower cranes are made up of a horizontal lattice beam, on which a mobile cart slides,
equipped with a lifting hook and whose tipping torque is balanced, in part, by a fixed
counterweight.
These cranes reach heights of around 75 m and have spans of no more than 40 m,
depending on the maximum arm allowed for the load at the tip.
The relationship between load and arm is known through convenient tables or graphs.
Cranes with a mobile vertical mast and folding boom are also used on construction
sites.
The different positions of the load in these types of cranes, in relation to stability, are
analyzed in the same way as in mobile cranes.
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Since these cranes are used very frequently on construction sites, the possibility of
interference with their rotation fields must be taken into account to avoid accidents to
personnel.
Figure 1.46 Tower Crane
Source: LIEBHERR tower crane technical manual
1.1.10 MACHINERY FOR BITUMINOUS SURFACE
The machinery for bituminous pavements are the following:
1.1.10.1 Asphalt plants 35
The asphalt plant has the following components:

1.1.10.1.1 Aggregate pre-doser
This equipment is made up of several hoppers (4 or 5) for the storage of the different
types. Each hopper has an independent regulation feeder. In general, two hoppers are
used for sand, since, normally, two types of this material are necessary to inscribe the
35
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formula of the product to be prepared within the limit curves: one for chickpea, another
for gravel and a third for fine gravel.
You can normally work with only four hoppers, but if you have the fifth, you can more
easily go from manufacturing a surface layer asphalt concrete to that of a base layer,
as well as correct, if necessary, a poor aggregate. in one of the sieves.
Each of the hoppers is provided with its corresponding feeder, which must be
regulated independently. There are a large number of feeding systems.
The electromagnetic ones are very simple to regulate, and their operation is correct in
all sizes of aggregates, within normal humidity conditions. With wet sands, feeding
becomes difficult and it is advisable to equip your hoppers with metal feeding belt type
devices, if it is estimated that you will have to work in these conditions continuously.
It is prudent to plan how to empty the pre-dosing hoppers, without the need to do so
through the asphalt plant. In many pre-dosers this is easily achieved by reversing the
direction of travel of the general collection belt.
1.1.10.1.2 Aggregate dryer
With this device, the temperature of the aggregates is raised to the required point to
make the asphalt mixtures; in general, below 150 O C.
Its yield in tons of aggregates is always given depending on their humidity; and for the
performance of various dryers to be comparable, they must refer to the same degree
of humidity.
The effectiveness of a dryer depends on many variables (type of burner, feeding

system, circulation and evacuation of aggregates, degree of humidity of the
aggregates, diameter of the drum, length, etc. Each manufacturer has come to size
their own based on its experience and must guarantee the nominal returns offered.
The aggregate dryer, essential to obtain good asphalt concrete, is a large diameter
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tube (it can be up to 2 m) and approximately 15 m long, where, by rotating it at

reduced speed (5 to 15 revolutions per minute), the drying of the aggregates occurs by
a powerful flow of hot air, produced by fuel oil burners, which circulates in the opposite
direction to the aggregates, which descend by gravity.
1.1.10.1.3 Aggregate classifier and dispenser
With this device the mixing of aggregates is achieved in pre-established proportions. It

is common to have a hopper for collecting aggregates due to the excesses that occur
in the mixture.
The mission of the classification and dosing group is to mix the aggregates to allow the
type of agglomerate that is prescribed to be produced.
It is composed of a vibrating screen with 3 or 4 trays, small capacity hoppers and a

cumulative scale up to the total capacity of the concrete mixer.
When starting up a plant, the feeding of the pre-dosers must be regulated, so that
excess aggregates do not continue to occur in the hoppers of the classification group,
since they must be evacuated.
In the plant installation it is advisable to place a collection hopper for the inevitable
excess of aggregates of different granulometry, which is evacuated periodically using
one of the loaders serving the installation.
1.1.10.1.4 asphalt concrete mixer
With it, the mixture of the aggregates with the binder is achieved. There are various
types of asphalt concrete mixers depending on the pressure at which the binder is
injected.
At the outlet of the dryer is the dosing installation, very similar to that used in concrete,
and after it is the asphalt concrete mixer, where the bitumen or the corresponding
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asphalt mixture is dosed in the proper proportion.
The mixing group or asphalt concrete mixer must provide a homogeneous product with
a regular distribution of all its components, especially the binder, achieving a perfect
coating by a thin film of binder on each particle of the mixture.
Mixing times vary depending on the type of product being manufactured; In order to
compare the performance of various machines, the same cycle duration must be
assumed, for example, one minute, a time in which a well-designed mixer must
provide a quality mixture.
Mixers with high pressure binder injection reduce mixing time, so they can, for the
same production, have a smaller capacity.
1.1.10.1.5 Finished product hopper
The use of this hopper is exclusively to achieve a better level of supply to the trucks
that must transport the asphalt concrete.
At the exit of the mixer, the product is finished and can be loaded directly onto the
truck.
1.1.10.1.6 Gas purifier and binder recovery
It is inevitable, due to the system used in the dryer, that fines and binder are carried
away that must be recovered.
The most used system is cyclones. You can get an idea of the importance of the
recovery system if you consider that a plant that produces 100 tons. per hour it can
recover 40 tons. up to date.
The operation of the dryer heating system is always by forced draft, which causes a
drag of fines that requires the installation of a recovery system to reduce atmospheric
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pollution; The current device is made up of a cyclone battery, with which a recovery of
90-95 percent of the total entrained dust is achieved.
This is not enough to avoid the nuisance caused by dust when working in a densely
populated center and it is necessary to complete the device with a wet purification
installation, which achieves a purification of around 98-99%. , below that of most of the
existing industrial chimneys in operation today.
1.1.10.1.7 Binder feeder and dispenser
In plants where very rigorous control of binder dosage is required, a binder feeder and
dispenser with independent scales is necessary.
The binder is one of the components of asphalt mixtures whose rigorous dosage is
most interesting to control, since its variation directly influences the amount of binder
necessary to obtain a stable mixture; To this end, it is convenient, when quality
products are manufactured, to weigh the binder independently of any other aggregate
and on a separate scale; Even in the case of using two binders from different sources,
it is advisable to have two scales, one for each binder, or a cumulative scale for two
weighings of binder.
The binder feeding system must have a storage capacity of at least one day of plant
production and it is advisable that it be planned for eventual operation using bagged
binder.
1.1.10.1.8 Binder feeder and dispenser
The use of the feeder or binder dispenser is subject to the possibility of supplying it in
drums.
The dispensers can be by weight or volume; Both provide sufficient precision with the
means currently available.
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It is normal to use two heating boilers to maintain the binder at the operating
temperature, or to use one to receive the binder and another to heat it.
The storage capacity should guarantee at least two days of plant operation at full
capacity.
The dosage of asphalt can be done by weight and volume; dosing by weight requires a
special scale and provides accuracy regardless of the asphalt supply temperature; The
volumetric, whose accuracy can be of the same order as that obtained by weight in
modern measuring pumps, requires that the heating of the asphalt be guaranteed,
when it is measured within narrow temperature ranges, so that the density remains
practically constant.
1.1.10.1.9 Heating system
This system is comprised of the burners that make up the dryer and the asphalt
heating boilers. There are also heating devices for the binder circuits.
In general, asphalt plants are powered by generator sets with a power of no less than
300 HP.
The heating system of an asphalt plant includes its various elements, which are
considered below:
• The dryer is provided with a fuel burner or burners that must be preheated to
bring it to the correct operating temperature of the burner, which with normal
fuel is above 100°C.
• Asphalt heating boilers can be heated by an oil burner directly or by hot oil coils,
or by a mixed system that in principle combines the advantages of both.
• In addition, it is necessary to heat the binder circuits, for which it is necessary to

have hot oil that is circulated through coils conveniently arranged in the places
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to be heated and through the double asphalt circulation pipes.
• For this, an oil heater of adequate capacity is needed; for heating the binder,
the fuel used is always bunker; Diesel is used only to start the oil heaters, since
the heating for bunker heating is often carried out by means of oil coils,
sometimes reinforced in the burner itself by electrical resistances. The
operation of the oil heaters must be monitored, since coking of the oil and
clogging of the circuit may occur; For this purpose, the oil circulation should not
be interrupted until 1/2 to 1 hour after the burner has been turned off, nor
should the burner be turned on without the oil circulation having been
established.
It is necessary to isolate the entire network of asphalt conduction pipes, as well

as to establish them with purges that allow them to be emptied whenever they
are not heated by oil and even when they are, to allow rapid start-up of the
installation.
1.1.10.2 Classification of asphalt plants
Asphalt plants are classified as continuous and discontinuous according to the type of
concrete mixer they have.
As regards their type of implementation and transport, they are classified as fixed,
semi-fixed and mobile, as regards their control system, as automatic, semi-automatic
and manual.
Continuous plants, of a simpler conception, especially in their versions for

agglomerates subject to not very rigid specifications, are highly competitive in the
manufacture of concrete mixers.
To manufacture asphalt concrete it is necessary to provide them with a classification

and dosing group, then they are comparable to discontinuous concrete, with more
complex regulation than the latter, in which it can be operated to obtain an optimal
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mixture quickly and easily by simply changing the duration. of the kneading cycle.
Nowadays, and for important asphalt concrete production, the type of automatic or
semi-automatic plant is unquestionably adopted, which eliminates personal error.
Among the different automations of the electrical, photoelectric or electronic type, the
latter will probably prevail even if the operation of the other well-studied systems is
safe.
One of the aspects in which automation is interesting is the regulation of the outlet
temperature of the dryer aggregates, whose manual control requires the presence of
an individual, since failure can give rise to irregularities in the quality of the product.
manufactured.
Its form of control has its difficulties in measuring the temperature of the aggregates
and in the regulation of the burner itself.
The mobility of an asphalt plant is to a certain extent relative, since its commissioning
requires the assembly of a complex network of pipes, many of them isolated, for
asphalt, bunker, oil and air services.
In reality, in mobile plants a more compact assembly is attempted, devising devices to

achieve the placement of the plant in a working position without auxiliary elements
unrelated to it.
Another characteristic is the speed at which they can be transported, which in mobile
vehicles must be of the same order as that of trailers of equivalent weight.
In agglomerates, where specifications are not extremely rigid, the type of plant used is
normally continuous. As regards the
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manufacturing quality asphalt concrete, classifying and dosing equipment is of great

importance, which is why discontinuous type equipment is generally used. Although in
past times manual control plants were widely used, today practically only semi-
automatic or automatic plants are used, preferably with electronic control. The
extraordinary sensitivity of this type of regulator allows temperature control in each of
the stages of preparation.
Figure 1.47 Installation of continuous and discontinuous asphalt plant
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Figure 1.48 Discontinuous Asphalt Plant
Technical manual for asphalt plants brand Intrame RM-260
Figure 1.49 Continuous Asphalt Plant
ADM Brand Asphalt Plant Calderón Guayllabamba project
1.1.10.3 Asphalt distributor 36
Coating and primer sprays are generally applied by means of an asphalt spreader.
The asphalt spreader is a truck- or trailer-mounted asphalt tank adapted with pumps,
spray bars, and appropriate controls to regulate the amount of asphalt delivered from
36
SUPER PAVE Manual Volume 3 page 186
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the spray nozzles.
A spreader typically includes a heating system based on fuel or gas burners to keep
the asphalt at the correct application temperature and a hand-held spray attachment to
apply asphalt to areas the bars cannot reach. Generally, the heating system is not
used with emulsions.
A pump circulation system keeps the asphalt moving, when the distributor is not
operating, to prevent it from solidifying and, consequently, blocking the spray bar and
nozzles.
A diluted medium-curing asphalt, which is usually applied at elevated temperatures,

should not be placed in a distributor that has previously had an emulsion, unless it is
confirmed that there are no traces of water in the system.
You must act within strict safety regulations when this equipment heats the asphalt
and also when it is doing its job since it pulverizes the asphalt and it is flammable.
Figure 1.50 Asphalt distributor
1.1.10.4 Asphalt finishing machines 37
Paving operations include transporting the hot mix asphalt to the job site, placing the
mix on the road, and compacting the mix to the reference density.
Pavers are automotive machines designed to place asphalt mixture with a certain
thickness and to provide initial compaction of the layer. The two main parts of a paver
Source: SUPER PAVE Manual Volume 3 page 187

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are the power or tractor unit and the screed unit.
The tractor unit provides the motive power to move the wheels or tracks and also for
the paver machinery.
The tractor unit comprises the receiving hopper, feeder conveyor, flow control gates,
distribution augers (or distribution screws), generating plant (engine), transmissions,
dual controls and the operator's seat.
When running, the tractor unit's engine propels the paver, drives the screed unit
(grader), and provides power to the other components through the transmissions.
The hot mixture is deposited in the receiving hopper, from where it is carried by the
feeder conveyor, through the flow control gates, to the distribution augers or
distribution screws.
The augers then evenly distribute the mixture across the entire width of the paver for
an even, uniform placement.
Source: SUPER PAVE Manual Volume 3 page 187

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Figure 1.51 Asphalt finisher
Source: Caterpillar Asphalt Paving Manual 1991 USA
The operator controls these operations using dual controls located close to the chair.
1.1.11 COMPACTION MACHINERY 38
They are machines that, as their name indicates, “compact” the different layers of
leveled material and if they are working with asphalt, this compaction is
has in accordance with the pass number, this depends on the data of the design of the
work together with those in charge of the project laboratory.
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The consolidation team does its job in any of the following main ways, or combinations
of them:
• Vibration.
• Static weight.
• Impact.
1.1.11.1 Vibratory compactors
A vibratory compactor provides compaction force through a combination of the weight

and vibration of its steel rollers, commonly called drums.
The compactors used for asphalt concrete are self-propelled and vary in weight from 7
to 17 tons. There are two basic models: single drum units and double drum (tandem)
units.
Propulsion for single drum models is provided by steel wheels or pneumatic wheels.
Propulsion for dual-drum models is usually provided by both drums, although there is
at least one type of compactor that has two steel drive wheels located between the two
vibrating drums.
The drums of vibratory compactors vary in diameter from 0.9 to 1.5m. and in width
from 1.2 to 2.4 m. Their static weights, in terms of drum width, are generally between
29 and 32 kilograms per centimeter of width.
The motor that provides the power for propulsion also supplies power to the vibrating
unit. The vibrations are generated by the rotation of an eccentric weight inside the
drum. This rotation speed determines the frequency, or vibrations per minute (vpm), of
the drum.
The weight and length of eccentricity (distance from the axis) determine the amplitude
(amount) of the impact force generated. The frequency and amplitude of the vibrations
are controlled independently of the engine speed and the path of the compactor.
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The vibration frequency of drums used for asphalt concrete compaction is generally
between 2000 and 3000 vpm, depending on the model and manufacturer. Some
models only allow adjustment of one or two frequencies, while others allow a range of
frequencies (for example from 1800 to 2400 vpm)
Figure 1.52 Vibratory Compactor Roller
Source: Compaction Data Handbook Ingersoll Rand 1997 USA cover

1.1.11.2 Pneumatic wheel compactors
This machine finishes the asphalt work, preventing the aggregate elements of the
asphalt from forming excessive roughness on the surface. Pneumatic wheel
compactors have rubber wheels instead of steel wheels or rollers. They generally have
two tandem axles, with 3 or 4 wheels on the front axle and 4 or 5 on the rear axle. The
wheels move independently up and down.
Pneumatic wheel compactors can load ballast to adjust the total gross weight. This
ballast, depending on the size and type, can vary between 10 and 35 tons.
However, more important than the gross weight is the weight of each wheel, which
should vary between 1350 and 1600 Kg. Whether the compactor is going to be used
for the first compaction pass, or for intermediate compaction.
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This type of compactor can be equipped with 380,430,510 or 610 mm wheels.
diameter. During compaction the wheels must have smooth treads and must be
inflated to the same pressure, allowing a maximum variation of 5 psi, so that they can
apply uniform pressure during compaction.
Figure 1.53 Pneumatic Compactor Roller
Source: Compaction Data Handbook Ingersoll Rand 1997 USA Page. 37
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1.1.11.3 Impact compactors
When a very low frequency and high amplitude are needed for the consolidation unit,
the impact compactor is used. Generally, it is used in small areas . They use self-
powered gasoline engines that make the entire unit jump from top to bottom. Operator
guided, 165 lb. It can deliver 2250 lbs. on the ground surface.
Figure 1.54 Impact compactor
Source: Compaction Data Handbook Ingersoll Rand 1997 USA Page. 39
1.1.12 SPECIFIC PORT MACHINERY63
Port construction machinery is basically machinery on ships and is basically dredging

equipment, which is listed below:
• Spoon or Priestman dredgers.

• Rosary or bucket dredgers
• Suction dredgers (with or without cutter)
• Excavator dredges.
63 Manuel Diaz del Río Construction Machinery Manual. Mc Graw Hill, 2001 Page. 655
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Gánguiles or barges are also used to transport debris, rock breakers and tugboats.
Figure 1.70 Views of Draga de Rosario
Source: IHC Beaver 10000 Holland Technical Manual 1982 Page. 3
Figure 1.71 Rosario dredger
Source: IHC Beaver 10000 Holland Technical Manual 1982 Page. 3

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EPISODE 2.
MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION.
In the maintenance of machinery and vehicles that are active in a project, it is

necessary to take into account maintenance management, which entails some
concepts that must be implemented in a company over time. Some companies think
that maintenance is a necessary evil that they have to endure; workshops are often
seen as cost centers and are not given the importance they have within the company.
This document aims to show the basic concepts of maintenance management of

machinery, equipment and vehicles of a construction company since the useful life of
the machines and mainly their function depends on good maintenance management;
costs can also be reduced and productivity increased. equipment availability.
2.2 DEFINITION OF MAINTENANCE
There are definitions of Maintenance as there are authors who deal with the subject,
although the same basic idea can be evident in all of them; So:
Maintenance is:
• “Ensure that all assets continue to perform their intended functions.”64
• “It includes all those activities necessary to maintain equipment and facilities in
a particular condition or return them to that condition” 65
• Maintenance consists of preventing failures in a continuous process, starting in

the initial stage of every project, ensuring planned availability at a given quality
level, at the lowest cost within the warranty and use recommendations and
64 PRANDO, RAUL; Customized Maintenance Management Manual; Uruguay 1996; P. 3
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safety and environmental standards. applicable66
• Achieve the maximum level of effectiveness in the operation of the production

and service system with the least pollution of the environment and greater
safety for personnel at the lowest possible cost.67
Currently, the definition within the MCC Reliability Centered Maintenance methodology
focuses on the preservation of the function of the asset and not only on its
preservation.
As is evident, the definition of maintenance is always linked to the task of preserving

equipment and its availability for a certain activity, in the most effective way.
2.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF MAINTENANCE
Maintenance is of vital importance in any industry since it is responsible for keeping

the entire system producing, and poor management of this will cause; sooner rather
than later the company sinks, consequently generating all the problems linked to the
closure of a company, on the other hand, adequate management will allow increasing
production, reducing costs, managing to develop competitiveness, increase investment
and this in turn will be reversed. in generating jobs, and in improving the standard of
living of Ecuadorians.
The objective of Maintenance is to preserve all the assets that make up the links of the
system directly and indirectly affected by the services, in the best operating conditions,
with a very good level of reliability, quality and at the lowest possible cost.68
In general, maintenance must be concerned not only with the machines but also with
all the facilities and human resources that make the complete production process
possible, but this document focuses only on the former, since such an extensive
treatment is out of its reach.

