Ancient History I Near East and Egypt

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Ancient History I Near East and Egypt
Ancient History I: Near East and Egypt (UNED)
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ANCIENT HISTORY: MIDDLE EAST, EGYPT, CRETE AND MYCENES UNED
TOPIC 1. CONCEPT OF THE NEAR EAST. SUMER. THE SUMERIANS.

1. The protohistory of Near East Asia
1.1. Introduction: The modern discovery of the Near East.
The cultures and civilizations of antiquity disappeared so completely that until recently their
existence was unknown, and they were only remembered by traditions and legends. some tex Ancient
books, such as the Old Testament, the poems of Homer, and the texts of Berossus and Herodotus
were an exceptional guide to these ancient civilizations. Today, thanks to archeology and its new
techniques, knowledge of the ancient world has expanded, especially since the 19th century,
1.1.1. The excavations
Interest in the interpretation of the first Assyrian and Akkadian documents discovered gave rise to
Assyriology, which gave rise to large excavations in the Near East during part of the 19th century and
into the 20th century.
The archives and libraries preserved from antiquity have contributed with their documents to
make these civilizations known:
a) Files:
They were formed due to the administrative needs of cataloging and recording do
cuments. The files stand out:
V Palatines: Mari, Ugarit and Ebla.
V Commercial: That of the Karum of Kanish (in present-day Turkey), Balmu-nam-Khe
(Lassa) and those of the Murashu (Nippur) and Egibi (Babylon) families, both from
the Neo-Babylonian period.
b) Libraries:
They responded to the needs of temple and palace schools, and brought together
Sumerian works, later translated into Akkadian. There were literary and specialized works,
and the tablets were numbered and classified, kept in sealed clay urns. There was also a
catalog gos, such as those in the libraries of Ur and Nippur.
The most important library was founded by Tiglath-Plieser I (1115-1077 BC), in the
temple of the god Ashur in the city of the same name. The largest library of anti city was that
of Nineveh, prepared by Ashurbanipal (669-627 BC), a king of great culture.
All these tablets have been read thanks to the fact that “Sumerian-Akkadian”, “Akkadian-
Cassite”, “Akkadian-Hittite” lists and dictionaries have been found, a Hittite cuneiform
manual, Aramaic glosses to some ancient works and even transcriptions of expressions of
these ancient languages to the Greek alphabet (all also on tablets).
1.2. Middle East concept
The Middle East is the land of Western Asia located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia and Africa.
It is a passage area, with great structural unity, from the shores of the Aegean to the Persian Gulf.
sico, and from the Caucasus to the African deserts. The name Mesopotamia (land between rivers) was
given by the Greeks to the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (present-day Iraq and
Syria). In this place the first pages of the history of Humanity were written.
They are extensive regions with great inequalities where different civilizations developed along
the great rivers (Tigris-Euphrates-Nile), which led to them being called hydraulic civilizations.
Ethnicities
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a)
b)
c)
d)
The ethnicities by which these peoples or cultures are differentiated are:
Asians ( yellow ):Elamites, Hurrians, Proto-Hittites, Kassites and perhaps the
Indo-Europeans ( blueSumerians.
): Hittites, Iranians (Medes and Persians),
Mitannians (upper
Semites ( green ): class).
Akkadians, Amorites, Arameans, Phoenicians,
Egyptians ( orange ): Africans with Semitic
elements.
Languages
The languages spoken by these people can be classified in different ways. One can be:
a) Agglutinators: words are formed by juxtaposition of elements (Elamite, Sumerian, Hurrian,
Casita).
b) Semitic: words with triconsonantal roots, with an eastern branch (Akkadian, Babylonian and
so on). river) and another Western (Amorite, Canaanite, Ethiopian, Hebrew, Ugaritic,
Eblatean, Arabic and Aramaic), are the best
c) Protohitite oh atti: religious language, little known.
d) Indo-European : Hittite or Nesite, Luwite, Palaite.
Scriptures
The types of writing with which people wrote in the Near East and Egypt are fundamental mind:
a) Cuneiform: based on small wedges marked on fresh clay with a pointed reed. gives. Perhaps
invented by the Sumerians.
b) Hieroglyphs: Egyptians and Hittites.
c) Ideographic: based on images (signs have phonetic value).
d) Semi-ideographic, semi-phonetic and polyphonic: each sign has several meanings.
There was no separation of vowels and consonants until Phoenician times. The Phoenician
alphabet did not emerge suddenly, but through a series of known steps:
a) Protosinaitic inscriptions (1500 BC): already alphabetical writing.
b) Ras-Shamra tablets, in Ugarit (1200 BC): syllabary of 30 signs (Canaanite).
c) Pseudohieroglyphic inscriptions from Byblos (1000 BC): only the signs of Phoenician
writing that we know as such are used, similar to those of the Aegean and Huelva I and II,
from the 4th-3rd millennia BC
d) First Central European-Mediterranean signs, from the 7th millennium and Huelva I and II.
1.3. The chronological problem
One of the main problems of Ancient History is the correct chronological organization of the
different events, as well as their synchronism. This chronology can be absolute or relative:
a) Absolute : temporal distance between the historical fact and those who consider it.
b) Relative : Temporal relationship between two historical events.
Chronology : The basis of all chronological systems is the Era of the Seleucids, which began za
in Babylon in April 311 BC
Chronological indications for the period 1500-2500 BC are problematic, and for the time before
2500 BC Only imprecise indications can be given.
The starting point of the discussions is an astronomical phenomenon (occultation of the planet
Venus under the tenth king of the Babylonian dynasty Ammi-saduqa, known from a tablet of the astro

series logic of the Enuma elish), which occurs every 1460 years at the same point. One year
corresponds to the Sothic cycle, which is the trajectory of the point through which the star Sothis
(Sirius) sets or appears, and

which in Egypt coincided with the beginning of the flooding of the Nile or the beginning of a new
cycle: July 19.
The appearance of the Assyrian royal list of Khorsabad and the synchronism revealed by the Mari
archives, between Shamshi Ada I and Hammurabi, have modified the initial data, and three different
chronological systems have been proposed, according to the dates of Hammurabi's reign:
a) Long chronology (1848-1806 BC)
b) Middle chronology (1792-1750 BC): long minus 56 years, the most accepted currently.
c) Short chronology (1728-1686 BC): the average minus 64 years.
The chronology of the Third Dynasty of Ur no longer poses problems: 2111-2004 BC
About the Guti period there is confusion, taking into account that Gudea of Lagash, its wealth and
independence quarrel, are incompatible with the guti domain, the latest theories suggest that Gudea
(2141 2122) could be guti or qutu.
1.4. The geographical environment
The so-called “Fertile Crescent” is the arc formed by the Iranian mountains, eastern Babylon and
Assyria, and the mountain ranges of Taurus and Lebanon. It is characterized by:
a) Crossroads, being a transit area located between three continents (Europe, Asia and Africa).
b) Extension of the Sahara with tropical influences. There are both swampy and desert areas.
ticas, arid steppe and Mediterranean climate.
c) The southern part (from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf) depends economically on the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers. If we add that in Egypt life depends on the Nile, it explains why these
cultures are called “hydraulic civilizations.”
1.4.1. The natural routes
a) Communications with the interior: Especially in Mesopotamia, communications were
carried out They flowed along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
b) Communications with the outside:
i. To the west: two major routes led to the Mediterranean coast and Syria:
V The first started from Sippar, went up the Euphrates to Mari, and through the
desert, passing through Palmyra, it reached Qatna, dividing into multiple ra but
to reach the Phoenician ports, Damascus and Egypt. It was difficult to continue
due to the lack of water and the attack of the nomads.
V The second, safer, also started from Sippar, reached the Tigris near Samarra,
continued to Nineveh and from there turned west to Ghubat-Enlil and Ha rran,
reaching the Euphrates, to Karkemish, where it joined the Ba route ha
Mesopotamia. From there it headed to Aleppo and the Orontes Valley,
bifurcating heading towards the north (Cilicia and Anatolia), Syria and the
Mediterranean.
ii. Towards the east: difficult communications due to the dangerous nomadic tribes of
the Zagros and the inaccessibility of the mountains.
iii. Towards the South: the maritime route that crossed the Persian Gulf connected them
with India, from where they brought spices, incense and ivory.
1.5 The first agrarian and urban societies in Mesopotamia and Asia Minor
We find the first agrarian societies in the Neolithic and were characterized by sedentary
settlements, agriculture, ceramics and the domestication of animals. Towards my Lenians X-VIII BC,
on Mount Carmel, we find the first agrarian groups.
A. Syria-Palestine: In this area two cultures developed at this time:
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˗ Natufian (10th-8th millennium): Main Palestinian Mesolithic culture, beginning of the

agricultural stadium. It links with the Preceramic Neolithic A of Jericho (8000-7000
BC), already with walls, basalt containers and relief decoration. They lived in circular
huts lares of stone.
˗ Thaunian (VIII millennium): Jericho was destroyed and nomads settled there, with
megalithic monuments, rectangular houses with patios, phallic figurines and crayons.
human neons in clay and shells to simulate eyes. It is an aceramic period (Preceramic
Neolithic B). Ceramics first appeared around 5500 BC in Yarmouk Valley and
Mureybet.
B. Asia Minor: The oldest phase develops in the middle of the 7th millennium BC Two
phases already belong to a Full Neolithic: Hacilar and Çatal-Hüyük.
˗ Hacilar: The lowest layers are ceramic. The cabins are similar to those in Jericho, but
there are also rectangular ones. Agricultural economy and some livestock. Im carrying
obsidian, which indicates that there was trade. There are skulls like those from Tahuni,
sometimes buried under the floors of houses.
˗ Çatal-Hüyük (6500-5650 BC): Economy based on agriculture, livestock, fishing and
hunting. The habitats were true metropolises, without walls, with characteristic
beehive houses. They brought obsidian, marble and alabaster from Taurus. The pottery
was made by hand. They knew clay seals as marks of ownership.
C. Kurdistan and Upper Djezireh: Remarkable technical level, with very fine ceramics and
a large ha ability to work with obsidian. They already knew the use of metals such as
copper and lead. The most important Neolithic site in that area was:
˗ Jarmo (6750-6500 BC): Tombs without offerings, sometimes with figurines of the
mother-goddess and animals. Numerous snail shells. Rectangular houses with several
rooms, made of clay with thatched and mud roofs. The dead were buried outside the
town. They brought obsidian from Türkiye. Here are the first establishments urban
settlements, and may be the first known agricultural settlement.
1.6 . Protohistory of Mesopotamia
The transition from the Neolithic to history proper is an intermediate period called Protohistory,
during which we move from small agricultural and pastoral communities to a more modern society.
simple, complex, hierarchical and already with writing. It is a slow and progressive process,
sometimes lasting several millennia.
The civilization attributed until now to the Sumerians seems not to be due solely to this people. It
is composed of a series of elements, fused in a coherent way, and each one has appeared at its time,
some imported from outside Mesopotamia and others of indigenous origin.
The protohistory of Mesopotamia is divided into several periods, which are named after the site
where that cultural horizon was first discovered. There are six of them, three in the north and another
three in the south of Mesopotamia.
North
1) Hassuna (5800-5500 BC): Definitive settlement on plains, with increasingly larger and better
built houses. Painted or incised ceramics, with non-figurative themes. They stored grain in raw
clay containers embedded in the ground, and bread was baked in ovens. still used lized the
flint. They buried the children under the floor of the house in clay jars, and the adults cough,
without ceremony, outside the town. There are clay figures in the form of naked women sen
tada, stone spindles and terracotta spindles.
2) Samarra (5600-5000 BC): Increasingly beautiful ceramics, light beige, not very rough, and

decorative rada with figurative themes in bright or dark red. They were farmers, shepherds
and hunters, and were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation, using the floodwaters
of the Tigris. The center of the town was defended by a moat. The houses had a regular plan
and were built with raw cigar-shaped bricks. There are marble vases and seals like those from
the Hassuna period.
Adults were buried underground in the fetal position, with their clothes soaked in bitumen,
and children were buried in jars or long containers. In the graves there are figures terracotta
stones, especially female, with clay eyes in the shape of coffee beans and an elongated skull
(similar to some from Ubaid). They have wide open eyes, inlaid with mother-of-pearl, and
with large bitumen eyebrows, similar to the Sumerian ones. The large swastika cross is
common as a decoration motif.
3) Tell-Halaf (5500-4500 BC): This culture extended from the Zagros to the Mediterranean.
You obsidian is of great importance. The streets are paved in some towns, and there are round,
domed buildings (tholoi), similar to Mycenaean tombs.
The clay figures are different, and there are those in the shape of a dove and a woman (sitting,
holding touching her breasts). Pottery from the Halaf period is the most beautiful made in
Mesopota mine, and is replaced around 5000 BC by that of El-Obeid or Ubaid (El-Obeid is a
mound or tell near Ur).
South
a) The Obeid (5000-3750 BC)
The Obeid I or Eridu phase: It occupies the first levels of the ziggurat, among which
there are seventeen temples. The ceramic is of excellent quality. The temples from
levels ral (El Obeid III-IV comes from El Obeid II, which in turn derives from Ubaid I
or Eridú). The temples of Eridu, with large raw bricks held together by clay mortar,
have They have a long rectangular cella, lined with small rooms, and are elevated
above a terrace accessed by a staircase.
This culture presents differences in the north and south. In the north of present-day
Iraq, the most important site is Tepe Gawra, with U-shaped temples similar to those of
Eridu, while the figurines follow the style of Halaf, which seems to indicate an intro
duction of this culture by southern Ubaiden people.
The Obeid II: It belongs to the Final Neolithic, with dark brown ceramics on a
greenish background, and progress in metal work. Higher standard of living. In Eridu
IV I appeared ce the typical tripartite Sumerian temple. They also knew irrigation,
navigation and practiced trade. The towns are dominated by the temple, dominated by
the priests, who direct the cult, the economy and the administration. The first gods that
we will later find in Sumer are worshiped.
For Frankfort and Speiser, the men of this culture are the first Sumerians, while for
Kramer they are still proto-Sumerians. New inventions (plow, wheeled cart) and the
increase in birth rates and wealth lead us to the revolutionary period of Uruk.
b) Uruk (3750-3150 BC): The first urban settlements appear. It is a pe Late Protourban river.
They used flat-convex brick, and with them the walls of Uruk (attributed to Gilgamesh) were
built. The ceramic is gray, sometimes with comb decoration. We find the oldest seal cylinders,
with the first writing (levels V-IV, around 3300). In level IV there are clay tablets with
conventional numerals (using the sexagesimal system), and various pictograms.
The largest establishments can now be called cities: Eridu, Ur, Lagash, with large temples.
For Garelli, Uruk IV is already Sumerian.
c) Jemdet-Nasr (3150-2900 BC): The Temple-Palace organization already appears, and the
royal-priestly function are linked. The lord ruled along with the elders. Their gods are (Innana,
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future Akkadian Ishtar), An (sky) and Enlil. It is a fully urban period, with the Temple as the
economic center. There is exchange of surpluses with Iran and Egypt. They knew gold and
silver. They had workers, that is, there was a social hierarchy. They used calculation and
accounting to control the collection of taxes.
When the Sumerians arrived (according to those who believe that they came from outside, after
the Jemdet-Nasr phase), there was already a highly developed civilization and some elements that will
be part of the civilization. Sumerian zation, such as the gods, the Temple-Palace organization, etc.
We must carefully analyze the Sumerian problem, and take into account the existence, especially
in pre-Sumerian Lower Mesopotamia, of elements that will be typical of the post-Sumerian
civilization. rior, and all this without also forgetting that, for some historians, the inhabitants of
Mesopotamia, from this phase onwards, are already Sumerians.
2. Sumer
2.1. The Sumerians. Geographic situation
The Sumerians were a people with an agglutinative language, primitive inhabitants of southern
Mesopota. mine, but its origin is unknown. Sumer is the name of the southern part of Mesopotamia,
and its ancient history is reflected in:
a) Sumerian myths and epics (arrival of new colonies, existence of a golden age and founding
of Eridu by the god Enki).
b) The Sumerian list of the kings of Nippur, from Alulim to Ziusudra, precursor of the biblical
Noah.
In southern Mesopotamia are the Sumerian cities of Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Umma, Suruppak, Adab,
Nippur, Eridu, etc. Their dynasties will fight for hegemony in the first Sumerian era (Protodynastic,
Presargonic or Archaic Dynasty).
2.1.2. Origin and ethnicity
The different theories about the origin of the Sumerians can be summarized in the following
points:
a) The first defends the autochthonous origin of the Sumerians, since numerous matte
elements rials of their culture (raw brick, walls decorated with frescoes, stone vessels and
statuettes, clay figurines, Temple-Palace organization and temples on terraces) appear already
between the 7th and 4th millennia BC, as well as the resemblance of Samarian elements and
Ubadians with the typically later Sumerians.
b) A second theory proposes that the Sumerians came from outside of Mesopotamia
(allochthonous) , during the periods of El Obeid and Uruk or at the end of the Uruk phase,
giving rise to the historical or Protodynastic era. For some historians, its entry was a violent
invasion slow, and for others it was a peaceful colonization.
In any case, the truth is that Sumerian culture was made up of native elements and fo Ranians, and
it must be taken into account that any attempt to differentiate the Sumerians as a race does not exist in
the anthropological sense.
The Indus Civilization: Mohejo-Daro and Harappa
Situation : For those who believe that the Sumerians came from outside Mesopotamia, their
possible eastern origin is told in myths, and among them that of the good god Enki, where it is said
that the sacred mountain was in the east. A region called Tilmun, to which Sumerian texts make
frequent reference, may be equivalent to the Indus basin and not to the Bahrain archipelago, as was
believed until now. There are also coincidences between Sumerian and the Dravidian languages of
southern India, and the Sumerian finds in Mohejo-Daro and Harappa seem to confirm their origin in

the East, where the “Indus civilization”, represented above all by those two cities, it's contemporary
ranean to Sumerian.
Cities : Cities have an urban structure. The wastewater was collected by your ceramic beries. The
construction materials were baked bricks, also using adobe and mud. They were surrounded by walls.
Ceramics : It was made with a wheel, and the ornaments connect us with the West. The
soapstone seals here are square, while the Mesopotamian ones are round.
Chronology : Its chronology (2500-1500 BC) makes us wonder about its origin and relate it to
the Sumerians. Its origin is possibly in the Balochistan or Iran regions, and its knowledge comes from
Mesopotamia or Egypt. It ended due to Aryan immigration around 1500 BC
Possible ways of relationship with the Sumerian culture : The intermediate path between both
cultures can be through:
a) Turang-Tepe: south of the Caspian, related to the lapis lazuli trade. It has been discovered It
is a building with a terrace from the end of the 3rd millennium BC, similar to a ziggurat.
b) Altin Tepe: also from the end of the 3rd millennium BC, with a building with a stepped
terrace, very similar to a ziggurat.
c) Mudigak: in southern Afghanistan, from the same period as the previous ones. A brick
building has been found that could be a temple or a palace.
After the knowledge and excavation of these intermediate places, it is concluded that they could
have been centers of diffusion of Sumerian culture towards the east or vice versa, although the
relationship with the lapis lazuli traders is undeniable.
Therefore, in relation to the origin of the Sumerians, it can be summarized that:
a) There are several theories.
b) The current state of the investigations does not allow us to affirm or deny any of them.
c) Lately, the most accepted theory is that they were native and were present in Meso Potamia
since the Upper Paleolithic or Neolithic, and its civilization is the result of the mixture of
native and foreign elements.
2.3. Periodization of Sumerian history
2.3.1. Diversity of peoples
The Sumerian civilization is the first that we find at a historical moment in southern Mesopotamia
(Protodynastic, Archaic Dynastic or Presargonic), and begins around 2900 BC This area, which we
know as Sumer, will eventually be called Babylon, beginning in the time of Hammurabi (1792-1750
BC).
Different periods of predominance of the various peoples who settled there have taken place in
Mesopotamia, sometimes only distinguishable by their geographical position and language , since
sometimes those who predominate are the Sumerians (agglutinative language) and other times the
Akkadians. (Semitic language, although the Assyrians, the Amorites, etc. are also Semites).
Everything becomes even more complicated if we take into account that these different people,
who at a certain time formed an “empire”, did not have fixed geographical limits, as there were no
natural borders that would allow them to be clearly differentiated.
2.3.2. Linguistic differentiation of peoples
The linguistic concept is often used to distinguish peoples, and the concepts of language and
writing must be clear.
Materials used for writing : The material used in Mesopotamia to build and write was mud or
clay, combined in later times with papyrus and parchment.
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Clay tablets are usually small in size (the most common are 4x5 or 3x5 cm). The largest known
tablet is the one containing a treaty signed by the Assyrian king Asharhaddon, measuring 30x46 cm.
On some 2'2x2'6 cm tablets there are more than 30 lines with 144 signs, so they are true miniatures.
The tablets were sealed for authentication with cylindrical seals engraved with scenes. These seals
were the signature of their owners, and only free men had the right to use them. The shape of the
tablets usually adapts to the scribe's hand, and they could be circular. large, rectangular or square, flat
or slightly rounded.
Cuneiform writing : The writing used on the tablets is cuneiform, formed from small wedges, by
the imprint on soft clay, of a reed sharpened at its end, shaped triangular ma. At first it was written
based on drawings (figures drawn with straight or curved lines). vas), and it was called pictographic
or linear writing. The name cuneiform was given to later writing made with wedges (a term first used
by Hyde in 1700).
The basic signs of Sumerian writing are vertical, horizontal, inclined wedges and the so-called
composer (small obtuse angle). This writing is different according to the periods, it evolved tioning
from the primitive Sumerian era to that used in the Akkadian era, that of Hammurabi and later.
Decipherment of cuneiform writing : The starting point for the decipherment of this writing
were the inscriptions from the palace of the Persian kings of Persepolis. The science that was built
around cuneiform texts and Mesopotamian archeology was called “Assyriology.”
The decipherers concluded that each sign could be read in two different ways. rents:
a) Like the mark of a sound, which is always a syllable and never an elementary sound.
b) Like the name of an object.
Cuneiform writing is, therefore, as a whole and in each of its elements, both pictographic and
ideographic or phonetic. What shocked the Assyriologists was that both the phonetic sign and the
ideogram were different from the Semitic language, so the existence of a previous people (the
Sumerians) was deduced, who must have invented cuneiform writing, which did not. It could be
Semitic, in whose language phonetic signs and ideograms had to coincide. In 1905, Fr. Thureaus-
Dangin, in his work Les inscriptions de Sumer et d'Accad, published texts written by a people he had
not known until then: the Sumerians.
Thus, the first language written with cuneiform characters was Sumerian, of the agglutinative
type. Almost all of the known languages of antiquity were also written with cuneiform characters.
2.3.3. Divisions of Sumerian history
We can divide Sumerian history into different moments:
a) Archaic, Protodynastic or Presargonic Dynastic Era: Sumerian predominance.
b) Akkadian Empire: predominance of people with a Semitic language and Sumero-Akkadian
culture.
c) Guti (or qutu): the last Akkadian king is dethroned, and further south, they allow the
hegemony of the city like Lagash.
d) Sumerian Renaissance: predominance of cities such as Lagash and Uruk, and the Third
Dynasty of Ur, which politically and culturally unified all of Mesopotamia (Sumer and
Akkad).
e) Paleo-Babylonian Era: nomadic tribes destroy centralized power, and two periods are
distinguished in Babylon: apogee of the cities of Isin and Larsa, beginning of the First
Dynasty or Paleo-Babylonian Empire (a dynasty of the Amorites, nomadic Semites until
recently) , and in the north we find the Assyrians (Semites who, upon becoming sedentary,
will be named after their capital, Assur). In Asia Minor, about the Hatti or proto-Hittite
people, inci of the European invasion of the Hittites, who around the 15th century BC They

