Article

Journal of College Student Retention:

Research, Theory & Practice
Dating Violence 0(0) 1–24
! The Author(s) 2019
Perspectives of Latino Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
College Students: DOI: 10.1177/1521025119837675
journals.sagepub.com/home/csr

Considerations for
Violence Prevention
Programming

Elizabeth Terrazas-Carrillo1 ,
Ediza Garcia1, Jonathan Brise~
no1, and
1
Itzamara de la Cruz

Abstract
This study sought to explore dating violence perceptions from Latino students in
a college setting with the goal of enhancing knowledge for developing successful
culturally tailored preventive interventions that decrease Latino college student
dropout and enhance persistence. Focus groups including 35 college students attend-
ing a Hispanic Serving Institution were conducted. Conventional qualitative analysis
showed Latino college students prefer dating violence prevention programming that
places a focus on interdependent self-construals emphasizing relationships, which is
consistent with their collectivistic values. Moreover, participants addressed unique
cultural characteristics of Latinos that should be considered in any dating violence
prevention program targeting this population.

Keywords
dating violence, Latino college students, machismo and marianismo, interdependent
self-construals, collectivism

1
Texas A&M International University, Laredo, TX, USA
Corresponding Author:
Elizabeth Terrazas-Carrillo, Texas A&M International University, 5201 University Boulevard, Laredo,
TX 78041, USA.
Email: Elizabeth.terrazas@tamiu.edu
2 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

As the largest and fastest growing ethnic group in the United States (Grieco,
2010), Latino millennials are enrolling in colleges at high rates (Musu-Gillette
et al., 2016; Patten, 2016). However, studies show that Latinos have low rates of
college persistence (Murphy & Murphy, 2018). Early studies of college student
persistence suggest that academic and social engagement are essential to prevent
student dropout (Astin, 1993; Tinto, 1993). Rumberger and Lim (2008) propose
that academic performance is linked to college student engagement, which is, in
turn, defined by social factors, academic performance, psychological factors,
and background factors. Social factors have been shown to significantly
impact the persistence of Latino students in college (Cheng & Mallinckrodt,
2015; Gonzales, Brammer, & Sawilowsky, 2015), and some research suggests
social engagement is more important and predictive of persistence for Latinos
than for non-Latinos (Gonzales et al., 2015). However, student engagement can
be disrupted by dating violence (DV) during the college years (Mengo & Black,
2016). DV—physical, sexual, and psychological abuse between partners in an
intimate relationship (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC],
2017)—is more prevalent among college students aged 18 to 25 years than
among any other age-group (Breiding et al., 2014). Mengo and Black (2016)
found that experiencing any type of DV in college is associated with significant
declines in grade point average and an increased likelihood of dropping out.
Research studies show that DV is associated with serious mental health con-
sequences including depression, low self-esteem, anxiety, suicidal ideation and
attempts, and substance dependence (Cornelius & Resseguie, 2007). These
mental health concerns may impair a college student’s ability to concentrate,
organize, and recall information and decrease a student’s ability to engage with
others due to shame, guilt, or embarrassment (Jordan, Combs, & Smith, 2014).
The severity of these symptoms may be compounded for Latinos because they
are less likely to utilize counseling services offered by universities (Kearney,
Draper, & Baron, 2005) and more likely to experience heightened stress
responses due to the isolation that often accompanies DV, which is experienced
as incongruent with their cultural values and identity (Campos & Kim, 2017).
High prevalence rates of DV for Latinos in college is concerning because DV
can be prevented by providing culturally tailored knowledge and skills training
to individuals about healthy relationships and nonviolent problem-solving con-
gruent with the socioecological model (CDC, 2015, 2017). Nonetheless, to date,
the literature regarding DV among Latinos has focused on older adults in com-
munity settings or teenagers in middle and high school (Cummings, Gonzalez-
Guarda, & Sandoval, 2013). The demographic shift of more Latinos attending
college and the lack of studies related to DV among college-attending Latinos
emphasize the need for research on their perspectives and preferences regarding
DV prevention.
Terrazas-Carrillo et al. 3

Literature Review
The available research on DV and academic and student engagement suggests
that experiencing DV disrupts social connections and lowers academic engage-
ment due to the psychological impact of trauma symptomology (Jordan et al.,
2014). Further, identifying DV as the reason a student’s academic performance
and social engagement decrease requires insight on the part of the student
(Jordan et al., 2014). Often, students may attribute their dropout from college
to mental illness without necessarily linking it to DV and since many students do
not report DV to the police or campus disciplinary boards, the dropout
is assumed to be related to other factors (Jordan et al., 2014). A study by
Griffin and Read (2012) found that students experiencing sexual assault
during their first college year were more likely to drop out in their second
year. Similarly, Mengo and Black (2016) found a higher dropout rate among
students who experienced sexual violence victimization compared with the drop-
out rate for the general student population. College women who experienced
physical victimization by a partner were also found to be more likely to drop out
of college over a 4-year period (Smith, White, & Holland, 2003), and research
exploring the impact of psychological aggression by a partner found that
it negatively impacted academic achievement (LeBlanc, Barling, & Turner,
2014). In addition, Banyard et al. (2017) reported that any kind of victimization
by a partner (physical, sexual, and psychological) was significantly associated
with lower scores on student engagement measures associated with persistence,
such as academic efficacy, institutional commitment, and scholastic
conscientiousness.
The evidence accumulated to date suggests DV victimization is linked to
cognitive impairment resulting from traumatic stress (Jordan et al., 2014).
An individual experiencing traumatic stress is likely to experience involuntary
intrusive memories that impair the ability to focus, assimilate, analyze, and
remember novel information; in fact, depending on the length, frequency, and
severity of these symptoms an individual may be diagnosed with Posttraumatic
Stress Disorder (Van der Kolk, McFarlane, & Weisaeth, 2007). Another
common sequela of experiencing traumatic events is related to autonomic ner-
vous system hyperarousal, which may be expressed as intense social anxiety and
depressed mood (Van der Kolk et al., 2007). It follows that a student experienc-
ing these symptoms as a result of DV is less likely to attend and concentrate in
class, recall important information about assignments, and feel comfortable in
social settings. Thus, the available research suggests experiencing DV in college
can lead to academic withdrawal.
Estimates suggest that Latino women aged 18 to 24 years have a 29.7%
lifetime prevalence of physical violence, a 6.2% lifetime prevalence of
rape, and a 6.8% lifetime prevalence of stalking (Breiding et al., 2014).
4 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