67 TORRES, DANIEL; Maintenance, implementation and management; Argentina 2005 page 19
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2.4 EVOLUTION OF MAINTENANCE.
Industrial equipment used to produce goods is influenced by successive degradation

due to its use, the influence of time and technology, to the extent that it has higher
levels of the latter, a much higher scientific level of maintenance, department,
company will be required. or in charge of providing support so that degradation does
not affect either the quality or the production volumes.
Since the end of the previous century with the massive appearance of production, with
world wars, etc., more and more reliable levels of operation are required in the
equipment that produces, the relationship between the hours of operation of
equipment and its useful life, with this new areas of interest appear for maintenance
management such as mechanics and electricity (technological foundation of the
equipment of those years).
In the sixties, electronics appeared as another important ingredient in machines, which

forced the maintenance manager to level up in that science. In the seventies, as a
result of the economic crises, the need to reduce equipment maintenance costs
appeared. The importance of managing maintenance resources is discovered and the
need to perform maintenance management appears for the first time on the scene.
Since the seventies to date, better service levels are required from maintenance such
as: quality, timeliness, low costs, high technological level, etc., always with the aim of
preserving industrial equipment and its function in production, taking importance of the
service after the work provided.
Normally in companies the level of maintenance is low and lower than that of
production (department it serves), this is logical, except in companies that are
dedicated to providing maintenance services.
The development of maintenance management is highly influenced by the

development process of organizations, in this field three dimensions open up in the
growth of companies: in a first stage they are oriented towards quantity, being the
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most relevant in this section complying with the programming volumes, a second
phase where quality matters, and finally the instance of productivity, where what is
important is to produce the required volumes at the lowest cost with the highest
achievable quality.
The evolution of the types of maintenance develops (following the analogy with the
French association of technical standards (AFNOR)) in the following way: it begins
with breakdown maintenance in which action is taken because the element suffered
damage due to wear or tear. a bad operation, we then move on to corrective
maintenance where the damage is fixed by replacing the element, subsequently we
work with maintenance that tries to anticipate the breakdown such as preventive and
predictive, which are based on inspections and measurements respectively,
intermediate between From the above, the concept of systematic preventive
maintenance appears, which consists of a rigorous surveillance and inspection
program, the latter being surpassed by the predictive one, finally the combinations of
the previous ones appear, then the TPM and finally the continuous improvement and
integration of maintenance.
In Annex 1 you can see the evolution of maintenance chronologically.
2.4.1 TOTAL PRODUCTIVE MAINTENANCE – TPM69
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is a strategy composed of a series of ordered

activities, which once implemented help improve the competitiveness of an industrial
or service organization.
It is considered a strategy, as it helps create competitive capabilities through the

rigorous and systematic elimination of deficiencies in operating systems.
TPM allows an organization to differentiate itself in relation to its competition due to the
impact on cost reduction, improvement in response times, reliability of supplies, the
69 TORRES, DANIEL; Maintenance, implementation and management; Argentina 2005 Page 175
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knowledge that people possess and the quality of final products and services.
The JIPM (Japan Institute of Plan Maintenance) defines TPM as a system aimed at
achieving:
• Zero accidents
• Zero defects
• Zero losses
These actions must lead to obtaining high quality products and services, minimum
production costs, high morale at work and an excellent company image.
Not only the productive areas must participate, global efficiency must be sought with
the participation of all people from all departments of the company.
Obtaining "zero losses" must be achieved through the promotion of work in small,
committed and trained groups to achieve personal and company objectives.
Therefore, the objective of TPM is to maximize the total effectiveness of production

systems through the elimination of their losses carried out with the participation of all
employees.
TPM Objective
“Maximize the total effectiveness of production systems by eliminating their losses

through the participation of all employees in small groups of voluntary activities.”
TPM Benefits
The benefits that TPM provides

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• Organizational
• Improves the quality of the work environment.
• Better control of operations.
• Increased employee morale.
• Creation of a culture of responsibility, discipline and respect for
rules.
• Permanent learning.
• Creation of an environment where participation, collaboration and creativity is a
reality.
• Appropriate sizing of personnel templates.
• Effective communication networks.
• Security
• Improve environmental conditions.
• Culture of prevention of negative health events.
• Increased ability to identify potential problems and search for corrective actions.
• Understand the why of certain rules, rather than how to do them.
• Prevention and elimination of potential causes of accidents.
• Radically eliminate sources of contamination and pollution.
Productivity
• Eliminate losses that affect plant productivity.

• Improved reliability and availability of equipment.
• Reduction of maintenance costs.
• Improvement of the quality of the final product.
• Lower financial cost for spare parts.
• Improvement of company technology.
• Increased responsiveness to market movements.
• Create competitive capabilities from the factory.
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Characteristics
The most significant TPM features are:

• Maintenance actions at all stages of the equipment life cycle.
• Broad participation of all people in the organization.
• It is seen as an overall company strategy, rather than a system for maintaining

equipment.
• Aimed at improving the overall effectiveness of operations, rather than paying

attention to keeping equipment running.
• Significant intervention of personnel involved in operation and production, and

in the care and conservation of equipment and physical resources.
• Maintenance processes based on the deep use of the knowledge that the staff
has about the processes.
2.4.1.1 Continuous improvement.
The performance of a service depends largely on the quality of the studies prior to its
configuration. Quality in maintenance reinforces this theory with TQC (Total Quality
Control) associated with TPM that promotes productive maintenance in order to
maximize the availability of key equipment for production.
There are various methods that seek continuous improvement, which are applicable to
maintenance management.
The PDCA cycle or Deming wheel, for its acronym in English: Plan, Do, Control or
verify (Check), Act (Action) was improved and brought to life.
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practice by Dr. Deming as a basic strategy of continuous improvement processes in
companies.
Figure 2.1 shows a diagram of the application of the Deming Cycle in the Maintenance
Department.
Figure 2.1
Source: www.ceroaverias.com/ciclo
Table 2.1 Parameters of the PDCA Cycle.
Plan Determine what needs to be done.
Objectives and their measurement.
Determine methods to achieve
objectives
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Do Educate and teach
Check The plan
(verify, Solution results
control) Overall results
Action Make the right decisions.
Source: www.ceroaverias.com
When an employee or area encounters a problem when applying standards in their

task, it is quantified, analyzed and the causes are identified to propose solutions, thus
setting new, more ambitious standards.
Therefore a PDCA cycle is used to analyze problems and plan actions.
2.4.2 MAINTENANCE FOCUSED ON RELIABILITY – MCC
Reliability-focused maintenance was initially developed by the United States

commercial aviation industry, in cooperation with government entities such as NASA
and private entities such as Boeing (aircraft manufacturer). Since 1974, the United
States Department of Defense has used MCC as the maintenance philosophy for its
military and air systems. Its success in this field has caused other sectors such as
power generation (nuclear plants, thermoelectric plants) , oil, chemical, gas, refining,
manufacturing companies are interested in implementing this maintenance
management philosophy, adapting it to their operating needs.
MCC can be defined as: a process used to determine what must be done to ensure
that any physical resource continues to do what its users want it to do in its current
normal production. 46
Reliability-centered maintenance is a methodology used to systematically determine

what must be done to ensure that physical assets continue to do what is required by
the user in the present operational context. Design capacity and design reliability limit
the functions of each asset.
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The maintenance, operational reliability and capacity of the asset cannot increase
beyond its design capacity.
Maintenance can only improve the performance of an asset when the expected
standard of performance of a given function of the asset is within the limits of the
design capability or design reliability itself.
The benefits of applying the MCC are:
• Greater safety and protection of the environment
• Higher operating performances
• Greater containment of maintenance costs
• Longer useful life of equipment
• An extensive maintenance database
• Best group work
2.4.2.1 Steps for applying the MCC
The MCC focuses on the relationship between the organization and the physical
elements that compose it. For this, it is necessary to define what physical elements
47
exist and decide which ones should be subject to the MCC review processes
The following steps have been defined for the planning of the MCC:
Functions and operating criteria, define what the function of the equipment is in its
operational context and its functional behavior.
Functional failures, identify how the failure can affect each element in the
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performance of its functions.
Failure modes: Identify the failure modes that are most likely to cause loss of
function. It is important to identify the root cause of each failure, this ensures that time
and effort is not wasted treating the symptoms instead of the causes.
Consequence of failures, record the effects or consequences of failures to be able to

decide the importance of each failure, and the level of preventive maintenance that
needs to be applied.
Preventive tasks, describe what can be done to prevent failures
“Lack of” tasks, describe what happens if failures cannot be prevented.
2.4.3 WORLD CLASS MAINTENANCE.
The orientation of maintenance management towards world class requires a change in

attitude and culture, it requires a high level of prevention and planning, supported by
an adequate computerized maintenance management system, oriented towards the
goals and objectives previously set and carrying out the things that have to be done in
the most correct way possible with the greatest degree of scientific depth.
Minimization of maintenance costs with maximum productivity must be sought.
Comparing maintenance costs (benchmarking) with other companies does not lead to
many benefits; rather, benchmarking should be attempted in order to continually
improve compared to others.
The Production Maintenance and Engineering association has led many organizations
to world-class maintenance, where maintenance provides the reliability of the
equipment, production provides reliable processes and engineering provides quality in
the design and proper installation of the equipment, with high levels. of useful life.
The fundamental steps to install world-class maintenance management are: planning,

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prevention, programming, anticipation, reliability, analysis of production and spare
parts losses, technical information and coverage of operating shifts; all this supported
in an appropriate organization and supported by computerized information systems,
with a change in attitude and culture towards the client (production or any internal or
external department that adds added value).
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2.4.4 GLOBAL TRENDS AND PROSPECTS OF MAINTENANCE
MANAGEMENT.
The trend is for maintenance to acquire the dimension of a world-class corporate

strategy, which allows just-in-time systems in production, which leads to agile
manufacturing, which leads to high reliability in the equipment, which works under
the concept of service. to the customer, at the right times with the greatest
reliability and provide competitive prices for maintenance services.
Some authors define maintenance as the last frontier, that is, a discovery of its
potential to contribute to the competitiveness of companies.
Numerous technologies and different industrial organizations have influenced

maintenance management behaviors. The great developments implemented in
industries are forcing maintenance management to be an area of permanent
learning. At present, technology and organizations are those that define the
guidelines for maintenance management systems.
2.5 MAINTENANCE OBJECTIVES.
The maintenance Mission can be basically summarized in the following objectives:
• Maximize the reliability of production lines and systems

• Minimize the probability of equipment failure
• Repair damage when it occurs
In a broader sense, the objective of maximizing production could also be included,

by reducing machine unavailability times (a concept from Total Productive
Maintenance) and by maximizing the company's productive efficiency. In summary,
maintenance management must contribute to the achievement of the company's
results.
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Within this context of maintenance in the productive organization, it can be stated
that adequate maintenance management contributes to the profitability of the
company, among other aspects due to:
• Greater productivity, by ensuring that the production infrastructure has more

operating time at a capacity closer to its nominal capacity , ensuring optimal
availability and maintaining the reliability of the systems, facilities, equipment and
machines
• Improvement of compliance with delivery dates, by reducing stoppages and

start-ups of machinery and controlling the performance of equipment.
• Product quality requirements, the required quality must be maintained after the
repair of equipment and facilities, eliminating breakdowns that affect the regular
functioning of production and the quality of the product.
• Reduction of costs, by achieving lower consumption of spare parts, lower

inventories, reducing failures and increasing the useful life of facilities and
machines.
• Safety and hygiene, training personnel in rules to avoid accidents and

maintaining safety protections on equipment.
• Conservation of the environment, maintaining protections on equipment and

facilities that produce contaminating leaks.
2.6 MAINTENANCE POLICIES.
When it comes to maintenance, the vocabulary is very extensive. There is talk of

diagnostic and conservation operations, but the notion of preventive maintenance
is the most common concept, since maintenance specialists prefer to make sure.
In reality, three trends can be observed in terms of maintenance policy: “suffer –
dominate – foresee”
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2.6.1 METHOD OF WAITING OR “SUFFERING” MAINTENANCE.
The waiting policy is one in which the company waits for the failure to make the
repair; This is the case of most auto transport companies, meaning that the
company suffers from its maintenance. It is worth mentioning that this policy is the
most expensive.
2.6.2 THE POLICY OF “DOMINATING” MAINTENANCE.”
Preventive maintenance consists of replacing elements at certain mileage or

certain periods, especially in the case of particular activities, such as in the aviation
sector, high-speed trains or the army; In this case, all the operations are planned
by the builder and systematically integrated into the planning.
This type of maintenance in motor transport is very expensive and is not used.
However, these experiences allowed us to arrive at conditional maintenance plans
(“predict” maintenance policy).
2.6.3 “PREVER” MAINTENANCE POLICY.
This type of conditional (or predictive) maintenance involves mastering the

weakness of the elements and the existence of well-planned controls and
operations before changing them. 48
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2.7 INFLUENCE OF VEHICLE RENEWAL ON MAINTENANCE

POLICY. 49
The maintenance policy cannot be separated from the fleet renewal policy, since it
is essential that these two policies are compatible and complementary, since both
have the same objective: to make efficient and maintain the vehicle fleet at its
maximum level of profitability and of competitiveness .
A fast renewal cycle is synonymous with an in-house workshop with low

maintenance costs. The opposite of this is a policy of conservation until the
vehicles become “scrap”, with decreasing reliability and availability, which
generates high technical costs, a “heavy” workshop, excessive human and material
resources, the question is:
What is the real maintenance cost?

This cost basically depends on five factors:
. Vehicle selection (manufacturing, powertrain, reliability)
. Activity (routes, demand, overload, etc.)
. Driving style (aggressive, traditional, technical-economic, etc.)
. Maintenance (quality, frequency, availability of spare parts, control panels, etc.)
Renewal policy (cycle length)
49
MALDONADO SUSANO, ARMANDO; General Navy Magazine , Article “Basic concepts
maintenance applied to vehicle fleets”, Vol. 249, No. 11, 2005, Page 4
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MAINTENANCE.
Today's maintenance must provide logistical support to the departments and

entities that add value to raw materials.
Companies or areas that increase the value of inputs can do so through

transformation, transportation or storage. To achieve this, they require energy, raw
materials and signals. With this approach, the maintenance function radically
changes who must provide service support. so that these organizations or
divisions, through equipment and production lines, can carry out their function,
providing the maintenance of the machines when they require it.
The maintenance activity has been exhausting for the engineers who have carried
it out from the concept of a department depending on the production area, as
stated above, this dependence only generates a relationship based on the problem
of unforeseen stoppage or scheduled repair. .
The above implies that the degree of motivation is very low because this
management style is frustrating, unlike the great expectations and challenges that
are generated when there is a service relationship of the same level of importance,
with billing and collection of the service. activity that is provided to the client, under
a motivational approach and permanent renewal and growth for the maintenance
area.
The maintenance relationship with other departments is multipurpose and dynamic;

these communications are outlined in the following description:
With Engineering : its importance lies in the fact that to the extent that assemblies,
machines and improvements to equipment have higher levels of engineering,
maintenance work will decrease, to the extent that better industrial parks are
designed, reliability will increase, there must be a close relationship between both
departments.
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With Purchasing : it is the most active and permanent relationship, since from there
all the spare parts and supplies required for maintenance are acquired, at the same
time as purchasing it is the one that relates directly with the technical suppliers, in
many cases the two do it jointly. departments
With Quality , this relationship acquires two fronts, the first where maintenance
contributes to the best quality of the services and products offered to the
organization to which it belongs, the second is for the permanent review of the
quality of the services provided by maintenance. This last relationship is of a high
technological level and is sized by the types of maintenance management desired
by clients.
With Production , this is the most vital relationship as it is your customer by nature,
it is where the types and opportunities of service levels required are decided.
With the company's products , maintenance to the extent that it provides good
service and the machines have an excellent technical level, high quality products
can be obtained.
With Accounting and Finance , it is an essential maintenance requirement to know

the costs of your services, the values of your spare parts and supplies, while
requiring many managerial accounting indicators to be able to manage your
operation.
Comprehensive maintenance management must be such that it achieves the

maximum benefit for the company and for this it is necessary to take into account
all the departments and aspects that surround maintenance.
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Within the maintenance relationship with other areas, two aspects must be taken
into account: one is the organizational situation that the department occupies in the
company structure and two is the type of organization that has maintenance
internally to operate.
In the first of them, five types are consolidated: the maintenance area depends on
production, maintenance is under the command of plant management, the
maintenance engineering area depends on factory engineering and the workshops
scattered in the different production areas. , maintenance merged into production in
the different dimensions of activities and the last classification, comprehensive
maintenance providing logistical support to production.
2.9 MAINTENANCE PLANNING OF A COMPANY.
The maintenance issue in this information collection project focuses on the

administration of machinery in a company, no matter what it is since the criteria are
useful for any company that wants to progress and for this you have to plan.
Within the levels of planning there are: strategic planning, tactical planning and
operational planning.
Long Term Strategic Corporate Vision
Medium Term Tactics Philosophy to adopt TPM, MCC,

combined, etc.
Short Term Operation Preventive, predictive, corrective,
improvement cycle.
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2.9.1 BENEFITS OF PLANNING.
Maintenance planning in a company will provide benefits, which can be

summarized below:
• Lower consumption of man hours

• Inventory reduction
• Less equipment downtime
• Improves the work environment among maintenance personnel.
• Improve productivity
• Cost savings.
2.9.2 CHANGES CONSEQUENCE OF PLANNING.
During maintenance planning there are changes within the company which will be
conceptual and in turn there will be new paradigms. These changes are compared
in the following tables:
Table 2.2 Conception Changes.

Before After
Focus on procedures and needs of the company Customer focus
Work for objectives Process analysis
Leave well alone Continuous improvement
Arrange Prevent
Autocratic management Participatory Management
Maintenance as an expense Maintenance as an investment
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Isolated changes Systemic approach

Cost per team Cost per activities
Decisions based on opinions, intuition Decisions based on measurement
Individual culture Organizational culture.
SOURCE: Trist, E. and Bamforth, K.;Some Social Consequences of the Longwall Method of
Coalgetting; United Kingdom, 1975;
Table 2.3 Paradigm Changes.