put an end to this First Dynasty of Babylon and will form the Third Dynasty (after the brief
parenthesis of the Second Dynasty).
From here, although the Sumerian (and Sumerian-Akkadian) culture survives in Babylon and
Assyria, the power of Sumer disappears forever. The cuneiform Akkadian language (Sumerian), and
sometimes Sumerian, will continue to be used for a millennium, until it is replaced by Aramaic.
2.3.4. The archaic, protodynastic Sumerian or pre-Sargonic dynastic era (2900-2334 BC)
It is a culture that extends from the late primitive periods of Uruk and Jemdet-Nasr, to t the
beginning of the Akkadian Empire. It is subdivided into three periods:
a) Archaic Dynastic I (2900-2750 BC): from the end of the primitive era until the appearance of
the archaic tablets of Ur.
b) Archaic Dynastic II (2750-2600 BC): coinciding with the appearance of the walls in
Mesopotamian cities.
c) Archaic Dynastic III (2600-2334 BC): two epochs can be distinguished: A (2600-2500 BC)
and B (2500-2334 BC)
At this time the oldest dynasties reign in the different cities of Sumer, and despite being a time of
boom and prosperity, the main characteristic is the struggle of these cities for the pre political
dominance in the region. Therefore, we cannot speak of a Sumerian empire, but of the successions
you go hegemonies of the different cities.
2.3.5. Early Sumerian data
According to the Sumerian Royal List discovered in Nippur, royalty descended from heaven in
the city of Eridu, and continued in a large number of kings and dynasties in the different city-states.
After a period of 64,800 years, during which only two kings reign, the monarchy is transferred to
Bab-tibira, where three kings rule for 108,000 years. One of them was called Dumuzi, who in the
Akkadian period was a tree-divinity, prototype of Tammuz-Adonis, later passing the monarchy to the
cities of Larak, Sippar and Shuruppak.
This entire period lasts 241,200 years, and recalls the longevity of the first men recounted in the
Old Testament. Also similar to the Old Testament is the mention of the Flood in the Nippur List,
which contained the “Poem of Gilgamesh,” which tells how only a few beings, the family and
relatives of Utnapishtim, and the “seed of the living things” were saved in a kind of boat from a
terrible flood. This fact is interpreted by historians as mo the end of the rule of the city of Shuruppak.
After this flood, the supremacy of the city of Kish begins, whose First Dynasty is already historic.
2.4. The first Sumerian dynasties. Supremacy of the different cities
The first historically known Sumerian king is Mebaragesi of Kish (2700 BC, already in Dinásti co
Archaic II). We assume that the 21 kings who preceded him in Kish and their contemporaries, the
four kings of Uruk, predecessors of Gilgamesh, have existed, since they are cited in the Sumerian
royal list, even that there is no historical proof of its existence, since from the Archaic Dynastic I
there is only archaeological information (for the knowledge of this period the archive discovered in
the city of Ebla and findings in other cities are important).
At this time, Mesopotamian cities are surrounded by walls, sometimes double, due to fights
between the Sumerian principalities and perhaps against foreign invaders.
The Sumerian culture extends the culture of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr, although with some
differences:
a) Appearance in the south, during the Archaic Dynastic II, of flat-convex brick.
b) Disappearance of the classic tripartite temple, replaced by the sanctuary with a central patio
and surrounded by numerous rooms. Sometimes it has an oval plan. They disappear
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eventually those of the Archaic Dynastic.

c) Very uneven sculptures, which usually represent worshipers, dressed in metal skirts. wool
chons for men and a kind of sari for women. Its eyes are also shaped like a shell and lapis
lazuli, surrounded by bitumen.
d) Art of great beauty, as proven by the jewels and ornaments in the royal necropolis of Ur.
The main characteristics of this period include:
a) Sumer is not a city, but a region, with many rival city-states fighting for hegemony.
b) The main religious center was Nippur, the main sanctuary of the god Enlil. All cities want to
dominate Nippur for prestige.
2.4.1. Political events of this time
Supremacy: City-state of Kish : Dominion of the trade routes between Upper and Lower Me
sopotamia. Its first king is Mebaragesi, around 2700 BC (already in the Archaic Dynastic II). Yes
There were two more kings, after whom Mesilim reigned around 2550 BC (already in the Archaic
Dynastic III), last king of this 1st Dynasty of Kish, who was an arbitrator in the border disputes
between Lagash and Um ma.
Supremacy: City-state of Uruk : In the First Dynasty, Meskiangasher, Enmekar, Lugal-band,
Dumuzi and Gilgamesh (2700 BC), contemporary of Mebaragesi of Kish (Archaic Dynasty II), reign.
Six more kings succeeded him (until the middle of the Archaic Dynastic III), its end coinciding with
the I Dynasty of Ur.
The Second Dynasty was made up of three kings with difficult names.
The only king of the 3rd Dynasty of this city is Lugalzagesi (2340-2316 BC). He was dethroned by
Sargon I of Akkad.
Supremacy: City-state of Ur : The royal tombs of the necropolis of Ur postdate the archaic tablets
of Ur, in turn predating Mebaragesi of Kish. Names of kings such as Meskalamdug and Akalamdug
(2600 BC) and Queen Pu'Abi are mentioned, all of them buried along with chariots, horses and
servants in the royal necropolis.
The First Dynasty begins with Mesannepadda (2560-2525 BC), who sought to dominate all of
His mer. His successors are Annepadda (2525-2485 BC), Meskiagnunna, Elili and Balili.
The Second Dynasty is made up of four unknown kings.
We will talk about the Third Dynasty later.
Supremacy: City-state of Lagash : It is the only city-state for which the complete list of kings is
known:
- Ur-Nanshe (c. 2490 BC)
- Akurgal (around 2465 BC)
- Eannatum (2455-2425 BC): heyday of the cities of Mari and Ebla.
- Eannatum I (2425 BC)
- Entemena (around 2000 BC), after which three more kings come.
- Lugalzagesi (2340-2316 BC): king of Umma and Uruk, deposed by Sargon I, who created the
Im Akkadian period (around 2334 BC).
2.5. The Sumerian civilization
2.5.1. Society
Temple and Palace : The Sumerian culture was urban, characterized by the Temple and the Palace.
around At the Temple, a complex society was created (free men, artisans, farmers, ranchers, workers
and stonemasons), who rented land and were obliged to do military service.
In a palace lived the Ensi (chief of the city) and the Lugal (king). The En was the priest who lived
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in the temple, and his wife was called Nin.

The king was priest, supreme judge, head of state and administrator of the god. Relations between
the Palace and the Temple were complicated, since they had tax exemptions, which even He
mentioned his riches.
Land ownership :
In Sumer the land was divided into:
a) Arable land : a quarter of the En's property served for the needs of the temple, and the rest as
subsistence fields for the staff and as rented crop fields.
b) Rangelands
2.5.2. Dignitaries
It was a complex and strongly hierarchical society, with numerous officials:
a) Sanga : temple administrator priests.
b) Nubanda : construction inspectors and mayors.
c) Mashkin and Ugula : foremen who collect taxes.
d) Uku : agricultural foremen.
e) Dubsar : scribes, with various Semitic categories and names.
f) Guru : employees, at first free and then slaves.
2.5.3. Architecture and urbanism. Culture
The Sumerian cities : Winding streets and blocks of crowded houses, small and without interior
patios. Architecture reflects class antagonism. One can only speak of true architecture in public
buildings: Temple, Palace, walls, canals and roads.
Sanctuaries and temples : They did not have a uniform plan: square, rectangular, irregular and
oval them. In general, they were made up of a vestibule that gave access to a patio with an altar,
around which were the rooms and the rectangular cella (place designated for the god), in the area
intended for sacrifices, where the altar was. The entrance was on the long wall farthest from the altar.
In these sanctuaries, in addition to religious cults, divination was practiced.
An important part of the Sumerian temples was the ziggurat, a seven-story stepped tower, which
served for religious ceremonies and as an astronomical observatory.
Plastic Arts : Strong regional differences. The cylindrical statues stand out, with exorbitant eyes
and heavy wigs.
Economy : It was a town of farmers and merchants. They had great knowledge of metal working,
especially copper and gold.
Writing : The Mesopotamian Semites preserved their language for liturgical and scientific use
until a century before the Christian era. It was written in cuneiform characters, the last inscription
being known Babylonian cuneiform from 7 BC
Sciences : They developed early, especially Astrology, Mathematics and Geometry. The systems
The most numerals were the decimal and the sexagesimal, although zero was not known until the
Seleucid era (3rd century BC). In schools they taught elevation to powers, extraction of roots and
equation tions of first and second degree. Geometry was used to calculate surfaces and volumes, and
Euclid's principles and the Pythagorean theorem were already known.
The study of Astronomy was exclusive to the priestly class, with Hammurabi being the first to
attempt to make a calendar. They measured time with water clocks. They differentiated stars and
planets, and confirmed the solar and lunar orbits. From the 13th century BC the Zodiac is known.
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This science reached its climax in the time of the Seleucids.

Geographic knowledge grew with the numerous campaigns of the kings. Medicine also reached a
high level, and its doctors practiced surgery, knew contagious diseases and had lists of
pharmacological prescriptions.
2.5.4. The Sumerian texts
From the excavations at Tell Abu Salabikh it was proven that the first Sumerian documents were
not only useful for practical purposes, since:
a) The oldest known writings are found (from the first half of the 3rd millennium BC)
b) These are, above all, literary and didactic texts, with economic ones being only a small part.
c) There are poems eight hundred years older than the Paleo-Babylonian hymns.
d) There are minor hymns that mention the god Enlil, the city of Nippur and the temple of
Duramki.
e) A version of the “Shuruppak instructions” is known, of a dialectical type.
f) There is a tablet with sayings.
g) Scribes bore Semitic names as early as 2600 BC.
h) No legal documents have been found.
Therefore, in the XXVI-XXVII centuries BC Sumerian texts were written, both literary and
administrative and economic. There was also a coexistence of the Sumerian and Semitic peoples, as
well as bilingualism. All of this tells us that we must take into account greater Semitic penetration and
strength in times prior to their hegemony, achieved later by the Semitic dynasty of Sar. gon I of
Akkad, although they will still have a Sumerian society, culture and economy. There will only be
Sumerian decadence in politics, tending towards a “Sumerian-Akkadian culture.”
2.6. The religion of Sumer
2.6.1. General characteristics of the Mesopotamian religion
The most important features of the Sumerian religion are the following:
a) The Sumerians were polytheists , with divinities conceived anthropomorphically, close to men
in their daily activity. It was a religion that evolved throughout historical development, with
different cosmogonic and theological conceptions that gave rise to different traditions.
b) There was an intimate relationship between religion and political power , which rested on the
conception of the city-state, whose visible head was the En (priest-king).
c) Mesopotamian man feared divinity .
d) They had the concept of reward (for good actions) and punishment (misdemeanors against the
gods).
e) Concern about the issue of fertility .
f) The religious themes were simple , but with a deep mythical spirit.
Main Sumerian gods
The main gods were:
a) An : supreme god of Sumerian cosmogony. He was the god of the sky, with a great temple in
Uruk.
b) Enlil : god of the wind. He was the good god par excellence. Its center of worship was Nippur,
the religious capital of all of Mesopotamia and a possible center of an ancient amphictyony.
c) Enki : god of water, wisdom and magic.
d) Ninhursag or Ninmah : she was the ancient Ki or Nintu, goddess of the earth, wife of Enki and
mother of Marduk.
e) Inanna (in Akkadian Ishtar): beloved of An, she was also goddess of the sky. She was the
titular goddess of Uruk, giving this city “divine laws.”
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f) Nanshe : goddess of Lagash. He personified the aspects of daily life, struggle and procreation
tion.
g) Nergal : along with his wife Ereshkigal, they were gods of the Lower World.
h) Dumuzi : god of agricultural fertility (in Akkadian Tammuzu), whose cult spread throughout
the East.
i) Nanna : god of the moon (in Akkadian Sin), son of Enlil. With his wife Ningal he procreated
Utu, god of the Sun (Shamash in Akkadian).
There were also two large groups of gods: the Anunnaki, gods of the earth and sky, and the Igigi,
gods of hell. There was worship of good and bad demons (the most feared were the “seven evil ones”,
in front of which were the “seven wise men”).
At the origin of their religious conceptions, the Sumerians always had the eternally generative
force personified in the Mother-Goddess, whose cult was later joined by the male god of nature.
generative race, subordinate to the goddess, with deep roots that go back even to the Paleolithic co.
The transmission of religious ideas was the work of Dubsar, a scribe who copied and transmitted
religious texts, and Nar, a traveling troubadour who narrated them.
2.6.3. The Sumerian religion, precursor of other later religions
The Sumerians were precursors of many religious, cosmogonic and mythical concepts later
included in the Old Testament, such as creation, the separation of the primordial waters, the formation
of man with clay and the idea of Paradise.
Since Tablet XI of the Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh was discovered, it was known that the Di
Luvius was not a Hebrew creation. It was later learned that the Babylonian myth was Sumerian from
a fragment of a Nippur tablet.
Also the idea of resurrection, attributed to so many gods, appears in Sumer for the first time
(return to the life of the goddess Inanna).
2.7. The Sumerian myths
2.7.1. Definition
Sumerian myths are simple explanations for complicated problems of Theology, Philosopher fia
or History, set of all its themes, illusions and aspirations, expressed in epics, novel the and poems.
Their scope was local and urban, but sometimes they acquired a universal dimension, such as the
myth of the Sumerian Flood.
2.7.2. Characteristics
The characteristics of the Sumerian myths are:
a) Tendency to relate two characters or plots, giving rise to myths of high interest.
b) Man appears in his environment, facing forces of nature, politics or the economy.
c) These forces weigh on their destiny, which is decreed by the gods.
d) Myths are born from the reflection that the Sumerian makes on these forces of destiny.
2.7.3. Main Sumerian myths
a) Myths about (cosmogonic) origins: Those of Enki and Ninhursag, Lahar and Ashnan,
cosmic hierogamy and the Sumerian Flood.
b) Organizational myths: Enki and the founding of the Eengurra, Enki and the order of the
world, the via he of Nanna to Nippur, Dumuzi and Enkidu and that of Emesh and Enten.
c) Myths of contact between gods and men: They are the least numerous, such as those of
Inanna and Shukallituda and that of the seven wise men.
d) Myths about heroes: They are linked above all to the Gilgamesh cycle and tell the
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adventures of this hero. Some of these myths constitute the beginning of the epic genre. They
know each other co epics of Gilgamesh and two of Lugalbanda and Enmerkar.
e) Myths about the afterlife: Inanna's descent into hell, the death of Dumuzi, Inanna and Bilulu
and Lil's passion in the tomb.
f) Myths about gods: Those of Enlil and Ninlil: the birth of Nanna and that of Ninurta and the
torto the.
g) Myths of various content: Like that of the 21 poultices.
2.8. The decline of Sumerian rule
Contemporaries of the Semitic peoples (who took power around 2334 BC with Sargon I), the
Sumerians will disappear as a people around 1900 BC, after the expulsion of the Guti, who here baron
with the Akkadian Empire, by Utuhegal of Uruk, and the so-called “Sumerian Renaissance” in
Lagash and Ur.
In any case, the culture, civilization and religion of the Sumerians will subsist in a certain way
with the Babylonian culture, until the beginning of the Christian era.
2.9. Law in the Middle East
2.9.1. Characteristics
The characteristics of Mesopotamian Law can be summarized in the following points:
a) There was a first customary right of oral transmission.
b) The increase in agricultural production and the growth of private property and commerce
caused great economic and social transformations, and created the need for a written right,
especially to protect the ruling class.
2.9.2. Divisions of Law in the ancient Near East
Sumerian
a) Reform texts from Lagash, from kings Entemena, Urukagina and Gudea, difficult to study
diar.
b) King Ur-Nammu (3rd Dynasty) is considered to be the first legislator in history, preserving be
a Code without “Law of Talion” and a Cadastral Text.
c) A Sumerian Code of King Lipit-Ishtar (1934-1924 BC) is preserved in Isin.
Sumerian-Akkadian : The “Ana-ittishu” and collections of legal texts.
Akkadian : We know the laws of the city of Eshunna (1790 BC), with the adoption of the system of
legal composition as the basis of criminal law, which proves that the Akkadians surpassed the
primitive stage of Law based on the “Law of Talion” .
Babylon : In its long history, Babylon knew various codes and codifications as it happened. the
different monarchies gave. We can summarize the following:
a) Iª Dynasty (Amorites):
v Code of Hammurabi (1790-1712 BC): “Law of retaliation”.
V Laws of the King of Hammurabi.
V Laws on moratorium and debt forgiveness.
V Shurpu ritual.
V Babylonian processes.
V Edicts of King Ammisaduqa (1646-1626 BC).
b) Casita Dynasty : the kudurrus (property delimitation markers) stand out, on which rules,
names of gods, witnesses, etc. are recorded.
c) II Babylonian Empire (1124-1103 BC): kudurrus of Nebuchadnezzar I and Enlil-Nadin-apli.
d) Neo-Babylonian Empire (7th-6th centuries BC): laws of Nabopalasar and Nebuchadnezzar II,
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as well as administrative and economic texts.

e) Persian laws for Babylon.
Assyria : The oldest Paleo-Assyrian Laws are the Cappadocian Laws of the Karum of Kanish (if
century XIX BC). There are also Meso-Assyrian Laws (14th-12th centuries BC), which
fundamentally consist of:
a) Records: tablets of Tiglath-Pileser I (end of the 12th century BC).
b) Neo-Assyrian laws from the Sargonic period.
Ebla : Legal texts are known, but there are no Codes.
Shemshara and Nuzi : Hurrian texts in Akkadian, with Babylonian and Assyrian law.
Ugarit : Demonstrates the extension of Mesopotamian law to the Mediterranean coasts (16th
centuries XIV BC).
Hatti : Two series of laws that form the most extensive legal treatise of antiquity, after Hammurabi.
Elam : Texts from Susa and Khukhur, with Akkadian cuneiform characters due to Babylonian
influence.
Israel : Mosaic legislation collected in the “Pentateuch” (Torah), which includes the Ethical
Decalogue, the Covenant Code, the Ritual Decalogue, the Deuteronomic Code, the Holiness Code
and the Code I say priestly.
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TOPIC 2. AKKAD. THE ACADIAN EMPIRE.

1. The Akkadians
1.1. Origin of the Akkadians
The Akkadians were Semites , contemporaries of the Sumerians (perhaps earlier). In the 3rd
millennium BC, two main peoples appear mixed in Mesopotamia: Sumerians (by their agglutinating
language) and Semites (by their language). Some Semites began to be called Akkadians due to the
importance of their capital, Akkad (or Agadé), founded by Sargon I the Ancient.
1.1.1. The linguistic concept as a differentiator of peoples
The Akkadian language, written with cuneiform characters like Sumerian, although more stylized,
continued to be used as a spoken language until the 1st millennium BC. We must insist on the
linguistic concept to differentiate the different peoples, and take into account that there were many
peoples with a Semitic language who, due to geographical differences, will be different in civilization
and culture.
1.1.2. Sedentary processes of the Akkadians
The Akkadians were a nomadic people, with closed nomadism (they moved in small areas nes), of
Semitic language. They lived in Mesopotamia in bands or tribes in contact with urban populations
nas, forming a dimorphic society, living in symbiosis with the Sumerians. They became sedentary in
the time of Sargon I, acquiring importance in the region where the city that gave them their name was
located, Akkad (or Agadé), whose location is unknown.
1.1.3. Other Semitic peoples
Other nomadic peoples with a Semitic language are the Amorites, the Hebrews and Arameans and
the Assyrians, a very important people who also receive the name of the city where they settled,
Assur. There are also non-nomadic Semites, such as the Eblaites or Eblateos.
These nomads began to move in the 3rd millennium BC, and in the 21st century BC the Amorites
threatened the Empire of Ur III; around the 14th century BC The Arameans began to enter
Mesopotamia, and around the 9th century BC We know the first Arabs.
1.2. Origin of the Semites and first movements
We find the Semites in Mesopotamia already in the Protodynastic I (2900-2700 BC), exten
extending to the south and the Diyala region, where they became the majority element. Tam Well, in
the Kish region there are representative elements prior to the Akkadian Empire, such as the “tem
“home” and the pottery painted in red with figures, typical of the Semites.
In Protodynastic II (2750-2600 BC), the main Semitic centers before Sargon are: Mari, Kish,
Nippur and the archaic temples of Ishtar in Assur.
The encounter between both peoples was peaceful and symbiotic: Sumerian words passed into
Akkadian, continuing the Sumerian civilization until the time of Alexander the Great (4th century
BC). In the Akkadian Empire the only thing that changes, broadly speaking, with respect to the
previous Sumerian era is the language of its rulers. Almost everything else remains Sumerian,
especially the socio-economic structure and culture.
The main changes compared to the previous period are:
a) Greater importance of private property.
b) Royal power is separated from religious power (Temple-Palace separation).
1.3. The Akkadian Empire (2334-2193 BC)
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This empire was the work of a dynasty, which passed from father to son. These boom times are
incorrectly called “empires,” since it was a centralized power that extended to more remote regions of
the capital, which became an administrative and political center. penthouse of an area considerably
larger than that of the city-state.
1.3.1. Sargon I (2334-2279 BC)
This king's name is a royal title meaning "true king", but his real name is unknown. His legend
(son of a “variable” and a family man with a semi-nomadic background) presents his people already
settled in Azupiranu, on the banks of the Euphrates. This legend, found recorded on a tablet from the
excavations of Ashurbanipal's library in Nineveh, it is nothing more than a priestly elaboration that
transmits the propaganda of the cult of Ishtar. There are also other reads das about the mythical
origins of many other historical or mythical figures (Moses, Cyrus, Romulus and Remus, Perseus,
Oedipus, etc.). Sargon was cupbearer to King Ur-Zababa (IV Dynasty of Kish), whom he dethroned,
took Uruk and faced Lugalzagesi (III Dynasty of Uruk), whom he also dethroned. He founded a new
capital in the region of Kish, called Agadé or Akkad, whose ruins have not yet been identified.
Political reforms : In his politics he carried out a series of reforms:
a) Akkadian becomes the official language.
b) Dating begins by the “name of the years” (years named after a battle or notable event).
c) He kept the ensi and lugal defeated, and only put new governors in the cities with cysted or
new.
Foreign policy : Its foreign policy has two stages:
a) Annexation of Mesopotamian territories: To his title of king of Akkad he added that of king of
Kish, freeing the latter from the power of Uruk, and restoring it. He defeated Lugalzagesi of
Umma and Uruk, annexing Uruk, Ur, Lagash and Umma, and titled himself “king of the
country” (of Sumer).
b) He undertook campaigns to the north, west and east: Upon his death, the Empire of Akkad
began to disintegrate.
1.3.2. The successors of Sargon I
Rimush (2278-2270 BC) : Faced chain uprisings, first from isolated cities (Ur, Lagash, Uruk and
Kazallu) and then a coalition of peoples from Elam opposed the Akkadians, while Ebla regained its
independence.
Manishtusu (2269-2255 BC) : During his reign the uprising of the peoples of the north and east
of the Akkadian Empire took place.
Narâm-Sin (2254-2218 BC) : This king had himself deified, calling himself “god of Agadé”,
inaugurated ranting this Mesopotamian custom. He defeated the countries of the north, south and east,
also taking the campaigns to the west, where he won in Mari and ended the heyday of Ebla, but he
had to make a pact with Elam. He extended his dominions almost like his grandfather Sargon I, titling
himself “king of the four royal nes.”
In his time the lullubi (inhabitants of the Zagros mountains and Kurdistan, he commemorated his
victory against them with the famous stele preserved in the Louvre) and the guti (from the region
between the lower Zab and the Diyala).
Before his death the disintegration of the great Sargonid Empire began, and the Hurrians (who
later formed the kingdom of Mitanni) occupied a region east of the Akkadian Empire in these years.
Sharkalisharri (2217-2193 BC) and the end of the Akkad Empire : He was the last king of
this di nastia, with which a series of new circumstances arose:
a) He is no longer called “king of the four regions”, but only “king of Akkad”.
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b) Uruk tried to become independent (maybe it succeeded).