Available estimates for Latino men show their lifetime prevalence of victimiza-
tion is 5.1% for stalking and 26.5% for physical violence (Black et al., 2011).
Latinos lag behind other ethnic groups in retention and graduation rates (Fry,
2011). Recent data show only 22% of Latino adults (25 years and older) earned
an associate degree or higher compared with 39% of all adults in the United
States (Musu-Gillette et al., 2016). Research suggests the low persistence rates
among Latinos are linked to systematic disadvantages including
first-generation college student status, lower socioeconomic status, and higher
rates of trauma symptomology associated with discrimination (Alfaro, Uma~ na-
Taylor, Gonzales-Backen, Bamaca, & Zeiders, 2009). Research specific to
Latino college students’ persistence found that establishing a sense of commu-
nity and connectedness to other students of similar cultural backgrounds is
essential to their persistence (Murphy & Murphy, 2018) because it parallels
the sense of connectedness experienced in their communities of origin
(Gonzales et al., 2015). This research suggests that Latinos have a higher risk
of dropping out of college; thus, experiencing DV would only compound their
risk of dropout.

DV in the College Population

There are advances in DV prevention research at the high school level
(Cornelius & Resseguie, 2007). For example, the Safe Dates curriculum for
high school students reduced DV by targeting social norms regarding violence,
gender stereotyping, and training in conflict management skills delivered
through a 10-session curriculum, a theater production, and a poster contest
(Foshee et al., 1998). However, there is a need to bridge these prevention efforts
as individuals transition from high school to college because while dating in the
teenage years is primarily focused on exploration, dating in the college years is
more focused on commitment (Arnett, 2000). Yet a significant risk factor for
DV among college students is a misunderstanding of what constitutes a healthy
relationship due to elements such as tolerant DV attitudes, endorsement of
traditional gender roles, and a lack of skills to cope with anger and communicate
effectively with a partner (Hays, Michel, Bayne, Colburn, & Myers, 2015).
Despite the negative outcomes associated with DV, many college
students who experience DV report an intention to remain in those abusive
relationships (Miller, 2011). Moreover, while bystander intervention programs
exist to prevent sexual victimization (Banyard, 2014), fewer programs include
initiatives to prevent all forms of DV on universities and none target Latino
college students specifically (Banyard, 2013; Cornelius & Resseguie, 2007). As a
result, more research is needed to understand the dynamics of DV within
Latinos in college.
Terrazas-Carrillo et al. 5

DV Among Latino College Students

According to the National Center for Education Statistics, the percentage of
Latinos enrolled in college increased from 4% to 17% between the years of 1976
and 2014 (Musu-Gillette et al., 2016). This enrollment growth coincides with
research showing that Latina college students are at higher risk of experiencing
aggravated assault and rape or sexual assault compared with their non-Latina
counterparts (Hart & Rennison, 2011). Moreover, according to one study of
Latinas attending college in the South Texas region, at least 43% experienced
DV in the past year. Of concern is the realization that only 25% of these Latinas
who experienced DV saw physical violence as a problem in their relationships
(Coker, Sanderson, Cantu, Huerta, & Fadden, 2008). This finding further sug-
gests that understanding perceptions regarding DV is of foremost importance to
prevent DV among Latino college students.

Factors Impacting DV Prevention Programming

Among Latinos
The socioecological framework proposes that DV is the result of a complex
interplay between individual, cultural, and environmental factors (CDC,
2015). Adopting this framework to study DV among Latinos facilitates the
development of culturally informed prevention strategies and treatments for
this minority group (Cummings et al., 2013). Thus, societal factors that may
influence DV among Latinos and should be assessed include acculturation,
machismo and marianismo, and collectivism (Cummings et al., 2013).
Acculturation is the process through which individuals from one culture
come to another (Berry, 2003). Acculturation can impact relationship dynamics
such as family functioning and gender roles, especially if one partner endorses
Anglo values (Grzywacz, Rao, Gentry, Marin, & Arcury, 2009). Accordingly,
the risk of DV increases for more acculturated women with partners who were
less acculturated and endorsed more traditional gender roles (Soriano, Rivera,
Williams, Daley, & Reznik, 2004). Machismo and marianismo are Latino tradi-
tional gender roles providing prescriptions for appropriate behavior based on
an individual’s gender (Vandello & Cohen, 2003). Machismo is a traditional
masculine gender role prescription among Latinos requiring men to be tough,
aggressive, and controlling (Vandello & Cohen, 2003); however, this gender role
also includes values like family protection, wisdom, spirituality, and dignity
(Arciniega, Tovar-Blank, Tracey, & Anderson, 2008). Endorsement of tradition-
al masculine norms has been associated with a higher likelihood to engage in
aggressive behavior and, specific to Latino men, a heightened sense of male
dominance is a risk factor for perpetrating partner violence (Basile, Hall, &
Walters, 2013). On the other hand, marianismo prescribes that women
should reflect the attributes of the Virgin Mary: virtue, humility, spirituality,
6 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