Ancient New
Technological imperative Joint optimization
Man as an extension of the machine The machine as a complement to
man
Maximum task decomposition, limited basic skills Optimal grouping of tasks and
multiple skills
External controls (supervisors, specialized personnel, Internal controls (self-regulatory
procedures) sub-systems)
High autocratic style organizational chart Organization chart flat
style
participatory
Competition, relationship game Collaboration, camaraderie
Take risks Innovation.
SOURCE: Trist, E. and Bamforth, K.;Some Social Consequences of the Longwall Method of
Coalgetting; United Kingdom, 1975;
2.10 STRATEGIC PLANNING.
Strategic Planning is the most complete of planning and to achieve this, some
fundamental concepts must be taken into account, which are seen below:
2.10.1 WHAT IS STRATEGY?
To carry out Strategic Planning you must first know what strategy is and for which
some descriptions of what “Strategy” means have been listed.
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1) Doing things in a particular way to improve performance.
2) They are the methods to be used in a medium or long-term horizon to

achieve the expected results.
3) Establishes the direction of the organization towards achieving expected

results.
4) The key to strategy is to have a Vision of the future and establish a bridge
between today and the future that is expected.
WHAT IS STRATEGIC PLANNING?
Strategic Planning represents a maintenance management tool whose objectives

are observed in the long term based on programs and subprograms , with an
indicative plan that allows evaluating results.
This plan is normally made for 5 years in which it includes maintenance and
reconditioning windows (overhauls) of relevant equipment , is the basis for
production and consumption estimates, contains fewer details and is less precise
as it moves forward in time.
2.10.2 OBJECTIVES OF STRATEGIC PLANNING

MAINTENANCE.
Strategic maintenance planning seeks, among others, to meet the following

objectives:
• Determine the maintenance requirements of each equipment in its operating

context.
• Ensure that these requirements are as effective and economical as

possible.
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• Ensure that they are executed in the most efficient way.
2.10.3 MAINTENANCE STRATEGY.
It is the means to obtain the commitment of workers at all levels of the organization
to the methods and objectives it contains, providing the framework for decision
making and ensuring consistency towards business achievements.
2.10.4 CONTENT OF THE STRATEGY.
The strategy must contain the following parameters:
• Vision/mission.
• Values.
• Security and environment
• Organization
• Human resource
• Planning.
• Critical factors of success.
• Objectives and performance indicators.
• Maintenance matrix.
• Main processes.
2.10.4.1 Vision.
Be world class in maintenance , complying with the highest technical and

administrative standards to ensure the integrity and operation of the assets in their
design conditions, obtaining the production and utility levels agreed at the
corporate level.
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2.10.4.2 Mission.
Implement and continuously improve the maintenance strategy to ensure maximum

benefit to customers through innovative, economical and safe practices.
2.10.4.3 Values.
Integrity : The first objective is to ensure and maintain all results within the teams'
standards.
Quality : You must focus on obtaining products and/or results with “0” defects,
having an attitude oriented towards the continuous improvement of collaborators ,
people and processes.
Productivity : The workforce and resources used will be used efficiently, always
looking at the effectiveness of management.
Information : It will be true, on time and shared with all those who require it.
Planning and programming : All maintenance tasks, with the exception of

emergencies, will be done in a planned and scheduled manner using the
computerized tool intended for this purpose.
Teamwork : The result of the activities will be the product of the teamwork of the
administration, maintenance, production and engineering groups.
2.10.4.4 Critical factors of success.
They are the things that must be achieved and by which the success of
maintenance will be measured:
• Increase reliability
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• Reduce costs
• Improve the work environment in maintenance.
• Reduce production losses due to maintenance.
2.10.4.5 Matrix of excellence in maintenance.
It is necessary to know what state the company is in regarding all the parameters
that have been described to make a decision, for which a maintenance excellence
matrix is used.
Table 2.4 Maintenance Excellence Matrix.
Strategy Administration Planning Performance Technology Reliability Analysis of

Human resource AND measures Of the Analysis Processes
Programming Information
World Strategy Independent crews Long term with Benchmarking Common core Complete risk- Periodic review
class Corporate/ with multiskills. windows and equipment system and cost program. of processes,
Asset strategy Groups engineering effectiveness, database costs, time,
costs by quality
equipment
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Self-employed
better Plan of Some multi-skilled Good planning MTBF/MTTR Integrated Some Some reviews of
than most long term groups E. From M. and Availability, materials, labor applications of administrative
improvement programming. general and financial FMEA processes
Engineering maintenance information and of
support costs maintenance
Just like Annual Decentralized Exists a Downtime, No there Good fault Some reviews of
most improvement mixed groups, cluster of overhead costs is database and maintenance
plan committees of planning. communication good use of it processes
improvement between
maintenance and
Minor Plan of Some integrated financial
Support in fault Some downtime. Basic programof Has the A review of
that the improvement of disciplines. detection. Some Costs without maintenance information that maintenance
majority PM's Some E of M in routines of overloading either some is little used processes
HSE inspection part records .
Reagent React to By disciplines, No planning, No indicators Information No fault log Never HE

emergencies union only programming or Manual they review
engineering
SOURCE: Trist, E. and Bamforth, K.;Some Social Consequences of the Longwall Method
of Coalgetting; United Kingdom, 1975;
2.10.5 AREAS INVOLVED.

The areas involved in the strategic maintenance plan are the following:
• Safety (integrity) and environment.

• Organization.
• Human resource
• Maintenance planning
• Maintenance philosophy (TPM, MCC, etc.)
• Supplies of materials and warehouse inventory.
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• Cost and performance measurement

• Information management.
2.11 TACTICAL PLANNING.
Tactical Planning is based on the most common Maintenance Philosophies such

as TPM, MCC, PMO.
The sources of information to prepare maintenance plans can be based on

manufacturers' recommendations through operation and maintenance manuals,
records held by the company and experiences with similar machines.
The technology used in production has become a factor of high level and reliability.
This implies a high cost which must be prevented from reaching even higher levels.
This is achieved when the cost of maintenance, as a fundamental part of the added
value of a company, decreases while still guaranteeing the availability of productive
assets.
This requires organized, efficient and developed maintenance that guarantees the
availability of your productive assets at a competitive cost. Any company that wants
to remain competitive must, inevitably, manage and pay special attention to the
maintenance of its equipment.
Maintenance is an integrative discipline that has had rapid development in the

industry and is responsible for guaranteeing the availability of the company's
equipment at a low cost. A modern industry is not conceivable without a proper
maintenance policy for the technology with which it produces. Simply because the
functionality, availability and conservation of its productive structure depends on
maintenance. This means a significant increase in the useful life of the equipment
and its performance.
Nowadays, maintenance is destined to be the fundamental pillar of any company

that respects itself and considers itself competitive.
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That is why maintenance develops techniques and methods for the detection,
control and execution of activities that guarantee the good performance of the
machinery. The above is impossible without an efficient strategy and organization
of this discipline in each company. For these purposes, new computer products
exist, are improved and created that guarantee the automated processing of all
information related to maintenance management and its evaluation.
As can be seen, this is also part of the qualitative and quantitative leap that a
modern company must take.
2.11.1 PROCEDURES TO CONSIDER.
The Procedures that Tactical Planning must consider are the following:
• Inspections
• Settings
• Evidence
• Calibrations
• Reconstructions
• Replacements.
2.11.2 WORKFLOW.
The main tool for controlling maintenance management is the “work order”, in
which all maintenance activities must be recorded. By monitoring the status of work
orders, you gain control over the status of maintenance activities.
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2.11.3 GLOBAL PROCESS.

The Process that must be followed in the implementation of the Tactical
Maintenance Plan is described by the following graph that indicates said sequence.
Figure 2.2 Global Tactical Maintenance Planning Process.
Indicators of performance
Analysis
Application
Service
SOURCE: Planning and — Execution and Statistical

Trist, E. and Programming Report Report
Bamforth, K.;Some Social Consequences of the Longwall Method of Coalgetting; United

Kingdom, 1975;
The elements that are part of this global process are described below
2.11.4 PERFORMANCE INDICATORS FOR MAINTENANCE.
An indicator is a numerical parameter that provides information about a critical

factor identified in the organization, in the processes or in people with respect to
the expectations or perception of customers in terms of cost-quality and deadlines.
According to their usefulness, the management indices should be:
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• Few
• Clear to understand and calculable
• Useful to quickly know how things are going and why
According to its management, the management indices must:
• Identify the key factors of production.

• Define indices that evaluate them.
• Establish data records that allow periodic calculation.
• Establish standard values (setpoint) for said indices, objectives.
• Take the appropriate actions and decisions in the event of deviations that are
detected.
2.10.4.1 World Class Indicators. fifty
Mean Time Between Failures.

Relationship between the product of the item number and its operation times and the total
number of failures detected in those items in the observed period.
TMEF = NOIT . HROP (2.1)
∑ NTMC
This index should be used for items that are repaired after the occurrence of a failure.
Average time to repair.
Relationship between the total time of corrective intervention in a set of failed items and the
total number of failures detected in those items, in the observed period.
TMPR
∑
HTMC (2.2)
= NTMC
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LOURIVAL AUGUSTO TAVARES; modern maintenance administration; Uruguay Page 53
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This index should be used for items for which the repair or replacement time is significant in
relation to the operation time.
Mean time to failure.
Relationship between the total operation time of a set of non-repairable items and the total
number of failures detected in those items, in the observed period.
HROP
TMPF = (2.3)
NTMC
That index should be used for items that are replaced after the occurrence of a failure.
Equipment availability.
Relationship between the difference in the total number of hours of the period considered
(calendar hours) with the number of hours of intervention (preventive maintenance by time
or by state, corrective maintenance and other services) for each observed item and the total
number of hours of the period considered.
HROP
DISP = x 100
(2.4)
HROP +
HTMN
The availability of the equipment represents the percentage of time that the items remain at
the disposal of the operating body, for production.
Maintenance cost per billing.
Relationship between the total maintenance cost and the company's billing in the period
considered.
CTM
CMFT = Nx (2.5)
100
FTE
P
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This index is easy to calculate since the values, both the numerator and the denominator,
are normally processed by the company's accounting body.
Maintenance cost for replacement value.
Relationship between the total accumulated maintenance cost of a given piece of equipment
and the purchase value of a new piece of equipment (replacement value).
CTMN
CMRP = x 100 (2.6)
VLRP
This index must be calculated for the most important items of the company (that affect
billing, the quality of products or services, safety or the environment), since, as indicated, it
is individual for each item and is used with values accumulated, so their processing takes
longer than the others, thus not justifying being used for secondary items.
2.10.4.2 Team Management Indices. 51
Average time between preventive maintenance.
Relationship between the product of the number of items and their operation times, in
relation to the total number of scheduled interventions, in the observed period.
TMEP = NOIT . HROP
∑ NTMP
(2.7)
Average time for preventive interventions.
51 LOURIVAL AUGUSTO TAVARES; modern maintenance administration; Uruguay Page 59

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Relationship between the total time of preventive intervention in a set of items, and
the total number of preventive interventions carried out in those items, in the
observed period.
HRMP
TPMP = (2.8)
NTMP
Observed failure rate.
Relationship between the total number of items with failure and the total
accumulated time during which this set was observed. It is the reciprocal of the
mean time to failure.
NTMC
TXFO = (1/hr) (2.9)
∑ HROP
This index must be associated with time intervals, particular and specific
conditions, the total accumulated time must be the sum of all the time intervals
during which each item individually was subject to the specific operating conditions.
Repair rate.
Relationship between the total number of items with failure and the total time of
corrective interventions on those items, in the observed period. It is the reciprocal
of the average time to repair
This index must be associated with: time intervals, particular and specified
conditions, and the total accumulated time must be the sum of all the time intervals
during which each item individually was subject to the specified operating
conditions.
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Maintenance non-conformities.
Relationship between the total planned maintenance minus the total maintenance
carried out in a period considered and the total maintenance planned in that period.
NMPR -
NMEX x 100
NCPM = NMPR (2.10)
This index can generate a report, issued in monthly, bimonthly, quarterly or

semiannual periods, depending on the desire and analysis capacity of the users,
which also presents the reasons for the
rescheduling or cancellations.
Overload of maintenance services.

Relationship between the difference between the hours of services executed and
planned for a given period (day, week or month) and the hours of services planned
for that period.
HMEX - HMPR
SCSM = x 100 (2.11)
HMPR

which also presents the reasons for the
rescheduling or cancellations.
Relief of maintenance services.

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Relationship between the difference between the hours of services planned and
executed for a given period (day, week or month) and the hours of services
planned for that period.
HMPR - HMEX
ALSM = x 100 (2.12)
HMPR

which also presents the reasons for rescheduling or cancellations.
2.10.4.3 Cost Management Indices. 52
Maintenance cost component.
Relationship between the total maintenance cost and the total production cost.
CCMN = CTMN x 100 (2.13)
CTPR
The total cost of production includes the direct and indirect expenses of both units
(operation and maintenance), including the respective lost profits.
Progress on cost reduction efforts.
Relationship between scheduled maintenance work and the previous index.
PERC = TEMP (2.14)

CMFT
This index indicates the influence of the improvement or worsening of maintenance

activities under control in relation to the maintenance cost per billing indicated
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above.
Relative cost with own staff.
Relationship between expenses with own labor and the total cost of the
maintenance area in the period considered
CMOP
CRPP = x 100 (2.15)
CTMN
Relative cost with material.
Relationship between material expenses and the total cost of the maintenance
area in the period considered
CMAT
CRMT = x 100 (2.16)
CTMN
External labor cost.
Relationship between the total external labor expenses (temporary hiring and/or
labor expenses proportional to the services of permanent contracts) and the total
labor used in the services (own and contracted), during the period considered.
CMAT
CRMT = x 100 (2.17)
CTMN
In the calculation of this index, all types of hired labor can be considered, whether
for permanent or temporary services.
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Maintenance cost in relation to production.
Relationship between the total maintenance cost and the total production in the
period.
CMOC
CMOE = x 100 (2.18)
∑( CMOC + CMOP )
This relationship is dimensional, since the denominator is expressed in production

units (ton, kW, km traveled, etc.)
Training cost.
Relationship between the cost of training maintenance personnel and the total
maintenance cost.
CEPM
CTET = x 100 (2.19)
CTMN
This index represents the elements of maintenance expenses invested in the

development of personnel through internal and external training, and can be
complemented with the "per-capita" training cost index, that is, the investment in
training by the amount of trained personnel
Immobilization in spare parts.
Relationship between capital tied up in spare parts and capital invested in

equipment
CIRP
IMRP = x 100 (2.20)
∑ CIEQ
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Care must be taken in the calculation of this index to consider the specific spare
parts and part of the non-specific spare parts used in the equipment under the
responsibility of the maintenance area, thus being an index that
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It generally becomes difficult to calculate due to the establishment of this

proportionality.
Maintenance cost per sales value.
Relationship between the total accumulated maintenance cost of a given

equipment and the sales value of that equipment.
CMVD = ∑
CTMN
x (2.21)
VLVD 100
Overall cost.
Replacement value less the sum of the Sale Value with the Total Maintenance
Cost of a given piece of equipment.
CMVD = VLRP - ( VLVD + CTMN ) (2.22)
2.10.4.4 Manpower Management Indices. 53
Scheduled Maintenance Work.
Relationship between the man hours spent on scheduled work and the available
man hours. "Available man hours" are understood to be those present in the facility
and physically able to perform the required work.
HHMP
TBMP = x 100 (2.23)
HHDP
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Corrective Maintenance Work.
Relationship between man hours spent on corrective repairs (fault repair) and
available man hours.
HHMC
TBMC = x 100 (2.24)
HHDP
Other Activities of Maintenance Personnel.
Relationship between man hours spent on activities not linked to the maintenance
of the Production Unit's equipment, which we call "Support Works", and available
man hours.
HHSA
OAPM = x 100 (2.25)
HHDP
Training of Maintenance Personnel.
Relationship between man hours spent training maintenance personnel and

available man hours.
HHEI
PECI = x 100 (2.26)
HHDP
Uncalculated Hours of Maintenance Personnel.
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Relationship between the difference between the available man hours minus the
worked man hours over the available man hours, therefore indicating how much of
the staff's time was not occupied in any activity.
HNAP =
∑[ HHDP - ( HHTP + HHRC +
x (2.27)
∑ 100
This index, when negative, represents excess maintenance personnel services,

and, when positive, it can be interpreted as idleness of maintenance personnel,
although this is not necessarily a truth.
Personal Control Structure.
Relationship between the man hours involved in maintenance control and the man
hours available.
HHCT
EPCT = x 100 (2.28)
HHDP
Supervision Personal Structure.
Relationship between supervisory man hours and available man hours.

HHSP
EPSP = x 100 (2.29)
HHDP
Staff Aging Structure.
Relationship between the man hours of personnel with "N" years left before
retirement (normally 1 or 2) and the man hours available.
HHPN
EEPE = x 100 (2.30)
HHDP
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Social Climate – Personnel Movement (“turn - over”).
Relationship between the average cash in the preceding "M" months and the sum of
that cash with the number of transfers and voluntary resignations.
EMMM
CSMP = x 100 (2.31)
( EMMM + NOTR + NODV )
Actual Cash or Average Daily Cash.
Relationship between personnel, minus man-hours of leave (vacations, accidents,

illnesses, on-premise departures, with pay, external training, support to another area
and unpaid absences), and effective man-hours.
∑( HHEF +
HHAF )
EFMD =
∑ HHEF
x 100
(2.32)
The value of this index may indicate the need for a study of the vacation plan (element
that most influences the calculation of the numerator), or the incidence of another
event such as an accident, unpaid absences, etc., that requires the attention of the
Supervisor.
Accident Frequency Rate.
Number of accidents with maintenance personnel per million man hours worked.
NA CD
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TFAC = NACD x 10,000,000
HHTB (2.33)
Accident Severity Rate.
Man hours lost due to accidents per million man hours worked.
NACD
TGAC = x 10,000,000 (2.34)
HHTB
2.10.5 ANALYSIS.
This parameter constitutes the interval in which the user wishes to evaluate and
control the set of indicators proposed on the objects selected for analysis.
For this, the start date (Date from) and the completion or end date of the analysis
(Date until) must be taken into account.
The range between dates must be greater than or at least equal to the month for the
calculations to make sense. An estimate less than this range lacks information.
The deadline cannot be greater than the current date, nor can the start date be less
than the oldest date on which the company has records.
According to the results, the maintenance planner must determine the standards
according to the following criteria:
Extension : Sets the Standards in accordance with the history of phenomena that
occur.
Extrapolation: Considers phenomena as a function of time based on real behavior,

estimating their behavior in an equal period forward.
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Experimentation: Observation of facts and phenomena, to which the causes of their

variation are then sought by comparison.
2.10.6 SERVICE REQUEST.
For the service request, the following flow chart is followed:
Figure 2.3 Service Request flowchart.
Source: The Authors

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The service request must have an input of information, the action of the person
responsible, the output of the action and the requirements. Which are detailed in the
following table:
Table 2.5 Service Request.
Tickets Action of the Responsible Exit Requirements
equipment failures, Open OT Work orders in required status Identify the Tag number to
Incidents, inspections, intervene
Improvement Programs Place responsible for attending
Operational Needs to the work
Set the priority of work
Set failure mode Name of
originator
Brief description of the
anomaly observed in the
equipment or reason why the
OT opens.
Maintenance Strategy Active planning of work orders Work order in planned status Has to to be
made
Periodically
Notifies the technical authority
Source: The authors once the OTs are triggered.
2.10.7 PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING.
For Planning and Programming, the following flow chart is followed:

Figure 2.4 Planning and Programming Flow Chart.
Source: The authors

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Planning and Programming must have an input of information, the action of the person
responsible, the output of the action and the requirements. Which are detailed in the
following table:
Table 2.6 Planning and Programming.
Tickets Action of the Responsible Exit Requirements

Work order in “required or Plan and schedule work order Work orders in “scheduled” status Agreed with production Spare parts
planned” status available Defined scope Clear
procedures
Printed order with all the
information
Qualified personnel available
Available equipment
Available tools
Defined execution date
Estimated duration
Source: The authors
2.10.8 EXECUTION.
The Execution must have an input of information, the action of the person responsible,
the output of the action and the requirements. Which are detailed in the following table:
Table 2.7 Execution.
Tickets Action of the Exit Requirements

Responsible
Work order in “Scheduled” Run Job Orders in closed status Start and end dates
status Information on real man
hours
Cause codes, failed parts
and actions
Description of work
performed
Source: The authors
2.11 OPERATIONAL PLANNING.

Operational planning is “Work Order Planning” and the following must be defined:
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• The scope of the work or project.

• The As procedures, standards, processes.
• Human resources , equipment, tools, materials, etc.
• The duration of the project or work.
The scope of work and maintenance manager must visit the job site and include in the
order the list of tasks that must be performed. If you have doubts about the diagnosis
or scope, you should rely on the operator and/or specialized technician. It should only
include what is necessary (effectiveness) since it must be remembered that each
activity represents money.
The how refers to the way in which the work should be done, attaching plans,
procedures, applicable standards, safety procedures, etc. to the order.
When the task is critical and complex, include step by step for its development; if there
is none, the technician must write it down to be approved by the supervisor before
undertaking the work.
Within the resources and estimated time , the order must include the human
resource with the necessary man hours by specialty and duration of work (MTTR); The
required spare parts must also be included, with part number or other identification, as
well as identify necessary special equipment and tools.
2.11.1 WORK SCHEDULING.
The work schedule must be given based on the optimization of resources and
equipment. In order to schedule the work there are certain criteria.
• Equipment criticality.
• Operation needs
• Existence of adequate resources.
• Overdue work orders (Backlog.)
• Workload.
• Optimization of resources and equipment.
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2.11.1.1 Criticality
The criticality method is a criterion used to prioritize equipment that, due to its function
and maintainability, requires different types of maintenance attention.
Criticality.
High: Equipment whose stoppage directly affects the production or safety of people,
equipment or the environment. (For example asphalt plant, distributor, asphalt
finisher).
Medium: Teams essential for production, but that have at least one backup team. (For
example heads and dump trucks).
Low: General purpose equipment. (For example trucks).
Maintainability.
Low: Equipment that has a high MTTR and is difficult to access. It requires
disassembly, stopping, construction of access roads or special permits for intervention.
(For example bulldozer tractors in a slope cut).
Medium: It has a medium MTTR and its access is moderately easy.