c) Elam became independent, changing the Akkadian language for the Elamite.
d) Independence of the Amorites, Western Semites, still semi-nomadic in the northwest.
e) The threat of the guti or qutu continued, which would finally end the Akkadian Empire, along
with other factors.
1.4. The work of Akkad dynasty
Wealth : The constitution and organization of the Akkadian Empire had an economic motive, in
addition more of the power and glory that wealth brought with it. This wealth was obtained:
a) For the spoils of war.
b) Because of taxes.
c) By the monopoly of the most important consumer goods (wood, stones for construction
construction and metals).
d) For control of trade routes from Syria to Mari.
This wealth ended up destroying the Empire, as it attracted nomads and poorer people, who
sought to get rich through plunder.
The language : The Akkadian empire, despite its short duration, left an indelible mark on the
Near East. The Akkadian language became a lingua franca, and even the Elamites and Hurrians, after
their independence, retained cuneiform writing for their own language.
1.5. Organization of the Akkadian state
The Akkadian monarchy was an absolute monarchy, which was an innovation. The King go He
ruled alone, helped by lieutenants or ensis . There was also a modification of social relations, which
produced a class distinction according to wealth.
King : The king had absolute power, and was sometimes worshiped. He was the only lord of all
the rritories.
Lieutenants : The lieutenants of the royal family were both men (they held the position of ensi or
governor) and women (high priestesses).
Officials : There were also a large number of officials dependent on the king: he administered
civil and military workers, scribes, accountants, transporters, inspectors, craftsmen, etc. They were
paid with the granting of consumer goods or arable land in usufruct.
1.6. Akkadian culture
There is a shortage of texts that allow us to know the culture of this town, although they are of
great quality. ity, and replace Sumerian rigor and hieraticism with fantasy, mobility and realism.
The Akkadian (Semitic) language, written in Sumerian cuneiform, was of great importance, with
different regional agencies:
a) Northern Mesopotamia: few Sumerian inscriptions. If Sumerian was used, the Akkadian
translation was written next to it.
b) Southern Mesopotamia: Akkadian was used, and Sumerian was still used, which will be
relegated So it became a liturgical language, remaining a cultured language.
1.7. Akkadian religion and myths
1.7.1. The religion
Origin of the divine pantheon
In the Akkadian conception, the divine pantheon starts from an aqueous principle from which two
are isolated in primary tes: a first couple formed by Tiamat (female form of salt water) and Apsu
(ocean that surrounds the world). Both gave rise to all beings, and Lahmu and Lahamu were born,
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monstrous snakes that lost their religious role.

After them comes the second couple formed by Anshar and Kishar, representatives of Heaven and
Earth. This second couple gave rise to the supreme triad: Sin (moon god) and his children, Shamash
(god of the Sun) and Ishtar (planet Venus), a Semitic version of the Sumerian goddess Inanna
(goddess of love and war).
Adaptation of the Sumerian divinities
The Akkadians took the Sumerian divinities and molded them to their own religious needs. sas,
with a simple name change.
Evolution of Sumerian polytheism
Sumerian polytheism evolved towards a systematization and simplification, unifying in some
political power, in order to be able to exalt a supreme god, as would be done later in Babylon. The
other gods are only a pale reflection of that supreme divinity. The unification of all the gods in a
pantheon takes place, with a tendency towards religious monotheism in Marduk.
Marduk Supremacy
The supreme god was Marduk, who obtained his primacy after the union of Sumer and Akkad,
already in that era. ca amorita and its greatest representative, Hammurabi, developing new versions of
ancient Sumerian legends to elevate Marduk to the supremacy of the divine pantheon, as god of
wisdom estuary and protector of men. Even Anu, god of the sky, cedes his role to Marduk. Ea, father
of Marduk, even transferred his own name to him.
Enlil (with the elaboration of a new episode included in the Enuma elish or “Poem of the creation
tion") gave Marduk the "Tablet of Destinies", for having defeated the goddess Tiamat (primordial
feminine element), rebelled against An (father of the gods), and consequently, Marduk will be saved.
champion of the gods. The change must have been progressive, given the power of the priests of Enlil
(sumerian supreme deity).
Marduk's wife was Zarpanit, and his son was Nabu, god of writing and protector of the world.
screens.
Secondary divinities
There are secondary divinities, such as:
a) Gods of nature.
b) Gods of war.
c) Gods of rivers, waters and fountains.
d) Gods of fertility, livestock, intellectual activity, who become cosmic gods that regulate the
universe, and moral beings that maintain social order and the rest. breastplate to the right.
Spirits and demons
There are a good number of spirits and demons, good and bad, that accompany man throughout
his life to reward or punish him.
New divinities
They brought new gods:
a) Ninurta : god of floods, war and hunting.
b) Gula : the great healer, wife of Ninurta.
c) Adad : god of meteorological weather, responsible for triggering the flood.
d) Ea : god of fresh water and the ocean, in whose depths he made his home (Apsu). He was the
Sumerian Enki.
e) Dagan : god of time, sometimes with features of an infernal god. She was a divinity of the
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middle Euphrates.
f) Abu : god of vegetation, who in Neo-Sumerian times was the personal god of King Gudea of
La gash.
The Beyond or Underground World
As the last link is the Beyond or Underground World, located under the abyss of Apsu. It was the
house from which one could not leave again, the eternal place reserved for men and kingdom go
governed by important divinities.
1.7.2 Akkadian myths
Characteristics
In general, we can say that the Akkadian myths:
a) They are reworking of pre-existing Sumerian myths, adapting them to their cultural
environment. Tam There is also the creation of new myths (such as that of the Ascension).
b) They are more prosaic and extensive than their Sumerian prototypes.
c) They have greater length, which is reflected in the two great poems of this time: the Enuma
Elish and that of Gilgamesh.
d) They lose conceptual variety and tend towards abstraction and hierarchization, proof of a new
order of things.
e) His stories contain great literary resources.
Due to a nationalist character, there is a tendency to adjust religious beliefs to the guidelines
dictated by official theological schools.
Sometimes religion was confused with magic and medicine. The myth of the Eridu tree is a sor
Akkadian medical device. The city of Eridu plays a great role in Mesopotamian magical formulas,
since Ea, the wizard god of wisdom, resided there. We have also received amulets, spells and an
Akkadian incantation against toothache.
Theme
There is an impact of the new political panorama on the thematic content of the myths, with at
least some differentiating features:
a) Less interest in fertility issues.
b) Less interest in cosmic problems.
c) Growing interest in issues of royalty (myth of Erra), the relationship between king and divine
personal zation (Gilgamesh, Sargon) and by the organization of the Mesopotamian world
around a city and a supreme national god (Enuma elish or Poem of Creation).
Main Akkadian myths
a) Myths about Creation and origins
V The creation of the world and the gods and the creation of man.
V The Lamga gods.
V The Babylonian theogony of the city of Dunnu.
V The cosmogony of the kalu priests.
V Chaldean cosmogony.
V The Eridu tree.
b) Myths of struggle and violence

V The Zu Bird.
V Marduk's victory over Tiamat.
V Gilgamesh, Ishtar and the Celestial Bull.
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c) Myths of destruction and salvation

V The Universal Flood.
V Atrahasis.
V Poem of Erra.
d) Myths about the Afterlife
V Nargal and Ereshkigal.
V Ishtar's descent into hell.
V Vision of the lower world.
V The plant of immortality.
e) ascension myths
V Etana and Adapa.
f) Myths of divine and human exaltation
V Exaltation of Ishtar.
V Poem of Saltu and Agushaya.
V Birth of Marduk.
V Hymn to Marduk.
V The fifty names of Marduk.
V Prayer to the deified Gilgamesh.
V Birth of Sargon of Agadé.
g) Myths with fantastic beings
V Enlil and the dragon Labbu.
V The seven utukku.
1.8 The concept of divine kingship in Mesopotamia
1.8.1. Sumerian, protodynastic or pre-Sargonic era
There is no evidence of deification of the king, although there is posthumous deification (cases of
Lugalbanda and Gilgamesh). There is also divine filiation in the inscriptions of Mesilim, king of
Kish, and king Eannatum of Lagash, both “sons of Ninhursag.”
Sacred marriage (hierogamy) is not known at this time, being the most anti- guo of this custom
from the time of Iddin-Dagan of Isin (1974-1954 BC), although it seems that at Some kings of Ur III
(2112-2004 BC) already celebrated it.
1.8.2. Akkadian era
The first to bear the title “god of Akkad” is Naram-Sin of Akkad (2254-2218 BC). The king
acquires superhuman and cosmic strength, without change in his nature, but only in his functions.
tions, becoming:
a) Creator and Organizer.
b) Owner and Lord of destinies, and therefore all law emanates from him: “promulgates codes.”
1.8.3. Dynasty of Ur
Increases the centralist and unifying position of the dynasty, in which the king is (as of Shulgi):
a) Supreme Judge.
b) Head of administration.
c) The one who decides in matters of peace or war.
d) Temple builder.
In a next step, kings will achieve unlimited human power.
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The deification of the monarch gives rise to local cults, such as that of Shulgi in Umma. The king
is placed below the great gods, although sometimes, in the great sacred nuptials (hierogamy), he
identified himself with Dumuzi, lover of Inanna.
1.9 . The Guti or Qutu ( ± 2193-2112)
1.9.1. The Guti Invasion
These towns come from the Zagros massif, a strategic and defensible place. The documents that
survive from them are in the Akkadian language. Sharkalisharri (2217-2193 BC), successor of
Narâm-Sin, could not stop the Guti invasion (an example of a people with inferior techniques that
defeated weapons ments and superior techniques), which produced a time of anarchy. The Guti were
but one of the many factors that contributed to the fall of the Akkadian Empire.
1.9.2. Kings
The Sumerian Royal List presents the chronology and succession of the 21 Guti kings over 91
years. Lasirab, Basium, Erridupiti and Tiriqán stand out. Some dynasties reached the Seleucids,
already in the 3rd century BC. The Guti period was contemporary with the IV and V Dynasties of
Uruk.
1.9.3. Traditions
Tradition says that the Guti behaved like barbarians, but later they maintained an ad ministration
chained with each of the ancient peoples. They learned the Akkadian language and you They took
into account previous cultures, allowing commercial exchanges between different peoples. They did
not continue the universal state, but rather a regime of local autonomy, respecting ethnic minorities.
1.9.4. End of the guti domain
Their rule ended unexpectedly at the hands of the Sumerian city of Ur. After 2112 BC They were
expelled by Utu-Hegal, the only king of the V Dynasty of Uruk, in turn defeated by Ur-Nammu of Ur,
who founded the III Dynasty of this city.
Also in the Guti era, the splendor of Lagash (2nd Dynasty) occurred, whose king Gudea was an
extraordinary ruler and very religious. He marked very radical social reforms, elevating the mass of
slaves with a human and political sense.
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ANCIENT HISTORY: NEAR EAST, EGYPT, CRETE AND MYCENES UNED
THEME 3. THE SUMERIAN RENAISSANCE. THE AWAKENING OF SYRIA
1. The Sumerian Renaissance. Stages

This era is known as the Sumerian Renaissance for Sumer regaining political supremacy after Semitic
rule. It includes two stages:
1. Reign of the Second Dynasty of Lagash (2155-2111 BC).

2. Reign of the Third Dynasty of Ur (2112-2004 BC).
1.1. The work of the Second Dynasty of Lagash (2155-2111 BC). Gudea
When the last kings of Akkad disappeared, King Ur-Baba reigned in Lagash, who was succeeded by
his three sons-in-law, the last being Gudea. They mark the apogee of Lagash, and are contemporaries
of the last We are kings guti or qutu (it would not be surprising if these kings were qutus).
The sculptures from this period are excellent, especially those of King Gudea, made of diorite,
forming part of the temples he built in Lagash (unknown), as well as in other cities. He also built
canals, dams for irrigation and others to clean up swamps.
Trade
These constructions and their rich materials tell us about the important trade of the time in La gash
and transport security. Expeditions to Elam provided them with prisoners of war as slaves.
Characteristics
a) Return to the city-states.

b) Maintenance of economic autarky through commercial relations.
c) A hymn from Gudea's time, on two clay cylinders, demonstrates the perfection to which the
language reached. The culture is still Sumerian, but with Akkadian influence.
d) The religion is Sumerian with certain Akkadian concepts. The most important sanctuary built
by Gudea was the “Ennimu”, home of Ningirisu, god of the city of Girsu, national god and
holder of vegetation, war and hunting.
After the Second Dynasty, Lagash became a vassal of Ur III, until becoming independent again in
2023 BC.
1.2. The Third Dynasty of Ur (2112-2004 BC)
The main sources for his study are the archives of Drehem, Ur Nippur, Girsu and Umma.
Ur-Nammu (2112-2095 BC)
He collected the inheritance of Uthuhegal from Uruk (who expelled the Guti), and moved to Ur,
beginning with him the Third Dynasty of this city.
He restored cities, built walls, rebuilt ruined sanctuaries, opened channels for the development of
agriculture and trade, and promulgated the first known Code of Justice to regulate economic relations,
a precedent of the Code of Hammurabi.
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Shulgi (2094-2047 BC)
Son of Ur-Nammu, his kingdom and that of his son Amarsuen or Amar-Sin constitute the apogee of
the Empire of Ur III.
In domestic policy he restored sanctuaries, reformed weights and measures, introducing the royal gur,
reor He organized the army by creating a corps of archers and had himself deified following the
example of Narâm-Sin. He also took the title “king of the four regions.”
In foreign policy there was danger from Elamite pressure, resolved on a diplomatic level by marrying
his daughter to the Ensi of Anshan. During his reign, the effervescence spread to all of what is now
Kurdistan, and he died without being able to ensure victory over the rebels.
Amarsuen or Amar-Sin (2046-2038 BC)
Son of Shulgi, he destroyed Arbelas, after which there was a period of peace until the reign of Ibbi-
Sin.
Shu-sin (2037-2029 BC)
Son of Amarsuen, he kept the peace.

Ibbi-Sin (2028-2004 BC)
Last king of the Third Dynasty of Ur. Behind him there is a penetration of Amorite nomads, and after
the dismemberment of the Empire of Ur III, states were founded in Isin, Larsa and Babylon (Palaeo-
Bolonic Era).
1.2.1. Territories of the Empire of the Third Dynasty of Ur
The Empire of Ur III was divided into three zones:

a) Independent countries : on the periphery, sometimes united by marriage alliances.
b) Susa, Assur and Mari : governed by governors, generally from the country.
c) Center of the Empire : The former principalities are now provinces. There was only lugal in
Ur, and the ensi were administrative officials of the territory.
The east was as extensive as the Akkadian Empire, including part of Mesopotamia and Transtigrinia
as far as Elam and Susa. Only Simash retained his autonomy, a pillar of the anti-Sumerian opposition.
In the west, the kingdoms of Ebla, Tuttul and Byblos recognized the authority of Ur III, at least
during the reign of Amarsuen.
1.2.2. The organization of the Empire of Ur III
The king
The king had patrimonial power, being the theoretical owner of the entire kingdom.
Senior officials
The country was a sum of constituencies in which they governed:

a) Ensi : officials with civil power. They maintained order, organized public works, ac They
served as judges and collected taxes. Their power was no longer comparable to that of the
ancient je faiths of the cities. They were leased positions, tending to perpetuate themselves in
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the same families.
b) Shagin : officials with military power, although in local circumstances they also had other
functions, such as in Mari (directorate of agricultural and communal works).
The tasks of the royal officials were:

a) Collecting taxes.
b) Collect offerings destined for the king and the deities.
c) Maintenance of junior officials.
d) Business surveillance.
e) Preside over the Courts of Justice.
In general, there was no absolute distinction between civil and military powers, and sometimes there
was collaboration tion between Ensi and Shagin for some mission.
Junior officials
The main ones are:

a) Aga-Ush : police.
b) Nubanda : inspector.
c) Mashkin : commissioner.
d) Sukkal : royal inspector in charge of monitoring local administrations. Its chief, the
Shukkalmal, was the Grand Chancellor.
These officials lived on plots of land granted by the palace to the temples, since the tripartite division
of the land subsisted. They also received rations according to their rank.
1.2.3. Culture in the Empire of Ur III
Characteristics
The main characteristics of the Empire of Ur III are:

a) Statism : the static Temple-Palace organization, developed since the Archaic Dynasty, is
perpetuated and reinforced in this era. All of Mesopotamia was a state with Enlil as its main
god, Ur as its capital, and the place of Ur as its sovereign. There was an oligarchy of officials
and administrative centralization.
b) Suppression of local autonomies .
c) The bala or rotation system in paying taxes is known . Taxes in kind were centralized in
Nippur, the religious capital, and in Ur, the administrative capital.
Economy
We know the Royal Registry Services, thanks to which we know that the economy was based on
money (currency did not yet exist), and exchange was also used.
It seems that there was no private ownership of the land, although the gardens and land adjacent to the
properties must have been.
The State was largely responsible for supplying the temples, which represented an enormous burden.
The salaries of officials consisted of rations in kind. The Temple was separate from the Palace, with
different economic circuits.
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Industry
It was organized by the State. There were workshops around the cities, with female labor. na, watched
by police. The team leaders were mayors.
The main workshops were for weavers, tanners, engravers, goldsmiths, basket makers, foundries and
carpenters.
Social classes
a) Social order
Society was organized around two poles:

V Central and provincial government : with officials from the sukkalmah to the mayor of
towns or hazannu.
V Large production units : with administrative and productive staff (men or gurush and
women or geme).
b) Social strata
The society had three main strata:

V Aristocracy of officials.
V Peasant and artisan masses, included in the Temple-Palace economic circuits.
V Miserable town.
c) Social conditions
The social status of these people was different, depending on whether or not they had legal
status.
V Free (with legal status):
- Well-off people : including large merchants or damgar, also works rivers, intermediaries
in trade.
- Mashda or Mushkenum : people with inferior rights. Subject to the land, they were sold
with it. They had free children and could marry freely.
V Without legal status:
- Eren (troop): troops assigned by the Palace or Temples to the most diverse occupations
sas. They depended on a shagin or an ensi, and could not move at will.
- Slaves : people who lost their freedom, such as those convicted, those sold as slaves, and
the children of slaves.
- Intermediate class of semi-free : like the ir or the geme (servants). They could be from
the countryside or from the house, with legal personality. They could marry free people
and own property nes.
- True slaves : they were almost always foreigners, prisoners of war or those taken as loot
during expeditions.
1.2.4. End of the hegemony of the Third Dynasty of Ur
Amarsuen's sons were removed from the throne, and his brother Ibbi-Sin was crowned in the three
main cities of the kingdom:
a) Nippur: religious capital.
b) Uruk: cradle of the dynasty.
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c) Ur: administrative capital.
In the latter era, the kings of Ur encountered difficulties. The Amorite nomads (martu) inte
Communications were disrupted and crops were damaged, raising prices. cios and there was a time of
famine.
Ibbi-Sin fortified Ur and Nippur, handing over command of the threatened regions to Ishbi-Erra, an
officer of Mari, who became independent in the city of Isin (2027 BC). Beginning in 2009 BC, the
Impe river of the Third Dynasty of Ur can be considered divided in two.
In 2004 BC The fall of the Empire took place due to the united pressures of:
a) The Amorites in the west (later established in Babylon as the 1st Dynasty, giving rise lead to
profound changes in the region).
b) The Elamites to the east , whose capital was Susa (they will form the Meda Empire and the
Persian Empire sa).
c) The su (Susianos?) .
1.2.5. The city of Ur
At this time, Ur was made up of narrow and irregular streets, grouped around a three-story ziggurat,
at the top of which the divine chapel dominated the city and the Royal Palace.
There were no pavements or sewers. Transportation was done with donkeys or porters. The houses
had rooms around a central patio with impluvium (prototype of later houses). Greek and Roman
days).
At the same time, in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (Indus civilization) there were sewers in the streets
and public and private swimming pools and baths.
2. Situation in the Middle East at the end of the 3rd millennium and beginning of the 2nd
2.1. Ebla
Kingdom located between Aleppo and Hama (northern Syria), formed around the middle of the 3rd
millennium BC and destroyed around 1600 BC by the Hittites. He extended his power to Kanish,
Karkemish, Harran and Mari.
2.1.2. Eras
a) Splendor between the years 2550-2400 BC (Archaic Dynastic III). The leaders bore the name
En-Malik and their wives that of Maliktum. There was a Council of Elders (Abbu), in charge
of electing the king, whose reign lasted seven years (temporary reign). The first office cial of
the administration was the Adanum. There were fourteen governors (lugal or diku): two for
Ebla and twelve for the rest of the cities. Women had the same importance as men, and kings
paid taxes. Perhaps the monarchy was hereditary through the mother's line (matrili neal).
b) Its power was maintained at the beginning of the 2nd millennium (2000-1800 BC), although
the defeat by Narâm-Sin reduced its political power.
c) It retained its importance until the 17th century BC
d) From the 15th century BC There was no document . The two archives of the city are
important, from which it has been known that in the Paleo-Akkadian era, Ebla dominated
Mari, and later it was dominated by the Akkadians. Their language (Eblateo) was Semitic,
written with Sumerian cuneiform characters. Already in the second half of the 3rd millennium
BC, the Semites were far beyond the regions of the Khabur and middle Euphrates rivers.
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2.1.3. Society
It was composed of:

a) Free citizens (dumunita eblaki).
b) Foreigners and prisoners of war (baran-baran).
2.1.4. Economy
It was the basis of the city's importance, and was based on:
a) Agriculture (wheat, vine and olive tree).
b) Small livestock for the textile industry (wool).
c) metal industry.
d) Important trade.
e) Influence in areas of Sinai, Cyprus, northern Euphrates and Palestine.
2.1.5. Palaces
There were four palaces:

a) The real.
b) The Administrative or Lord, with extensive bureaucratic apparatus.
c) The Kari and the Thori, palaces of commerce and communications.
2.2. Isin
The kings of the First Dynasty were the true successors of Ur III. When the Third Dynasty
dismembered, part of the inheritance was collected by Ishbi-Erra (2017-1985 BC), an Akkadian
(Semitic). This king:
a) He managed to take over Nippur, which brought him wealth.
b) His reign was the restoration of Sumerian-Akkadian politics and tradition. They are copied
and transmitted have almost all the surviving Sumerian literary works.
He was succeeded by Shu-Ilishu (1984-1975 BC), and Iddin-Dagan (1974-1954 BC), with a peaceful
reign, although Lagash and Larsa escaped his power. This monarch was succeeded by Ishme-Dagan
(1953 1935 BC) and Lipit-Ishtar (1934-1924 BC), with which the dynasty became extinct, being
replaced by the usurper Ur-Ninurta (1923-1896 BC), whom Abi-Sare of Larsa defeated (1896 BC).
Little by little the decline was accentuated as Larsa's importance increased. Mesopotamia was divided
into a mosaic of small Amorite states, until Rim-Sin of Larsa (1822-1763 BC) took Isin, unifying
both cities. A few years after his death, from 1750 BC The Dynasty of the Country of the Sea will
reign in Isin until 1460 BC:
2.3. Larsa
Its importance begins around 1930 BC Its ruler Gungu-Num (1932-1906 BC) extended his kingdom
to Diyala, took Elam, Ur and Uruk and established himself as ruler of Sumer and Akkad. The riches
of the Persian Gulf came to Ur: precious stones, ivory, wood, precious metals, tin and copper.
At this time there was an important change. The trade was in the hands of private traders. The State
collected taxes on merchandise, also monitoring the development of agriculture. ra, construction of
canals, fortifications, etc.
Abi-Sare (1905-1895 BC) and Sumu-El (1894-1866 BC) continued the work of their predecessors in
commerce and agriculture. The last kings were Warad-Sin (1834-1823 BC) and Rim-Sin (1822-1763
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BC), after whose reign there was a political breakdown:

a) Abandonment of the structures inherited from Ur III.
b) Secularization of ecclesiastical properties.
c) Uruk became independent.
The kingdom of Larsa will become part, after being conquered by Hammurabi, of the Babylonian
kingdom.
2.4. Mari
It was an important city-state after the independence of Ebla, and one of the most important cities tes
of the economy of the end of the 19th century BC
Their Amorite kings were Iahdun-Lim, Iasmad-Adad (1810-1781 BC) and Zimri-Lim (1780-1759),
who maintained a complex commercial activity throughout the Persian Gulf, trading in all types of
merchandise.
Mari resisted many Assyrian and Amorite incursions, and was a foretaste of the Greek cities of Asia
Minor. It was destroyed by Hammurabi, and its territory became part of the Amorite kingdom of
Babi. lonia.
THEME 4. THE PALEOBABYLONIAN PERIOD