self-sacrifice, and family dedication (Castillo, Perez, Castillo, & Ghosheh, 2010).
This gender role may make women vulnerable to partner violence and may keep
them in abusive relationships because of the pressure to self-sacrifice to maintain
the family intact (Vandello & Cohen, 2003).
Latinos tend to be collectivistic, which means they perceive their self as inter-
dependent and intertwined with the selves of others (Markus & Kitayama, 1991).
The interdependent self-construal is one based on connectedness and of
seeing oneself as part of an encompassing social relationship and recognizing that
one’s behavior is determined, contingent on, and, to a large extent, organized by
what the actor perceives to be the thoughts, feelings, and actions, of others in the
relationship. (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, p. 227)

In other words, an interdependent construal of the self is focused on connection

through fitting in, meeting expectations of others and social norms rather than a
person’s internal wishes (Campos & Kim, 2017). Since smooth interpersonal
relationships promote the well-being of the collective, there is an emphasis on
maintaining harmony among individuals (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Thus,
humility, deference, and self-effacement are common social norms in collectiv-
istic cultures, implying that individuals must understand others and draw mean-
ing from their social context and interactions (Markus & Kitayama, 1991).
Among Latinos, convivial collectivism is expressed by fostering and maintaining
interdependent relationships through active and frequent expressions of positive
emotions, having frequent gatherings, and engaging in personalismo, which is
the Latino cultural expectation emphasizing intimate and caring interactions
between individuals (Campos & Kim, 2017). This type of collectivism makes
Latinos more reliant on close relationships with family and friends to obtain
support and plays a significant role in mental health outcomes (Campos, Rojas
Perez, & Guardino, 2016; Cheng & Mallinckrodt, 2015).
Overall, there is a dearth of studies addressing an integrated approach to
violence prevention in college campuses (Banyard, 2013, 2014). This gap in
the literature is greater pertaining to knowledge of the DV prevention prefer-
ences of Latino college students (Cummings et al., 2013), yet advancing knowl-
edge and understanding of their perspectives regarding prevention of DV would
have a meaningful impact in their college persistence. Thus, the purpose of this
study is to obtain information about Latino college students’ perspectives and
preferences for DV prevention at a Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI).

Method
Participants and Setting
The study included a purposeful sample of 35 undergraduate students. Since the
study focuses on overall Latino college students’ perceptions and preferences
Terrazas-Carrillo et al. 7

regarding DV programming, the criteria for selecting participants included:

(a) being older than 18 years old and (b) enrollment in at least one undergrad-
uate course. The participants’ mean age was 22.5 (SD ¼ 2.7), and the median
annual household income reported was $55,000 (SD ¼ 41,435). Other demo-
graphic characteristics of study participants are provided in Table 1.

Procedure
Upon obtaining approval from our university’s institutional review board, we
began recruitment by announcing the study in undergraduate classes. Guidelines
for focus group (FG) research suggest the ideal size for obtaining in-depth
information about an issue is five to eight participants to allow space for every-
one to share their views (Krueger & Casey, 2015). Thus, we decided to conduct
seven FGs with five participants in each group. During each FG session, the
group facilitators established ground rules for discussion, the importance of
confidentiality, and expressing opinions in a respectful way. Participants com-
pleted a paper-and-pencil demographic survey prior to beginning the FG, which
asked information about their age, country of origin, race or ethnicity, year in
college, and household income. The FG protocol included 11 open-ended ques-
tions addressing the participants’ perceptions and preferences regarding DV
prevention strategies (see Appendix). Questions for the FGs were created after
reviewing the literature relevant to DV and Latino sociocultural characteristics.
When relevant, FG leaders asked probing questions specific to the participant’s
comments and referred to earlier comments from participants to identify and
clarify incongruences. FGs were led by seven graduate students, were digitally

Table 1. Sample Demographic Characteristics.

N %

College classification
Senior 14 40
Junior 9 26
Sophomore 6 17
Freshmen 6 17
Gender
Men 11 31
Women 24 69
Sexual orientation
Heterosexual 31 89
Homosexual 1 3
Bisexual 2 6
Birthplace
United States 31 89
Mexico 4 11
8 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

recorded, and lasted between 60 and 90 minutes. Participants received extra

credit in undergraduate courses for study participation.