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High: It has a low MTTR and its access is easy and does not require disassembly or
any obstacle for its intervention.
Table 2.8 Criticality Matrix.
Low High Half Half

Half High Half Low
high Half Low Low
high Half Low
Criticality
Source: Introduction to Operational Reliability.; CIED(International Center for Education and
Development; Venezuela 2000
2.11.1.2 Priority Matrix Method.
High priority
Attention within the next 24 hours
Medium priority
Attention within the next few weeks
Low Priority
Attention according to the order of the program
Table 2.9 Priority Matrix.
C/ Q 1 2 3
high
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5
Half
Low
Priority
Source: Introduction to Operational Reliability.; CIED(International Center for Education and

Development; Venezuela 2000
2.11.1.3 Overdue work orders (backlog)
In quality.
In man hours.
2.11.1.4 Workload.
Amount of outstanding maintenance work to be performed

It is measured in the number of days required to carry out the pending maintenance
work with existing resources.
Workload = Σ HH work pte./ HH available x day.

Recommended: 3 to 4 weeks.
2.11.2 BENEFITS.
The benefits that operational planning offers are that it allows work to be distributed
evenly and allows for a timely response to the client, in addition to identifying the
number of personnel necessary.
2.11.3 WORK PREPARATION.
It is a detailed planning where the existence of all the resources included in the order
and other minor ones not included, but which are necessary, are verified.
The supervisor or person in charge of executing the work must physically verify the
existence and status of all required resources.
Choosing the most qualified people to carry out each task. Notify them of your
assignment.
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CHAPTER 3
COSTS
3.1 MACHINERY COSTS 54
The costs of a machine represent the equivalent in money necessary to make it

work. It is evaluated in $/hour of operation.
There are two types of machinery exploitation; The first corresponds to those who
own machinery and use it in works that they manage directly, while the second is
made up of those who, also owning machines, do not carry out the works through
direct management, but rather rent machines so that an independent builder can
use them. employed in previously assigned work.
The cost of the machinery is made up of the following fundamental sums:
• Ownership or Possession Costs :
Depreciation or amortization
Expenses calculated on the average investment. Money interest, tax and

insurance.
• Operating costs:
Operating expenses.
Repair expenses.
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• General Costs: 7
Storage expenses.
Guardianship expenses
Transportation expenses
3.2 THEORY OF DEPRECIATION AND AMORTIZATION 55
It is an undeniable fact that a machine wears out when working and, consequently,
depreciates. To cover this progressive devaluation there is the annual amortization
taken from the same products that this machine obtains with its work, whose
accumulation until the end of its useful life provides funds to acquire another.
There is a question; Does a machine not work become devalued? The answer is
affirmative, because when any mechanism or system of mechanisms becomes
obsolete, its use stops for several reasons, among the main ones:
• New machines arise when a task is achieved at a lower cost than with old
machines and, therefore, the owner of the old machine cannot compete with
the owner of the modern one.
• The lack of replacement elements in the market for repairs and spare parts
of old machines.
• The low demand and consequently, the low resale value of old machines
even if they are not used.
It is logical, therefore, that the danger of it becoming obsolete also weighs

somewhat in the depreciation period of a machine.
Accounting amortization refers to the acquisition cost that this machine has
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produced for its owner and which includes not only the factory sale price but also
8
shipping, freight, packaging, etc.
For the purposes of evaluating these additional expenses, an indication of them is

given:
• Packaging: Approximately 2% on invoice
• Transportation: Depends on the route and itinerary.

If it is by sea, there are three normal types of contracting.
Cif = cost, insurance, freight, Fob = free on board.

Fas = free along side.
• Insurance: variable with risks (the CIF is included)
• Loading and unloading: customs and tariff duties
• Assembly: depend on the type of machines; Normally it works immediately

or after small requirements.
The successive transfers from one work to another should not be part of the value
to be amortized; it is more prudent to include them in the general expenses area.
It is also worth remembering that amortization is a concept that belongs to several

disciplines, such as accounting, tax law and technology, therefore, it is advisable to
outline certain extremes in which there could be friction between them.
The treasury, in relation to the amount that is annually dedicated to amortization,

also has its criteria, which can be summarized in these: Decreasing amortization is
permitted, but not increasing amortization, although the public treasury prefers the
uniform annual amortization criterion. It is not allowed to amortize a value greater
than the acquisition value, since for tax purposes a value greater than the invested
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cannot be amortized, as this would go directly against the accounting concept9 of
depreciation.
Now, as it is an obvious fact that the replacement of a fully depreciated machine

requires a complementary outlay to cover the difference in price of the new one
with the purchase price of the old one, the investment is authorized deducted from
the profits at the end of the year, as long as they are dedicated to improving
machinery and tools.
You can also create a machinery acquisition fund with the proceeds, once the
machine has been depreciated, to continue transferring the same or similar
amounts as charges to the works as during the last depreciation period.
It should be noted that it may be the case that, once the amortization installments
are integrated, the price of a brand new machine will never be reached; If you wish
to make this purchase, you can segregate the difference from the fund account for
the acquisition of machinery.
Nor does the treasury intervene in the residual value of the machine, considering it
a discreet and hidden, but legal, reserve of the entity that owns it.
Accountingly, when the time comes to sell a depreciated machine, the usual thing
is to transfer that amount to the fund account for the acquisition of machinery, or
directly to the profit and loss account, since it is a benefit that was not counted on.
In accounting there are multiple procedures to reflect depreciation, but the most
appropriate seems to be, for the reasons explained below, the following: leave all
the machinery as long as it exists in the company as an asset account, with a
parallel depreciation account appearing. machinery, in the liabilities, taking into
account that both the active and passive accounts can have the precise number of
divisions for greater accounting clarity.
It has been said that this method is the best and the reasons are obvious: the value
of the machine is not modified in accounting terms during its life, which allows an
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analysis of the accounts related to the machinery at all times by simply considering
0
a balance sheet. ; At the same time, the degree of global amortization is known
and, what is more interesting, the degree of liquidity of the fund account for the
acquisition of machinery, when compared with the accounts that make up the
immediately realizable.
The most important point of the entire plot lies in this liquidity, since the possible
renewal of the machinery is based on it by having enough cash to do it.
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3.2.1 AMORTIZATION CRITERIA 56
The more accurate the depreciation method is, the more accurately it reflects what
the machine has lost in value.
It is understood that accounting amortization is a very simple operation. The difficult

thing is to match the accounting value of a machine with its real value. For this
reason, the need for this parallelism is normally forgotten, which in itself is not very
important, as long as the difference between the two is not too great, because if this
were the case, it would not be known, when it comes to economically evaluating the
company. , if the balance sheet results are sufficiently real.
To define amortization, the term or period to which it extends must be previously

established.
This period is usually set depending on the type of machine, as an example the
following can be given:
• Small work material: 6000 hours of work; 3 years duration.

• Heavy construction material: 10,000 hours of work; 5 years duration.
• Extraordinarily heavy construction material: 16,000 hours of work; 8 years
long.
The above figures assume 2000 hours of work per calendar year. This represents
that he works (or is available) 300 days a year, 8 hours a day and with a
performance of 80 percent, which is sufficiently in line with reality.
Another issue to discuss is whether it is actually more convenient to think of

amortization installments according to time periods (the most common are years
and hours of work) or refer to units made.
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Example:
3
An excavator with a capacity of 1m can have a probable useful life of 14,000
3
hours of work and in broken rock it can carry out a load of 1250,000 m in these
same hours. It could be amortized per hour or per m 3 loaded.
Doing it the first way has the obvious advantage that since the excavator shovel
cannot do anything other than dig and load, its hours of work will actually be work or
preparation and readiness for it; While doing it by the second procedure, the
excavated material must be taken into consideration, since from the load in rock to
the load in poorly consolidated clay there is a difference in production of about 25%,
it is evident that this complicates things.
From the above, the doubt arises as to whether trucks, which can do things as
different as carrying loads and transporting personnel, would be better assigned for
their life limit, at least countable, a number of kilometric tons; Here the same
criterion of the excavator is maintained again; It is more logical and more
comfortable in a truck to evaluate its life counted in time and not in kilometric tons,
because, if it is not excessively forced, its engine (the most deteriorable part)
suffers almost the same in the two tasks proposed as an example.
The convenience, in principle, of amortization based exclusively on stipulation of

elapsed time is therefore established.
3.2.2 MOST USUAL AMORTIZATION METHODS 70
Certain wear is understood as the inexorable fact that a team suffers with respect to
its loss of performance, based on the fact that the individual behavior of each team
can be known in advance, in such a way that the experience of its behavior allows a
result to be inferred.
15
3
It is common in the first phase of the study to consider amortization or depreciation

according to different schemes or systems, without involving the interest of money.
This interest is usually reflected in this primary way of acting, by affecting the
average investment.
This way of acting extraordinarily simplifies the calculations and allows a sufficient
approximation. Later, the most elaborate methods are explained that allow the
intervention of the interest of money in the amortization calculation itself, in
accordance with widely accepted schemes.
The most commonly used amortization methods are:
• Uniform linear.
• Uniform with double annual amortization the first year.
• Sum of digits
• Declining rest.
3.2.2.1 The uniform linear method71
It is the simplest but does not generally reflect real values, since it is not common
for the loss of value of a piece of equipment to be constant and uniform throughout
its useful life.
It consists of dividing the total initial cost of the machine, previously deducted its
estimated residual value, by the number of years or hours of its useful life.
The annual and hourly depreciation rate obeys the following expression:
R=C-S (3.1)
n
71P. 24
58
RAMON, MAXIMO, ING. ; Heavy Construction 1; PUCE; Quito 1994; P. 36
1
5
4
Where:
R = Annual and hourly depreciation fee
C = Initial cost
S = Residual value
n = number of years or hours of assigned life
With this system, the recovery of the investment made when acquiring the machine
is postponed, compared to systems that do so more quickly. Buying with them
results in less costs being charged on the production of the initial period than on the
final period.
In effect, the same quota is assigned on the initial production, which is generally
higher because the machine has greater performance capacity, and on the final
one, when the equipment, due to its aging, has declined in production.
15
In this way, unit costs are distorted, too low in the initial period and very high at5the
end of life.
The advantage of this system is its calculation convenience and, despite not being
real, it is the most used in practice.
3.2.2.2 The uniform method with double annual amortization in the first year 59
It is calculated by giving double amortization of each of the remaining periods

during this period, following, as regards its calculation, the same system as the
previous method.
It is convenient to differentiate these two periods: the first includes the first annual
period and the second, the remaining uniform periods; In this way, the first period,
which is more expensive and more profitable due to its greater productivity, is
compensated for by the later periods, which are cheaper, but in which the more or
less premature age of the machine is felt in its performance, reducing it.
As an advantage of this method over the previous one, it should be noted that it is
closer to reality than the simpler method mentioned above.
On the other hand, the calculation system is analogous to that one, although it is
rarely applied to fractions of the year.
Example:
Let a piece of equipment have an initial cost of $1,100,000, to which a residual

value of $100,000 is assigned, and it has a life of 5 years with 2,000 hours of work
per year.
Table 3.1 Example of uniform amortization with double annuity in the first year
59
P. 25
15
6
Year Coefficient of Amount Amortized Residual value at the Amortized value at

Amortization in the year end of the year the end of the year
0 0 0 1100000 0
1 2/6 333333 767677 333333
2 1/6 166666 600000 500000
3 1/6 166666 433333 666666
4 1/6 166666 266666 833333
5 1/6 166666 100000 1000000
Source: Manuel Diaz del Río Construction Machinery Manual. Mc Graw Hill, 2001 Spain pag. 25
3.2.2.3 The 60 Digit Addition Method
It consists of determining a decreasing variable percentage of depreciation that

results from dividing the amount that represents the residual life of the equipment
expressed in years plus 1 by the sum of all the numbers that represent each of the
years of useful life of the equipment.
Thus, for example, for n = 5 years, the amortization percentage of the first year is:
5 = 5
1+2+3+4+5 15
For the second year it will be 4/15 and so on.

The formula to be used, consequently, is the following:
R=(C–S)NX
(3.2)
Where:
60
15
7
R = Annual depreciation fee (variable)

C = Initial cost
S = Residual value
X = Digit corresponding to the year that is depreciated
N = Sum of the digits.
Compared to the previous method, it offers the advantage that depreciation

decreases more uniformly and total costs also result more uniformly. Likewise,
calculation operations are simpler.
3.2.2.4 The declining remainder method 61
It is an accelerated amortization procedure because the highest depreciation values

occur in the first year and gradually decrease in subsequent years.
It consists of calculating the initial depreciation of the first year as a percentage of

the value of the new unit, the depreciation of the following year affecting the
residual value of the equipment is obtained by the same percentage and so on until
the end of the adopted period.
1st year
1 = Cr
Depreciation fee R
(3.(3)
− R 1 = C * ( 1 − r )
Residual value: C
(3.(4)
2nd year
61 RAMON, MAXIMO, ING. ; Heavy Construction 1; PUCE; Quito 1994; P. 37

1
5
8
Depreciation fee: (3.5) R2=C*(1−r
Residual C - R 1 - R 2 = C * ()1*-rr ) - C * r * ( 1 - r ) = C * ( 1 - r ) 2
value:
(3.6)
n# year
Depreciation fee: R=C*r*(1-r
(3.(7) ) n -
1
Residual value: S=C*(1−
(3.(8) r) n
r = 1 - nS
Clearing: r = 1 - nC
(3.(9)
R1, R2, .……….Rn = Annual depreciation fee

C = Initial cost
S = Residual value
n = Number of years of useful life adopted
r = Depreciation rate or percentage
known values are c, syn
In some countries this modified method is usually applied in a simpler and more
empirical way: r is calculated by dividing 100 by the life n in years of the machine
and this value would be the average percentage of amortization, a value that is
doubled and applied to successive residual values, it is called the “double declining
balance method”.
100
In this case: (3.10) r= *2
n
The method is very convenient to apply on equipment with a short useful life, it
offers the advantage of rapidly decreasing depreciation and balances repair costs
1
5
9
to a certain extent.
In fact, in new equipment, repairs have little effect on the cost of application,
increasing considerably in the end; The opposite happens with the depreciation
calculated by this system, resulting in the fact that, adding the costs of repairs and
depreciation, they tend to obtain equal sums and in this way the costs also tend to
be uniform.
However, it has the disadvantage that the depreciation at the beginning, and
especially in the first year, is extremely high.
3.3 AVERAGE INVESTMENT, MONEY INTEREST, TAXES,

INSURANCE 62
The technical or performance modification of a machine throughout its life forces us

to look for a representative and invariable value on which to operate, which is called
average investment and which could be defined as the average of the annual
residual values in all years of useful existence, after deducting the amortization fee
corresponding to each year.
This average investment is relevant, since it is customary to calculate interest,

insurance (for carrying out this contract on the real value at the beginning of each
year), taxes and storage rights.
The average investment is calculated in two different hypotheses.
For a capital, I, the average investment Im will be the average of the values to be
amortized during n years of life of the machine.
1
6
0
By definition:
1 N) ( - 2 I
), ,( - ( n - 1) I )
— +I----I +... + 1 1 - YO
n J n )------\nJ
1 n+1
= I 1- * ( 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + = I * (3.11)
n 2n
n)
Where n is the number 2of years that the amortization period lasts.
For example:
Amortization in 5 years:
NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL 1
UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE 1
CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES 1
STATEMENT 12
CERTIFICATION 13
THANKS 14
DEDICATION 15
SUMMARY 16
PRESENTATION 17
CHAPTER 1. 18
CIVIL CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY 18
1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAVY MACHINERY 18
Figura 1.5 Motor grader 24
Figura 1.6 front push excavator 26
Figura 1.7 Crawler backhoe 27
Figura 1.8 Backhoe on wheels 29
Figure 1.15 Jaw crusher (single effect). 42
Figure 1.16 Jaw crusher (double effect). 43
Figure 1.23 Stem - Coupling and Spoons 61
Figura 1.24 Rod Probe 64
Figura 1.27 Cable Probe 66
Figura 1.28 Spoon Probe (Benoto) 67
Figura 1.29 Small Well Excavation Tools 67
Figure 1.37 Hammer 68
1
6
1
Figure 1.38 Driving device 69
Figure 1.39 Piling With Mass (by hand and with a winch) 70
Figure 1.40 Single and Double Acting Steam Hammer 71
Figure 1.43 Hydrohammer 73
Figure 1.44 Construction crane and Derrick crane 74
Figure 1.48 Discontinuous Asphalt Plant 87
Figure 1.51 Asphalt finisher 90
Figure 1.52 Vibratory Compactor Roller 92
Figure 1.54 Impact compactor 94
Figure 1.70 Views of Draga de Rosario 95
EPISODE 2. 96
MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT 96
2.1 INTRODUCTION. 96
2.2 DEFINITION OF MAINTENANCE 96
2.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF MAINTENANCE 97
2.4 EVOLUTION OF MAINTENANCE. 98
2.5 MAINTENANCE OBJECTIVES. 108
111
MAINTENANCE. 112
2.9 MAINTENANCE PLANNING OF A COMPANY. 114
2.10 STRATEGIC PLANNING. 116
2.11 TACTICAL PLANNING. 122
Figure 2.2 Global Tactical Maintenance Planning Process. 124
Table 2.5 Service Request. 140
Table 2.6 Planning and Programming. 141
Table 2.7 Execution. 141
2.11 OPERATIONAL PLANNING. 141
Criticality. 143
Maintainability. 143
High priority 144
Medium priority 144
Low Priority 144
CHAPTER 3 146
COSTS 146
54
3.1 MACHINERY COSTS 146
1
6
2
• Ownership or Possession Costs : 146
• Operating costs: 146
• General Costs: 147
3.2 THEORY OF DEPRECIATION AND AMORTIZATION 55 147
62
3.3 AVERAGE INVESTMENT, MONEY INTEREST, TAXES, INSURANCE
159
2 .4 OPERATING EXPENSES 164
Table 3.2 Coefficients for repair (working condition method) 173
Table 3.3 Continued 178
Figura 3.1 Tire life estimators 181
Figura 3.2 Tire life estimators 182
Table 3.4 Continued 184
Table 3.14 Example of Replacement Theory 199
CHAPTER 4. 200
HEAVY MACHINERY CONTROLS 200
4.1 FLEET MANAGEMENT 200
Preventive maintenance is understood as: 200
Corrective maintenance is understood as: 200
Research of company needs 202
Determination of evaluation parameters. 202
Organization chart. 202
Reports. 202
Maintenance management. 202
Preventive Maintenance 203
Predictive Maintenance 203
Controls over: 203
Operations 203
4.2 MAINTENANCE TOOLS 207
4.3 MAINTENANCE MANAGER 210
4.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF A PROGRAM 216
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE 216
Table 4.2 Bulldozer tractor maintenance chart 221
Table 4.3 Preventive Maintenance Monitoring 223
4.5 PERIODIC INSPECTIONS OF HEAVY MACHINERY 223
Table 4.4 Caterpillar machinery inspection table 225
4.6 OIL ANALYSIS AS A MEASURE OF 227
1
6
3
PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE 227
Table 4.5 Oil change frequency criterion 228
5 changes are reduced in the year (regarding only the engine) 232
VP-VO-30 232
VP-VO-41 233
4.7 CONTROL OF CONSUMPTION AND REPAIRS 234
4.8 SPARE PARTS CLASSIFICATION 234
4.9 FAULT ANALYSIS 235
CHAPTER 5. 237
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 237
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES 239
Total = 300 Average value = 300/5 =60%

Which is obtained from the previous formula
Im = (5+1)/ (2*5) =0.6I=60% of I

A second case is considered:
When it has been assumed that the first year is amortized twice as much as the
following years, the expression for the average investment can be easily deduced
in this way:
n = number of years that the amortization lasts.