1. Paleo-Babylonian Era (2004-1592 BC)
1.1. Introduction
This period can be divided into two clearly differentiated subperiods separated by the invasion of the
Martu or Amorite nomads:
a) Heyday of Isin and Larsa.
b) Paleo-Babylonian Empire, or government of the First Amorite Dynasty.
Babylon (Greek name) is, at the same time, the name of a city (Ka-dingir-ra in Sumerian and Babilim
in Akkadian) and that of a region. The city already appears in the texts of Ur III governed by an ensi.
By extension, the name Babylon is given to all of Southern Mesopotamia, divided into two regions:
Sumer to the south and Akkad to the north.
The Paleo-Babylonian era spans from the end of Ur III (2004 BC) and the taking of Babylon by the
Hittites (1595 BC). The period before Babylonian hegemony lasted 200 years and was characterized
by the struggle of the cities of Isin and Larsa to dominate Mesopotamia.
In Upper Mesopotamia the struggle between the cities of Eshnunna, Mari and Assur for dominance of
the trade routes was characteristic.
1.2. Heyday of Isin and Larsa
In Lower Mesopotamia this time is divided into two periods:

a) Hegemony of the Isin dynasty : period of peace of about 100 years.
b) Supremacy of the kings of Larsa : it occupied the following century, with a constant struggle
for the dominion of Ur and for supremacy throughout Sumer and Akkad between the cities of
Isin and Larsa, the latter predominating.
Meanwhile, the Amorite principalities were formed, including Babylon.
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1.3. Paleo-Babylonian Empire
After the hegemonies of Isin and Larsa the importance of Babylon began. Under Ur III was admi
provided by an ensi. With Sumu-Abum (1894-1881 BC), Amorite prince, it became an independent
principality slope, and the cities of Sippar, Dilbat and Kazallu depended on it. With his successor
Sumulael (1880-1845 BC), private ownership of land was a fait accompli in Babylon.
With the Amorite dynasty (Western Semitic language), the figure of the king began to be specified,
and the kingdom extended towards Diyala, although we cannot speak of a true Babylonian dominion.
These regions, since there is also a predominance of Larsa, where dynastic changes occurred cos,
ascending to the throne Warad-Sin (1834-1823 BC), Amorite prince who allied himself with Babylon.
In 1810 BC, a coalition of Uruk, Isin, Babylon, Rapiqum and the Sutensians was dispersed by Rim-
Sin of Larsa, who in 1803 BC he took Uruk, and ten years later Isin.
Babylon, ruled by Sin-Muballit (1812-1793 BC) became strong, his kingdom encompassing the
cities towns of Kish, Borsippa, Sippar and others. In 1792 BC Hammurabi ascended the throne and
unified the entire region under his rule.
1.4. Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC)
He was the sixth king of the Amorite dynasty or I Dynasty of Babylon. During his reign, Babylon
achieved great splendor, and his work as ruler was fruitful in both foreign and domestic policy,
highlighting his legislative work.
1.4.1. Foreign policy: territorial expansion
The position was consolidated against King Rim-Sin of Larsa, taking Isin and Uruk from him, and
naming him king of Emutbal, leaving Hammurabi as king of Sumer and Akkad.
In 1762 BC He defeated the so-called “Tigris coalition”, formed by Elamites, Assyrians and
Gutenians.
In 1760 BC He defeated the cities of Eshnunna, Subartu, Malgium and Mankisum, and took and
destroyed Mari.
Ashur and Nineveh appear in the prologue of his Code as cities that enjoyed the favors of the victor,
although, according to the Assyrian royal list, at this time they were under the power of the Assyrian
king Ishme-Dagan I (1780-1741 BC).
1.4.2. Domestic policy

Legislative work: The Code
The Code of Hammurabi is a model of jurisprudence and the Babylonian language (Akkadian dialect,
and therefore, Semitic).
Its main merit was to unify existing legislation, although it did not modify anything, but limited itself
to regulating the already established order.
The great conquests made by the king forced vast territories to accept the same legislation tion.
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Social classes according to the Code of Hammurabi
In this society, a higher social situation corresponds to certain prerogatives and obligations. major
tions. Social classes, according to the Code of Hammurabi, can be divided between those that have
legal status and those that do not:
a) With legal status
V Awilum : upper class (man or lord).
V Mushkenum : people (palace servants).
V Wardum : slaves with brand and legal personality. They could marry a free woman
and be brought to justice.
b) Without legal status
V Asiru : prisoners of war, the true slaves.
Family
The marriage was monogamous, tempered by concubinage. It was carried out by a contract, through
te which the groom gave the father-in-law a gift (terkhatum) in money or movable property, and the
father-in-law gave the daughter a dowry (sheriqtum), of which she had the usufruct.
The husband could constitute a donation (nudunnum) to improve the wife's assets, although she only
owned them in usufruct.
Women enjoyed extensive legal capacity: they could appear in court, exercise various legal festivities
and assume public functions.
The husband had the right of correction over her. If the woman was unfaithful to him, he took the
initiative of divorce. The law recognized the husband's right to take a second wife or a slave
concubine if the first wife was sterile.
The second wife never had the rank of the first, and could be sold into slavery if she attempted to
become equal to her (a practice reflected in the Old Testament when Sarah, Abraham's wife, expelled
her slave Hagar from her home).
You could adopt a child to ensure offspring. If he was a slave, he was manumitted. These children
had the same rights as a legitimate child.
The legitimate descendants inherited first, and secondly the brothers of the deceased. Among the
children, the main ones in this right were the males (who succeeded without distinction of
primogeniture), since the married daughters had received a sheriqtum or dowry in their marriage as an
advance of the succession. If the daughters were not married, their brothers had to guarantee them a
dowry.
Non-legitimate children, born to a concubine or slave, could only inherit movable fortune, without
choosing their share, although their father while alive could give them some of his fortune.
The father could not disinherit any legitimate child, except for recidivism in proven serious Jewish
misconduct. cially.
Economy
Ownership of the land was tripartite, distributed between:

a) State : farmers, settlers, men who worked for royal service and beneficiaries of non-alienable
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lands, but transmittable by inheritance (ilku).

b) Temple properties.
c) Properties of individuals .
Paleo-Babylonian administration
Definitive responsibility for all administrative matters rested with the king.
Under Hammurabi's government there were chancery and accounting departments that were very
efficiently organized.
Their postal service was very fast. In the event of a military crisis, beacon fires were used, which
consisted of a series of signal bonfires that allowed a message to be quickly transmitted to the entire
country.
The administration was very organized and governors were appointed for the various districts
controlled by him. There were permanent military garrisons in the cities and additional troops were
recruited for each campaign.
During the reign of Hammurabi, there was generally a transfer of authority from the Temple to the
king, both in terms of responsibility for the temple's duties and the exercise of its functions. judicial
nes. Officials called “king's judges,” first attested under the previous monarch Sabium, played a
predominant role. The king could judge specific cases personally, while any private individual could
appeal directly to him for justice.
In the Paleo-Babylonian period, the Puhrum (or assembly) also served as a court of justice. Inc.
In Babylon there were also a series of people or possessions whose “intermediate” situation or is
special deserve a separate mention. We refer to the Ilkum, the Redum and the Naditum.
Ikum (fief or concession)
The grant of land, which was generally received as rewards for the performance of certain military or
civil obligations. This system, called ikum, is found in both the Paleo-Babylonian and Kassite
periods. The grant could be made to an individual or a group; a single person could receive several.
Redum (peasant who also served in the army)
The redum and the ba'irum were military or police personnel. The term Redum is usually translated
as my soldier The redum fulfilled what we would call “police obligations” in addition to taking part in
military campaigns.
The redum was prohibited from selling or mortgaging the plot granted by the king, but people of
higher social status who possessed ikum, such as the naditum and the tamkarum, were free to sell as
long as the buyer agreed to take charge of the land. obligations entailed by the possession of land and
its exploitation.
Naditum (Special priestesses with economic performance)
These women, although in some way linked to the temple, were involved in various kinds of business
transactions and played an important role in the economic life of Babylon, lending silver and grain,
providing capital for trading expeditions, etc. The naditum lived and worked in agagum, gargum or
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cloister. Like the tamkarum (merchant), he invested his money in houses and agricultural properties,
which he then rented. It seems that the naditum, although she could “marry,” had the obligation to
remain celibate.
Trade
It was carried out through the institution of Tamkarum, the official organization of itinerant trade. Its
main figure is the Wakil-Tamkari, head of the market that operated by royal mandate. Also re It
collected taxes and purchased on behalf of the central government.
1.4.3. The city of Babylon and other Paleo-Babylonian cities and constructions
Babylon means “gate of the god.” It had no real importance until Hammurabi. It became the center of
the commercial axis of the eastern world. Destroyed many times and rebuilt again, Alexander the
Great died there.
The Seleucids (successors of Alexander) created their capital, Seleucia del Tigris, near it.
The most vivid portrait of Paleo-Babylonian life was given by Sir Leonard Woolley when he
excavated private houses from the period of Larsa's domination of Ur.
These houses “from the Larsa era” were destroyed during the time of Hammurabi's successor who, in
the tenth year of his reign, “demolished the walls of Ur and Uruk.”
Normally the dead were buried in large cemeteries, outside the city. Against We see the presence of
narrow paved areas at the back of the houses, each with its small domestic chapel and a vaulted tomb
for the family.
Tell Harmal
Tell Harmal, is a small place located on the periphery of modern Baghdad, administrative center of a
district dominated by Eshnunna during the period before the conquest by Ham murabi. The Iraqi
Department of Antiquities has excavated large areas of the site, where unparalleled data from the
Babylonian administration of four thousand years ago has been recovered.
Tell Harmal is significant for two important reasons:
a) As a warning to archaeologists who want to classify unexcavated sites by origin give

importance depending on their extension.
b) Because of the large collection of cuneiform documents that have been recovered. Among
them have been found: administrative and literary texts, letters, a code of laws dating from the
reign of Dadusha of Eshnunna, several lexical texts, a group of mathematical texts, where
great mathematical competence is demonstrated; The resolution of a problem anticipates the
Pythagorean theorem by 1,300 years.
On each side of the main street was a temple with the entrance protected by terracotta lions.
Palaces
There were several palaces, in addition to the immense city complex of Mari, which took its final
form during the reign of Zimrilim. But, the most important palace, that of Hammurabi himself, has
not yet been found.
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Religious architecture
Religious architecture is well attested in places such as Ur, Harmal, in the temple of Istha-Kititum in
Ishtchali, but in a very special way in the place of Tell el Rimah, the ancient Karana, in northern Iraq,
where there is evidence unusual construction techniques of the Ur III period.
In Rimah a monumental temple and a ziguratu or ziqquratu were built, which occupied the entire
mon central tile of the city, under the patronage of Samsi-Adad I of Assyria, when Karana was a
State that depended on Assur.
The ziqquartu attached to the temple is a peculiarly Assyrian feature. The most extraordinary aspect
of the Rimah temple lies in its decoration, it is adorned with 270 half columns, 50 of which consisted
of ornate spirals and two types of webbing.
2. The end of Amorite Babylon. The invasion of the nomads
Samsu-Iluna (1749-1712 BC), Hammurabi's successor, inherits the social crisis. He faced the pri mere
cottage raids, who infiltrated society as day laborers, and had several uprisings tions, such as that of
Rim-Sin II of Larsa (1741-1736 BC), Assyria and the king of the Land of the Sea, which became
independent.
During the reign of bi-Eshuh (1711-1684 BC) the decomposition of the agrarian regime was
accentuated. The benefits (ilku) to the soldiers were not respected, and service to the king became a
burden.
Around 1700 BC, new migratory movements disrupted all structures, and written sources
disappeared, leaving documentation scarce for about 200 years. Among the nomadic peoples days
were Hyksos, Aramaeans and little houses. Meanwhile, the last Amorite kings succeeded one another,
such as Ammi-Ditana (1688-1647 BC), Ammi-Saduqa (1646-1626 BC) and Samsu-Ditana (1625-
1595 BC), with whom the First Dynasty of Babylon ended.
3. II Dynasty of Babylon (1595-1570 BC) or I Dynasty of the Land of the Sea
In 1595 BC, Babylon was taken by the Hittites, but it would be the Kassites who took advantage of
this situation, although before that there was a brief parenthesis in which the I Dynasty of the Country
of the Sea was installed, whose kings were Sushi and Gulkisar.
They possibly aspired to a new Sumerian renaissance. It has been suggested that in the 1990s Since
the First Dynasty of Babylon, the Country of the Sea provided refuges in the south for the great
centers of culture and learning (“universities”), which were Babylon and Nippur. Its inhabitants
infiltrated after Hammurabi, and at the beginning of the 16th century BC They acceded to the throne
of Babylon.
4. Third Dynasty of Babylon (1570-1157 BC). The little houses
4.1. International situation
There is a shift of the political initiative away from Babylon, and for the first time it is located outside
of Mesopotamia at the hands of:
a) Hittites : with increasing power.
b) Mitanni (Hurrians) : perhaps of greater power. Their origins appear in the north of
Mesopotamia, and later, at the end of the Paleo-Babylonian stage, they occupied the entire
north, forming small states that around 1500 BC They are unified into one, Mitanni, with a
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mainly Hurrian population. Its capital was Washshukanni, although it has not yet been
identified. During the 15th and 14th centuries BC They extend from the Mediterranean to the
Zagros, occupying the entire later Assyrian state. His military power was very important due
to his skills on horseback, his advanced technique and the advances in weapons. Their main
role was as intermediaries in the transmission of Babylonian culture to the Hittites,
Palestinians and Phoenicians, and indirectly to Gre cia and the Western world.
The 17th and 16th centuries were marked by great political changes. The Kassites were one of the
non-Semitic peoples (Hittites and Hurrians were others) who from the north began to exert pressure
on the weakened Babylonian kingdom. They infiltrated society peacefully, but with Samsu-Iluna they
were a military threat, and it seems that they founded a state centered around Khana. After trying to
cross the borders, they occupied Babylon with their king Agum II around 1570 BC, although
according to the Babylonian lists there were eight kings before that.
4.2. The little houses
The Kassites were mountain tribes from the east, from the Zagros Mountains, who first clashed with
the Babylonians in the time of Samsu-Iluna, son of Hammurabi. They accepted the Babylonian
culture, bringing the use of the horse and the measurement of time by the years of the reign. They
were little known, since the events between Hatti, Egypt and Mittani were more important. Their
monarchy was of a feudal type, in which a few families had most of the fields and commerce in their
power.
Domestic policy
They established a non-oppressive liberal policy. They administered Sumer better than the Akkadians
and Paleo-Babylonians. Once they conquered the Country of the Sea in 1460 BC, the entirety of
Babylon functioned as a single political unit. The policy of separating the Sumerian city-states was
neutralized due to the great attention paid by the Kassite monarchs and the construction operations
they carried out in them.
First kings houses
The number and order of its first kings is to be determined.
• Agum II ( ± 1570 BC)

He is the first to dominate Babylon and recover the worship of Marduk and his wife after
Hittite rule. He dominated Eshnunna, Gutium and Assur. After his successors Burnaburiash I
and Kashtiliash III, Ulamburiash, a great warrior, reigned, who subdued the Country of the
Sea.
• Kara'Indash ( ± 1415 BC)
He had a fortunate internal policy. For the first time in 200 years, Babylon is united into a
single state. Together with his successor Kurigalzu he carried out large constructions in the
anti guas Sumerian cities (in Uruk he built a temple dedicated to Inin). Royal inscriptions
appear, and the Amarna Letters appear, a valuable historical source.
4.3. Tell el-Amarna archives and casita foreign policy
The archives are about 300 clay tablets written in cuneiform of the Babylonian language (currently
distributed throughout the world), which appeared in the ruins of the capital of Pharaoh Akhenaten, of
whose archives they were part. They deal with international diplomacy and shed light on the politics
of this era (Amarna Age).
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Although the international correspondence appears in 1450 BC, the letters span the reigns of
Amenophis III and Akhenaten (1402-1375 BC). In the letters, the Kassite kings mention their
predecessors. immediate successors, and although there is no correspondence, it is clear that in the
time of Kara'Indash Ba Bilonia already had the prestige to maintain diplomatic relations with Egypt,
thanks to the exchange of messages between the two.
The Babylonian caravans went to Syria, Egypt and Anatolia. At this time of Amenophis IV, Egypt
had the main military role and Babylon the diplomatic language.
4.4. Kurigalzu I ( ± 1400 BC)
In the time of Kurigalzu, Babylon received large quantities of gold from Egypt as currency, and with
this began the construction program in several cities and the construction of Dur-Kurigalzu, which is
the only truly casita city. The casitas were mainly dedicated
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You will rebuild and restore ancient Sumerian buildings, thus showing their integration into ancient
Sumerian culture. There is little evidence that they maintained their own religion.
From this time on, the fate of Assyria and Babylon were linked, with dynastic marriages and tra ted.
Kurigalzu was a very capable king, and he defeated the Elamites, conquering Susa, their capital.
4.5. Kurigalzu's successors. The Amarna Correspondence
Kurigalzu's successors are known primarily for the role they played in the co Amarna's response. The
Egyptian and Babylonian royal families are married and exchange gifts. But relations deteriorated due
to Egypt's weakness with Amenophis III and Akhenaten, although they settled again with
Burnaburiash through new marriages.
Although relations between Egypt and Babylon seem to be in decline, the influence of Babylon in the
14th century remains unchanged. Assyria was dominated by Babylon when Mitanni collapsed.
4.6. Burnaburiash II (1375-1347 BC) and his successors. The end of Little House Babylon
Burnaburiash II was a contemporary of the Hittite Subiluliuma (1380-1336 BC), and married his son
to an Assyrian princess (at this time, Assyria was a vassal of Babylon). Close relations with Assur-
Uballit I of Assyria, and a Babylonian prince marries the daughter of the Assyrian king, and his son
Karakandash (1346-1345 BC) reigns in Babylon after Burnaburiash, thus beginning a period of
Assyrian influence in the 14th century BC Karakandash was deposed by the Babylonians, and in his
place ascended the throne Kurigalzu II the Younger (1344-1324 BC), a Kassite son of Burnaburiash,
who places Dur-Kurigalzu as his capital.
In the following era (2nd Epoch) there is a balance of relations between Babylon and Assyria and the
Hittites, with Egyptian presence in the international situation (Seti I and Ramses II). Ramses II fights
with against the Hittites at Kadesh (1300 BC) and the result was a strategic Hittite victory, which
continued its close relations with the Babylonians.
At the end of the 14th century BC The war between Assyria and Babylon resumes. Nazimaruttash
(1323-1298 BC) is defeated, and the borders are delimited. His successors maintain the throne helped
by the Hittite Hattusil III, despite the aggrandizement of Assyria. After the death of Kadashman-
Enlil III (1279-1265 BC), relations between the Hittites and Babylonians diminished because the
Arameans cut off communications. tions, until in the reign of Kashtiliashu IV (1232-1225 BC) the
Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I (1243-1207 BC) attacks and sacks Babylon, taking its king prisoner.
The causes of the war are not exactly known, although this Assyrian obsession with Babylon would
cause problems for the next 600 years. Tukulti-Ninurta I built a new capital to which he gave his
name opposite Assur. Assyrian governors were installed in Babylon, but the Babylonian cultural
repercussions girls in Assyria were enormous.
After the Assyrian governor was expelled, Kadashman-Harbe II (1227-1225 BC) ascended the
throne, res taming the cult of Marduk. Babylon recovers its ancient splendor after the ruin of the
Middle Assyrian Empire and the disappearance of the Hittite Empire with the invasion of the Sea
Peoples around 1200 BC
Adad-Shuma-Ussur (1218-1189 BC) was the true restorer. He reorganizes the Kassite dynasty and
subdues the Assyrians descended from Tukulti-Ninurta I.
Melishipak (1188-1174 BC) is the last important king. After him, Babylon falls into the power of
Elam, with the last Kassites resisting in Isin (II Dynasty of Isin or IV Dynasty of Babylon). Among
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Ugly items that the attackers took to Susa were the stele of Narâm-Sin and the Code of Hammurabi,
as well as the statue of the god Marduk, which remained in Susa until the time of Nebuchadnezzar I
(1125-1104 BC).
5. Art and architecture little house. Dur Kurigalzu
The Dur-Kurigalzu fortress (ruins west of Baghdad) was built on the outer defense line rior against
Assyria and Elam in the reign of Kurigalzu I (c. 1390 BC).
It has a well-preserved ziggurat with distinctive profile due to reed mats and braid ropes s that cross
horizontally its structure to act as levelers during construction and as a connection in the construction
of the tower. To the west is a large palace of unusual construction. he spins them Brick walls appear
placed alternately horizontally and on edge.
The Kassites were the first to use baked brick and to include second-order deities and human form
among the decorative motifs. There are spiral columns in a temple at Larsa (approximately
approximately from the 14th century BC).
6. The little house civilization
The Kassites were people of a people with an agglutinative language who collected the heritage of
Hammurabi's Babylon or Paleo-Babylonian Empire , and imitated and transformed the old
Babylonian culture.
6.1. Social classes
Its division into social classes consisted of two:

V A ruling class of Babylonian (West Semitic) language, which had cultural power ral.
V A warrior class, which was the armed arm of this society, formed by the invading
Kassites, with an agglutinating language.
6.1. The kudurrus or cairns
The boundary stone, cairn or kudurru, is the most distinctive object of Kassite Mesopotamia, where a
certain type of royal concession is found inscribed on oval or column-shaped stones. They were
official letters or documentation issued by kings or royal officials to proclaim the granting to people
of a certain portion of land, together with the remission of certain taxes. cough and the imposition of
certain obligations. They were installed on the property, and a copy on a clay tablet in the temples.
More than 80 are known, and they date back to Kadashman-Enlil II (around 1370 BC).
They carry relief sculptures depicting enthroned gods to protect the monument. In some cases they
represent the king, alone or with the person who owns the land. Others had registration tions with
curses and blessings to prevent it from being removed from where it was installed or destroyed.
In short, they were stelae with a rounded top, and with texts that included:
a) Description of the lands granted.
b) Circumstances of the concession.
c) Franchises from which the lands benefited.
d) Invocation to the gods.
e) List of witnesses.
The kudurrus inform us of the Casita administrative ladder, the law and the institutions. At this time
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the figure of Hazannu (mayor) appeared, with administrative, police, and judicial functions. them and
prosecutors. The Kassite monarchs wore luxurious dresses and a royal tiara.
6.2. The little house stamps
They are cylindrical seals with many symbols, including the Casita Cross. Another innovation is a
long inscription in Sumerian that almost filled the seal, and was usually a prayer to the titular deity, of
obscure expression.
6.3. The administration

The economic administration was carried out from the king's palace. The main positions were:
a) Guennaku: governor of Nippur.
b) Sukkallu: Prime Minister.
c) Bel-pahati: Provincial governor.
d) Shakin-Mati: prefect of the provincial administration.
e) Khazannu: mayor.
f) Shatammu: administrator of the palace, temples and warehouses.
g) Tabali: messengers.
h) Mati: doctor or pourer.
6.4. Social organization
The social organization was dual:

a) Officials and officers: with zakutu or franchise.
b) Villagers and artisans: they paid taxes and had obligatory jobs.
The Kassites carried out military innovations:

a) Shakrumash: military officer.
b) Narkabut: Akkadian war chariot whose parts were given Kassite names.
c) A large number of artisans worked in the war industry.
It was a warrior society that depended on the war chariot and horses. They carried out obligatory tions
or ishkaru (people built chariots for the palace).
The military leaders were permanent, sometimes with an administrative function. There were also
large families of scribes.
6.5. The family
The Casitas did not renounce their family organization, and at this time families re-emerged derosas,
in the absence of strong royal power. Inheritance was patrilineal, and there were frequent fraternity
adoptions that allowed strangers access to the distribution of the adopter's assets.
6.6. The right
Its legal system was original, and new legal procedures appear. Royal officials were sent to delimit
and confirm property transfers.
6.7. The little house religion
The religion had original elements:
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a) They continued the cult of the god Marduk as proof of the legitimacy of the dynasty. Dynastic
gods and the Supreme Triad are also worshiped: Anu, Enlil and Ea.
b) As personal gods they had a kind of domestic places materialized in statues.
c) They worshiped the god Euphrates, and importance was given to the ordeal (or water test).
The Kassites end up giving more importance to Enlil. The IV Dynasty of Babylon (II Dynasty of Isin)
again gave greater importance to Marduk to distinguish itself from the Kassites.
Immunity was given to temples and lords, thus obtaining complete administrative and judicial
autonomy. Beginning with Melishipak II, kings donated tax-free property to their children and were
servitude, freeing them from all administrative interference.
7. The Arameans
In the 13th century BC (around 1279 BC) the king of Babylon complains about the bands of the
Akhlamu, nomads who later, according to the name of one of their clans, were called Arameans.
These gangs worked either as mercenaries in someone's service or on their own. For his great
knowledge ment of the desert, being nomads, they also served as excellent guides, but not always
trustworthy.
Now pushed from west to east by the Invasion of the Sea Peoples, and driven by the need to subsist,
the desert nomads are transformed into a defined political entity: the Arameans. And so, centuries
later, the same coagulation phenomena that happened at the end of the 3rd millennium or in the
middle of the 2nd millennium are reproduced again, with the Amorites, the Kassites and the Hurrians.
In Assyria, Tiglath-Pileser I (1115-1077 BC), after 14 military campaigns, drove them eastwards,
across the Euphrates, from where they dispersed southwards, towards the region of Palmyra.
During the time after Tiglath-Pileser I, of Assyrian decline, in southern Mesopotamia the Arameans
were owners and lords of Babylon, one of their leaders becoming king, and approximately a century
after Tiglath-Pileser the Arameans will fight against the Israelite kings Saul and David for the hege
mony in Lebanon and Transjordan.
7.1. Aramaic migration and its consequences
The occupation of Palestine by the Israelites is also integrated into the movement of the semi-native
peoples. tas. And although there are mentions from the time of Akkad to the 14th century BC of
countries and cities designated as Aram or Arami, the first mention of the Arameans as such an ethnic
group is in found in the inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser I as “the Akhlamu who are Arameans”, perhaps
for He commanded part of a vast group of tribes that had long been established in the Fertile
Crescent.
7.1.1. Consequences
Aramaic migration was the most important event in the Near East Asia from the 13th century BC,
with the following consequences:
a) Although dynastic continuity was maintained, there was a great economic setback in Asia due
to the loss of commercial relations on the Euphrates and with Anatolia. At the same time
industries in Nineveh and Arbelas. This economic weakness produced great social upheavals.
b) The rise of a new dynasty in Babylon.
c) They come to dominate all of Syria.
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d) Their language supplanted Hebrew in Palestine, and became the official language of the
Persian and Neo-Abylonian Empire, until the time of Jesus Christ.
e) In Mesopotamia there was a difficult time in the 11th and 10th centuries BC, which had as its
common character instability and a progressive economic decline, which degenerated into a
social crisis.
All these circumstances result in the fact that in the year 900 BC the political situation is total
different mind before the invasion of the Sea Peoples, appearing a mosaic of new small states: the
Aramaic principalities.
7.2. Aramaic principalities
They spread throughout Syria and Northern Mesopotamia, south of the Neo-Hittite principalities,
especially in five areas.
7.2.1. Mesopotamia
In Mesopotamia, Aramaic tribes settled in different places, forming principalities. In Babi Lonia
appears an Aramaean usurper, Adad-aplaid-dina (1067-1047 BC), who takes over the throne without
Assyria being able to prevent it. Meanwhile, the Babylonian kingdom is rebuilt further east. The great
sanctuaries of Babylon are freed from political ties and are administered exclusively mind by
religious authorities.
In the Persian Gulf, the Chaldeans , of the Aramean family, established six principalities in the mid-
10th century BC, Bit-Jakin being the true successor of Babylon. An important fact is that the Aramaic
invasion focused on rural areas, in cultural and political counterpoint to the old cities. Mesopotamian
facts.
A circle of small tribal states or “houses” (bitu) was established, which sometimes reached the very
doors of important cities. In the 11th century BC The pressure of the Aramaic tribes on the western
borders of Babylon and Assyria was especially severe, pushing the Babylonians and Assyrians to
forget their differences, and we find Mardukshapikzarimati (1081-1069 BC), travel I go to Asur to
ask Ashshurbelkala for help. But upon returning to Babylon he found it in the hands of Adad-aplaid-
dina (1068-1047 BC), “Aramaic”.
Lower Tigris
In the lower reaches of the Tigris were the principalities of Litau, Puqudu, Gambulu and Khindanu.
Northern Syria, in Aleppo and Arpad
In Northern Syria they took the region of Aleppo and Arpad, founded kingdoms (Bit-Agusi and Bit-
Adini), despite the resistance of the neighboring Neo-Hittite principalities (Karkhemish, Aleppo,
Hamat and Khattina).
Northwest Karkhemish
Other Aramaic groups, in the 11th and 10th centuries BC, founded the kingdom of Sam'al, northwest
of Karkemish.
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Orontes Valley and southern Syria
At the end of the 11th century BC The entire Orontes Valley and Southern Syria were controlled by
the Arameans, fighting with Israel for supremacy in the region. There were several principalities here,
including Cando Damascus, which exercised hegemony over this confederation.
In the long run, the Semitic element prevailed throughout this area. And Aramaic became the usual
language of the next three empires that we will see from now on in this region: The Assyrian, the
Babylonian and the Persian.
8. Fragmentation of Babylon at the end of the Second Millennium
As a consequence of the donations that were given to the temples and the lordly owners, when the
invasion of the Semitic Aramaean tribes that devastated the country occurred, the fraction was
precipitated. formation of these large rural properties, semi-independent, in small Principalities
isolated from each other.
In this way, the Country of the Sea and Babylon were fragmented into a series of Autonomous
Principalities, which, although subject to the sovereignty of the king of Babylon, were not monitored
by the central administration, nor did they have fiscal or military obligations.
Babylon became an islet, a great commercial city that lived by itself, in the middle of:
a) The political crisis: dynastic disorders, the threat of Assyria, the Aramean pillages, the
decade dence of Egypt, feudalism and the collapse of the Achaean world.
b) In the midst of this total crisis of political structures, there is a boom in commercial activity,
characterized by the prosperity of the Phoenician cities.
9. Babylon after the Kassites. IV and V Dynasties
9.1. IV Dynasty of Babylon or II Dynasty of Isin (1156-1027 BC)
After the Elamite conquest of Babylon, a local chief, Marduk-kabit-aheshu (1156-1139 BC) becomes
strong in Isin, with Babylonian resistance elements. After a series of kings, Nebuchadnezzar I ascends
the throne.
9.1.1. Nebuchadnezzar I (1124-1103 BC)
With great power he attempts to penetrate Assyria and Elam, and frees the statue of Marduk from its
Elamite captivity in Susa. He took Elam, which disappeared momentarily until 821 BC. He appears
again in coalition with the Arameans, at which time they were defeated by the Assyrians.
9.1.2. Other kings
Enlil-nadin-apli (1102-1099 BC), son of Nebuchadnezzar I, reigned for a few years. Marduk-nadin-
ahhê (1098-1081 BC) was a contemporary of the Assyrian Tiglath-Pileser I, while the Aramaic
migration was pushing from west to east, pressured by the Sea Peoples. After being sacked by
Tiglath-Pileser, Babylon is occupied by the Arameans, who also occupied Assyria.
Adad-aplaid-dina (1067-1046 BC) was the first Aramean king allied with the Assyrians, who hoped
to contain the still nomadic Arameans. Then the invasion of the Suteos took place, which in the first
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middle of the 11th century BC They cause the ruin of Babylon, establishing a new dynasty twenty
years later.
10. V Dynasty of Babylon or II Dynasty of the Country of the Sea. (1024-1004 BC)
The Second Dynasty of the Land of the Sea reigned in Babylon from 1024 to 1004 BC, forming the
unimportant Fifth Dynasty of Babylon.
Simbar-Shipak (1024-1007 BC), prince of the neighboring Country of the Sea, settled in Babylon and
founded his V Dynasty. Reconstruct and restore ancient cults. With his successors Ea-Mukin-zeri
(1007 BC) and Kashshu-nadin-ahi (1006-1004 BC) there was a great famine.
Eulmash-sharki-shumi (1003-987 BC) was the last king of this Second Dynasty of the Country of the
Sea. The Kassite names of the first kings of this Dynasty suggest that they were descendants of the
Kassites, refugees in the extreme south of the country before the Elamite advance.
TOPIC 5. ASSYRIA. OLD AND MIDDLE EMPIRE

1. Assyrians. Geographic situation
By the middle of the 3rd millennium BC, the Assyrians were located next to the Upper Tigris and
Great Zab. When Ur III fell they became independent, with Puzur-Ashur I taking power. Their
descendants preside over the destiny of the city of Assur, which will give its name to the kingdom,
whose native inhabitants seem to be the Subarenes, and their first name “Subartu”.
1.1 The beginnings of Assyrian history
The founding of Assyria is of great importance in a time of great change and very rich in events.
tetings. The origins are very confusing. It seems that at first they were Semitic nomads who took
advantage of the destruction caused by the Guti or the Lullubi to settle in the city and get rich from
trade.
But the true founders of the Old Empire were not the descendants of Puzur-Ashur I, who settled in
Mesopotamia and northern Syria, but the Amorites. One of the Amorite kings of the Syrian city of
Aleppo was Ila-Kabkabu, father of the first known great Assyrian king: Shamshi-Adad I.
1.2 The nomadic people of the time
The nomads played a main role in the turbulence of the end of the 3rd millennium BC, since, seeking
settlement, they approached the rich Mesopotamian cities, establishing themselves in their vicinity,
and then settling and replacing the different local dynasties.
In general, there are two types of nomadism:

a) Closed : they move through small spaces, along rivers or in strips of territory of variable
width.
b) Open : they move in large territories.
The nomads of closed nomadism, organized in tribes, lived in continuous contact with the
population. urban and agricultural tions, forming a dimorphic society, mixing both forms of life.
The nomads became part of the city, becoming sedentary. In periods of turbulence and political
weakness of urban power, nomads occupied the cities and their territories, stable establishing
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themselves with their own leaders and creating dynasties (such as the Hurrians, the Amorites and
even the people of Israel).
1.2.1. Hurrians
People with an agglutinative language, who came from the region of Armenia. In the middle of the
3rd millennium BC They are found in Northern Syria and Upper Mesopotamia. In the 18th century
BC there were ten nine small Hurrian kingdoms, extending from northern Mesopotamia and as far as
Babylon. Adopt They adopted cuneiform writing and the Akkadian language, reserving their
language for religious texts.
Beginning in 1600 BC, all the Hurrian principalities of Upper Mesopotamia and Northern Syria left.
They will gradually disappear, giving rise to the kingdom of Mitanni.
1.2.2. Amoritas
The terms mar.tu (Sumerian), tidnum and amurru (Akkadian) are synonyms, and are applied to both a
country and a people. The country was the extensive region east of the middle Euphrates to the
Mediterranean (the term amurrum designated the west).
The inhabitants spoke a West-Semitic language, about which little is known. At the time of Ur III, the
Amorite tribes were divided into two groups:
a) Sedentary : expanding, occupying Northern and Central Syria and Palestine.
b) Nomads : they roamed the Syrian desert between Palmyra and Mari, often crossing the
Euphrates to graze on the Mesopotamian plains.
The latter appear in the Sumerian texts, and are the ones who ended the Third Dynasty of Ur, along
with the Elamites and the Su, shortly before 2000 BC. Some dynasties of Amorite princes settled in:
a) Larsa.
b) Babylon, forming the I Dynasty, whose sixth king will be Hammurabi.
c) Assyria.
d) Other cities in the Near East, forming small principalities.
1.3 The Assyrians in Cappadocia
1.3.1. Assyrian installation in Hittite territory
Anatolia has great importance in the study of prehistoric civilizations, with places such as Hacilar,
Çatal Hüyük, Troy and Alaca-Hüyük, near Hattussas, the Hittite capital.
At that time, Alaca-Hüyük was the capital of a kingdom inhabited by the Hatti or Hittites (or more
frequently proto-Hittites), installed since the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. The existence of
the Hatti people is reflected in the archives of the Hittite kings, written in the “Hattili” language,
which is neither neither European nor Semitic.
Kutelpe (ancient Kanish) was a Mesopotamian outpost in Anatolia, with the installation of Assyrian
merchants in a karum or commercial warehouse. Their correspondence (19th century BC) was made
with the “Cappadocian tablets”, written with cuneiform characters, which are the first documented
document. Anatolian crit, and they inform us of the time of prosperity of the area at the beginning of
the 3rd millennium BC As a consequence of this prosperity we find Assyrian merchants trading with
the Hatti principalities of Kanish, Zalpa, Hattussas and Puruskhanda. The main Assyrian
establishment in Cappadocia was Kanish, on which all the others depended.
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1.3.2. Institutions
a) Karum
Dock or market, and its official buildings. It was an import and export center, Chamber of
Commerce, bank, collection and toll center, and had judicial powers. There were three
Assyrian bunals, with eponymous magistrates (by whose name the year was designated), who
exercised They also performed the functions of bankers, and represented, alongside the king,
the executive power of Assur abroad.
b) Wabaratum
Secondary agencies of main karum in minor cities.
c) Power Bit
Town Hall or “House of Eponyms”.
d) Assembly of Elders
It had legislative and judicial power.
1.3.3. Trade
The Assyrians exported fabrics, clothing and especially tin to Cappadocia, and from there to the
West, while they sent capital to Assyria, almost always in the form of precious metals (gold and
silver). ta). Trade was carried out with large caravans.
Assyrian merchants far from their country paid taxes to the local Hatti princes, achieving privileges
such as the bronze trade, their karum enjoying the privilege of extraterritoriality.
1.3.4. Cappadocian tablets
The Cappadocian tablets contain documents of a commercial, economic or legal nature, as well as
some historical or literary texts. They were kept in clay cases (Case tablets), with printing sion of
cylindrical seals, thanks to which more evolved artistic influences were introduced das, which led to
his own style with a mixture of Mesopotamian influences.
1.3.5. Cities
The indigenous Hatti (or Prehitites) tended to live in high places, while Assyrian merchants occupied
the plain. Sometimes, the Assyrians mixed with the native population, celebrated two mixed
marriages.
The Kanish karum has a chronology of 1950-1850 BC The neighborhoods were made up of
buildings regular places, arranged around squares and along streets. Burials were made under the
houses. The karum was surrounded by a wall, and was destroyed by fire. It recons It was built in the
time of Hammurabi, acquiring great importance, although a new fire destroyed it. definitively
destroyed.
2. Ancient Assyrian Empire or Paleo-Assyrian era (1813-1393 BC)
2.1. Shamshi-Adad I and his times
Although the Assyrian royal list presents the names of many kings, a firm chronology only exists
from the late 19th century BC, with Shamshi-Adad I (1873-1781 BC), Amorite prince and first great
king of Assyria. The starting point of their conquest was Babylon.
With him the first Assyrian military empire was founded, located in ancient Subartu (later Assyria),
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with a conquering projection towards the Mediterranean, towards the Sumerian-Akkadian south and
towards Elam in the east, reestablishing the old Mesopotamian empire and adding territories, although
with different criteria and institutions, since at this time Assyria became Babylonized.
Assyrian expansion was stopped to the west by the kingdom of Aleppo, and to the southeast by the
kingdom of Eshnunna. To defend his kingdom, Shamshi-Adad I put his two sons in charge of the
most problematic regions. ethics:
a) Ishme-Dagan : He was installed in Ekallatum, in front of the king of Eshnunna and the
highlanders of the Zagros.
b) Iasmah-Addu : Viceroy of Mari, in charge of watching over the nomadic tribes and the king
of Aleppo.
2.2. Successors of Shamshi-Adad I
Upon the death of Shamshi-Adad I, his son and successor Ishme-Dagan (1780-1741 BC) could not
contain the advances of the subject peoples. Zimri-Lin, son of the dethroned king of Mari, aided by
the king of Aleppo, recovered Mari. The cities of Eshnunna, Mari and Aleppo then occupied the
foreground of the political scene. Meanwhile, Hammurabi had begun to reign in Babylon.
Of Ishme-Dagan's successors we have little news, and it seems that at one point Assyria was occupied
by the Babylonian Amorites.
2.3. Assyria dominated by Babylon. International situation

The era of Babylonian rule over Assyria can be divided into several moments:
a) Hammurabi's time (1792-1750 BC), where in the prologue of the Code the great cities and
sanctuaries of his reign are listed, Ashur and Nineveh being under his dominion.
b) From this time onwards, Assyria suffered a darkening, with Mesopotamia being subject to
two influences: the Kassites (inside the borders and confines of the kingdom of Babylon) and
the Hurrians of Mitanni (from the middle Euphrates to Elam, covering Assyria and the
Zagros). .
c) During the kingdom of Burnaburiash II of Babylon (1375-1347 BC), of the Kassite dynasty,
coe period of the Egyptian pharaohs Amenophis III and IV and part of the reign of
Tutankhamun, the si international situation is one of great instability. Mitanni, with great
internal dissensions, He had a child (Tushratta) on his throne. The Assyrians, taking
advantage of these revolts, began to spread, in a period of little-known events.
d) When the Hittites broke the power of Mitanni, Assyria became a strong and independent
kingdom, after an end of the Old Kingdom obscured by the glare of neighboring kingdoms. Its
numerous sovereigns did not reach relevance until the reign of Eriba-Adad I and his son
Ashur-Uballit I, with whom the Middle Kingdom is considered inaugurated. river or
Mesoasirian Epoch.
2.4. Organization of the kingdom
In the central administration, the king was at the top of the pyramid, watching over the cities through
officials, which led to a great development of the chancery and the post office. There was also a
provincial administration, since the kingdom was divided into provinces, with a governor at the head
of each one, with subordinate officials.
The capital was Ashur, and then Shubat-Enlil, moving the center of the Assyrian Empire to the west.
Military institutions were of great importance, both the permanent garrisons in the cities as troops
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recruited for military campaigns. They had important siege material: towers, battering rams, ramps,
etc.
2.5. Assyrian society
In this country, unlike in Babylon, the land retained its mobility. It was an alienable asset, although its
transfer was surrounded by complicated legal procedures.
The sale of real estate was subject to various formalities. When the sale was made, the contract was
extended in triplicate in the presence of official officials.
It gives the impression, from the legal texts found, that Assyrian society had not changed at this time
in terms of its legal and administrative structures, but from the proper names we see the intrusion of
Hurrian elements.
3. Middle Assyrian Empire or Meso-Assyrian era (1392-1077 BC)
3.1. The Political Renaissance of Assyria: Ashur-Uballit I and His Successors
After a period of relative independence, evidenced by the title of “regent” ( shakin ) of Enlil, which
was carried by Eriba-Adad (1392-1366 BC), for the first time after Samsi-Adad, the country vol It
fell under foreign dependence until it was definitively liberated with Ashur-Uballit I (1365-1330), son
of Eriba-Adad.
This monarch definitively liberated Assyria from foreign dependence, although this would not have
occurred if Tushratta of Mitanni had not been defeated by the Hittite Subiluliuma. This defeat of
Mitanni meant the preponderance of Assyria, which can be seen in the king's attempt to increase
international relations.
3.2. Relations with Egypt
There are letters from the Assyrian king to Egypt in which he is called king, although he was not yet
independent of Mitanni. According to the thesis of H. Lewis , Babylon had replaced Mitanni in the
dominion of Assyria. Assyrian relations with Egypt made the Babylonian king Burnaburiash II
suspicious, who considered He gave his subjects to the Assyrians.
For Garelli , the former dominion was an illusion of the Babylonians maintained since the 15th
century BC, and Egyptian-Assyrian relations were maintained despite their protests. This was
recognized by Burnaburiash by establishing relations with Assyria by marrying himself or his son
with an Assyrian princess daughter of Ashur-Uballit. For the Babylonians, this represented leaving
the doors open to political interference from their fearsome neighbors.
3.3. The alliance with Babylon
It is carried out to combat the incursions of the sutu (su) nomads who paralyzed traffic in Syria, where
they killed couriers and merchants due to the inertia of the pharaoh. At this time there was an
influence Babylonian scribe in Assyria, since there was a Babylonian scribe next to the king and the
cult of Marduk existed in the capital, Ashur.
The uprising of the Kassite nobles against the son of the Assyrian princess forces Ashur-Uballit I of
Assyria to intervene, and imposes the throne of Babylon on his grandson Kurigalzu II, producing a
period of Assyrian hegemony in Babylon during the youth of this king. Babylonian, then freeing
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himself to the ata car to the Assyrian king Enlil-Nirari (1329-1320 BC)
3.4. Successors of Ashur-Uballit I
Both Erik-den-Ilu (1319-1308 BC) and Adad-Nirari I (1307-1275 BC) made war expeditions to the
country of Nitgimkhi, west of Assyria, and against the nomads of the west (Aramaeans, Suteans and
Iaur). The power of these nomads will increase.
3.5. Shalmaneser I (1274-1245 BC)
He is the first to confront Urartu (unimportant at this point). He defeated Hanigalbat of Mitanni, who
had become independent, and the Hittites. Mitanni disappears forever.
3.6. Tukulti Ninurta I (1244-1208 BC)
Undertake great war actions:

a) Subdue the people of the Zagros to prevent their revolts, collect tribute and cut down trees to
rebuild Assur. From this king onwards, war will be a form of state commerce for Assyria.
b) In the Upper Tigris and Subartu it takes up new places for tribute. Tension with Hatti, as he
takes some Hittites prisoner. Meanwhile, the kingdom of Urartu is being consolidated.
c) He defeats Kashtiliash IV of Babylon, who had occupied Rapiqum. Babylon becomes a
province of Assyria around 1234 BC, and its king and the god Marduk are taken prisoners.
d) Take the cities of the Middle Euphrates and part of the Aramean territories.
e) Build a new capital (Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta).
f) After the Kassite and Elamite counteroffensive, the Assyrians were left with only Babylon,
which in the end finally becomes independent.
3.7. Assyrian Decline
After Tukulti-Ninurta I was assassinated by his son Ashur-Nadin-Apli (1208-1205 BC), there were
several more kings, and Assyria entered a century of constant decline that Babylon took advantage of.
In this mo For example, when Assyria and Babylon are in conflict, the invasion of the Sea Peoples
occurs.
After this period of decline, Assyria begins to rise again with Ashur-Res-Ishi (1133 1116 BC),
defeating different peoples on the western border and facing important Babylonian rulers.
3.8. Tiglath-Pileser I (1115-1077 BC) and the new Assyrian heyday
3.8.1. Foreign policy
It is a time of expansionism:
a) He confronts the mushki. He took Byblos, Sidon, and campaigned in Syria.
b) In successive years the expansion began in a N-NW direction, towards the old Hittite and
Mitanni territory, up to Lake Van (Urartu territory).
c) He had to carry out 14 campaigns to solve the problem of the Arameans (akhalamu),
dispersed taking them through the region of Palmyra.
d) Around 1085 BC attacks Babylon and definitively defeats Marduk-Nadin-Ahhe (II Dynasty of
Isin or IV Dynasty of Babylon).
His work represents the culmination of a long evolution:
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a) It compiles Assyrian laws on tablets (legal provisions between the 15th and 12th centuries
BC).
b) You compile the edicts of the Harem, which regulated the complex relationships between the
court staff and the king's women, often the site of intrigue and conspiracies. The objective was
to make certain princes king through their mother, and supported by an important political
group.
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3.8.3. The successors of Tiglath-Pileser I
Upon the death of Tiglath-Pileser I there was a great decline from 1077 to 911 BC, when Adad-Nirari
II ascended the throne, with which the expansion of the New Kingdom began. The successors of
Tiglat-Pileser I did not have his warlike conditions, and the subject peoples rebelled, especially
Urartu and the Arameans, who became independent. The Aramaic expansion took place in different
regions: northern Syria, the Euphrates Valley and especially in Lower Mesopotamia, where they
formed the Cal Empire. deo, with capital in Babylon (X Dynasty).
The Assyrian kings could do nothing against their push, and only with Ashur-Dan II (934-912 BC)
did they seem to change the situation by undertaking campaigns outside their borders. After him
begins the Im New period.
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TOPIC 6. BABYLON AND ASSYRIA IN THE FIRST MILLENNIUM. THE NEO-

BABYLONIAN OR CHALDEAN EMPIRE
1. Babylon at the end of the second millennium and beginning of the first millennium
1.1. Dynasties VI to IX
After the incursions of the Sea Peoples in the s. XII that transformed the entire political landscape, a
power vacuum occurred in Lower Mesopotamia due to the disappearance of the Domi forces.
previous nations: the Hittite Empire and the Egyptian New Kingdom, being used by Assyria and Elam
to launch their raids.
The following Babylonian Dynasties are characterized as a period of continuous decline. The V
Dynasty is followed by:
a) 1003-984 BC: VI Dynasty or Buzi Dynasty.
b) 984-977 BC: VII Dynasty or Elamite Dynasty.
c) 977-732 BC: VIII D. Or E dynasty? (name is not known with certainty)
The people continued their activities without caring much about the constantly changing political
domain. The Aramaic settlements near the cities separated them a little from reality. Babylon was a
sum of isolated properties that were organized in an autochthonous autonomy of a seigneurial regime.
The first king of Dynasty IX, Nabu-Mu-Kinzeri (731-729 BC), approaches Assyria to secure trade
against the Arameans.
1.2. Assyrian dominion
With Tiglat Pileser III (744-727 BC), Babylon began to be governed by Assyrian representatives or
by the Assyrian kings themselves, being a time of peace and economic prosperity.
1.3. The Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean Empire: 10th Dynasty of Babylon (625-539 BC)
The Chaldeans, Semitic nomads of the Aramean family , settled in the country of Sumer at the
beginning of the 1st Millennium, forming, around the middle of the 9th century BC six principalities
with shifting borders: Larak, Bir-Dakkuri, Bit-Amukanni, Bir-Silani, Bit-Saàlli and Bit-Yakin.
1.3.1. The first Chaldean kings. Nabopalasar (625-605 BC)
The Assyrian governor Kandalanu , appointed by Ashurbanipal , died in Babylon, without Assyria
naming a successor.
Nabopalasar , Chief of the Country of the Sea, was the first Chaldean king, heading the list of kings
of the 10th Dynasty of Babylon. This king extended his ambitions northward, taking Uruk and
Nippur. The Babylonians offered him the throne and he was recognized as “King of Akad” in Sippar
and Babylon.
Together with Cyaxares of Media he intervened in the end of the Assyrian Empire, dethroning its last
king Ashur-Uballit II, who was helped by the Egyptian pharaoh Nekao. After the last Assyrian king
mysteriously disappeared, the Egyptians and Babylonians were left face to face in the region that the
Medes were not interested in. knew
He associated his heir Nebuchadnezzar II to the throne and while one went out to war the other stayed
in charge of state affairs.
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Crown Prince Nebuchadnezzar II took Karchemish. This victory put most of Syria and Palestine,
from the Euphrates to the Egyptian border, into Babylonian hands, almost without resistance.
1.3.2. Nebuchadnezzar II
Nebuchadnezzar II was recognized as king upon the death of his father. He was the most prestigious
ruler of Babylon since the time of Hammurabi.
1.3.2.1. Domestic policy
Babylon was the political center of a great kingdom. The cities of Ur, Uruk, Larsa, Kish, Diblat,
Borsippa and Sippar were rebuilt and enlarged and in Babylon itself great reconstruction works were
carried out, such as the great ziggurat “El Etemananki” and the Temple of Marduk, called “Esagil or
Esagila”.
Nebuchadnezzar II expanded his father's small palace. The city of Babylon was a large quadri side of
20 km 2 , surrounded by a double wall by a canal, which was accessed through eight doors, the north
te was that of Ishtar, which led to the sanctuary of Marduk, in the center of the city. To the north there
would possibly be the famous “Hanging Gardens”.
1.4. The last kings of the 10th Dynasty of Babylon
An internal revolt occurred that dethroned Nebuchadnezzar II and Evil-Merodach or Awel-Marduk

took the throne, reigning for only ten years.
Neriglissar, his brother-in-law, eliminated him and seized power, although he cannot fix the situation
because do to his early death. Labashi-Mardurk, his son, was murdered and the conspirators placed
Nabonidus on the throne, whose authority was rejected by the people.
1.5. Nabonidus (555-539) and the end of Chaldean Babylon.
Added to these dissensions was the increase in Median power. The Medes had taken Urartu and
Cappadocia, their forces were very considerable and they were in the vicinity of Harran. Nabonidus
was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and his personality is controversial. He was not of
royal descent.
Nabonidus confronted the clergy of Marduk, favoring the ass of Sin, of which, by the way, his mother
was a priestess. At this time major conflicts broke out in the cities of Babylon, Borsippa, Ur, Uruk
and Larsa due to the poor economic situation.
1.5.2. Foreign policy
He left for Arabia where he remained for ten years and entrusted the government to his son Baltasar.
The international situation became unfavorable. King Cyrus defeated Astyages and started the Persian
Empire (uniting the Medes and Persians), beginning its expansion towards Lydia, in western Asia
Minor.
Nabonidus's attempt to impose the cult of the god Sin had led to the defection of several rulers.
Babylonian nators, who joined the party of the Persian king Cyrus, who entered Babylon. The princi
pe Baltasar was murdered and King Nabonidus was taken prisoner.
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1.6. The end of the Chaldean Dynasty
With Nabonidus and his son Baltasar the New Babylonian or Chaldean Empire ended, which became
lie in a satrapy or province of the great Persian Empire.
Indeed, after the victory of the Persian king Cyrus over the Medes and the conquest of Sardis, the
capital of Lydia, Cyrus dominated the entire region between the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf
and it was only a matter of time before he invaded Babylon.
Nabonidus, who had foreseen the seriousness of the situation, leaving the kingdom in the hands of his
heir, attempted to dominate the southern caravan routes.
1.7. THE administration of the Neo-Babylonian Empire
Various areas:
In the Court: The honorific titles are known but the mechanisms of the administration are not tration.
There were numerous titles among which stand out:
a) Mayors of the Royal Palace :
V Rab nakhatimmu or Chancellor of the Empire: he was the first official of the State.
V Rabkasiru : Arsenal boss
V Sha pan ekalli : Palace Representative
V Rab bit : Butler
V Hannanu : chief of official merchants
b) Greats of the Country of Akad : there were several, among them the Governor of the
country of the Sea, who was the most important of the governors (this region was the cradle of
the dynasty):
V Bel pahati by Sumandar
V Shaknu kenu from Zanu country
V Shangu or high priests city administrators.
V Quipi: representatives or commissioners, directly dependent on the king.
V Bel phati: Royal commissioners, different from the previous ones.
V Sharru: Kings of vassal cities.
1.7.1 . The provincial administration
The Provincial Administration was made up of three grades of officials:

a) Shaknu and Bel pikhati: who were the administrators of the provinces and under their orders
it is there were:
V Shakin: chiefs of cities, sometimes assisted by an assistant.
b) Cities notables: led by the Elders.
1.7.2 Temple administration
The temple of Ishtar or Eanna was in front of the Qipani , who had different tasks. two:
a) Organizing functions helped by other officials:
V Qipu : General Administrator
V Shatammu : had his own treasure
V Tupshar biti : or main scribe
b) Judicial functions , helped by:
V Mar-Bani : or notables of their city, they constituted a Court of Justice presided over by
the local governors or Shakin-Temi .
In the time of Nabonidus there were changes, the Royal Administrator or Resh-Sharri appeared,
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who monitored He worked the fields and domains of the Temple, the canals and the peasants and their
taxes, maintaining relations with the administration.
The qipu or general administrator continued. The shatammu remained in the temples and kept
accounts. This organization did not change under Persian domination.
There were also artisans or unmanu , who were notables and administrators who performed paid
functions in the temples.
1.7.3 Society in the Neo-Babylonian Empire
There were several social classes:

a) Superior class : of notable economic strength. They are the Mar-Bani or “good people,” who
lived off the income from their temples. They were civil and religious officials together
passed in professional colleges.
b) Peasants : almost always free but subject to personal benefits. They were the Ikkaru , they
paid a rent or sutu . These were tenants of some importance company that employed the
Sabe .
c) Erreshu : assigned collectively, they paid a portion ( zittu ). They were sharecroppers ros.
d) The Sabe : They were a troop of the lower town, both slaves and free men. The hired
workers ( agrutu ), who offered to work where they could get hired.
e) Slaves : their situation depended on the master. They were of several kinds:
V Men of free origin, themselves or their children, were those sold for debts.
V Bought foreigners brought by merchants.
V Prisoners of war.
f) Shirku : or oblates linked to temples. They were part of the shirkutu or society religious
reality parallel to the civil one, as stratified as it. They lived in the temple, in a dwelling called
Bit-Shirki . They were consecrated to a divinity for their fa military, or by citizens who
wanted to obtain divine favor or preserve them from hunger. They were under the authority of
the Rab-Shirki .
1.7.4 The economy
Four categories of land:

a) For cereals:
V Those who had the Erreshu as sharecroppers.
• The one leased to the ikkaru .
b) Palmerals: they had a special regime and could be rented on a contract or sharecropping basis.
c) Pastures.
d) Lands granted as a prebend to the temple servants who gathered certain lands with conditions.
The land provided:
V Tithes to the governor of Babylon.
V Tithes and daily and exceptional offerings for the Eanna.
There were also large non-religious agricultural holdings.
1.8. The city of Babylon
It had different names throughout its long history:

a) In Sumerian: Ka-Dingir-ra
b) In Akkadian: Babili or Babilim
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c) At home: Karduniash
“Babylon” is both the name of a region and the name of a city. In its prehistoric period it was called
Ubaid or Obeid.
As a region , the north was called Akad and the south, Sumer.
As a city , Babylon had no real importance until Hammurabi . Founded by Akad, it was born, like
the cities of Ashur on the Tigris and Mari on the Euphrates, it had become a center of international
maritime and land trade. The commercial axis had towards the north, towards Babylon since the time
of Hammurabi .
1.9. The religion
It was essentially the old one, since the old cults did not change but were reinforced.
Agrarian character around Dumuzi , national around Asur , justice with Shamash and salvation with
Marduk .
Some gods monopolized all the cults and ended up assimilating others. Thus, Ishtar ended up
assuming the role, functions and characteristics of all the goddesses and Marduk that of all. two
gods.
The main characteristic is the existence of three planes:

a) Divine : in Heaven
b) The king : in the middle. It projected Heaven towards men and men towards Heaven.
c) Men : on earth
1.10. Importance, influence and survival of the Babylonian culture
His documents, treatises and literary texts were copied incessantly.
1.10.1. The historical sources
The main ones are:

a) Berossus : he was a Greek author by his language, but Babylonian in his origins, functions
and culture. In his work Babyloniaca , written in Greek, he outlined the history ria of his country,
from its origins.
b) Herodotus : Mixes authentic names with deformed traditions and remains limited to the Neo-
Assyrian phase.
c) Old Testament : it is a partial source.
1.10.2. Registrations
The most important is the Neobabilonic Chronicle , collected in six tablets that contain respectively:
a) Wiseman Chronicle : From the year of the accession to the year III of Nabopolassar .
b) Gadd Chronicle : X-XIII year of Nabopolassar .
c) Wiseman Chronicle : 18th-20th year of Nabopolassar .
d) Wiseman Chronicle : 21st year of Nabopolassar and from the year of accession to the 10th
year of Nebuchadnezzar.
e) Wiseman Chronicle : III Year of Neriglisar .
f) Chronicle of Neb—nido : from his accession to the throne to his 17th year of reign.
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Cuneiform spread to the Hurrians, who spread the characters of this writing to the west. For the
correspondence between Egypt and the Syrian-Palestinian princes, a Babylonian language was used.
Cuneiform writing was sometimes dissociated from Akkadian, the language it normally expressed.
The Babylonian culture formed a block, a set of artistic, cultural and scientific knowledge expressed
in its language.
The Babylonian religion was accepted throughout the known world, in addition to culture:
a) Mesopotamian divinities were added to the “thousand gods” of Hatti.
b) The Assyrians, faithful to their gods, sought equivalences, creating an Assyrian-Babylonian
religion.
The Babylonian aruspicina passed, through Anatolia, to Greece and Italy and so did magic.
The legacy of Mesopotamia to posterity is immense, for example: the year of 12 months, a part of the
nomenclature of the constellations, designated terms for trees or minerals, great structure of law,
Hippocratic medicine, religious principles, etc.
1.11. Babylon after the Chaldeans: a Persian satrapy
1.11.1 The Persians in Babylon Cyrus II (538-530)
Society was changing, and even the cuneiform writing system, which had for so long been a unifying
force, was being supplanted by the Aramaic alphabet , which was easier than the cuneiform writing
system and consisted of only twenty-two characters. beef. However, cuneiform writing continued to
be used to write religious and astronomical treatises and some economic documents.
Cyrus II offered peace and friendship to the whole world, and compensated those who had suffered
under Nabonidus , at least that's what he tells us. At the same time he launched a campaign whose
end ity was to denigrate the name and reputation of the last Babylonian king.
Cyrus II , king of Persia, amidst the joy of the population and the priestly caste, proclaimed himself
king, taking the title of “King Babylon.”
He died on the battlefield and his body was taken to Pasargadae, near Persepolis, where he was buried
in the tomb that can still be seen there.
Equally acceptable to the Babylonians, it seems, was the new Persian administration. Most local
officials were kept in their positions, but for the various pro- governors were appointed, the so-called
satraps . Every year there was a visit from the royal inspector , the notorious “eye of the king” .
1.11.2 The heirs of Cyrus II, Cambyses II and Darius I
Cambyses II , who succeeded his father in Persia, added Egypt to the Persian Empire, which at this
time already exceeded in size all the empires in the world until then. Baby Lonia suffered a series of
coups and local revolts.
In the end order was restored by the Persian king Darius I , who completed the organization of the
Im period in 20 satrapies , imposed a single system of law throughout it and created a system of ca
highways and roads. Darius undertook an extensive building program, including the new Persian
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capital , which he established at Persepolis , and a canal running from the Nile to the Red Sea. In the
later years of his reign, wars broke out between the Greeks and Persians (Mexican Wars). dicas) and
they suffered the defeat of Marathon.
1.11.2.1 Domestic and foreign policy
The increasing government intervention leads one to think that the economy was unstable. Darius I
now directed the construction of a new palace in Babylon and installed his son Xerxes there. When
Darius I died, Babylon legally accepted the new king, who had resided in the city for so long as
crown prince.
1.11.3 Xerxes I
Xerxes I succeeded his father, Darius I in the government of Persia.
1.11.3.1 . Domestic policy. The Babylonian reaction against Xerxes I
Two new local Babylonian usurpers were proclaimed independent kings of Persia in Babylon in a
series of revolts: Bel Shimani and Shamash-Eriba , but a siege of va Several months were enough to
once again reduce the rebellious city and its territories to Persian authority.
The great temple of Marduk and other temples were burned and the attackers took the gold statue of
Marduk as a war trophy to Persia and its inhabitants were reduced to slavery.
Xerxes I dealt severely with the Babylonians for supporting the rebellion: the satrapy was abo lied
and incorporated into that of Assyria. The large estates were conquered and handed over to the
Persians and from then on the Babylonian country had to pay enormous taxes.
1.11.3.2 Foreign policy. The expedition against Greece and Egypt
Under this king the famous repetition of his father's failed expedition to Greece took place,
culminating in Thermopylae and Salamis. He also had to reduce the insurrection in Egypt, where a
usurper had reigned for years.
A palatine tragedy ended the existence of Xerxes I. The perfect of the palace, the eunuch Aspamitres
and the commander of the royal guard, Artaleano, murdered him, along with his maiden son. Lord
Darius and the youngest son, Artaxerxes, escaped a conspiracy a few months later. cida, ascending the
throne with the name of Artaxerxes I.
1.11.4 The last Achaemenid kings in Babylon. Artaxerxes I (464-424)
Artaxerxes I , called “Longomano”, apparently adopted a more understanding attitude. siva before
Babylon. His long reign of 41 years was troubled by few revolts. To the sa Marduk 's pigs gave them
back their lands and positions.
Artaxerxes I died and his only son Xerxes II succeeded him on the throne. His short reign of 45 days
ended with his assassination at the hands of his half-brother Sogdianos , who also did not last long on
the throne, since another brother, Okhos , satrap of Hyrcania, seized the throne without difficulty and
reigned under the name Darius II. . The Greeks nicknamed him Nothos (bastard) because he was the
son of a concubine.
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1.11.5 . Babylon at the death of Artaxerxes I. The Anabasis
The period following the death of Xerxes II and his successor Darius II was characterized by new
struggles and intrigues related to the succession in Babylon, culminating in the departure of his
grandson, Cyrus the Younger , to attack his older brother Artaxerxes II. . The two brothers met at
Cunaxa , not far from Babylon, but Cyrus the Younger was killed at the moment of victory.
The story of the return march of the 10,000 surviving Greeks to the Black Sea is well known thanks to
Xenophon 's famous chronicle, the Anabasis or Retreat of the Ten Thousand .
1.11.6 . The last Persian kings in Babylon (404-331)
Through the skillful use of gold, Artaxerxes II, called Mnemon , was about to achieve in Greece
what his predecessors had not achieved with force, but just at the moment when the world seemed
calm under the peace imposed by the Persians, the lands located west of the Euphrates revolted again.
At the same time a new new power, that of Philip II , whose son Alexander would take the Persian
Empire.
Artaxerxes II dictated the Peace of Antalcida to his adversaries and with him the Greek colonies of
Asia Minor and Cyprus fell again under the Persian yoke. But the problems in the palace do not stop
ban. Queen Parisatis poisoned Statira, wife of Artaxerxes II , for which she was condemned in
Babylon. Estatira had three sons: Darius, the presumed heir, was made to believe that he was going to
be supplanted by his younger brother Okhos, which began a series of murders that culminated in the
death, of grief, of the old king. In the reign of Artaxerxes II , the prophet Es Dras led a colony of
Babylonian Jews to Jerusalem, reorganizing the city and re construction of the Temple.
The only survivor of the three sons of Estatira, Okhos or Oco, took the name of Artaxerxes III and
his first act of government was to order the killing of all the princes of the royal family to avoid
competition, dying himself poisoned by the eunuch Bagoas. , who also murdered his successor
Arser , his youngest son, and placed Darius III Codomanus on the throne, defeated by Alexander
the Great, with whom Macedonian domination began in this country.
1.12. BABYLON. FROM THE DOMINATION OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO ROME
Alexander was very well received by the citizens of Babylon, whom he rewarded He is ordering the
reconstruction of the Esagila. And he decided to make Babylon his eastern capital. Alexander fell ill
and died at the age of 32.
Babylon, which had seemed on the verge of regaining its former greatness under Alexander , would
now suffer because of the quarrels of his successors. The conflicts between his generals would end up
resulting in the creation of two new empires in the area: that of the Ptolemies in Egypt and that of the
Seleucids in Asia Minor.
2. The New Assyrian Empire (911-609 BC)
It includes the period that begins in 911 BC with the reign of Adad-Nirari II until the fall of the New
Assyrian Empire in 609 BC The change in the international situation and the bellicose drive of its
kings elevated Assyria to the leading power in the Near East.
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2.1. Beginnings: Adad Nirari II and Tukulti Ninurta II
2.1.1. Adad Nirari II (911-891 BC)
Son and successor of Ashur-Dan II, a new period of splendor began:

a) He began campaigns against the mountain and Aramean peoples.
b) To the west he sought control of the trade routes to the Mediterranean. I had an obstacle those
in the Aramaic principalities of the Tur-Abdin mountains and on the Euphrates, whose
approaches to northern Syria and the Mediterranean were in the power of the Neo-Hittite
principality of Karchemish and the Aramaic principality of Bit-Adini.
c) He fought in the northwest of Assyria with Aramaic principalities, and descending through the
Habur valley, two other Aramaic principalities submitted to him: Laqe and Khindanu, already
on the Euphrates.
2.1.2. Tukulti Ninurta II (890-884 BC)
He continues his father's campaigns:

a) From the west he attacked the region of the Habur River and the middle course of the
Euphrates and Tigris, imposing se to several Aramaic principalities.
b) To the east, towards Iran, he fought against various peoples, including the Maneans and
Medes, and above all against the kingdom of Urartu.
2.2. Time of Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III
2.2.1. Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BC)
Foreign policy
He consolidated the victories of his predecessors and extended his conquests:

a) It reaches the Mediterranean after defeating the Aramaic principality of Bit-Adini.
b) Fight Urartu several times.
Borders of the Assyrian Empire

a) North: penetrates deeply into Armenia.
b) South: dominates some Babylonian fortresses.
c) East: the border was at Gilzanu (Lake Urmia)
d) West: the Mediterranean Sea, Karkemish and the banks of the Euphrates, up to Rapiqum,
although there were rebellious areas.
Domestic policy
The great influx of wealth due to the numerous loots causes:

a) Great flowering of the country, with the heyday of Assyrian sculpture.
b) In Assur he builds a palace and rebuilds the temples of the main gods: Sin and Shamash.
c) In Nineveh he rebuilds the sanctuaries of Ashur and Ishtar.
He builds a new capital, Kalakh (today Nimrud). Large extension of the Royal Palace, adorned with
bas-reliefs and large statues. He built a botanical garden and a kind of zoo. He populated the city with
deported captives.
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2.2.2. Shalmaneser III (858-824 BC)
Tireless warrior, with numerous campaigns between the years 858-832 BC
Foreign policy
a) West: consolidates control of Syria to the Mediterranean.
b) Northwest: extended to Lake Urmia and Urartu, whose capital Arzashkun destroyed. Do
mined several countries, but Karkemish remained independent.
c) Southeast: from 853 BC He fought against Aleppo (Neo-Hittite), Hama and Damascus
(Aramaeans) and an entire confederation of 12 countries. After a battle of uncertain results, it
took him three years to return to Assyria and continued in Syria, where he continued fighting,
launching new offensives against the Confederation of Syrian States. Meanwhile, Tire and
King Jehu of Israel offered him cen tributes, but returned to Assyria without overcoming the
resistance of the powerful Aramean principality of Damascus.
d) Campaigns to the country of the Maneos and Parsuas (in the Zagros and Iranian Plateau).
e) Babylon: two campaigns (851 and 850 BC), due to dynastic struggles in which he intervened,
and signed an alliance with the victor, Marduk-zakir-shumi, of the VIII Dynasty of Babylon.
The following campaigns were carried out by his lieutenant or turtanu.
Domestic policy
Organize the administration by creating new officials. Heyday of the nobility. He beautified Kalakh,
building an armory and a Throne room. At the end of his reign an important event took place: his son
Ashur-Dan-Apli (827-824 BC) rebelled, the conflict taking on civil war dimensions that paralyzed the
country's activity.
a) Civil servant classes
V The first class officials were:
> Turtanu: Lieutenant.
> Nagir-ekalli: Herald of the Palace.
> Rab-shaque: Chief Cupbearer.
> Abarakku: Quartermaster General.
> Sukallu: Grand Vizier.
> In command of the army were two Turtanu, two Sukkallu and their second (Shanu)
who were joined by two quartermasters (Abarakku).
V The second class officials were the governors of the provinces, the first being that of
Assur (shakin mati).
b) Characteristics of the positions
V They were elective and renewable each reign
V They were eponymous: each of them, starting with the king, gave their name to the
year of their appointment.
2.2.3. Successors of Shalmaneser III
Shamsi-Adad V (823-811 BC)
Son and successor of Shalmaneser III, he manages to reestablish Assyrian power. He defeats Ashur-
dan-apli with the support of Babylon, giving numerous advantages in the treaty. With the help of his
senior officer, Mutarris-Marduk, he makes three expeditions against rebellious Medes and Persian
princes. He seeks revenge on Babylon, taking the city and deporting its king.
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He dies soon, taking over the regency of his 5-year-old son (Adad-Nirari III) and his wife, Samuramat
(Se miramis, 811-808 BC), aided by her lieutenant Nergalilia.
Adad-Nirari III (811-783 BC)
He began to reign at the age of 9, and at the age of 12 he carried out his first war campaigns.
a) Foreign policy and organization of the Empire
He undertook campaigns against Damascus and other principalities of Syria, receiving tribute.
Tam He also carried out campaigns against Babylon (795-794 BC), defeating it, but later tried
to re reconciled, and there was a great influence of the Babylonian culture on Assyria,
characterizes given by:
V Worship of Marduk and Nabu in Nineveh and Kalakh.
V Change of mentality, with greater cultural breadth.
V It changes the image of the king, both for his citizens (prudent, intelligent and conti
nuner of traditions) and for his enemies (brave and feared).
V He carried out the organization of the provinces, placing an Assyrian governor who
only He received orders from the king of Assyria, with a higher rank than the governor
of Nasibina.
This provincial governor had double powers:

V Civilians : administered the region through Delegates (qipu) in important towns tes,
Mayors (abarakku) in smaller towns and older shepherds who managed the livestock.
V Military : they maintained order, with the vice-governors depending on them. The
agricultural and artisan population lived in small towns monitored by Assyrian
collectors or nagiru.
The population in the provinces was made up of Assyrians and indigenous people who:
V They paid taxes.
V They did obligatory work, except for the zaku or rescued ones, who paid for these
privileges.
b) Successors of Adad-Nirari III
They were his three sons: Shalmaneser IV (782-773 BC), Ashur-dan III (772-755 BC) and
Ashur-Nirari V (754-745 BC). During his reign, the Empire had a new recession due to the
rise of Urartu, which would last until the new rise of Assyria with Tiglath-Pileser III.
2.3. The Heyday of the New Assyrian Kingdom: The Work of Tiglath-Pileser III (744-727 BC).
The Impe Assyrian-Babylonian river
He was also the son of Adad-Nirari III, and with him the Assyrian Empire once again acquired great
importance. tance.
Foreign policy
a) Aramaic-Chaldean problem
In the south there was the Aramaean-Chaldean problem, which threatened Babylon. took
cities thrust upon these nomads and completed the conquests, extending towards the Zagros.
b) Syrian problem
To the west was the Syrian problem. He carried out a series of campaigns:
V Against the coalition of Syrian States led by the principality of Arpad and supported by
Urartu.
V Once this coalition was defeated, he took Arpad and made other states in the region subject
to tribute.
V A new Syrian coalition, led by the principality of Sam'al, was defeated and incorporated
ported to Assyria together with the principality of Hama, keeping a friendly king,
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Penammu, on the throne (738 BC).

V He received tribute from Byblos, Samaria, Sam'al, Gurgum and other minor states.
c) Medo-Uratean problem
In the northeast there was the Medo-Urarteo problem. He tried to solve it with two campaigns:
V First : He understood the strength and extent of his enemies, and without being able to
defeat them, he arrived near present-day Tehran, returning to Assur with great spoils of
war.
V Second : He reaches Turushpa, the new capital of Urartu, which he besieged and could not
take, being defeated here for the first and only time, although he later took several
fortresses in the south of Urartu, consolidating the Assyrian border.
d) West
New campaigns:
V Against the Philistine cities that denied him tribute (Damascus, Samaria, Ashkelon and
Gaza), the rebellion of Tire and Sidon also took place, against which he fought.
V He took the entire region, dividing it into six military districts, and formed a new province
with part of the kingdom of Damascus. He looted Gaza.
e) Help King Akkad of Judah
Upon the request for help from King Akkad of Judah to fight against Israel and Damascus:
V He invaded Israel, deported the population and put Hosea on the throne.
V He took Damascus after a long siege (732 BC) and created the New Assyrian provinces up
to Arabia, whose queen had to accept an Assyrian governor at her side and pay tribute
(732 BC).
f) Campaigns in Southern Mesopotamia
There were disorders there caused by the murder of the king in Babylon and the introduction
of a new dynasty (Chaldean). He took the opportunity to subdue the southern region, and the
king of Babylon Nabu-Mukin-Zeri offered him tribute. Respecting the Babylonian monarchy,
he names himself “King of Babylon”, adopting the name Pulu.
2.4. Characteristics of the New Assyrian Empire
Abrupt alternatives of extension and reduction of its territory
The Assyrian Empire never had the cohesion and solidity of the Egyptian pharaohs of the 18th and
19th dynasties, since they practiced a policy of assimilation and tolerance, while the Assyrians
resorted in preference to brute force, thereby provoking frequent hatred. and revolts upon the death of
the Assyrian sovereigns, their successor having to reconquer the territories again.
However, while the Egyptians only faced populations without any cohesion, the Assyrians faced great
powers full of vitality (Babylonians, Elamites, Arameans, Medes, Urarteans, Hittites, Arabs,
Egyptians and Ethiopians).
Apogee
Starting in the 8th century BC, the Assyrians reached their peak, perfecting and softening their
methods of conquest, which resulted in:
a) Mass deportations of defeated populations, transforming the different states into provinces
administered by Assyrian governors. The first to do so was Tiglat-Pileser III, breaking the
resistance they would put up if he left them in their land. This led to a mix class of races, ways
of life and suppression of borders, and will turn the Assyrians into the agents of the leveling
that will allow the establishment of the great later empires: Neo-Babylonian, Persian, Greek
and Roman.
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b) Perfection of weapons and military siege techniques. Great importance of the chariot rra.
This policy was what allowed Tiglath-Pileser III to incorporate Babylon, forming the Assyrian-
Babylonian Empire, uniting all the lands of the Fertile Crescent. After his death there are rebellions in
Israel and Sam'al, supported by Egypt.
Shalmaneser V (726-722 BC), his successor, destroys Sam'al and Samaria, being murdered there. The
military operation in Israel was continued by his successor Sargon.
2.5. Sargon II (721-705 BC). The Sargonids (704-627 BC)
Year 721 BC
Two important events occur:
a) Deportation of the Israelites to the north, to the Habur River basin and the region of Media.
b) Advent of Sargon II, one of the most prestigious monarchs of the ancient East, ini establishing
the Sargonid dynasty
The most important kings of this dynasty, apart from Sargon II, were Sennacherib (704-681 BC),
Asharhaddon (680-669 BC) and Ashurbanipal (668-627 BC). His successors will lead the Empire to
its destruction around 610 BC, harassed by several fronts, especially the Medes and Scythians.
This era, from 744 BC (beginning of the reign of Tiglath-Pileser II), is considered by some to be the
beginning of the New Assyrian Empire.
Foreign policy
a) Revolts of the subject countries

The revolts of the subject countries are continuous: Damascus, the Phoenician cities of Tire
and Sidon and even the Israelites, who took advantage of the death of the kings to rise up
against the dominator.
b) Assyria tries to destroy Urartean power
Assyria tries to end Urartean power in the north. Sargon II, in 714 BC, began a new campaign
without winning the main fortresses, although he managed to stop Urartu from disturbing
Assyria from then on (707 BC).
c) Egypt
Egypt, which maintains Palestinian agitation against Assyria, will be the target of several
campaigns:
V Sennacherib arrives in Memphis in 617 BC, without settling. In 616 BC Pharaoh Taharqa
recovers Memphis.
V Ashurbanipal takes Memphis in 666 BC and reaches Thebes, but Assyrian domination
collapsed shortly after (653 BC), when Psammetichus I liberated the territories. This cold
This is because the bulk of the Assyrian forces were engaged in a real war. but: Babylon
and Elam
d) Babylon and Elam
Assyria carried out wars of attrition with these countries. The Babylonians did not let
themselves be lar, and to do so they were able to ally themselves with their eternal enemies,
the Elamites, who resurrected they moaned again. This conjunction of Chaldeans and Elamites
was very dangerous for Assyria, since if they spread throughout the Zagros they could cut the
lines of communication of the entire Iranian plateau. Both Sargon II and Sennacherib were
dedicated to resolving the Babylonian-Elamite issue, reaching the point that Sennacherib
destroyed Babylon, although Asharhaddon later rebuilt it. Upon the death of Asarhaddon, he
divided the empire into among his sons, placing on the throne of Babylon the firstborn
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Shamash-shuma-ukin, who rebelled against Ashurbanipal (669-630 BC), who in 648 BC took
and burned Babylon. He advanced to Susa, and all of Elam was converted into an Assyrian
province. However, Ashurbanipal had internal problems at the end of his reign.
2.6. Organization of the Assyrian Empire
The king
The Assyrian Empire was based on royal authority. The king had all the political, religious powers
sos and administrative. He was the Shangu of the god Assur, both priest and national administrator,
and the objectives of his policy were to extend his possessions. All subjects were required to take the
Adu or oath of fidelity, which was taken by professional categories. The kings relied on him to solve
the succession problem, since since the 9th century BC The Law of Primogeniture was not followed
(e.g. Sennacherib, Asharhaddon and Ashurbanipal were minor sons).
The Royal Harem was organized by laws, with great importance of the eunuchs, with frequent revolts
and intrigues, to influence the government through women.
Administration
There was great hierarchy and bureaucracy.
a) Central administration
The main charges were:
V General in Chief.
V Palace Herald.
V Mayor.
V Senior cupbearer.
V Governors of provinces, at the head of which was the Governor of Assur.
V Grand vizier (sukallu), in which all the information of the hassulu regiona converged them,
which were given to him by the regional governors or the qipu (official grain and straw
collectors).
Almost all of the above positions, apart from their duties at the court, in which they resided,
They held military positions.
b) Provincial administration
There is a double management:
V Ordinary administration
Local officials dependent on the provincial Governor, who had to report to the central
Governor
V Administration of the Hassulu
Informants from all levels of the administration who sent reports to the great Vi sir
(sukkallu-dannu). There was a great centralization in the administration.
Assyrian economy
Little evolution since the formation of the Empire. It was essentially agricultural. The craftsmanship
was poorly developed and concentrated in the Temple and the Palace, as well as in the provincial
capitals.
Trade is a function of supplying luxury objects to the ruling classes. some sovereign They made an
effort to improve the techniques. Sennacherib built roads and canals, aqueducts, and perfected
smelting methods.
Slavery was not very numerous, since levies were made among the subjects for different tasks. The
sources of slavery remain the same: insolvency of large numbers of borrowers, come mother of
children, prisoners of war or foreign slaves. The slave was a commodity, and could be sold and
exchanged, but at this time slaves could do business and make fortunes, which upon their death
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reverted to their masters.

As in Little House Babylon, there are also kudurrus.
Society
The class division was the same as that of Babylon, but with more marked differences: They are
known due to the texts found in Ashur and especially to the tablets of Ugarit (Ras Shamra).
a) Aristocracy of military and high officials: closed class, with a caste character.
b) Free men who had land.
c) Free, humble and propertyless population (Upsu). They were small farmers and artisans living
on the outskirts, equivalent to the mushkenum of Hammurabi's code.
d) Slaves, mostly prisoners of war (asiru).
Right
Customary law was very similar to that of Hammurabi's time:
a) Polygamous marriage (harems).