Data Analysis
Analysis of data was carried out using a conventional qualitative content anal-
ysis based on a constructivist epistemology. Constructivism postulates that
knowledge and meaning are constructed by each individual rather than existing
independently of human beings (Creswell, 2007). Conventional qualitative con-
tent analysis is recommended when the aim of a study is to describe a phenom-
enon where limited information or theoretical perspectives are available
(Miles & Huberman, 1994). This approach to data analysis is characterized by
the development of inductive categories and themes based on participants’ nar-
ratives; thus, it requires researchers to bracket all preconceived knowledge to
allow categories to emerge from the data (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). The authors
conducted a 2-day training for FG leaders about the research project and
engaged the team in bracketing by openly articulating our thoughts regarding
DV. These reflections resulted in acknowledging assumptions made through
every step of the data analysis and during consensus meetings. Each graduate
student transcribed their FG recordings and used Atlas.ti 7 for data analysis. All
authors and FG leaders were involved in the coding of the data by following
these steps: (a) Authors and FG leaders read all the FG transcripts to get per-
spective of the whole study, (b) groups of two FG leaders were assigned to read
one FG transcript word by word to find meaning units within segments of text
that highlight key thoughts or ideas, thereby creating codes (Creswell, 2007),
(c) once codes were created for all transcripts, the third and fourth authors
sorted them into categories depicting the links and relationships between
codes resulting in the creation of meaningful clusters, (d) the first and second
author then independently verified the coding and categories created, (e) all
authors and FG leaders then identified themes that emerged from the category
clusters by examining differences, similarities, and linkages to summarize find-
ings from the study (Creswell, 2007).
All FG leaders and authors involved in the data analysis participated in
consensus meetings to reach agreement on themes and categories. During con-
sensus meetings, all authors engaged in discussion of categories and themes,
going back to the transcripts to verify participants’ narratives, and revising
themes to reflect the views expressed by study participants. During these meet-
ings, authors and FG leaders brought forth previously articulated DV precon-
ceptions, which led to reviewing our understandings when new insights came to
light (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Results reporting include quotes from the
transcripts to provide thematic descriptions using the participants’ own words
(Creswell, 2007). All names used in the manuscript are pseudonyms.
Terrazas-Carrillo et al. 9

Given limited contact with participants, triangulation by member verification

of findings was not possible. However, trustworthiness was established through
credibility, dependability, and confirmability. The researchers established cred-
ibility—ensuring that the findings are congruent with reality—by (a) adopting
well-established methods of data collection, such as using semistructured inter-
views based on previous studies, (b) acquiring familiarity with the culture of the
college students’ life that is reflected on the questions asked, (c) encouraging
participants at the outset to be frank in their answers, and (d) asking probing
and iterative questions, where the interviewer returns to previous answers given
by participants to highlight contradictions in the narrative (Creswell, 2007).
Dependability was established by reporting in detail the processes of the
study, enabling future researchers to repeat the work (Creswell, 2007).
Confirmability was established by staying close to the experiences of the partic-
ipants throughout the project and articulating preconceptions held by the
research team and bringing them up at each stage of data analysis (Miles &
Huberman, 1994).

Major Themes
Latino collectivistic culture was evident in participants’ narratives
emphasizing their preference of active involvement in and maintenance of
relationships to prevent DV. Two major themes emerged from the
narratives: (a) the importance of interdependent self-construals and (b) a nar-
rative related to their preferred elements of DV prevention programming (see
Table 2).

The importance of interdependent self-construals. As the Latino culture is collectiv-

istic and self-construals tend to be interdependent, Latinos are motivated to be
part of multiple interpersonal relationships and to change behavior in response
to what others need (Campos & Kim, 2017). Given the importance of this
interpersonal flexibility, the categories and subcategories within this theme
were tied to understanding and managing relationships. Specifically, three cat-
egories emerged within this theme: (a) distinguishing types of relationships,
(b) consequences of staying in abusive relationships, and (c) factors influencing
romantic relationships.

Distinguishing types of relationships. Participants expressed a desire to learn

about characteristics of relationships so they may better adapt, understand, and
manage them. Four subcategories emerged from the data: (a) characteristics of
healthy relationships, (b) characteristics of abusive relationships, (c) maintaining
harmonious relationships, and (d) conflict management skills.
10 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

Table 2. Major Themes, Categories, and Subcategories Describing the DV Prevention

Perspectives of Latino College Students.

Major themes Categories Subcategories

The importance of Distinguishing types • Characteristics of healthy

interdependent of relationships
self-construals
Consequences of staying
in abusive relationships
Factors influencing
relationships
Preferred elements Collectivistic orientation
of DV prevention
programming
Diverse programming
DV ¼ dating violence.
relationships
• Characteristics of abusive
relationships
• Maintaining harmonious
relationships
• Conflict management skills
• Family
• Culture
• Media
• Include information on
community resources
providing help
• Foster warm and caring
relationships with other
students
• Include participants from diverse
backgrounds
• Include first-person experiences
to programming
• Use variety of activities and media
to deliver curriculum

Characteristics of healthy relationships. Participants indicated that there are rela-

tively few sources of information about what specific behaviors characterize
healthy relationships. Jorge (male, 20 years old) expressed this need as follows,

There is a lot of pamphlets that tell you what is not a healthy relationship. But
there is a lack of pamphlets that tell you what is a healthy relationship. They will
tell you ‘this is wrong’, but they don’t tell you what is the correct thing.

On the other hand, Alicia (female, 25 years old) expressed “sometimes people
might be in unhealthy relationships and not see it. [. . .] . It happens over and
over again and they just stay because they don’t know it’s wrong.” In general,
participants expressed interest in learning to identify the attributes of healthy
relationships as a first step in preventing DV among college students. This find-
ing is consistent with Hays et al. (2015), who found that one of the major
Terrazas-Carrillo et al. 11

reasons why students do not seek out help when they are in abusive relationships
is the lack of insight about what constitutes a healthy relationship.

Characteristics of abusive relationships. Participants expressed a perceived need to

learn about the signs of an abusive relationship as a way to prevent entering into
violent or abusive marriages later on. Specifically, Jorge (male, 20 years old)
expressed “it would be a good opportunity [to prevent unhealthy relationships]
because we are in the age [. . .] where you get married. So, before we get into
problems a little bit of background information would help.” Participants also
believed it to be important to learn about all types of abusive relationships. For
instance, Mary (female, 20 years old) said,

I feel like also people need to understand that an unhealthy relationship is not just
like them hitting you or anything like that. It’s them not making you feel [good],
[. . .] insulting you, or being [possessive] because a lot of people especially in our
generation think it’s okay for them to be possessive, and that’s not healthy.