I = first investment or acquisition value of the machine
2A = annuity assigned to the first year
A = annuity assigned to other years.
You have:
(n−1)A+2A=(n+1)A=I
(3.12)
1
6
4
Besides:
1 ( I + ( I - 2 A ) + ( I - 3 A ) + ... + ( I - nA ) ) = I - A ( 2 + n ) * ( n - 1 ) = n 2n
I * ( 2 + n ) * ( n - 1 ) = n2 + n +
=I- I=Im
2 * 2n * ( n + 1 ) 2n * ( n + 1
)
I =1*
m ( n2 n+2)
+
(3.13) ( 2n ( n + 1 ))
Once the average investment formula has been calculated, some usual
percentages will be applied to it that serve to estimate the annual expenses for
interest, tax, insurance and other charges, such as patents, storage, etc.
For example, the following values can be taken, variable, of course, depending on
the situation.
Capital interest From 4 to 8% annually.
Insurance, storage, patents, etc.: 2 to 3% annually
Taxes: 2 to 3% annually
Total 8 to 14% annually
For a first estimate, a global estimate of 10% can be taken.
2 .4 OPERATING EXPENSES72
The following operating expenses can be considered more important:
• Operator Labor
• Fuel Costs

1
6
5
• Maintenance costs
3.4.1 THE MACHINERY OPERATOR LABOR73
If we intend to calculate the cost per hour of the operator in charge of machines,
we must assume that the minimum base wages established by labor regulations
are of very little use (although precisely these wages are those assumed in most of
the cases in official budgets).
Trying to ensure that specialists (others neither should nor can handle expensive
machines) carry out their mission with zeal and efficiency for the basic daily wage
is to pretend impossible. Also, here's the flip side of the coin: A good mechanic
doesn't offer his services so cheaply.
It must be taken into account that the good performance of qualified workers is
often subject to the existence of establishments, canteens, etc., which, naturally,
weigh directly on the cost of labor.
We must not forget another criterion: the operator's effectiveness is measured

based on the value and complexity of the machine he handles efficiently.
The expenses attributable as labor of the driver or machinist of a construction team

are the number of job hours actually paid to the driver for each effective machine
hour.
The driver is paid during all machine stops and this labor is reflected in the
performance coefficient.
It should be noted that the labor paid during the immobilization of the machine is
not included in the indicated amounts. This labor is used, in many cases, in driving
other machines, or in the workshop.
73DIAZ DEL RIO, MANUEL; Construction Machinery Manual; McGraw Hill; 2001; Spain Page 28
1
6
6
In any case, the unit prices of labor include the following items:
1) Salary
Base salary
Premiums of all kinds
Extraordinary hours
2) Social charges
3) Other compensations
Displacements
Plus danger
4) Accessory expenses
Accommodations
Dining room
Transport
Heating
5) Other accessory expenses

16
3.4.2 FUEL COSTS 65 7
For many years, only diesel or heavy oils have been used in heavy mobile public
works machines (depending on the country); Gasoline has been banished due to
its relative energy cost.
It must be noted, however, that gasoline is still used in light vehicles, in small
power engines and in engines that use some powerful diesel engines of certain
brands to start.
You have to be extraordinarily cautious when giving a specific consumption

coefficient per HP and hour for any thermal engine, given that the operating
conditions of the engine and the machine itself have a very important impact on
consumption.
The specific consumption of a motor that drives a generator set dedicated to

lighting, where the power must be given continuously and with a pre-established
and constant value (since correct lighting depends on it), is completely different
from that of the other motor that drives a scraper. with long return journeys already
unloaded.
However, there are sufficiently precise formulas in which a broad coefficient of

variation is stated, so that the criteria of the engineer who is preparing the cost
study is the one that determines the coefficient to be applied in each case.
For diesel and gasoline engines, in good condition, the following formula is used:
Consumption (liters/h) = P * Q * U
(3.14)
Where:
P = effective engine power (in HP); (not tax power)
Q = Specific consumption (in liters/CV. Hour)
65
P. 29
16
8
In diesel engines it is: 0.18 +/- 0.02 liters/CV. Hour
In gasoline engines it is: 0.24 +/- 0.04 liters/CV. Hour
U = utilization factor, which normally varies between 40 and 80 percent
Gasoline consumption in starter motors of heavy diesel engines can generally be
neglected in the cost calculation estimate, since it rarely exceeds 0.4 liters/hour of
operation of the main machine.
As a reference, the values of 0.86 and 0.75 kg can be taken as specific weights of
diesel and gasoline. /dm3, respectively.
3.4.3 MAINTENANCE COSTS 66
The maintenance cost varies greatly and is linked to the activity as well as the
operating system.
If the maintenance cost allows direct costs to be determined by item, the indirect
costs would also have to be affected to arrive at the real cost of use. It is necessary
to break down maintenance costs into four items, which are:
• Labour
• Lubricants and filters.
• Spare parts
• Tires and undercarriage
The tire category can distort the analysis, since its changes are made punctually
and can modify the total cost.
For transport and construction companies, the motivations for maintenance control
are the following:
• Know the real costs

• Simplify and improve data collection
• Improve the company's brand image
• Balance the relationships between operation and maintenance
66
16
9
• Correctly handle the immobilization of vehicles and machinery.

• Have a minimum stock of spare parts based on actual requirements
• Improve the supply of spare parts
• Motivate workshop staff
• Optimize technical cost
• Improve the quality of repairs
• Establish a maintenance plan appropriate to the requirements
• Reduce the number of repairs outside the company
• Have more reliable vehicles
In companies dedicated to construction, cargo and passenger transportation, the

calculation of the operating cost and maintenance cost are extremely important
factors, as they give the businessman the possibility of evaluating all the aspects
inherent to the management of his fleet. , as well as to heal the deficiencies that
luckily arise from the inadequate application of the equipment they have, from the
unrational use of the personnel necessary for the operation and maintenance of the
fleet.
Therefore, it must be considered that since each vehicle or machine is a particular

case within a fleet, the operating and maintenance cost studies must be adapted
based on the criteria for the use of those vehicles and the administrative structure
of the company.
66
1
7
0
Although a study of operating and maintenance costs can constitute a sales
argument, it must be kept in mind that its preparation, based on the assumption
that a vehicle will be used for a certain period, under previously established
conditions that may not confirmed in reality, it will lead to only estimated values that
will depend on the data taken as a basis for its preparation, in this way the
calculation that is prepared will allow the determination of estimated values of the
aforementioned costs.
It should be taken into account that since this is an estimate, the determined
maintenance operating costs may not correspond to the exact value. However, it
will allow the company after a certain time and a correct study of the real values, an
analysis of the whole is of vital administrative importance.
The use of a spreadsheet will allow the preparation of estimated calculations and
cost guides, considering particular cases. It is important to highlight that the degree
of accuracy of the calculations will depend directly on the values taken for their
preparation.
The expenses that can influence the operating cost of a vehicle are sometimes
complex due to the variation that occurs between one company and another. Our
intention is to guide the preparation of an estimated calculation of the costs that
may significantly influence and that quickly allows the interested party an
evaluation of the probable costs that will arise from the use of a vehicle or machine.
The study must be carried out in relation to the criteria for the use of vehicles or
machines and the structure of each company. Based on this fact, it is advisable to
carry out the cost calculation jointly with the accounting, operation and
maintenance areas, following a simple and transparent calculation method. The
confidence of the participants in the results obtained will be total, considering that
they themselves actively participated in the calculations and did not receive them
already calculated, without knowing the origin of the information.
3.4.3.1 Lubricants 67
1
7
1
It will be necessary to find out from the manufacturer the quantity of each type of oil
in the machine parts and decide the change times according to the standards of
the type of oil and the working conditions. This way, the hourly quantities of oil
consumption will be known and, taking into consideration the unit cost in the
workplace, the cost of lubricant consumption per hour of operation will be
established.
Engine oil changes vary between 75 and 250 hours of operation, typically
depending on the dust and temperature of the job site.
Furthermore, all engines consume oil for different reasons.
It is estimated that if lubricant consumption exceeds 1/20 of the fuel consumption

cost, that engine should be analyzed in more detail to determine the causes of this
abnormality.
In the transmissions and final drives of machines, the lubricant should be changed
twice a year, unless the equipment manufacturer recommends otherwise.
In general, a rule of thumb for determining lubricant costs is the following:
Cost . of . lubricant = fuel.cost . diesel 3

(3.15)
Cost . of.lubricant = 4 of.fuel.cost . gasoline
(3.16)
1
7
2
3.4.3.2 Greases and filters74
For grease consumption, it can be based on the manufacturer's recommendations,

which give the amount of grease that should be used for good maintenance. With
this and the price, the hourly cost is directly obtained.
The use of grease depends on the equipment, so in older equipment between ½ to

3 Kg is required. of grease per day and modern equipment requires greasing every
1000 hours of operation.
In the case of filters, these must be changed according to the manufacturer's

instructions; however, a quick estimate of the cost of filters is as follows:
Cost . of . filters = 20%. at .50% cost of lubricants (3.17)
Although there are consumption data from manufacturers that are already a basis,
it is better to obtain this data on site because filter changes vary enormously
between their periods, in relation to the conditions prevailing at the work site.
3.4.3.3 Repairs75
Major repairs and those requiring constant maintenance increase over the life of
the machine, meaning that if you choose to take an average value, you will have an
excess value at the beginning that will ultimately be a reserve for the future. .
The real cost of this area could be calculated in an ascending manner, but that
would cause the hourly cost of the equipment to constantly vary, giving rise to
continuous adjustments. Although this will be the most realistic system, it is
preferable to calculate an average cost that allows for a constant hourly value for

1
7
3
each machine.
The value of total repairs, which include all direct labor costs inherent to them,
depends on the working conditions to which each type of machine will be
subjected.
There are practical estimates from some manufacturers about this cost of repairs,
but it must be considered that the tax values for introducing the equipment into a
country, the import duties on spare parts, etc., vary the calculation coefficients; On
the other hand, the operation of the equipment is not always specific but often
variable conditions; which suggests that these coefficients should be carefully
evaluated before taking them for cost calculation.
There are several methods for calculating repairs. This document analyzes two of
them.
3.4.3.3.1 According to working conditions
These are the coefficients that have become common to use in the Ecuadorian
environment
Table 3.2 Coefficients for repair (working condition method)
Machines Working Conditions and Application

Easy Medium Severe
Tracked Tractor 0,7 0,9 1,3
Wheel Tractor 0,7 0,6 0,9
Towed Trailers 0,3 0,4 0,6
Scrapers 0,7 0,9 1,3
Motor graders 0,3 0,5 0,7
heavy trucks 0,6 0,8 1,1
SOURCE: RAMON, MAXIMO, ING.; Heavy Construction 1; PUCE; Quito 1994; P. 49
These coefficients multiplied by the net depreciation value (purchase price minus
1
7
4
the value of the tires minus the residual value) give the cost of repairs during the
useful life of the machines and that value divided by the life period in hours, gives
us will give the hourly cost of the repairs.
3.4.3.3.2 Repair factors method
This method used by Nichols, gives a table of repair factors that can be used in
determining the probable costs of repairs and spare parts during the life of the
machine, for adjusting experimental records to new conditions or for clarifying
expenses that have been incurred.
To use these tables, the cost estimator selects the description under each item that
most accurately represents the conditions expected and uses the figure that follows
it. These figures are multiplied together to produce a combined repair factor that is
multiplied by the acquisition price of the equipment and divided by 10,000 (average
useful hours), thus obtaining the hourly cost.
Unless special working conditions have an unusual effect on tire life, these factors
are used for the entire equipment acquisition cost, including tires.
When tires have an exceptionally long or short life due to some special
circumstance, the factors must be applied exclusively to the equipment without
tires and the cost of these must be calculated separately.
This method allows us to calculate, within its generality, the cost of the item with
greater precision since it considers all the variables that arise in this type of work.
Table 3.3 Repair Factors
Kind of team Factor

Concrete mixers all types 0.5
stone distributors 0.5
1
7
5
Static compactor rollers 0.5

jib cranes 0.5
Air compressors 0.8
Standard dump trucks 0.8
asphalt distributors 0.9
Asphalt or crushing plants 0.9
Dragline or clamshell excavators 0.9

Self-propelled pneumatic rollers 0.9
Attack arm shovels or backhoe 1
off road trucks 1
grader motorcycle 1
4 wheel drive front loaders 1
1
7
6
Table 3.3 Continued
Scrapers of all kinds 1.1

Vibratory compactors 1.1
Crawler Dozers 1.2
Tracked front loaders 1.4
2 wheel drive front loader 1.6
Crawler tractor with scarifier 2.5
Total Hours of Use Factor

1000 0.5
2000 0.5
3000 0.6
4000 0.7
5000 0.9
6000 1
8000 1.3
10000 1.6
12000 1.9
16000 2.3
20000 3
Years of useful life Factor

1 0.6
2 0.7
3 0.8
4 0.9
5 1
1
7
7
Table 3.3 Continued
6 1
7 1.1
8 1.2
9 1.3
10 1.4
15 2
Fahrenheit Temperature Factor

Very hot more than 100° (38°C) 1.3
Hot, 85° to 90° (30 to 32°C) 1.1
Normal 32° to 84° (0° to 30°C) 1
Cold, 0° to 31° (-17° to o°C) 1.2
Very cold, below 0° (<-17°C) 2
Working conditions Factor

Mainly reserve 0.4
Light 0.8
Average 1
Heavy 1.4
Hard 2
Maintenance Factor
Excellent 0.6
Well 0.8
Average 1
Bad 1.5
None 3
1
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8
Table 3.3 Continued
Type of service Factor

Large exploitation mine 0.5
Small farm 0.8
Contractor 1
Rental to third parties 1.4
Operator Factor
Exceptional 0.8
Well 0.9
Average 1
Rude 1.2
Apprentice 2
Experience Factor
Excellent 0.6
Good 0.8
Average 1
Limited 1.5
Equipment quality Factor

Superior 0.8
Average 1
Bad 1.5
Work Pressure Factor

baggy 0.9
Average 1
Desperate hurry 1.5
SOURCE: RAMON, MAXIMO, ING. ; Heavy Construction 1; PUCE; Quito 1994; P. 50-52
1
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9
Application example:
A contractor is supposed to purchase a front-end crawler loader for $40,000. This

is a top quality equipment, maintenance is expected to be good, working conditions
heavy, temperature normal, experience, work rush and operation are average; It is
assumed that the machine will be used a total of 6000 hours in five years of work.
Selecting the appropriate figures in each group from table 3.3, we have:
1 .- Kind of team 1.4

2 .-Total hours of use 1.0
3.-Years of life 1.0
4.-Temperature 1.0
5.-Working conditions 1.4
6.-Maintenance 0.8
7.-Type of service 1.0
8.-Operators 1.0
9.-Experience 1.0
10 .-Team quality 0.8
11 .-Work rush 1.0
Multiplying all the factors together obtaining a coefficient 1.2544 = 1.25
Consequently, the hourly cost of repairs, spare parts and maintenance will be:
1.25 *
= $5.00
$40000
10000
Average value of hourly cost of repairs over the assumed life of the machine
3.4.3.3.3 Other methods
There are a wide variety of methods for calculating the costs of repairs, spare parts
and maintenance, provided by different organizations, including the United States
Army Corps of Engineers, The Associated General Contractors of America, both
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from the United States, which calculate based on coefficients. duly tabulated for the
different variables previously announced.
There is also the Caterpillar method which consists of tables and according to the
machine model a factor is obtained, but this calculation can only be used for
machines of this brand.
3.4.3.4 Tires 70
Tire costs are a major part of the cost of any wheeled machine. The best estimate
of this point is obtained when tire life figures are based on experience, using the
prices the owner actually pays when replacing tires.
3.4.3.4.1 Useful life estimator charts
The graphs do not consider additional useful life after retreading. New tires are
considered to be used until destroyed; however, this practice is not necessarily
recommended.
Based on standard tires. Optional tires change these graphics up or down.
The possibility of unforeseen failure (blowout) due to exceeding the km/h limitations
is not considered. Premature failures due to
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punctures from sharp pieces or branches (log skidders) or rocks (loaded trucks,
etc.).
The application areas are the following:
Zone A: Almost all tires wear down to the tread due to abrasion.
Zone B: Some tires wear normally but others suffer premature failure due to rock
cuts, impacts and irreparable punctures.
Zone C: Few if any tires wear down to the tread due to irreparable damage, usually
due to rock cuts, impacts, and continued overloading.
In cases where no history is available follow the useful life estimator graphs shown
below.
Figura 3.1 Tire life estimators

CONSTRUCTION AND
MINING TRUCKS
APPLICATION AREAS
SOURCE: Caterpillar; Caterpillar Performance Manual; Edition 25 Page 17-25 USA 1994
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Figura 3.2 Tire life estimators
WHEEL TRACTORS
WHEEL LOADERS
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3.4.3.5 Goodyear system for calculating tire useful life 71
Currently, there is no completely reliable method for predicting tire life.
Engineers have used various theoretical methods but generally these methods are
time consuming and impractical to use on site.
However, the tire-related industry has done many surveys regarding tire
performance and designed a system that can roughly estimate the service life of
tires.
Studies by major tire companies and at least two major equipment manufacturers
reach a very similar conclusion.
Below is how to apply this system:
Table 3.4 Goodyear system for tire life
Maintenance Factor
Excellent 1.09
Average 0.981
Bad 0.763
71 Caterpillar Caterpillar Performance Manual; Edition 25 Page 17-25 USA 1994

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Table 3.4 Continued

Maximum Speeds Factor
10mph 16Km/h 1.09
20mph 32Km/h 0.872
30mph 48Km/h 0.763
Ground Conditions Factor
Soft soil - no rock 1.09
Soft soil - some rocks 0.981
Well Maintained - gravel path 0.981
Poorly maintained - gravel path 0.763
Blasting - sharp rocks 0.654
Wheel Position Factor
Trailer 1.09
Lead 0.981
Impeller (rear discharge) 0.872
(bottom discharge) 0.763
(scraper motorcycle) 0.654
Burden Factor
Recommended charging 1.09
20% overload 0.872
40% overload 0.545
Curves Factor
None 1.09
Socks 0.981
Severe 0.872
Earrings Factor
Level 1.09
5% maximum 0.981
15% maximum 0.763
Various other combinations Factor
None 1.09
Socks 0.981
Severe 0.872
An average useful life table is also available according to the type of tires and is as
follows:
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Table 3.5 Average tire life

Tire Type Base Average Useful Life
Hours Miles km
E-3 Standard diagonal tarps 251 2510 40400
0 0
E-4 Extra Tread 351 3510 56500
0 0
Radial RL4 Extra Tread 420 4200 67600
0 0
Using the base hours (or km), it must be multiplied by the appropriate factor for
each condition to obtain the approximate estimated hours (or km) as a final
product.
Example:
A construction truck equipped with E-4 drive tires working on a well-maintained

haul road with easy curves and minimal grades and receiving tire maintenance
attention
Selecting the appropriate figures in each group from Table 3.4 and 3.5, we have:
1.- Maintenance 0.981

2.-Maximum speeds 0.872
3.-Land conditions 0.981
4.-Position of the wheels 0.872
5.-Load 0.872
6.-Curves 0.981
7.-Earrings 0.981
8.-Other combinations 0.981
Resulting in a total factor =0.60
Base average life is 3510 hours
The estimated useful life is 3510 hours *0.60=2114 hours, approximating 2100
hours.
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As can be seen this system requires a careful application of strictly subjective

judgments and can be expected to result in a rough and conservative estimate.
However, it should not be forgotten that this system is only offered as an aid to
achieving an estimate and not as a fixed rule.
On the other hand, if the useful life of the tire in a given job is considered to be
shorter than expected, an analysis of these factors can indicate the conditions to
improve to obtain longer tire life.
Replacement tire prices should always be obtained from local companies.
Because tires are considered a wear item in this owning and operating cost
estimation method, the total replacement cost of the tire is deducted from the
delivered price of the machine to arrive at a net figure for the calculation. of
depreciation.
A separate estimate for tires is then included as an item in the operating costs.
Tire costs have to do with two aspects; the replacement cost, and the maintenance
cost thereof (10% of the replacement cost) 72
1.1* Cost . of the . replacement