Other participants believed it is important to identify controlling behaviors,

specifically alluding to partners’ efforts to isolate and manipulate their signifi-
cant other. For example, Ariana (female, 20 years old) explained a lack of trust
is expressed “When they tell you ‘you can’t see your family,’ I think that’s one of
the biggest signs. [. . .] Like for someone to take you away and get you isolated,
that’s a dangerous sign.” Another participant, Silvia (female, 22 years old)
shared a personal experience regarding controlling behaviors,

I’d be working or something, or I forgot to say I am going to work and have like
100 calls when I like got out of work. But I feel like people need to know that’s not
normal because I thought it was fine for him to ask me what was I doing all the
time and to be calling when I was with my friends and for him to say ‘prove that
you are with your friends’ and like not even my mom [asked me that], you know.
We think it’s okay because they care, but it’s not.

Many participants reflected on the difficulty associated with realizing they are
in an unhealthy relationship. Paola (female, 27 years old), echoed this idea
and added,

My roommate was in an unhealthy relationship and she would always make

excuses for him. Like ‘oh it’s because he’s scared’ or ‘he’s nervous that I’m
going to break up.’ You have to [. . .] realize that what he’s doing is being
controlling.

Participants’ suggestion of including information by support services personnel

(e.g., advising and mentoring center and student counseling) that leads to
12 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

identification of abusive relationships is important, especially in light of their

recognition that it may sometimes be difficult to identify certain relationship
patterns. The reliance on social norms and contextual cues to shape relational
behaviors (Markus & Kitayama, 1991) may make it difficult to distinguish
healthy from unhealthy relationships. Hence, knowledge about types of rela-
tionships could potentially provide a different set of social norms concerning
dating and prevent DV.

Maintaining harmonious relationships. In collectivistic cultures, maintaining har-

monious relationships requires the ability to communicate not only through
explicit messages but also through contextual cues (Markus & Kitayama,
1991; Singelis & Brown, 1995). It follows that these Latino participants
expressed a desire to learn effective communication to apply with partners,
family members, and friends. For example, Jorge (male, 20 years old) stated,

Effective communication is something of the utmost importance for us to recognize

and to understand and incorporate, make part of our relationship with people, not
only our spouse or significant other, but again with friends and family as well. So, I
think communication is probably the biggest component that we need to under-
stand in order to have healthy relationships.

Specific to romantic relationships, Jessica (female, 24 years old) said “[You have
to] be able to communicate with your significant other. Any disagreement or
anything you don’t like, you just talk it over instead of simply just getting
frustrated, aggravated.” This suggestion is also further validated by literature
suggesting an inability to communicate effectively with a partner may trigger
escalation of conflict and lead to DV (Hays et al., 2015). Moreover, research
suggests that serious conflicts between family members and significant others are
associated with heightened levels of stress among Latinos given the importance
this group places on interdependence self-construals (Campos & Kim, 2017).

Conflict management skills. Another perspective expressed by study participants

was a desire to better maintain relationships with significant others, friends, and
family members by learning to effectively manage conflict. Participants also noted
that learning this skillset would be a meaningful way to prevent DV among
Latinos in college. For example, Mary (female, 20 years old) suggested DV pre-
vention programming should include information on “how to fight fair, because
sometimes we don’t realize how, when we are fighting, we get offensive and maybe
we approach it in another way we can work it out. It wouldn’t get so bad.”
A similar comment was made by Jessica (female, 24 years old), who said

there are people who get upset easily, [or] take it way too far, and like I would say it
would benefit a lot of people to be knowledgeable of all the different levels of
Terrazas-Carrillo et al. 13

aggression and [. . .] they should be able to learn [better ways] to handle themselves
and get access to help.

Conflict management skills can deescalate couples’ arguments that otherwise

may lead to aggression against a partner, thereby preventing potential situations
leading to DV (Hays et al., 2015). Because of the importance of convivial col-
lectivism among Latinos, the existence of conflict and discord can have a
negative impact on their well-being (Campos & Kim, 2017); thus, learning to
manage conflict can prevent escalation of conflicts into DV and have the added
benefit of promoting well-being among Latino college students.

Consequences of staying in abusive relationships. As college students, these Latino

participants shared their perceptions of the toll abusive relationships can have
on students’ functioning in the context of their college career. For instance,
Daniela (female, 21 years old) stated,

I think it could make you [. . .] don’t want to hang out with your friends anymore,
and so you may not be as involved in the organizations that you once were. And, it
also, it could probably affect your GPA because you might find yourself, [. . .]
missing deadlines, or, not being able to keep up with the classwork or not even
attending class.

Jessica (female, 24 years old) also reported.

Dating violence can be a traumatic experience for anyone. And so, it could
make you feel uncomfortable in a college setting and, make you really not
want to attend anymore. [. . .] I think that it could really affect your other relation-
ships, like your friendships, and so, it could make you not want to come to school
at all.

A participant also reflected on her own academic struggles as a college student

having been in an abusive relationship. Victoria (female, 28 years old) shared,

I was in a relationship for five years, and when I was in this relationship, [. . .]
I wasn’t doing as well in school as I should have been, and [there was] a moment
when I realized that this [relationship] was not healthy and I ended it. After,
I started doing well in school. [. . .] It could have saved me a lot of time and
heartbreak if I would have [had] help from school [and] help from family or friends.

Overall, participants recognized the negative impact abusive relationships can

have on academic engagement, which further emphasizes the need for culturally
tailored DV prevention initiatives at the college level.
14 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

Factors influencing relationships. Participants suggested DV prevention efforts

should address the influence of culture, family, and media on shaping relation-
ships. For example, Nicolas (male, 23 years old) mentioned,

It’s a give and take. Your partner might be from a different background and you
need to understand what that all entails in terms of culture. Like Hispanic[s], we’re
really loud when it comes to family [. . .] and we don’t intend for it to be hurtful. It’s
[. . .] just how it is culturally.

Another participant, Luis (male, 21 years old) alluded to the impact of cultural
gender role expectations on dating relationships and stated,

Culture can impact our relationships. Like since we come from the Mexican back-
ground, [there’s] machismo, and I see it a lot in my family. Like my mom’s sister
and her daughter get pressured to serve the food [to my uncle] and wash the dishes
and do the laundry, so culture impact[s] our way of [having] relationships.

Similarly, Ariana (female, 20 years old) shared

I grew up in a traditional Mexican family, where my dad was machista, and what-
ever he said, went. I think it was very unfair, and I saw it as normal. But now,
I’m starting to see it as it’s not normal and it’s possible to be equal.

Yet another way in which culture may impact DV prevention programming was
brought up by Roberto (male, 22 years old), who expressed it would take time to
implement DV prevention programming in a primarily Latino community of
college students, specifically stating,

[Talking about DV] is not something that’s normal within our culture. It’s some-
thing new, it’s something that hasn’t really been explored. It’s going to take some
time to implement [any] program within our community. I think it’s going to be
[important] to spread awareness, and reassuring people that it’s okay to seek help
or to be curious about these things.

Overall, participants acknowledged the role cultural expectations play in setting

norms for romantic relationship behaviors (Cummings et al., 2013). Their reflec-
tions show an important shift between their views and those of their family,
a hallmark of acculturation (Berry, 2003).
Participants recognized that parental examples influence what is perceived as
normative in the Latino community. For instance, Paola (female, 27 years old)
said people learn about relationships from parents “because obviously if you see
your parents fight you are going to and then if you have those types of fights
with your significant other, you’re going to think its normal because I guess your
Terrazas-Carrillo et al. 15

parents went through it.” Similarly, Jessica (female, 24 years old) noted that “if
you come from a home where your mom and dad are always arguing, you might
grow up thinking that’s okay. So, you need like someone to tell you that it’s not
ok.” Therefore, taking into consideration family values within the cultural con-
text is key in the development of DV prevention programs.
Moreover, participants in the study emphasized the impact of media in shap-
ing expectations and knowledge about relationships. For example, Paola
(female, 27 years old) said

I think we see a lot [it] from entertainment, from like shows and TV [and] we think,
‘oh that’s a healthy relationship’ or like ‘that’s a bad relationship.’ Then
I was thinking ‘that’s not actually real’ [but] we think that it’s [how things are]
supposed to be.

Overall, participants stressed the importance of factors that influence and shape
the expectations of college students regarding relationships. Their suggestions
are consistent with the socioecological framework, which proposes DV is a
multilayered and complex process requiring a variety of strategies to prevent
DV among different ethnic groups (CDC, 2017).

Preferred elements of DV prevention programming. The importance of people and

relationships emerged as the common thread linking the categories and subca-
tegories of this theme. Specifically, two categories emerging from this
theme were as follows: (a) collectivistic orientation and (b) diversity-oriented
programming.

Collectivistic orientation. The importance of convivial collectivism was evi-

dent in the observations made by participants, whom they expressed would be
more likely to engage in DV prevention programming if it taught them how to
provide support to friends or family members dealing with abusive relation-
ships. For example, Eric (male, 24 years old) reported attendance to any poten-
tial DV prevention program would be motivated “not necessarily for personal
reasons, but to help out [others].” Similarly, Silvia (female, 22 years old) said

Some people [say] ‘I just didn’t see the signs,’ or ‘I knew too late,’ and if you had
more knowledge of when to see these early signs of aggression, like maybe you
could have changed their mind before anything happened, because for some people
it gets to a point where it’s too late, they lose their life, or get hurt.

Participants highlighted that they would be responsive to DV prevention pro-

gramming including information about resources and strategies they can use to
help friends or family members. For example, Luis (male, 21 years old) indicated
he would like to learn about “resources where you can go and be taught
16 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

[to distinguish] between good and bad [relationships] and recognizing the signs
of a bad relationship. That way you can help your friends.” Based on their
responses, students seem interested in learning effective strategies to help friends
and family members. This behavior aligns with the convivial collectivism char-
acteristic of Latinos, which focuses on maintaining interdependence through
positive and constructive interactions that provide support to important
people in their lives (Campos & Kim, 2017).