Cost . schedule =
Life . useful . dear . of the . tire . in . hours
(3.18)
3.4.3.6 Undercarriage 73
Undercarriage costs constitute an important part of the operating costs of track

machines. These costs may vary independently of the basic costs of the machine.
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In other words, the undercarriage can be used in an extremely abrasive, high-wear

environment, while for the rest of the machine the conditions are benign and vice
versa.
For this reason it is recommended that the hourly cost of the undercarriage be
considered as a quick wear item and not included in the repair reserve of the basic
machine.
3.4.3.7 Conditions that influence the duration of the Undercarriage
There are three primary conditions that influence the potential life of track
undercarriage.
1 .-Impact , The easiest effect to evaluate is structural: bending, peeling, cracks,

crushing of the roller flanges, etc., and problems with screws and retention of the
pins and bushings.
Shock load evaluation:

High: Hard, impenetrable surfaces with a protrusion of 150 mm (6 in.) or even
higher.
Moderate: Partially penetrable surfaces with protuberances 75 to 150 mm (3-6 in.)

high.
Low: Fully penetrable surfaces provide full support to the shoe plates with little
protrusion
2 .- Abrasion . The tendency of soil materials to wear away the friction surfaces
on track components.
Abrasion evaluation:
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Intense: Very humid soils that contain a large proportion of sand or hard, angled or
sharp rock particles.
Moderate: Slightly or intermittently wet soils that have a low proportion of hard,
angled or sharp particles.
Low: Dry soils or rocks with a low proportion of sand, angled or sharp particles, or
rock chips.
Combined shock loads and abrasion can intensify the rate of wear more than their
effects alone, further reducing component life.
This should be taken into consideration when estimating the evaluation of shock
and abrasion loads or can be included in choosing the Z factor.
3 .- “Z” Factor , Represents the combined effects of many conditions related to

the environment, as well as operations and maintenance with respect to the
duration of the components in a given job.
Natural ground conditions. Dirt, for example, may not be abrasive but may be the
type that accumulates on the teeth of the drive wheels, which would cause
interference and high stresses when the teeth engage the bushings.
Corrosive chemicals from materials that move or are on the ground can affect the
rate of wear, humidity and temperature would aggravate the effects.
Temperature alone can be an important agent. Hot slag and frozen soils constitute
the two extremes. Constant work on slopes intensifies wear on the sides of
components
Operation: Certain habits of some operators intensify the wear of the chains and
costs if the necessary control is not exercised in the work.
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Such practices include high-speed operations, particularly in reverse; very sharp

turns or constant direction corrections, as well as the chains coming off due to the
engine reaching the limit torque.
Maintenance: Good maintenance standards, proper chain tension, daily cleaning

when working with sticky materials, etc. Combined with regular wear measurement
and timely performance of recommended service tasks, they increase component
life and lower costs by minimizing the negative effects of these and many other
conditions.
It is evident that the choice of the “Z” multiplier is just a matter of judgment and
common sense, but its effects on cost can make up the difference between profit
with properly regulated operations or losses when supervision is neglected.
To help describe the appropriate value of the “Z” factor, it should be considered
that adequate maintenance (or lack thereof) would represent 50% of the effects of
the Z factor; natural conditions and terrain, 30% and operating standards, 20%.
That is why a good operator who works in conditions is enough.
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favorable natural conditions, could counteract these advantages if there is neglect

74
in maintenance and a relatively high “Z” factor would have to be chosen .
On the other hand, care in the maintenance, tension and alignment of the chains
would more than counteract the unfavorable terrain conditions that produce serious
accumulations of dirt on the drive wheels and give rise to choosing a “Z” factor
between moderate and low.
Therefore, flexibility in choosing the “Z” factor is one of the characteristics of the
system and it is recommended to make use of this advantage. Additionally,
considerable control can be achieved over the “Z” factor and reducing the effects
will result in greater benefits.
3.4.3.8 Undercarriage Cost Estimate
The following guide gives a basic factor for various types of track machines and a
series of condition multipliers to modify the basic cost according to the anticipated
impact, abrasion and various “Z” conditions in which the unit will work.
Step 1.-Choose the machine and its corresponding basic factor.

Step 2.-Determine the scale for shock loads, abrasion and “Z” conditions.
Step 3.-Add multipliers of the chosen conditions and apply the sum to the basic
factor to obtain the estimate per hour of the undercarriage.
The result will be an estimated hourly cost for the undercarriage in such an
application.
74
Caterpillar; Caterpillar Performance Manual; Edition 25 Page 17-25 USA 1994
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Table 3.6 Hourly cost estimation factors for undercarriage

Basic Undercarriage Factor
Model Basic Factor
D11R 17.5
D10R 12
5230 11
D9R 9.5
D8R 8.5
973,589,D7LGP,5130 9
D7,963B,578, D6 LGP, D7 XR 8
3,755,080 6.4
D6,953C, 572, D6M LGP, D6 XL, D6 XR 6.2
350 5.3
D5M LGP, D6 SR, D6M XL, D4 TSK, 527 5
330B 4.4
D3C (all), D4C (all), D5C (all), 933 (all), 939, 561H
3.7
325B 3.4
315,317,320B,322B 3
D4 SR 2.5
307 311B, 312B 2.2
Condition Multipliers
Impact Abrasion "Z"

High 0. 0. 1
3 4
Moderate 0. 0. 0.5
2 2
Low 0. 0. 0.2
1 1
Source: Caterpillar Performance Manual Edition 25 Page. 17-30 USA 1994
Example: A D10N works with high impact load and non-abrasion material with a
moderate “Z” factor.
From table 3.6 we obtain:
Basic factor of D10N =12.0
Multipliers I = 0.3
A = 0.1
Z = 0.5
Hourly cost of undercarriage = 12.0*(0.3+0.1+0.5) =$10.80/hour.
75
CATERPILLAR; Caterpillar USA Time and Cost Recording Manual Page. 1
1
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3.4.3.9 Special wear components
The costs of wear components such as blades, ripper tips, bucket teeth, box liners,
guide tips, etc. must be included. and welding costs on booms and arms. These
costs vary greatly depending on the type of application, materials and operating
techniques.
3.4.3.10 Time and cost recording 75
This time and cost record will help maintain data on machine usage and the costs
associated with this usage. It also indicates a method for scheduling inspections
and repairs.
The use of the forms is explained below.
The "Machine Condition Inspection Report" form should be used to make a list of
problems that need resolution.
The "Service Record" has twelve forms, one for each month of the year. (Appendix
2)
All the activity of a machine in a month will be recorded on these forms.

The "Inspection and maintenance program" and "Repair program" columns are for
planning these activities. These two columns and the "Conservation Schedule" at
the bottom of each Service Record form will be used together as follows: (Annex 2)
1. Note the indication of the service meter and the date of the most recent periodic
maintenance (at intervals of 250, 500, 1000, 2000 hours).
2. Add the appropriate interval (250, 500, etc.) to each "Last Done" service meter
indication to get the "Must Done" numbers.
3. Conservation at 250 hours requires more precision to plan in time because it

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includes changing the engine oil.
If a 500-hour preservation period expires within 125 hours of this 250-hour

preservation, that preservation must be planned for the same service meter
indication as the 250-hour preservation.
If conservation at 1000 or 2000 hours must be carried out within a short period, it
must be decided whether all of this conservation should be done at the same time.
In the example shown, a maintenance and inspection is performed from 2000

hours to 5816 hours of the service meter. (Appendix 2)
4. It is estimated that the machine will reach 5,816 service meter hours on June 3,
so "2,000" should be noted to indicate that date has been set for this level of
maintenance and inspection. As inspections and maintenance are "cumulative",
any procedure of fewer hours (250, 500, 1000) will be carried out on that occasion.
5. Repairs are planned in the same way as inspections and maintenance using
some numbering or coding system. This code or numbering system may refer to
entries in "Machine Condition Inspection Reports."
6. If repairs or maintenance are not carried out on the date set, new dates will be
set and noted as well.
7. Upon completion of each scheduled service, the corresponding entry will be

circled. With this system, at a glance you can see the date on which maintenance,
inspections and repairs were actually carried out versus the date set for them to be
done.
Table 3.7 Conservation Program

Conservation program
Last done Must be done/done
75
1
9
4
hours date hours hours

250 hours / /
500 hours / /
1000 hours / /
2000 hours / /
Source: Caterpillar Performance Manual Edition 25 Page. 2 USA 1994
In the "Monthly Cost Summary" part, all the costs for the month related to the
operation of the machine are noted. (Appendix 2)
The "Summary of operation and cost data" form is to summarize a complete

twelve-month period (Annex 2).
Data from each "Monthly Cost Summary" is transferred to the summary sheet for
easy review.
This system of records will accurately indicate the operating costs of the
equipment.
The Operation and Cost Data Summary page is used to determine machine
operating costs and to summarize the data.
When the monthly “Service Record” pages are completed, locate this form and
save it to the permanent record.
To use this form, record the totals for the “Monthly Repair Cost Record,” “Service
Record,” and “Monthly Cost Summary” portions taken from the monthly sheets as
follows:
1. Under "Repair and maintenance costs" enter the appropriate costs in the box
corresponding to the component. Then find the monthly total by adding horizontally.
2. Do the same for fuel and fluid costs under "Operating Costs."
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3. Write down the “Miscellaneous Costs” from the “Monthly Cost Summary.”
4. Record monthly "Operating Data" including values calculated for mechanical

availability and utilization.
To calculate mechanical availability and utilization, the following definitions are

given:
- Planned hours = the time the administrator has planned for the machine to be
able to work in a day.
- Hours worked = the time the machine actually worked in a day.
- Idle hours = the time the machine was ready to work but did not work.
- Stoppages = the hours that the machine was mechanically unable to work during
a period in which a work schedule was programmed and made.
Individual preferences will determine whether time spent on replenishment,

lubrication, and daily inspections is included in planned, worked, or idle hours.
(Generally, these activities are not considered shutdowns.)
To calculate mechanical availability and utilization there are several formulas that
represent different opinions. The two simplest formulas are:
Hours ⋅ worked + time ⋅ idle

Availability ⋅ mechanical = x 100
Hours ⋅ worked + stoppages + idle time ⋅

(3.19)
75
1
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6
Hours ⋅ worked
Use ⋅ ( mechanical ) = x 100
Hours ⋅ worked + time ⋅ idle
(3.20)
In many cases, planned or scheduled hours are considered equal to hours worked
plus downtime plus idle time.
The Cumulative Cost and Operation Data Summary can be used to record
cumulative figures and monthly totals (cost per hour, cost/km, etc.).
The need to calculate cumulative figures arises from the fluctuation of periodic data
(monthly, year to date, etc.), a fluctuation that makes it difficult to analyze. With
cumulative figures it is easier to compare one machine with another.
3.5 GENERAL COSTS
In general, its evaluation does not correspond to those responsible for the
machinery in the company, and is normally set by a corrective coefficient that
depends on the type of company and its operational structure.
1.2 3.6 THEORY OF EQUIPMENT REPLACEMENT DEPLETION OF THE

ECONOMIC LIFE OF AN EQUIPMENT
Theoretically, it is shown that the ideal time to replace equipment is the one that
should provide the lowest average annual costs, that is, when its economic life has
been exhausted.
Economic life is one in which the comparison between the cost-benefit shows us
that it is no longer convenient to continue investing in a team because its profits vs.
its accounting depreciation do not merit it. Expressed in a serious equation:
CPA = DA + MA
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7
(3.(21)
Where:
CPA = Average Annual Cost DA = Accumulated Depreciation MA = Accumulated
Maintenance T = Period in Years
It is also mathematically demonstrated that the Minimum Annual Average Cost is

minimum when it is at full cost.
So:
I=T T
CPA = CT 1 + CT 2 + CTN = 1 CTN = 1 CT ⋅ dT

TI=1 T1
(3.(22)
WHERE :
75
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CT = Total Cost = Accumulated Maintenance Cost (CM) + Accumulated

Possession Cost (CP).
CT = CM + CP
(3.23)
So:
T T.T.
CPA = 1
( CM + CP ) dT = CM
1
⋅ dT + 1
CP ⋅ dT
T1 T1 T1
(3.24)
To obtain the minimum, it will be enough to set the previous equation equal to zero
and differentiate it with respect to time, leaving:
∫
T
T
CPA = CM 1
⋅ dT + 1
CP ⋅ dT =
T
1
T
01
(3.25)
“ 1 SCM ■ dT T
dT T\ + 1 CP
∫
⋅ dT =0
T 1
(3.26)
To obtain the minimum
1T
= CT
1
⋅ dTT.
=0
dT
(3.27)
Solving the equation (derivative of a product) and the integrals by doing:
u = 1 then du 1
T
dT = T 2
(3.28)
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9
T d.v.
v = CT ⋅ dT so = CT
1 dT
(3.29)
And multiplying both members by T we have:
CT = 1 CT dT = CPA
∫
⋅
T 1
(3.30)
T
I=T I = TI = T
CT = 1 ∫CT
T1
⋅ dT = ∑ CT = ∑ CP + ∑ CM
I=1 I=1I=1
(3.31)
The expression of this formula obtained in a spreadsheet is the following:
Table 3.14 Example of Replacement Theory

Year Accumulated Maintenance Total cost CPA
depreciation Accumulated
1 27071 12000 39071 39071
2 21657 15600 37257 38164
3 17325 19200 36525 37617
4 13860 23000 36860 37428
5 11088 26000 37088 37360
6 8870 31000 39870 37778
7 7096 35000 42096 38395
8 5676 45000 50676 39930
9 4541 50000 54541 41553
10 3633 50000 53633 42761
Preparation: The authors
This tabulation of real values shows that the exhaustion point of economic life
corresponds to 5 years.
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CHAPTER 4.
HEAVY MACHINERY CONTROLS
4.1 FLEET MANAGEMENT
Historically, industrial maintenance had its beginnings in the correction of defects

that occurred in equipment (breakage maintenance).
This conception of maintenance, to a greater or lesser extent, is present in studies

carried out on vehicle fleets.
The task of the maintenance technician (Maintenance Manager) should be to

reduce, as far as possible, maintenance due to breakage, in favor of scheduled,
preventive corrective maintenance and aspire to implement predictive
maintenance.76 .
Preventive maintenance is understood as:
Fluid changes and replacements

Routine inspections
Scheduled maintenance (factory plans)
Corrective maintenance is understood as:
Scheduled (scheduled repairs)

Unscheduled (unforeseen repairs)
It can be estimated that each “false saving” in not doing preventive measures
inevitably implies a subsequent expense, five times greater in unforeseen repairs,
76 PELACHI, E; (December 2000); “Fleet maintenance” Maintenance Club Magazine Page.
10
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plus the costs of stopping the production unit.
The dilemma has been observed in the industry: what is the hierarchical location of
the maintenance unit? If it depends on production, if it is at its level or if it is at its
level as it is modernly thought of as a production coordinator. But in the specific
case of a fleet of vehicles and heavy machinery, the dilemma is not such, since this
is the production unit.
The company's profits are generated by the vehicle it maintains and the inputs to
that production unit (spare parts, lubricants, tires, fuel, repairs) are controlled by
maintenance.
In general, the expenses of a fleet of vehicles should be distributed: 60% fuel and
lubricants, 10% tires, outage expenses ( ) should not exceed 5% and maintenance
expenses (including spare parts) no more than 25%.
Figure 4.1 Distribution of Expenses of a Vehicle Fleet
Source: PELACHI, E; (December 2000); “Fleet maintenance” Maintenance Club Magazine

Page. 10
4.1.1 ORGANIZATION OF THE MAINTENANCE OF A FLEET OF

VEHICLES 77
They are presented schematically below:
• Points to consider when carrying out the study.

• Need to have a computer system to support management
77 Horta Gutiérrez, Juan Carlos; World Maintenance Congress Year 2002

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• Points to keep in mind when purchasing maintenance management software.

• A real example of implementation adopted for a fleet of vehicles.
4.1.1.1 Points to consider when carrying out the study
Research of company needs
• Surveys
• From garage and workshop premises.
• From the staff.
• Of the documentation used in the processes.
Determination of evaluation parameters.
• Points of greatest problems of the company (company needs)

• Quantification of current maintenance expenses.
Organization chart.
• Current of the company.

• Current maintenance.
Reports.
• From the current situation of the company's maintenance (quantify costs).

• Of the needs of the company.
• Recommended implementations (indicate the cost reduction that could be

achieved).
Maintenance management.
This must act on:

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• Corrective maintenance
• Programmed
• Non-scheduled.
Preventive Maintenance
• Inspections.
• Fluid changes and replacements.
• Factory-scheduled maintenance plan for each vehicle.
Predictive Maintenance
• Lubricant analysis.
• Vibration analysis.
Controls over:
• Tire management.
• Fuel management
• Lubricant management
• Repairs in own workshops.
• Outsourced repairs.
Spare parts management.
• Movements
• Stock maximums and minimums.
• Suppliers.
Operations
• Mileage or hours of: exit and entry to garage.

• Daily availability of vehicles.
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• Vehicles to order.
• Vehicles in workshops, internal and external.
4.1.1.2 Need for a computer system for management
Given the volume of information handled and the frequent and rapid response that
must be given to the problems presented, the assistance of a computer is
necessary.
Maintenance management software then appears essential. This is a computer tool

for planning vehicle maintenance tasks (supports their management).
As a computer tool, it is not intended to replace the decisions that the person
responsible in your plant must make on the subject; on the contrary, it will allow you
to have facilities that make your task more efficient.
It should be considered that the mere fact of acquiring software is not a guarantee
of good use of it.
An in-depth study of the company's operations is essential, allowing the

customization of the computer system.
To carry out this, it is necessary to invest in advice from maintenance technicians
who also know the capacity of the computer system to be used.
This investment, which is often not anticipated and is generally not offered with the
computer system acquisition package, allows false savings, but is ultimately the
cause of its failure.
It should also be kept in mind that it is necessary to train the personnel in charge of
fleet maintenance.
4.1.1.3 Example of implementation adopted in a fleet of trucks

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5
The fleet is made up of 200 vehicles. These are, for operational reasons, distributed
in five garages, with their respective support workshops, of forty units each. They
work daily, traveling an average of two hundred kilometers in two shifts.
The number of maintenance workers is thirty employees.

The size of the fleet is such that it admits up to 20% of vehicles out of service,
without this being affected.
Situation diagnosis :
There was no definition of tasks to be performed in the central workshop or in its

satellite workshops. This produced the duplication of tasks, tools, technical
personnel and operators in general, making the maintenance service provided
inefficient and expensive.
There was also little historical information on each vehicle, due to the lack of work
orders. Therefore, it was impossible to keep breakdown statistics, scheduled
maintenance controls, real cost studies, control of oil, fuel, tire, spare parts
consumption, etc.
This meant that the maintenance team's decisions were made slowly and late or not
at all.
There was no global maintenance structure and in some workshops not even a
partial one.
Preventive and predictive maintenance was lacking
Measures taken :
Reorganization of the workshops (tasks were assigned to each workshop).