Diverse programming. This category focuses on diversity of perspectives,

modes or delivery, and programming strategies that would motivate participants
to engage in DV prevention programming. As most Latino college students are
millennials, they tend to value inclusion of voices from diverse genders, sexual
orientations, and families of origin (Patten, 2016). Participants affirmed their
perception that hearing a variety of perspectives related to DV would be appeal-
ing for Latino college students. For example, in Lucinda’s (female, 25 years old)
FG, there was only one male participant. Part of her feedback was that
“it would’ve been cool if we had more men in the group [to hear their] opin-
ions.” Another participant, Jessica (female, 24 years old), suggested to involve
“more people, because then you really see, how [it is] for other people in their
house, you know because not everybody comes from the same families.” Marina
(female, 25 years old) suggested that programming should be sensitive to inclu-
sion of college students “who have same-sex parents or just a single parent.”
These suggestions highlighted these college participants believed DV prevention
programming should be committed to inclusion of diverse perspectives.
In addition, suggestions for diverse modes of programming delivery included
creating DV programming in a class format, as attending classes is a significant
and familiar part of their lives; thus, they suggested DV prevention program-
ming would be suitably delivered in a class format. For instance, Rafael (male,
21 years old) stated,

A class that would help you [learn about healthy relationships] would be very nice
in college. In college, for freshman year, because [. . .] people at this time are going
into relationships. I think that would help a lot of people who are entering this age
where a lot of [unhealthy] things happen.

A similar suggestion was provided by Jessica (female, 24 years old), who favored
programming that would resemble a “class similar to sexual education in some
schools, so they should [also] have one for relationships.” Participants also
shared ideas of potential activities that would make DV prevention program-
ming attractive to a Latino college student audience. Specifically, many sug-
gested DV prevention programs should include first-person experiences so
that the concepts discussed could be more relatable. For example, Eric (male,
24 years old) suggested adding first-person experiences through “visual aids, like
Terrazas-Carrillo et al. 17

videos, and about [specific] situations,” and Jessica (female, 24 years old) sug-
gested activities where participants “can picture ourselves and then we explain
our thoughts and feelings towards that certain situation.” Another participant,
Jesse (male, 24 years old) said “[I want to] hear about other people’s experiences.
That they have been in unhealthy relationships and they know about it [and
having] the freedom to express those things.” For these participants, a sense of
intimacy and comfort would be an important factor making any DV prevention
programming attractive. Specifically, Lety (female, 22 years old) expressed she
would like DV prevention programming to allow “freedom to express [our
views] in a confidential way. Where we can speak about it without being
called stupid.” These suggestions for DV prevention programming fostering
positive, active engagement, and maintenance of relationships are consistent
with interdependent self-construals characteristic of the convivial collectivism
found in Latino culture (Campos & Kim, 2017).

Discussion
DV is a significant problem affecting many college students. It is important that
universities promote DV prevention programming because DV victimization is
shown to significantly impact students’ likelihood to drop out due to disruptions
on their social environment, manifestation of severe psychological symptoms,
and declining academic performance. Since Latinos have higher college dropout
rates compared with students from other ethnic groups, attention to their DV
prevention perspectives, preferences, and needs is important. The purpose of this
study was to explore Latino college students’ perspectives and preferences for
DV prevention with the goal of obtaining an integrated understanding of cul-
turally congruent DV prevention strategies that can ultimately foster Latino
college persistence. Results from this research highlight the importance of con-
sidering the cultural context to prevent DV and the associated dropout among
Latino college students. Two major themes were highlighted: (a) the importance
of the interdependent self-construal and (b) preferred elements of DV preven-
tion programming. In collectivistic cultures, the self is intricately connected with
others in their social system; this interdependent self-construal is whole through
being in relationships (Campos & Kim, 2017). However, relationships require
flexibility and adaptation, and each individual must rely on contextual and
social cues to determine behavior (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). It follows that
Latino college students in the study expressed their preference that DV preven-
tion work focus on providing knowledge that can be used to manage relation-
ships, including education about different types of relationships and the factors
that influence them, which include family and parental models, Latino cultural
norms, and media portrayals of relationships. Participants emphasized their
preference for programming that provides skills that foster maintenance
of relationships through positive interactions and prevention of conflict.
18 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

This focus is likely to increase overall engagement in social and academic

endeavors; thus, ultimately, preventing their dropout from college due to
DV-associated factors.
Our study also shows participants emphasized that programming should be
sensitive to family dynamics in the context of the Latino culture. For example,
participants noted the strong impact of machismo on relationship dynamics they
observe in their families. Although participants did not label certain behaviors
as marianismo, they alluded to the likelihood that some women justify certain
controlling and abusive behaviors as normative in their relationships with
Latino men. While students did not directly address acculturation’s impact on
healthy or abusive relationships, many students observed their perceptions of
normative family dynamics were shifting and becoming different from their
parents’. Thus, DV preventive work should provide opportunities for Latinos
to explore their own identification with the American and Latino cultures.
Effective student-centered DV preventive work is likely to translate into lower
levels of student dropout by preventing DV and its negative sequelae and pro-
moting student engagement.
Furthermore, participants expressed they would prefer DV prevention pro-
gramming that has a collectivistic orientation and shows diversity in their mode
of information delivery, perspectives, and strategies utilized. These Latino par-
ticipants emphasized the importance of a collectivistic orientation as they
affirmed it would be essential for DV prevention programming to include infor-
mation regarding on how to help friends or family members, as well as creating
programming that fosters the establishment of relationships with other Latino
students to create a sense of community (Gonzales et al., 2015). This finding is
one key contribution our study makes to the literature regarding the DV pre-
ventive programming preferences of college-attending Latinos. In addition, par-
ticipants also believed that DV prevention programming should include a
diversity of media, activities, and of first-person experiences. Based on the
research linking college student dropout and DV, we can conclude that prevent-
ing DV among Latinos in college will likely result in decreases of student drop-
out. Preventing DV means preventing the development of symptoms associated
with traumatic stress, which have been shown to decrease academic achievement
and student engagement, thereby precipitating circumstances leading to dropout
(Banyard et al., 2017; Mengo & Black, 2016). Moreover, a culturally responsive
approach to DV has the potential of increasing Latino student retention, thus
not only preventing DV but also increasing the likelihood of college persistence.