Redistribution of workers.
Creation of a maintenance planning center.
Acquisition of maintenance software.
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Maintenance is organized as follows:
A central workshop and five support workshops located in each of the garages.
In the garage workshops, direct support tasks are carried out for the vehicles, such
as: periodic inspections, fluid replacements, minor repairs (electrical and
mechanical), rubber services (only changing wheels within the workshop), washing,
greasing. . Each garage workshop will have three operators.
In the central workshop, for the entire fleet, corrective measures (mechanical and
electrical), scheduled maintenance recommended by the factory, tire repair and
assistance on public roads are carried out.
There are 15 workers.
All workshops are connected to a computer network (there is maintenance

management software), in addition the central workshop integrates the warehouse,
the fleet planning and control center into the network.
Work orders (scheduled and unscheduled) for the six workshops are issued and
scheduled from the planning center.
Bearing in mind the following observations:
1) Mechanical, electrical, fluid levels, tires
2) Work order is generated
3) Work order is generated
4) The computer system notifies the garage the day before (200 km before) and
the planning office a week before.
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5) It is evaluated whether it is repaired or scheduled for later (due to lack of
available labor or lack of spare parts), while the unit is left in service.
6) It is sent to an external workshop with a referral of the task to be carried out.
7) Work order is generated.
Work orders are generated and closed in the computer system from the work orders
that are sent through the system, in each satellite workshop and in the central one.
4.2 MAINTENANCE TOOLS 78
Below are some notes on the most important tools used to achieve the above
objectives and, in order to present a global overview of what maintenance
management should be.
4.2.1 RELIABILITY OF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
It seeks to reduce the vulnerability of production systems to the occurrence of

equipment damage. The strategies used are associated with:
4.2.1.1 Reduction of equipment impact factors
Reducing the incidence of equipment failure in production systems is achieved

through the implementation of actions such as installation of equipment in parallel or
on stand-by, and the consideration of intermediate inventories (sometimes
necessary, but little accepted from the financial point of view).
4.2.1.2 Contingency plans
Contingency plans have to do with determining the most appropriate procedures to

78 NOGUERA CAMACHO LTDA. Maintenance management an instrument for competitiveness
Bogotá 2002
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maintain the continuity of productive operation in the event of failure of critical
equipment or systems through the evaluation of different alternatives (which is
carried out before failures occur and not during these) it is possible to establish and
document procedures to implement contingency actions in the event of equipment
failure, in this way, at the time of a failure there will be a guide on what to do.
Among other options, the contingency plans contemplate actions such as

equipment rental, production subcontracting, modifications to production systems,
operations with inefficiencies, which can be carried out in parallel to the definitive
repair process.
4.2.2 REDUCTION OF THE PROBABILITY OF FAILURE
To reduce the probability of failure, maintenance actions are basically available:

Routine, Preventive and Predictive; as well as the topics of operator training,
instrumentation and protection of equipment and design of machine operating
procedures.
4.2.2.1 Routine maintenance
It groups together the set of high-frequency and short-duration activities, aimed at

keeping the machine in good operating conditions. It has to do with actions such as
cleaning, adjustment, lubrication, among others.
4.2.2.2 Preventive Maintenance
It seeks to change unforeseen stops associated with equipment damage, for

scheduled stops, with less impact on the company's operation and surely with lower
parts replacement costs.
Scheduled stops are carried out with certain predefined frequencies, in order to
inspect the equipment and detect incipient or ongoing failures before they cause
major damage to the machines.
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The most modern trend is to schedule stops according to condition evaluation,
rather than due to compliance with dates.
4.2.2.3 Predictive Maintenance
It can be defined as the group of activities that, with the help of specialized
equipment, allows equipment to be inspected in order to verify its operating
conditions, with the purpose of detecting incipient failures or levels of wear or
imbalance that must be corrected before they generate problems. in the teams.
This is how, through vibration analysis, thermographic inspections, thickness

measurement, ultrasound analysis, x-rays, lubricant analysis, among others, the
state of machine components can be diagnosed and the need to replace or repair
parts can be determined. , or schedule a stop for internal inspection of the
equipment, and avoid the occurrence of damage that would result in unscheduled
stops almost always associated with affecting production.
The training of operators is also part of the strategies to reduce the probability of
failures, since to the extent that there is proper instruction of the operators, with
sufficient dissemination of operating procedures and handling of the equipment, as
well as a good awareness of the security, the possibilities of failure due to human
error are reduced.
Instrumentation and equipment protection also play an important role in reducing

the probability of equipment failure, as it allows situations that could cause damage
to be detected before they occur.
4.2.3 DAMAGE REPAIR
It is the best known maintenance activity. However, it should be noted that this is
not a matter of repair for the sake of repair. You should think about effective repair,
that is, restoring normal operation with the least possible incidence at a reasonable
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cost.
Sometimes, it is preferable to replace equipment instead of repairing it, or pay air

freight instead of sea freight to bring a spare part, actions that, although they imply a
higher direct cost of the repair, or higher indirect costs, are justified if It involves the
impact on production in the analysis.
To the extent that it is difficult to foresee all failures, corrective maintenance cannot
be avoided. However, together with conditional preventive maintenance, corrective
maintenance can be minimized to a maximum of 3 or 5% of random failures.
Corrective maintenance is not synonymous with unavailability, since immobilization
due to this type of failure is not planned and causes inconvenience in the system.
operation system. In addition, there is a risk of additional failures developing which
may lead to complete rupture of the element.
In relation to corrective maintenance, experience shows that conditional (or

predictive) maintenance provides savings of up to 33% of the maintenance budget.79
4.3 MAINTENANCE MANAGER
The maintenance manager is in charge of the workshop and the controls that
involve maintenance at all levels, which is why he must know the machines and
their mechanisms, and must also have an information base to carry out the controls,
that is, the procedure must have a ordering of machine data so that there is no
confusion, this ordering is done in software programmed by the Company's Systems
Department.
4.3.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE MAINTENANCE MANAGER
The functions of the maintenance administrator are as follows:
79 Maldonado Armando; Basic maintenance concepts applied to vehicle fleets; CONAE; P. 8

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• Define and apply predefined periodic maintenance services necessary to

replenish the work potential of auto parts that become out of adjustment and
wear out over time and mileage.
• Determine the work potential required by the units and their respective
budget for both labor and spare parts.
• Schedule the work to be carried out by the staff.
• Apply standardized spare parts for sensitive components (pumps, injectors,
compressors, etc.).
• Participate in the definition of purchasing programs and spare parts storage
policies.
The first point consists of defining the maintenance plan that adapts to the wear and
tear of the units caused by the characteristics of the work required of them
(kilometers, tons, roads, etc.)
The basic elements of the primary maintenance or conservation plan are:
• Description of the operations to be carried out (A,B,C, etc.)
• The applicable frequency of each service (e.g. A= every 10,000 km, B= every
20,000 km. etc.)
• The duration of each type of service and its respective cost (labor and spare
parts)
• The wear rate of the vehicle considered (e.g. 112,000 km. /year implies an
aging speed of 2000 km. per week)
Knowing the periods contained in the plan and the position of the odometer, it is
possible to predict the approximate date of the different conservation operations to
be applied. For example, if you consider a vehicle that travels 80,000 km. per year,
which starts working on October 27, it is possible to foresee that:
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In 25 days, that is, November 21, a type A primary service will have to be applied
In 50 days, on December 16, a type B primary service will have to be applied, etc.
This is how a program for this unit is built.
Applying the same reasoning unit by unit, it is possible to construct a:
• Monthly maintenance program.

• Annual maintenance program.
• Coordination and execution program.
• Workshop workload schedule.
4.3.2 FUNDAMENTAL TOOLS OF THE MAINTENANCE MANAGER
The maintenance manager must have tools that help him control the fleet of
machinery under his charge, including the fleet inventory and technical manuals.
4.3.2.1 Fleet inventory
It is necessary to know the data that the machines have, such as: the brand, model
and serial number of the machine and engine, power, year of manufacture and
acquisition. In a large company there may be several machines of the same type,
which is why it is necessary to give them a code to differentiate them, so that
can have:
M.P. = Heavy machinery

VP = Heavy vehicle
V.L. = Light vehicle
HE = Electric
Within this classification there may be several of the machines mentioned above.
Within heavy machinery (PM) there are:
ACE = asphalt plant

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B.A. = hydraulic broom
AC = Loader
CL = Cauldron
GIVES= aggregate distributor
EX = Excavator
MC = Lift truck
M.O. = Motor-grader
R.A. = asphalt recycler
R.N. = pneumatic roller
R.O. = Road roller
T.A. = Farm tractor
T.D. = Track Drill
TO = Isothermal tank
TR = Bulldozer Tractor
T.S. = asphalt finisher
YOU = Crushers
Within heavy vehicles (VP) there are:
CL = lubricator truck
CM = 1 and 2 axle trucks
GIVES = asphalt distributor
P.T. = Platform
VR = Dump semi-trailer
T.Y. = Headers and tractor
VO = dump truck
Within light vehicles (LV) there are:
AC = 4x2 and 4x4 trucks

CM = Trucks
J.E. = Jeep
Within electrical equipment (EL) there is:

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C.N. = Concreters
CO = Air compressor
G.E. = Generator set
SE = Electric welder
Knowing these codes you can locate any machine within the company, for example:
MP-TR-09 is bulldozer tractor number nine in the company.
Once the use of this code system has been understood, a general list of the
company's active machinery can be made. It should be noted that in the inventory
there may be machines that are damaged, under repair or obsolete, but they are still
part of the inventory. of the company's assets, that is, the operational status must be
indicated in the list of assets.
4.3.2.2 Manuals
The various machines have their respective manuals, which are divided into three
types:
• Operation and maintenance manual

• Service manual
• Parts and Pieces Manual
The maintenance administrator must know how to use these manuals since they
provide all the technical information about the machine.
4.3.2.2.1 Operation and maintenance manual:
These manuals show safety instructions, control controls, handling, inspection,

maintenance and adjustment, transportation, troubleshooting and technical
specifications of the machine.
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4.3.2.2.2 Service manual:
These manuals show in a more extensive way what an operation and maintenance
manual shows. In addition, the values of the different parameters that are needed in
the repair of machine systems such as tolerances in the gears, pressures of the
hydraulic system, power systems, etc.
4.3.2.2.3 Parts and Pieces Manual:
These manuals indicate the elements that make up the machine in general, with
their respective coding; When a spare part is required, the code must be available
to place the order. These manuals show the diagrams of the parts or diagrams of
the entire system.
These manuals serve as a reference both for carrying out maintenance and for
purchasing spare parts. Every time one of the machines is in a camp, a copy of the
manuals must be sent to coordinate activities with the headquarters.
4.3.3 COMPLEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE OF THE MAINTENANCE MANAGER.
Maintenance management goes far beyond the technical aspect by incorporating

the tools described above. Maintenance management requires a combination of
complementary knowledge and skills that cover various areas such as:
4.3.3.1 Human resources management
It has to do with aspects such as selection, induction and training, awareness and
motivation of personnel about the mission of the maintenance area; management of
the business climate and development of talent and human potential (a valuable
resource underestimated in many companies).
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4.3.3.2 Administration and financial analysis
For the optimal use of human, technical, physical, and financial resources assigned
to the maintenance task; and for correct decision making associated, for example,
with the costs of having spare parts in inventory vs. cost of not having it, financial
cost of unscheduled stops, investments in infrastructure for contingency plans, etc.
4.3.3.3 Planning
Planning, for the adequate programming of the different activities, includes aspects
such as preparation of equipment stops, availability of spare parts, production
scheduling, preparation of human and technical resources, etc.
4.3.3.4 STATISTIC ANALYSIS
Statistical analysis and management indicators, to practically manage and use

indicators such as mean time between failures, availability and unavailability
coefficients, analysis of the most frequent causes of stoppages, productivity,
compliance with production times, among others.
4.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF A PROGRAM

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
The machines that were presented in chapter I have activities given in certain cycles
and items that must be changed, these items have a code given by the
manufacturer and can be obtained in the parts manuals of each machine, with
which you can predict when they will be changed. They will need certain spare parts
and coordinate with the procurement department to be able to have a stock in the
warehouse.
As noted in previous paragraphs, regular preventive maintenance is the most cost-

effective way to keep machines working at maximum performance. With good
preventive maintenance you can:
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• Schedule downtime and plan maintenance and repair costs.
• Helps avoid major failures and related part failures.
• You save money because you can often repair before failure occurs.
• Maximize the reuse of parts.
• Optimizes the useful life of equipment to keep machines on site.
• Increases the resale value of the machine.
4.4.1 METHODOLOGY TO DETERMINE THE OPTIMAL FREQUENCY OF

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE80
One of the methodology proposals to determine the optimal frequency of preventive

maintenance is the following,
Step 1: Make known the objectives of this work.

Explain the sequence and procedure to be used.
Step 2: Compile master preventive maintenance schedule.

Compile annual maintenance stoppage program.
Step 3: Select the equipment to analyze, for example: critical equipment,

equipment with a higher frequency of failure, equipment with a higher maintenance
frequency, equipment that consumes more resources.
Step 4: Collect information from selected equipment: delays,
80 Huacuz, H. (2002, July) “Determination of the optimal maintenance frequency” Maintenance club
magazine No. 10 Page. 20
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equipment history, work methods, test protocols, program compliance and
modifications.
Step 5: Analyze the information collected, present a report and conclusions.
Step 6: Observe the performance and deviations of the selected team

during operation, as well as the application of work methods.
Step 8: During maintenance stops, observe the application of the

work methods, general condition in which the selected equipment was found as well
as the faults presented.
Step 10: Develop and implement predictive/proactive maintenance.
Step 11: Prepare and present proposals. What modifications need to be made to
work methods, labor or equipment to improve the team's performance for a longer
period of time.
Step 12: Propose the new maintenance frequency.
Step 13: Monitor and evaluate the results obtained with the new frequency and
make the necessary adjustments.
Step 14: Update maintenance frequencies in programs

teachers.
4.4.2 PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SCHEDULING PREVENTIVE

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MAINTENANCE81
Oil performs three main functions: cleans, cools and lubricates components.
Because systems have metals, elastomers, and paper materials that require
lubrication, you must change the oil regularly and appropriately and use the proper
oil for maximum performance.
The oil provides the transmission and final drive components, which operate within
very tight tolerances, with a protective film that separates them. Changing the oil at
proper intervals is essential for the component to achieve its maximum useful life.
It is recommended to change the transmission and final drive oil every 1000 hours,
but this is only a guide.
The actual useful life of oil is determined by many factors, including operating
conditions. Monitoring oil analysis results helps establish appropriate intervals.
Proper control of drain intervals also means you will make optimal use of the fluid's
lubricating and protective properties and achieve maximum component life.
Changing fluids too early is a waste of money because you waste part of the fluid
life. Changing fluids too late causes oil deterioration and shortened component life.
Determining the best drain interval period requires some effort, but the reward is
noticeably lower operating costs.
It is extremely important that the oil is changed properly. You can reduce the
chances of contamination:
Draining oil when hot and agitated

Drained the dirty oil as much as you can
81 CATERPILLAR; Caterpillar Drive Train Systems Administration Guide; July 1998; USES; P. 5
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Motor oils reduce friction between moving parts.
Drive train oils allow some friction to occur between the discs and plates when they
mesh - friction that is critical to proper drive train performance.
Fluid filters work in unison with oil to control contamination within machine systems.
By changing filters regularly and appropriately and by selecting the correct filters,
system cleanliness is maintained, component wear is reduced, and costs are
lowered.
It is recommended to change the oil filters in the transmission systems every 500
hours.
In hydraulic systems, the oil must be changed after 1000 hours of operation and the
filters in its different lines must be replaced every 500 hours.
The internal combustion engine is the main component that requires the greatest
care in the machinery that is being studied and must be changed oil and filters for
both oil and fuel after 250 hours of operation.
4.4.3 ACTIVITIES AND MAINTENANCE CYCLES
Preventive maintenance is not only the oil change but also involves other activities
that are still essential. Below is an example of maintenance letters for mobile
construction machinery; In this case it is a bulldozer tractor.
Table 4.1 Activities and maintenance cycles for tractors

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ACTIVITIES ACTIVITIES
Transmission oil change
DAILY ACTIVITIES Hydraulic oil change
Visual inspection of the entire machine Final drive oil change
Check oil levels Change of air filters
Check radiator water level Changing the radiator coolant (water)
Check leaks in general Change of bypass filters (those that have them)
Check the operation of the hour meter Converter shaft seal
WEEKLY ACTIVITIES Checking the condition of electrical cables
Check tension and condition of undercarriage chains Check starter motor and alternator
Final drive oil level check Battery check
Drain water and sediment from fuel tank General brake check
Check lights, switches and controls ACTIVITIES D
Greasing all joints of the bulldozer and npper Check and clean turbo charger
ACTIVITIES A Adjust and calibrate engine valves and injectors
Engine oil change Vibration damper check
Change engine oil filter General inspection of the welds of the structure
Fuel filter change CYCLES
General check of hose clamps EVERY 250 HOURS OF SERVICE
Battery check ACTIVITY A
ACTIVITIES B EVERY 500 HOURS OF SERVICE
Hydraulic oil filter change ACTIVITY A+B
Transmission filter change EVERY 750 HOURS OF SERVICE
Change water filter (those that have it) ACTIVITY A
Band tension check EVERY 1000 HOURS OF SERVICE
Radiator cleaning ACTIVITY A+B+C
Cleaning the fuel tank EVERY 2000 HOURS OF SERVICE
Cleaning air filters ACTIVITY A+B+C+D
SOURCE: CATERPILLAR; Caterpillar Drive Train Systems Administration Guide;
Table 4.2 Bulldozer tractor maintenance chart
Komatsu D155A-1
MP-TR-01
Activity amount Specification Alternat

e
Weekly
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Grease all joints of the bulldozer
and ripper Necessary MOL-EP-2
Every 250 hours of service

Engine oil change 16 gallons 8C3704
Change engine oil filter 2 600-211-1230
Fuel filter change 2 600-311-8291

Hydraulic oil filter change
1 07063-01100
Transmission filter change 2 175-43-14130

Change water filter 2 600-411-1020
Bypass filter change 1 6610-51-5300
Transmission oil change 40 gallons 8T9573

Hydraulic oil change 30 gallons 8T9581
Final drive oil change
30 gallons 8T9584 UGL-90
Change of internal-external air filter

1set 6128-81-7042
Converter shaft seal Necessary MOL-EP-2

Source: Constructora SA
4.4.4 MONITORING AND MONITORING OF PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Preventive maintenance includes many techniques, such as correctly selecting and

changing oil and fluid filters that will help prevent small problems from turning into
large repairs, which is why it is necessary to keep track of the maintenance
performed and the upcoming ones with their projections you can have software for
this objective, in this case an Excel spreadsheet is shown with the monitoring of
preventive maintenance of a fleet of a specific project.
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Table 4.3 Preventive Maintenance Monitoring
Machine Last Maintenance Performed HOROM. Next Maintenance
Missing Hs
No. 250 500 750 1000 DATE CURRENT 250 500 750 1000
EL-CO-11 259 26-Nov-00 289 220 - 509 - -
EL-GE-13 4111 07-Apr-02 4,228 133 - 4,361 - -
EL-GE-17 4100 24-Jun-01 4,100 250 - 4,350 - -
EL-SE-14 2621 21-Apr-02 2,727 144 - 2,871 - -
MP-CA-04 7087 17-Nov-00 7,087 250 - - - 7,337
MP-CA-07 6811 31-Aug-01 6,811 250 - - - 7,061
MP-CA-08 18104 11-May-02 18,135 219 - 18,354 - -
MP-CA-10 3229 20-Feb-01 3,407 72 - - 3,479 -
MP-CA-11 7146 29-Apr-02 7,344 52 - - 7,396 -
MP-CA-NV 134 07-May-02 217 167 - 384 - -
MP-DA-01 216 10-Nov-00 362 104 - 466 - -
MP-EX-12 2720 12-May-02 2,720 250 2,970 - - -
MP-EX-15 922 13-Jun-00 1,682 -510 - - 1,172 -
MP-EX-16 8900 20-May-02 8,900 250 - - 9,150 -
MP-EX-17 2968 01-Feb-01 3,002 216 - - 3,218 -
MP-EX-21 95 13-Jun-01 188 157 - - 345 -
Source: Constructora SA
As shown in the previous table, monitoring depends on the feeding of hour meters
or mileages, depending on the current case, of the machines, which are fed into the
program daily. These data are given by the operators and drivers of said machines
and vehicles.
4.5 PERIODIC INSPECTIONS OF HEAVY MACHINERY
Operators can take the first step in inspections by listening to the equipment, this
will help locate potential problems before they become major repairs. The daily
visual inspection shall include a complete visual and operational check of the drive
train system. Drive train components usually indicate problems with early warning
signs, such as:
• fluid leaks (antifreeze, diesel, oil, air, etc.)

• warming up (tyres)
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• friction (metal or other parts)

• games (cardan)
• breakage of parts (springs etc.)
External appearance of the vehicle (paint, lights, tire condition)
• Internal appearance of the cabin

• Dashboard Indicators
• clutch set
• gear lever play
• internal cleaning and care
Upper part of the engine
• Leaks
• band tension
• fan game
• connections (hoses, pipes)
Interview with the operator and preparation of the corresponding report.
• Fan operating status.- Motor temperature variation outside the normal range
of 75 to 85 C? Excessive operation of the fan clutch? Excessive operation of
the air conditioning compressor? Yes, consider checking the fan, fan clutch,
thermostat, air conditioning condenser, water pump. Possible
overconsumption of the order of 5 to 8%
• Operating status of the air compressor.- Variation in engine power? Difficulty

operating within the normal range of engine revolutions? Check for air leaks
and/or service brake adjustments.
Ask if there are brake problems (probable overuse of brakes).
Possible overconsumption of the order of 1 to 3%
Suspicious noises or other operator observations
Below is an inspection sheet that must be carried out periodically by the

maintenance administrator or the technician in charge. This sheet is only a
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reference, you can design others and add comments or other data of importance for
maintenance.
Table 4.4 Caterpillar machinery inspection table
Machine Condition Inspection Report
Engine/Cooling System
Alright Needs attention Brand Comments/repair recommendations
Brand of fuel filters
Oil filter brand
V-Belts (worn, cracked)
Restriction Air filter (indicator)
Hoses (Flexible, cracks, leaks)
Fuel lines (leaks, general condition)
Radiator core (damaged, clogged, leaking)
Intake/exhaust (prisoners, cracks, leaks)
Electric system
Cables, wiring (loose, broken)
Batteries (corrosion, fasteners)
Lights/horns/alarms (damaged, inoperable)
Windshield wipers (worn)
Instruments (Damaged, inoperable)
Several
Transmission /Torque converter /Differential /Final drives /Brakes
Shift/brake linkages (damaged7bent)
Transmission (leaks)
Torque converter (leakage)
Wheel rims (damaged, bent)

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Wheel captives (broken/missing)
Motor grader chains/drive wheels (Worn, loose)
Hydraulic system
Mang /Pipes /Connections (damaged, leaks)
Cyl. Steering (leaks, condition of the rods)
Lift Cylinder (leaks, condition of the rods)
Cyl. Tilt (leaks, condition of the rods)
Other cylinders (leaks, condition of the rods)
Hydraulic Tank (Sight Glass, Damaged)
Bombs (leaks)
Valves (leaks, filtrations)
Undercarriage
Alright Needs attention Brand Comments/Repair Recommendations
Drive wheels (damage)
Idler wheels (cracked, damaged)
Rollers (cracked, damaged)
Track shoes (Damaged, worn)
Tortillería (weak, missing)
Chain tension (tight, loose)
Links (cracked, splintered)
Cutting tools
Blades (excessive wear, loose hardware, cracked, broken)
Adapters
Tips (missing)
Wear plates
Bucket, Bulldozer (cracked, worn)
Machine
Alright Needs attention Brand Repair comments/recommendations
Hood, panels, guards (missing hardware, damage)
Fuel tank (Cap, damage)
Ladders, handholds (Damaged, loose)
Operator Seat Status
ROPS cab (damaged)
Cabin glass
Paint
Several
Source: Caterpillar After-Sales Service Department
4.5.1 ADVANTAGES OF VISUAL MAINTENANCE CONTROL
Visual maintenance control has some advantages, among which the following can
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be mentioned:
Saving time, time to inspect the machine, to change parts, to operate the
equipment, to perform maintenance.
Reduction of errors, since the information is visible on the same machine.

Visual systems help convert complex equipment data into simple and, above all,
accessible information.
They help the people who operate or maintain the equipment to be more effective
and efficient in the tasks they perform.
They collaborate with the induction of new personnel, as everything is properly

identified and the processes explained on site using flow charts.
They help improve quality because the parameters within which the different
process variables must be are easily identifiable on site.
4.6 OIL ANALYSIS AS A MEASURE OF

PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE
Fluid analysis is the best way to verify what is happening within drive train systems.
It consists of tests that allow problems related to wear to be predicted.
This section presents an example of a fleet maintenance application with the help of
used oil analysis.
4.6.1 EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION OF FLEET MAINTENANCE BASED ON

OIL ANALYSIS (SEQUENCE OF EXPERIENCE)
There are sheets that the operator of a fuel distribution truck fills out in which the
gallons that are distributed to a certain machine or heavy vehicle are noted, in
addition, another data that is available is the hourometer or speedometer according
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to the case.
Based on the reports that the truck delivers to the warehouse, tables were made of
the actual diesel consumption per hour or per kilometer based on consumption data
for one year.
With which we have the fuel consumption column

With which you have the engine oil column.
After this, the unprecedented factor of oil degradation by fuel was applied.
Engine_Oil_Quantity
Oil _ fuel _ degradation factor =
fuel_consumption_per_hour
(4.1) It
is observed that this factor fluctuates between 0 to 3, with which I have imposed a
criterion to determine the frequency of engine oil change.
Table 4.5 Oil change frequency criterion

Parameter Criterion
0-1 200
1-2 250
2-3 300
SOURCE: CONSTRUCTORA SA
Since if this value is the smallest it means that there is greater fuel consumption in
relation to the amount of oil in the crankcase, which implies greater degradation.
While if the factor is larger it means that fuel consumption is lower and the oil
degrades less.
The number of hours 200, 250, 300 is chosen taking into account a table in the
information brochure on how to optimize oil change intervals, which says the
following:
Sampling periods to establish optimal oil change intervals For engines with
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recommended oil change intervals of 250 hours, which is the case of this particular
company since engine oil changes were standardized some time ago at 250 hours ,
based on recommendations and not based on any study.
New oil samples

Baseline sample
(samples at reduced intervals)

75 hours
150 hours
(recommended change interval)
250 hours
(first long interval)
300 hours
(second extended interval) 350 hours
Below is a summary of the table made with the information obtained for the
company's entire fleet of machinery.
Table 4.6 Analysis table with factor and frequency recommendation

oil change
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Machine Code Average Oil of Factor Recommendatio
n
Real Gal/h engine
Motor grader MP-MO-06 3.5 8 2.3 300
130G
Motor grader MP-MO-10 4 8 2 250
140G
Tractor MP-TR-34 6.5 8 1.2 250
D6H bulldozer
Loader MP-CA-10 4 7 1.8 300
Mega 400-III
Loader MP-CA-15 4 8 2 250
Mega 400-V
Electrogen EL-GE-15 18 9 0.5 200
Kohler 350
dump truck VP-VO-30 3.10 10.3 3.3 300
Mercedes
3348K
In the column that shows the recommendation with the factor, it is observed that the
Mercedes Benz fleet has a recommendation of 300 hours, that is, the frequency of
change will increase, which would imply a reduction in maintenance costs.
Additionally, the dump trucks have been monitored since in heavy vehicles the
control is carried out in kilometers traveled, but additionally these vehicles have a
program on the control panel that, by carrying out a routine, the working hours can
be verified and through monitoring For 6 months it was determined that these
vehicles (Mercedes Benz Actros 3348) work with an average speed of 20Km/hr.
In road construction projects, we work a minimum of 8 hours a day and if there is

relief of drivers, the machines work 30 days a month and work all year round.
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1
hours days months hours
8 hours x 30 hours x 12 months = 2880 hours
day month year year
Therefore
hours km = 57600 km
2880 x20
year hou yea
r r
The changes are being made every 4000 km. based on recommendations from
mechanics who have worked with these machines, that is:
4000 km
= 200
km hours
20
hou
r
It is being changed every 200 hours of work.
On the other hand, if it travels 57,600 km in the year. and the change is done every
4000 km.
It has been realized
57600 km
year
4000 km
Changes
change = 14.4
yea
r
That is, 15 changes per year in each vehicle.
With the oil degradation factor, it is indicated that the change must be made after
300 hours, which indicates that:
km
20 x 300 hours = 6000 km
hour
2
3
2
It will be done every 6000 km
57600 km
year
= 9.6 That is, 10 changes a year.
6000 km year
change
5 changes are reduced in the year (regarding only the engine)
Now we compare what a Mercedes engine oil change represents

Benz for Actros 3348
Fuel filter 10.40

Oil filter 11.58
Gas exhaust filter 31.92
10.3 gal 15w40 oil 65.20
There is a total of 119.10 dollars per change, which implies that a total of
Dollars
5 changesx 119.1 = 595.5 dollars
change
Having a fleet of 32 Mercedes Benz there is a saving of
32 x 595.5 dollars = 19056 dollars
19,056 dollars, which is not an insignificant figure and is a step that has been made
in maintenance savings.
Oil analyzes in a brief summary show the following:
VP-VO-30
Shows at 4000 km . Taking into account that the average speed of the Mercedes
Benz Actros 3348 dump trucks is 20 km. /hr. You have a 200 hour job.
2
3
3
The values are within the normal wear range, there is no presence of water or fuel,
the oil is in normal conditions.
Faith To the Yeah Cr Cu Pb na Yes

4 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Values in parts per million (mg/l)
VP-VO-41
Benz Actros 3348 dump trucks is 20 km. /hr. You have a 200.9 hour job.
The values are within the normal wear range, there is no presence of water or fuel,
the oil is in normal conditions.
4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Benz Actros 3348 dump trucks is 20 km. /hr. You have a job of 254.7 hours.
The wear values are within the normal range for the hours of oil operation, there is
no presence of water or fuel. Oil conditions are normal

8 2 3 1 1 1 0 0
The oil degradation factor indicates that the change should be made after 300
hours, that is, at 6000 km.
2
3
4
4.7 CONTROL OF CONSUMPTION AND REPAIRS
When taking as an example two similar vehicles, that come off the same production
line, the same model, with the same specifications, you have to ask yourself if they
are going to have the same wear and tear, logically the answer would be no. Since
these two vehicles will be operated differently, they will not make exactly the same
routes, they will not have the same load weight, etc.
Therefore, it is necessary to establish consumption monitoring, with homogeneous

groups of vehicles by type and activity.
Repair monitoring helps you select repair options before and after a failure occurs
and control repair costs. It allows you to plan and schedule repairs, so you can get
your machines back to work quickly and with confidence.
Additionally, the total useful life of the machine can be determined.
4.8 SPARE PARTS CLASSIFICATION
Those who work in maintenance management of heavy machinery will have

realized that there are mechanical elements that are replaced continuously, others
that are replaced sporadically and finally spare parts that will be changed only once
in the life of the machine.
It is for this reason that spare parts can be classified into one of these three
categories.
It must be classified according to the type of machine, or it can be classified

according to the model of a certain machine, and a study must also be carried out
on the frequency of change of these elements.
This work must be done with the warehouse and mechanics department, and then
captured in a computer system.
2
3
5
4.9 FAULT ANALYSIS
There are several factors that indicate symptoms as a diagnosis with which we will
know how to proceed and provide the appropriate solution. Failure analysis aims to
eliminate repetitive failures and provide for revision or replacement of parts used
before failure or breakage.
Only a failure history with an analysis by vehicle and by family, depending on time
or mileage allows us to observe the critical level, but also the behavior of the
operators and the quality of maintenance influence.
For the different elements that make up the machinery and heavy vehicles, tables of
possible failures have been prepared with their possible solutions. These tables are
shown in the previous chapters.
The coding of interventions takes full meaning if the information is analyzed. If it is
only archived for the simple purpose of giving an idea of the distribution of
interventions by mechanical group, it is not worth it.
The failure analysis has been designed to be properly analyzed, month by month,
and also to know how often certain failures are repeated.
Knowing the repetition rate of a failure allows us to determine a solution to that

type of problem.
Knowing the kilometer interval of recurrence of a failure leads to considering an

adjustment of the maintenance service frequency, that is, an adjustment of the
maintenance plans.
In other words, this is adapting the maintenance to the machine and not the
machine to the periodicity proposed by the manufacturer since the latter data results
from calculations by the supplier under different conditions.
From now on, failure analysis must be carried out systematically. The preventive
intervention periodicities must be adjusted based on a permanent periodic analysis
2
3
6
of the failures of the month.
This should translate into a massive reduction in workshop times for corrective
work, and better working conditions for scheduled preventive maintenance.
Achieving this is a goal since it is logical to want to minimize maintenance; The
company's business is in the project, not in the mechanics, which is only a
necessity.
In addition to mechanical failures, there may be failures due to operation and driving
style.
Failures in relation to operating conditions
Suspension
Tires
Failures related to driving style
Clutch
Brakes
Tires
Differential
Gimbal arrow
2
3
7
CHAPTER 5.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
1. This work constitutes an introduction to maintenance tasks for neophyte

personnel, but it also has topics that could be useful to professionals in the
field.
2. Maintenance management is mandatory in medium or large-sized

companies and in any company that requires maintaining its performance at
adequate levels.
3. The maintenance administrator must be involved in cost management.

2
3
8
4. The maintenance manager must maintain constant communication with

senior management and other areas of the company, such as warehouses,
procurement, finance, human resources, systems, etc.
5. All machines must necessarily have parts and service manuals, which are
basic for the technical performance of maintenance tasks.
6. The maintenance software must be appropriately chosen, as far as possible

be tailored to the company's requirements, have continuous advice and
updates.
7. It is necessary to have prior knowledge of reading hydraulic and pneumatic

plans to understand the operation of the machines, which mainly work
thanks to these systems.
8. It is necessary for the maintenance manager to acquire specialized
maintenance literature and other relevant disciplines, and to demand that
machinery suppliers have complete manuals for the equipment they supply.
9. It is advisable to identify external workshops to know their capabilities, and

to be able to use them when required.
10.It is good practice to maintain contact with owners of similar machines, to be

able to share information about them and rent them if required.
11.Ensure continuous training of maintenance collaborators through courses

and seminars that can be given by the same suppliers. This makes the
technician feel motivated and feels part of a company that thinks about
them.
12. Try to maintain a large bureau of suppliers so as not to depend too much on
any one, and not fall into monopolies that increase costs.
13. It is good practice to perform all machinery record updates daily and not
2
3
9
allow information to accumulate since an updated report may be required at

any time.
14. As a result of good maintenance you may have not very busy days, but
there is always something to do.
15. With a deep knowledge of the equipment, you can innovate or update the
machines, which is why you have to constantly investigate how they work.
16. Do not let instruments or non-vital parts of the machines remain unrepaired,
as these damages accumulate until it is necessary to stop the equipment.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
1. Villegas L, Machinery and Construction Course .

2. Marks, L, Mechanical Engineer's Manual , Mac Graw Hill, Volume 2, Mexico
1996.
3. Komatsu, Komatsu Operation Manual .
4. Caterpillar, Caterpillar Latin America Brochure , USA 1998.
5. Caterpillar, Brochure for the entire range of Caterpillar Tractors and Forestry
Tractors , 1997
6. Caterpillar, Caterpillar Performance Manual , Edition 25, USA 1994
7. Days of the River, Construction Machinery Manual , Mc Graw Hill, Spain
2001
8. Daewoo, Commercial Brochure Daewoo 170W-V Excavators
9. Caterpillar, Caterpillar Excavator Range Brochure , USA 1998
10. Dumper, Commercial Brochure 775D for Quarries
11. Actros, Actros Commercial Brochure, 2000

12. Nordberg, Nordberg Commercial Brochure , USA 1998
13. Liebherr, Tower Crane Technical Manual , 1996
14. Super pave, Super Pave Manual , Volume 3
15.Caterpillar, Caterpillar Asphalt Paving Manual , USA 1991.
16.Ingersoll Rand, Compaction Data Ingersoll Rand , USA 1997.
2
4
0
1 7.Ihc beaver, IHC Beaver Technical Manual , Netherlands 1982.

18 .Prado, Customized Maintenance Management Manual , Uruguay 1996
19 .Torres, Maintenance, Implementation and Management , Argentina 2005
20. www.ceroaverias.com
21.Amendola, Mixed Reliability Models , Venezuela 2002.
22.Maldonado, General Navy Magazine , Vol. 249, 2005
23.Arias Paz, M, Tractors , Dossat, Spain 1965
24.Tavares, L, Modern Maintenance Administration , Brazil 2000
25.www.mantenimientomundial.com
26 .Trist, B, Some Social Consequence of the Longwall Method of Coalgetting ,
United Kingdom, 1975
27 .CIED, Introduction to Operational Reliability , Venezuela, 2000
28 .Máximo, R, Heavy Construction I , PUCE, Quito, 1994
29 .Noguera Camacho, Maintenance Management an Instrument for
competitiveness , Bogotá, 2002
30 .Maldonado, A, Basic Concepts of Maintenance Applied to Vehicle Fleets ,
CONAE.

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NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL

UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND

PREPARATION OF A MANUAL FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF

PROJECT PRIOR TO OBTAINING THE ENGINEERING TITLE

NEY XAVIER BURBANO CIFUENTES

EDISON JOSÉ SANDOVAL TAPIA

DIRECTOR: ING. JAIME VARGAS

Quito, May 2008

Ney Xavier Burbano Cifuentes Edison José Sandoval Tapia

ING. JAIME VARGAS

To my dear Mother, Bertha Cifuentes for her care, to my

With all my love to my beautiful daughter María José

To God who has guided me

Mechanical Engineering is directly linked to civil constructions in some aspects;

Among the tasks of mechanical engineers is that of handling the maintenance of

CIVIL CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY

1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAVY MACHINERY44

• Machinery for hauling and transportation

• Aggregate treatment machinery.

• Drilling, pinning and driving machinery

44 VILLEGAS, LIBORIO; Machinery and construction course ET070

• Machinery for bituminous pavements.

• Specific machinery for ports.

1.1.1 EARTHMOVING MACHINERY

1.1.1.1 Crawler Bulldozer Tractor

It is a crawler tractor that is used to mount bulldozers, rippers, winches, cranes,

Tractors with diesel engines, torque converters and transmissions (gearboxes) of

Bulldozer tractors can perform the following applications:

In case of even harder ground, a ripping accessory is used in order to obtain a

Uniformization: The irregularities of the terrain resulting from excavation can be

Tree felling : A tree from 10 to 30 cm. in diameter, it can be knocked down by

46 KOMATSU; Komatsu Operation Manual

Figure 1.1 Crawler Bulldozer Tractor

Source: Panamericana Construction Magazine March 1996 page. 25

1.1.1.2 Bulldozer tractor on wheels47

47 CATERPILLAR; Caterpillar Latin America products brochure; 1998

Figure 1.2 Wheeled Bulldozer Tractor

Source: Caterpillar Latin America products brochure 1998

1.1.1.3 forestry tractor48

1.1.1.4 Motor grader

Figura 1.5 Motor grader

Source: The authors (construction via Zamora Yanzatza)

1.1.2 EXCAVATION MACHINERY

Within earth excavation machines, several types must be distinguished according

Until then, excavators were simply fundamentally mechanical equipment. Currently,

1.1.2.1 Push excavators

50 CATERPILLAR; Caterpillar Performance Manual; Edition 25; 1994; P. 4-117

Source: The entire range of Cat excavators. Caterpillar

1.1.2.2 Dragline excavators51

The uses of these machines can be divided into two groups:

Figura 1.7 Crawler backhoe

Source: Caterpillar Latin America Products

1.1.2.4 Clam spoon 10

1.1.2.5 Wheeled excavators 53

Wheel excavators combine the most important advantages of track excavators,

Wheeled undercarriages allow you to work on paved streets, squares, parking

Wheeled excavators are excellent material handlers, capable of loading or

Optional stabilizers and/or dozer blades can be bolted to its undercarriage to