Limitations
There are several limitations observed in the present study, one of which is its
small-sample size. While the sampling was purposeful and targeted to reach data
saturation, FGs may not provide the kind of in-depth information available
Terrazas-Carrillo et al. 19

through individual interviews (Krueger & Casey, 2015). Although efforts were
made to enhance transferability, results may not be representative of other
Latino college students because students interviewed in our study reside in a
community located on the U.S.-Mexico border, where about 97% of the pop-
ulation identifies as Hispanic or Latino (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). Thus, the
homogeneity of the population may affect the perspectives of this group of
Latino college students. Another limitation is that a majority of participants
in the sample identified as heterosexual, thus providing perspectives as they
relate to heterosexual relationships among Latinos. While some participants
endorsed a sexual minority orientation, we did not link information from the
demographic surveys to the pseudonyms used in the FGs to preserve confiden-
tiality; therefore, we had no way of analyzing their responses separately from
other responses in the FGs. Due to limited access to participants, we could not
conduct member-checking to enhance trustworthiness of our study’s results.
Despite these limitations, this study provided insight into the specific preferences
regarding DV prevention programming among Latinos in college.

Implications
Overall, the results of this study indicate that Latino college students prefer DV
prevention programming that places interdependent self-construals front and
center and in a culturally congruent context that considers Latino cultural
norms and dynamics. Specifically, this research suggests that Latino college
students want programming that includes discussions of machismo, marianismo,
and intergenerational family dynamics, clarifying their identification with their
Latino and American cultural heritage in addition to general topics like building
healthy relationships. Higher education institutions should consider the accul-
turation and generational status of their students as a general guideline for
incorporating strategies that best fit the Latino campus population.
Findings also highlight the importance of engaging Latino students using
strategies congruent with their preference for convivial collectivism and inter-
dependence. For example, a way to influence Latino students’ buy-in to preven-
tion efforts may be utilizing a collectivistic mindset and including “help a friend”
campaigning to increase their responsiveness to DV prevention programming.
Our study also suggests that although Latino college students prefer program-
ming that fosters warm, caring interactions with others, which is consistent with
research suggesting that building community for Latinos on university campuses
is conducive to their persistence (Gonzales et al., 2015). An important consid-
eration is that this study focused on students in a Hispanic Serving Institution,
which is a notably distinct environment compared with a Primarily White
Institution. Nonetheless, culturally responsive adaptations to DV programming
based on our research can promote the well-being and persistence of Latinos
20 Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0(0)

attending college, as well as ensuring universities provide support for a diverse

student body (Mengo & Black, 2016).

Appendix
Focus Group Interview Protocol
I am going to ask your thoughts about dating violence prevention, prefer-
ences, and ideas. Depending on your answer, we may ask probing questions.
When you provide answers, consider the role of your cultural background.

1. From your perspective, what is dating violence?

2. From your perspective, what factors lead to dating violence?
3. From your perspective, how would you prevent dating violence?
4. What is the role of Latino culture in shaping romantic relationships?
Dating violence?
5. What characteristics would you like to see in a program to prevent dating
violence for Latinos in college?
6. As a Latino, what would you be interested to learn in a program to prevent
dating violence?
7. What kind of information about dating violence do you think would be
useful to learn as a Latino in college?
8. What kind of programs or strategies do you believe would work well with
Latino college students?
9. Where do you believe Latino college students learn about relationships?
10. Would you be interested in learning about preventing dating violence in
relationships? Why or why not?
11. Is there anything you would like to add that I have not asked about?

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publica-
tion of this article.

ORCID iD
Elizabeth Terrazas-Carrillo http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2573-1198

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Author Biographies
Elizabeth Terrazas-Carrillo, PhD, is an assistant professor of Counseling
Psychology at Texas A&M International University. Her research interests
include exploring the intersection of identities within vulnerable populations,
including international students, Mexican and Mexican American women, and
Spanish-speaking immigrants in the United States on a variety of issues affecting
mental health, psychological adjustment, and well-being. She has a special inter-
est in mentoring and supervising graduate students, as well as fostering cultural
competence among her counseling trainees.

Ediza Garcia, PsyD, is an assistant professor of Counseling Psychology at Texas

A&M International University and serves as the Director of the Master of Arts
in Counseling Psychology program. Her research interests include promoting
resilience among at-risk children and families through mental health literacy and
culturally responsive interventions.

Jonathan Brise~no is a bilingual counselor and advocate at Fenway Health’s

Behavioral Health Department in the Violence Recovery Program in Boston,
MA. He works with survivors of all gender identities and sexual orientations
regarding dating violence and sexual assault. He also works and specializes with
individuals experiencing or who have experienced anti-LGBTQ police miscon-
duct and anti-LGBTQ hate crimes. He has a master’s degree in Counseling
Psychology from Texas A&M International University where his research was
focused primarily on cultural vulnerabilities and influence on an array of aspects
within the Hispanic student population which included intimate partner violence
and eating disorder risk.

Itzamara De La Cruz is a counselor or home visitor at Serving Children and

Adults in Need (SCAN- inc). She focuses on parenting education and trauma in
children. She has a master’s degree in Counseling Psychology from Texas A&M
International University where her research focus centered on cultural vulner-
abilities in regard to intimate partner violence among Hispanic college students.
She has a special interest in researching prevention of dating relationships
involving violence among college students and resiliency in children after trau-
matic events.