b) Concern for preserving the family caste, admitting certain provisions (handing over widows to
brothers or a son of another). These customs, unknown in Babylon, are perhaps of Hittite and
Urartu origin, as is the word esirtu (concubine), which in Assyria could be elevated to the rank
of legitimate wife (not in Babylon).
c) Special provisions for war widows. If they lived on crown land, the state maintained them.
d) Extremely cruel nature of the sentences handed down, which also distinguishes them from the
babi lonic, since the death penalty, mutilations and confiscation of property are common.
e) The edicts that governed the rules of palace life were very severe. Strict discipline for personal
activities of its members, and if they were not complied with, they were punished with capital
punishment. The royal residence can be considered a prison rather than a palace.
Religion
Without major differences with the Babylonian one, except the official one. The main god was Ashur,
with a fun very partial tion: he only had a warrior character. Development of belief in the sun,
represented by Samash (justice), considered a judge of the enemies of Assyria. Therefore, the warrior
ideology then received its legal-religious foundation.
Among Assyria's enemies there was a very important influence of the Babylonian religion, although
Assyria-Babylon relations were very complex.
The Babylonian cultural irradiation on Assyria had always fascinated its ruling classes. It was a kind
of forbidden attraction, which is clearly manifested in the spiritual aspect, in culture and religion.
Proof of this influence are the titles adopted by the Assyrian kings, pre tending equality with the king
of Babylon (Tukulti Ninurta called himself “King of the four kings”). gions”).
Despite the envy and resentment and even the continuous fights with Babylon, Assyria never stopped
opening itself to its influences, both in literature, copying its style, and in sculpture. ture (except the
glyptic, which is Hurrian). His dependence on religious worship was perhaps greater.
Since the reign of Ashur-Uballit I there has already been a temple of Marduk (Babylonian god),
competing with Ashur, who ended up being only the god of war, without becoming the head of the
divine pantheon (Anunnaki). The main goddess was Ishtar, goddess of fertility.
In 1200 BC a new step was taken. The Babylonian ritual of the New Year festival, dedicated to Mar
duk, was adopted by Assur, and in the spiritual and religious aspect the two regions became I tend
more and more towards one.
It can be said that the traditional Sumero-Akkadian pantheon, evolved in Babylon, at the end of the
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12th century, and definitely in the 11th and 10th BC, was considered in Assyria as classic, and from
the New Assyrian Empire we can already speak of a religion. Assyrian-Babylonian.
2.7. The end of the Assyrian Empire
An end in such a short time after the splendor would be incomprehensible if it were not known that in
the period of 627 BC (death of Assurbanipal) and 612 BC (fall of Nineveh) an event occurred
uninterrupted sion of civil wars and e xteriore s. The country was exhausted when the invasion
occurred sion of the Medes, which together with that of the Chaldeans , brought about the end of the
Assyrian Empire.
Upon the death of Ashurbanipal, the fights between his two sons were taken advantage of by the
Chaldean king Nabopolassar in 626 BC, recognizing himself as king of Babylon in Sippar and
Babylon. The Medes and the Cal deos precipitated the final outcome.
Taking of Assur
In 625 BC, Cyaxares of Media unified Scythian and Persian tribes, and in 614 BC he took Assur,
which was sacked, concluding an alliance with the king of Babylon, Nabopalasar.
Capture of Nineveh
Cyaxares and Nabopalasar attacked Nineveh in 612 BC The last Assyrian king Ashur-Uballit III held
out at Harran until 610 BC Both Egyptians and Assyrians retreated beyond the Euphrates. The last
Our remains of the Assyrian Empire disappeared forever.
a) The entire area became Babylonian territory, and Pharaoh Nekao established his domination in
Palestine, the Phoenician cities and the ancient Aramaean provinces of Assyria up to the fords
of the Euphrates.
TOPIC 7. EGYPT (I). THE ANCIENT EMPIRE.
TO. The beginnings of Egyptian history. archaic era
1. Egypt. General Characters
The Egyptian civilization is the result of a series of geographical and human factors that since
prehistoric times produced an original and great culture.
1.1. The Nile Valley and Egypt
Egypt is located in the easternmost area of the great Sahara Desert. There, the desert is only
interrupted by some oases, and above all, by the great current of the Nile, an authentic green column.
bral of the entire territory and origin of this civilization.
In the south there are three rivers that flow into the Nile: The Blue Nile, the White Nile and the
Atbara.
The waters of the Nile reach the valley every year between the months of June and September. This
flood fertilizes the land.
1.2. Natural resources.
Egypt must necessarily open itself to the outside world to obtain the raw materials it needs, since it
has very few and very localized ones.
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1.3. Conventional division of Egyptian chronology.
Menetho of Sebennitos was, apparently, an Egyptian priest. His work “Aegypthiaca”, divided into
three books, had the mission of making historical events accessible to the Greek-speaking world. cos,
the religious and political traditions and customs of the Egyptians.
The development of this culture still roughly follows the divisions of Menetho, although the former
Archaeological excavations and new reflections on various documents, today add new periodizations
to the beginning of Egyptian history.
According to Menetho, the kings were classified into XXXI dynasties or royal families, each
designated by a geographical epithet.
2. Protodynastic I (or epoch before the ancient Tinite epoch) Dynasties 00 and 0
Egyptian civilization began, according to Menetho, with the unification of Egypt under a single king.
Tradition attributes it to Narmer or Menes. Also, by a mace head from Hiercompolis, it is co meet a
“Scorpion” king. Some authors place him and Narmer correlatively in the Di nastia 0. But there are
very earlier elements belonging to the so-called Dynasty 00.
“Dynasty 0” is a term used by some authors to refer to the kings, princes, rulers or important figures
of the period before Dynasty 0.
This “Dynasty” would begin with the character buried with the Gebelein cloth and other
“differentiated” characters from various tombs in the T cemetery of Nagada as well as some
characters from the U cemetery in Abydos.
Tombs L24 at Qustul and 137.1 at Seyala in Nubia are also considered contemporary with this period.
These are moments that Vercautter calls “the dark centuries”, an era that begins in the Protodynastic
or Gerzeense Recipient, characterized by:
1. Urbanization.
2. Creation or rapid evolution of social and economic institutions.
3. Cultural unification of all of Egypt.
It was at this Protodynastic moment that the first human agglomerations appeared in Egypt. manas.
2.1. The so-called “Predynastic” or “Protodynastic ” Palettes.
As far as the Predynastic Palettes are concerned, they testify to the passage from the protohistory of
the final Gerzean to the History of the archaic period. Except for Narmer, none of these Palettes have
been found in context. The three Palettes originating from Upper Egypt have been considered
historical, re each one presenting in its own way, the conquest of the northern Kingdom by the
southern one.
2.2. Mace Heads
Another characteristic object of this final period of the Protodynastic-Beginning of the Archaic Era
are the mace heads.
2.3. The new real names
A number of possible royal names have been recently revealed and reconstructed by Gunter Dreyes
on some labels and inscriptions on vessels from the cemetery of U of Abydos, on certain seal
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impressions of Nagada II, on the Palette of Tehenu and graffiti engravings. to the Coptic Colossi.
2.4. Dynasty 00 or “Dynasties 00”. The proto-kingdoms of Nagada III A-IIICI archaic of Tinis-
Abydos or IIC (IIA) IIIA2 (IIIA2).
Dynasty 00 would correspond more to a protodynastic period, not to a line of kings or rulers. before a
specific place.
The term Dynasty (or Dynasties) 00 is therefore used as a descriptive term that indicates a period c:
Nagada IIIC-IIIA2.
At the end of this phase and the beginning of the next, the oldest designations and names of the
ancient “princes” are found anonymously (i.e., in the form of “only the palace facades”, serekhs),
incised or written in the graves.
2.5. Dynasty 0 or Nagada III BI, 2: 3120-3050 BC
Vessels with serekhs are already found, with or without the falcon on them. The serekhs are found
from the Delta to Upper Nubia, but they must correspond to characters who were only local chiefs
who ruled in restricted regional areas, although they shared a common form of culture.
As for the great figures (kings) of Lower Egypt and the Delta, it seems that Lower Nubia was under
the rule of these two regional entities during archaic Nagada III, in Seyala and also in the south in
Qustul, which would possibly explain that These political powers grew due to the wealth produced by
the exploitation of Nubian gold deposits and quarries.
Later, in Middle Nagada III, these regional centers were most likely destroyed by the power and
energy of Hierakompolis, which expanded as the graffiti with battle scenes of Gebel Sheikh Suleiman
seems to attest.
The Tinite chiefs, princes or kings, probably inherited the territory of Nagada and gained access to the
Nubian trade routes.
At this time it seems to attest to a decisive victory of Tinis/Abydos over Nagada, as can be understood
from the rock carvings on the Luxor-Farshut desert road.
The princes of Hierakompolis would, therefore, be the only rivals of the Tinite kings, existing until
the time of unification.
In the period of Nagada IIIb2 (“End of Dynasty 0”) the kings of Abydos (Tinis) were buried in
cemetery B in which the last tombs are those of Narmer and Aha, the first kings of the I Dynasty.
King Scorpion (II) is considered a predecessor of Narmer, who may have belonged to the
predominant family of Hierakompolis.
This Abydos Dynasty is actually a dynasty of kings (initially the term “Dynasty 0” is attributed only
to these Abydos kings, not to other local kings of Upper or Lower Egypt).
3. The Archaic Period / Archaic Dynastic (sg. Dreyer) or Tinite Monarchy. I-II Dynasty
This era is called Protodynastic because it is that of the oldest dynasties, and Tinita from the name bre
of Tinis or This, capital of the eighth nome.
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3.1. The I Dynasty (Nagada III c1, 2, 3) (3050-2860 BC)
Narmer is one of the most widespread royal names of the Archaic Dynastic. He has been considered
the founder of the First Dynasty and originated the legendary figure of Menes.
It is associated with the beginnings of the Nagada IIIc phase (Dynasty I). It seems that he solved the
problem problem of the “rivals” of Hierakompolis.
The eight pharaohs of the First Dynasty reigned, according to Vercoutter, in a time of prosperity. The
kings of this Dynasty began to carry what is called traditional royal “ownership” or “protocol,”
conferred on the pharaoh in the coronation ceremony, which included, starting in the Old Kingdom,
five fixed titles, which introduced, either by a single name or a short phrase, variants for each
pharaoh. At least three of these ritual titles were used by the pharaohs of the First Dynasty:
1. Horus name of the pharaoh, inscribed on a rectangle or serekh , image of the royal palace,
with a falcon above, symbol of royal power. It translates as “horus X…”. This title was
carried by the eight pharaohs of the First Dynasty.
2. This second title is formed by the phrase n(y)swt-bity which translates as “he who belongs ce
to the reed and the bee”, the reed (or reed) being the symbol of Upper Egypt and the bee of
Lower Egypt, whence the usual translation of the title as “the lord of Upper and Lower Egypt
“to”.
3. The Two Ladies or Nebty , due to the probable reading of the groups of signs used They used
to write it: the vulture, which represented the goddess Nekhbet of elKab, and the cobra,
tutelary divinity of Dep , both on the basket sign neb , which means “Lady.” This title is
related, like that of Nesut-Bity , to the northern and southern kingdoms.
4. 1.1. The sources of the First Dynasty
To the remains of some true Annals, whose existence is assumed by the cylinder-seals or their
imprints. ready and some ivory tablets, join the Palermo Stone, the Royal Lists, the Turin Papyrus and
those that remain from Manetho's List.
5. 1.2. The pharaohs: Narmer, Aha or Menes, Teti, Djer, Serpent King, Den, Miebis and
Semerkhet. Queen Meneith.
To the pharaoh, Narmer, Aha or Menes, Manetonian tradition attributes a reign of thirty years.
His successor was Aha “the fighter” who is credited with campaigns against Nubia and Libya, and
relations with Byblos and Lebanon. A human sacrifice in front of the royal palace is known from his
time. His wife was Queen Neithotep, to whom a large tomb in Nagada and the regency of her son Teti
are attributed. This was a short-lived pharaoh, who only lasted one year and 45 days. Two large tombs
of this pharaoh are preserved.
Next up, Vadyi is known as “the Snake King.” He reigned for about 10 years and during his
government an expedition entered the eastern desert. His contemporary is Queen Merneith, attested in
numerous written documents but whose position in the First Dynasty or even the Second Dynasty is
uncertain. She would be Den's mother, exercising regency in his name at the beginning of his reign,
for some researchers, for others she is his wife. Whoever this queen was, her tomb in Abydos was
surrounded by 77 subsidiary tombs, which testifies to her great importance and that perhaps she
reigned as the only Egyptian monarch, being the first queen-king of this country, a precursor to other
many. later chas.
In the time of Den at least two “chapters” of the Book of the Dead are supposed to have been written.
It happens He gave Miebis or Adjib and to this Semerkhet. The eighth king of this Dynasty would be
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Horus Ka or Kaa, with whom according to Menetón the First Dynasty ends, without knowing the
reasons for the coming to power of the Second Dynasty, of Tinite origin, like the I, which included
nine Kings.
3.2. Dynasty II (Nagada IIId)
The names and order number of these pharaohs is uncertain, since the sources, the seal cylinders, the
ivory tablets, the Palermo Stone, the Royal Lists and the Turin Papyrus do not coincide and contradict
each other starting with the seventh pharaoh. , only the names and order of succession of the first four
being certain.
The first was Hotepsekhemuy/Hotepsejemuy . Nebré or Raneb succeeded him. His name is the
first royal name composed with the Sun god of Heliopolis. The third pharaoh , Ninerter , is known
thanks to the Palermo Stone, Uneg succeeded him and after him the news is confusing, with pharaohs
such as Sekhemib or Perib sen . His successor was Khasekhem or Jasejem , whose warlike
activities are recorded and who is represented killing prisoners “from the north.” His successor
Khasekhemuy / Jasej emuy suggests the reconciliation of both gods and their supporters, since his
name means “The two powers (of Horus and Seth). With him this Tinita period ends.
3.3. Characteristics of the Tinita Era
3.3.1 . The monarchy.
At the end of the Second Dynasty the characteristics of the pharaonic monarchy were established. The
rites of royal coronation and its renewal (Sed festival) were fixed and developed in the same way until
the Ptolemaic era, including the succession from father to son, the royal title and the important role of
the queens.
3.3.2 The gods
At this time the existence of most of the divinities of the classical Egyptian Pantheon is attested,
either with animal forms or represented by their symbols and also with forms. my anthropoform.
3.3.3 Writing
The appearance in Egypt of hieroglyphic writing as it is known today is one of the achievements
attributed to the first two dynasties.
3.3.4 The funeral rites
A decoration can be seen that is interpreted as intended to assure the deceased life in the Hereafter
and the protection of the divinities represented by their symbols, while after the writing magically
maintains the name of the person and its eternal permanence na.
3.3.5 Main cities
The traditional theory that Memphis was founded around 3100 BC is still accepted. by the first king
of the First Dynasty who unified Egypt, after having conquered the north by force tea. A
homogeneous kingdom was thus established under the authority of the city of Buto (present-day Tell-
el-Faraïn), at the northwestern end of the Delta.
B. Old Kingdom
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1. THE ANCIENT KINGDOM, DYNASTY III-VI. MENFITE PERIOD
This era is called Memphite after the name of its capital: Memphis (which would be throughout the
entire Old Kingdom). The Old Kingdom includes dynasties III to VI. The chronology of Dynasties
III-VI according to Clayton will be 2686-2181.
1.1 International Situation
The first archaic Dynasties of Mesopotamia in the cities of Kish, Ur and Uruk and the Akkadian
Empire.
1.2 Dynasty III
Very little is known about the first king of the Third Dynasty, Sanajt or Nebka , perhaps united by
marriage to the heiress of the previous dynasty. He is supposed to have been succeeded by his
possible brother Djeser/Zoser , Dyerser or Tosortos for the Greeks. Manetho begins a new Dynasty
with him, due to the great progress he made in Egypt in his time.
This king was lucky to have the help of an exceptional man: The arch tecto -j efe Imhotep, a trusted
man, whose reputation was maintained through the centuries as a doctor and was also attributed with
the invention of the procedure for carving stone, of which the magnificent complex of Saqqara (step
pyramid) is proof da) which represents the triumph of stone architecture, compared to that of adobe,
typical of the previous stage. The S aqqara complex is one of the largest in the history of architecture
ture. What is called a “step pyramid” is the result of an evolutionary process.
Djoser made Memphis his capital and extended his rule possibly into Nubia and the Sinai. His
successors were Sanakt or Santjt and Jaba, whose reigns are little known. two. The dynasty ends with
a king whose name is Hu or Huni, builder of the step pyramid of Meidum, who is the immediate
predecessor of king Snofru, who completed the pyramid. measures and with which the next dynasty,
the IV, begins.
1.3 IV Dynasty
Neither the number nor the order of these pharaohs, builders of the great pyramids, is known. des. We
will follow Clayton's order.
It seems that the first king of the Dynasty was Sneferu/Snefru or Snofru. I got married mon with Huni
or Hetepheres I, mother of Cheops and daughter of his predecessor.
Some details can be given about Snofru thanks to the Palermo Stone. He organized an expedition tion
to Nubia, from where he brought numerous prisoners and carried out campaigns in the Sinai. He built
two pyramids in Dahshur, as well as temples, palaces and fortresses. Your im This powerful reign
advances the artistic perfection of his successors: Cheops, Chephren and Mycerinus, whose pyramids
still amaze the world and are an index of the progress of this civilization. tion.
In the time of this king, the “classical” scheme of the pharaohs' funerary complex had been
completed, consisting of a valley temple, road, attached temple and pyramid, which would be
repeated throughout the entire Old Kingdom.
This king left in classical Egyptian literature the memory of a kind man and lover of the good life.
He was succeeded by Cheops/Kufu/Jufu/Kéope/Quéope/Kheops, who ruled for about 23 years. Part

of the members of his family can be reconstructed thanks to the inscriptions in the tombs of the Giza
necropolis, where they were buried around the Great Pyramid and thanks also well to the tombs of
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those who lie in S aqqara.
The Great Pyramid of Cheops is the largest monument built by man. It is built with limestone blocks,
some of which weigh 15 tons. The faces are perfectly oriented to the four cardinal points.
A figure of the time was Meten, whose tomb was found in S aqqara and his statue and inscription are
now in Berlin. This character lived between the 2nd and 4th Dynasty and in his biography he tells of
his career, throughout which he was nomarch of the 17th nome of Upper Egypt. to, governor of
fortresses, governor of Buto, among many other things and received legacies of land. Meten is an
example of the social position and wealth of high-functioning rivers in Egypt.
Cheops left, according to Herodotus's informants, a bad reputation as a tyrant that, to a certain extent,
also appears in the Westcar Papyrus.
The discovery of the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, mother of the king, in 1925, by the American
archaeologist G. Reisner, in a burial chamber located at the bottom of a 30 m deep pit east of the
Great Pyramid. In the tomb, the trousseau was found along with an alabaster sarcophagus, where the
viscera of the deceased were kept, while after the sarcophagus was empty. It is the oldest testimony of
evisceration for mummification. It is preserved in the Cairo museum.
His successor was Dyedefre/Didufri (Redj edf), who reigned for 8 years according to the Turin
Papyrus. He left an unfinished pyramid at Abu Rodash. The ascension of this pharaoh has been
explained by a dissension in the royal family that seems to have occurred after the death of Khufu. It
is also believed that Didufri's reign ended amid general discontent.
Khafre (J afre or Rej ael) reigned, according to Manetho, for 63 years, but in reality he does not
appear to have been on the throne for more than 24 according to the Royal Canon of Turin. Queen
Heteperes II, widow of Kawab and Didufri, gave him her daughter Meresank II as a wife, with which
peace reigned in the royal family and the active Heteperes II lived until the end of the dynasty. Khafre
built his pyramid next to Cheops's, somewhat smaller, but as it is located on a somewhat higher level
it seems even larger.
Pharaoh Khafre's most famous creation was the Sphinx of Giza. The hillock was carved and some
blocks were added to give it the shape of a lion with a human head and to pharaonic fallen, thus
achieving one of the most famous works of art of Antiquity dad. In the New Kingdom it was believed
to be the god Harmakis and Thutmose IV had it cleaned of sand and engraved a stele, the Dream
Stele.
1.4 5th Dynasty
According to Manetho, this Dynasty reigned for 248 years and according to the Turin Papyrus, 140.
Its origin is explained in the Westcar Papyrus, preserved in the Berlin Museum. Almost all of the
work of this Dynasty was the work of the priests of Heliopolis, whose solar theology triumphed for
almost a century and a half. Its first rulers, Userkaf and Sahure, were not of royal blood, but children
of the wife of a simple priest of Ra from a small town. However, it is possible that the first king of the
dynasty was the son of Neferhotep, daughter of Didufri and that he married Khentkaves, probable son
of Mycerinus.
The V Dynasty brought many new developments to the Egyptian State. The royal title of “son of Ra”,
already em used sporadically in the previous Dynasty, it became generalized in this period,
incorporated into the title real reality. Written texts increased and there was an increase in literary and
scientific thought.
Usekaf is known to have built in the south.
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The second king of this Dynasty, his successor, Sahura, reigned for about 14 years and during his rule
there were campaigns against the Libyans and the Asians. He sent expeditions to Punt and Sinai.
At this time the pyramids are smaller, built with smaller materials. The temple attached to the
pyramid was used for worship and offerings dedicated to the deceased king.
His successor, Neferirkara, was his brother and reigned for about 10 years. Precisely in his time the
Palermo Stone was recorded. He built his pyramid in Abusir but could not finish it, which his third
successor did.
His direct successors were Shepseskara and Neferefra of whom there is little news, as well as mo
Niuserra, famous for its solar temple of Abusir, and its funerary complex, one of the most complete
preserved, which seems to be followed by Menkauhor and perhaps Isesi Dyedkara.
The last king of the V Dynasty was Unas/Ono s. He reigned for 30 years and is known to have tried
He probably made a trip to Elephantine to receive a tribute from the Nubian chiefs. Vases with his
name appeared in Byblos.
The main care of the kings of this V Dynasty was the cult of Ra, which was celebrated in open-air
solar temples, although not in an exclusive way as Akhenaten's religious reform tried to be, and in the
same sanctuaries of Ra they are attested. the cul cough of Horus and Hathor. The result of this reform
was the weakening of royal power, since, as the king recognized his dependence on the power of the
god, he became closer to other mortals in a certain way. This weakening of the monarchical
conception would have a great influence cy on the political and social evolution of the Memphite
State.
In the religious order, we must also highlight the fact that in the pyramid of King Unas in Saqqara, the
chambers and passages are covered with hieroglyphic inscriptions called “Texts of the Pyramids”, a
custom that was later repeated with other monarchs and queens. . These texts are a very extensive
collection of prayers, invocations, hymns, etc., intended two to assure the pharaoh the afterlife with
the gods. They constitute the basis of what we will later call in the Middle Kingdom “Texts of the
Sarcophagi” and in the New Kingdom “Book of the Dead”. It is worth highlighting a very important
part of these texts, which is called the “Cannibal Hymn”, is not repeated.
1.5 . Dynasty VI.
According to Manetho, the kings of the 6th Dynasty were from Memphis. The accession of its first
king, Teti I, put an end to the instability that followed the death of Unas/Onos.
Between Teti I and Fiope/Pepi I, King Userkara is often cited, who perhaps reigned at some point.
The stories and activities of characters from his court demonstrate the transformations of the time and
the decline of royal authority.
There is data to affirm that Pepi I appointed Merenra co-regent in the last years of his life and he
succeeded him when he died.
Merenra I, “the beloved of Ra,” reigned as sole king for about 9 years.
Merenra I's successor, Pepi II / Neferirkara, reigned for many years, surely more than 60 and perhaps
many more, because the Turin Papyrus attributes 90 to him. Nothing in his reign suggested the
collapse of a state as strongly organized as Egypt of the Old Kingdom. With this king the commercial
expeditions of the previous reign continued, such as the expedition to the Sinai and the Yam.
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Merenra II Antyemsaf appears as Pepi II's successor, but there is almost no news about him, as well
as about two other possible kings and Queen Nitocris/Nitiqret, whose husband could have been
Merenra II himself, for Manetho the last monarch of the VI Dynasty, which reigned for only one year.
The fame of this queen, known by Herodotus and Manetho, grew until she became, in Greek times,
Rhodopis, courtesan and mythical builder of the third pyramid of Giza, a precursor to her legend of
“Cinderella.” She was the second known queen to exercise political power in Egypt after Merneith, of
the First Dynasty. Apparently his successor was Neferkara. After which the so-called First
Intermediate Period begins.
It seems that the crisis of royal power that was already noted when talking about the V Dynasty was
accentuated with the VI, and, above all, during the reign of Pharaoh Pepi II, who married the
daughters of a simple official. A period of decentralization is reached.
C. FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
1. FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD. DYNASTY VII-X
It is the period from the end of the 6th Dynasty until the reunification of Egypt by Mentuhotep II, a
Theban prince. Historically speaking, it represents the collapse of the es political burning of the Old
Kingdom, the rise to power of the nomarchs, the appearance of a kingdom in the north with its capital
in Heracleopolis and another in the south around Thebes, and finally, the reunification of the country
by the Thebans. Culturally, a very important change occurred, so in mentality as well as in literary
expression, as well as in religion and possibly in society.
Historical sources are almost non-existent and a clear description of the facts cannot be obtained.
It was characterized by feudalism or independence of the nomes, where the nomarchs gathered local
troops and there were High Priests of the gods who also administered their property. The
confusionism during which a prince from Heracleopolis took his residence to the theoretical capital of
the country (Memphis). We can distinguish several stages:
1.1 Dynasties VII and VIII
It is characterized by foreign invasion and civil war. In it, positions such as vizier and Nomarch
become hereditary.
It is further subdivided into two periods, which correspond, respectively, to each of the Dynasties:
a) Dynasty VII: According to Manetho, it had 70 kings in 70 days, it probably did not exist.
b) Dynasty VIII: of Memphite origin according to Manetho, it seems to be a continuation of the
VI, and therefore the VII would have to be eliminated as the Dynasty itself and the most
acceptable explanation is that it was an interregnum. 17 re can be attributed forks.
The founder of the VIII Dynasty was a king, perhaps the son or grandson of Pepi II. He was assigned
a reign of 4 years and was buried in southern S aqqara. We almost completely lack his successors. full
of information. The only one that can be identified with precision is Kakara Aba or Ibi, to whom the
Turin Canon attributes 2 years of reign and places it in fourteenth position in this Dynasty, which
ended around the year 2160, in which we find Egypt divided into three parts:
1. The Delta : In the hands of Asian invaders.

2. Middle Egypt : Unified under the authority of Heracleopolis, capital of the 20th nome of
Upper Egypt, where Dynasties IX and X will rule.
3. The South : grouped under the authority of the kings of Thebes, who form the XI Dynasty,
with which the Middle Kingdom begins.
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The development of events can be roughly summarized as follows:
1.2 Dynasties IX and X: Heracleopolis. 11th Dynasty: Thebes
As the authority of the Heracleopolitan government increased, so did mentioned that of the Thebes
Dynasty, after the collapse of Memphis, since the provinces have They had begun to dispute power
and the power of their nomarchs was growing.
During this period, the IX Dynasty emerged, a family of nomarchs from Heracleopolis, possibly
founded by Nerybraj ety according to Manetho. This dynasty may have ruled the entire country but at
the beginning of Dynasty X, about 30 years later, there was already a strong government in Thebes,
where Dynasty They were named Inyotef or Antef and Mentuhotep.
The growing hostility between the two rivals caused frequent clashes, until one of the kings of Thebes
unified Egypt. The first Antef proclaimed himself king with the name of Horus of S eheru-Tauy, “He
who has restored calm to the two lands.”
d. STATE, CIVILIZATION AND ORGANIZATION OF EGYPT DURING THE ANCIENT

KINGDOM AND PROMER INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
1. THE EGYPTIAN STATE IN THE ANCIENT KINGDOM AND THE FIRST

INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
1.1 Political structure
1.1.1 The king
Officially the king had 5 names, of which we have already seen the first three before. This
nomenclature is also called “Protocol”, and was conferred on the king in ceremonies.
The king was the one who directed the history of the country and did so by virtue of divine right
(maat), that is, the universal order and therefore he could govern, dictate and emanate law and keep
the country in order against the disintegrating forces of the Chaos.
This double nature of the pharaoh explains the fact that, having lost his human nature, he ascended to
the category of gods. This is how it is read in the Pyramid Texts.
1.1.2 private property
There were a series of formulations and terms that came close to the concepts of property. ity, as we
understand them today, such as: owner, lord, dependence, intervention, idea of power, procedural
force, etc.
1.1.3 State Organization
1.1.4 The social pyramid
It can be said that the social pyramid comprised three levels:
a) At the top was the King, repository by divine right of all the powers of the State. He was a
deified character, identified with the god Horus and placed under the protection of the
goddesses Wadj et and Nej ebet. Every 30 years of reign, reindeer their powers went at a
Thirst party. Progressively, his deification was accentuated and In the 5th Dynasty it was
proclaimed that the sun god Ra united with the King's wife, giving birth to successive kings.
b) High officials and priests.
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c) Low town: the low town was basically made up of farmers and artisans. Apparently there
were no slaves, except prisoners of war. rra.
1.1.5 Central administration
The two main positions were vizier and works supervisor. At the end of the IV dynasty and the
beginning of the V, the number of high officials increased.
The Vizier (t3ty or taty)
The ideal of the function of Vizier for the Old Kingdom is set forth in the treatise Maxims of Ptah-
hotep, where wisdom and prudence are condensed in the art of government. nar that dates back to
very remote times.
Features:
a) Head of Central Administration. He was assisted by the Heads of Mission who They were in
communication with the entire country and all government affairs.
b) He presided over the royal archives, where all important documents were kept. tes, both real
and public or private.
c) He was Head of the Great House of Justice and as such, he presided over “the Six Great
Houses” or Great Territorial Courts.
d) He ran the “Treasury” “Double White House” and perhaps the Ministry of Agriculture: the
“Doble Casa Blanca” ble Barn.”
e) In general, he was the head of all the King's services: the Royal Household, the House of
Arms, the Chamber of the King's Headdress, etc.
The Chancellor of the King of Lower Egypt
This title, attested since the middle of the First Dynasty, tended to become an honorary position.
The God's Chancellor
It tended to become an important administrative position. It was a position of trust for a specific
mission.
The Treasury (Treasury)
It collected and centralized the collection of all the country's products and redistributed them to cover
all official expenses.
The name he received was:
a) The White House or Treasure of Upper Egypt and the Red House or Treasure of Lower
Egypt.
b) When it was unified, it was given the name Double White House.
Functions of the Double White House:
a) It centralized the storage of all the products or taxes that the country in I was traveling to the
Royal Palace.
b) The products of the field were centralized in the Double Barn, directed by the Head of the
Double Barn.
The Treasury had possessions throughout Egypt.
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The Ministry of Agriculture or Double Barn
It was divided into three departments:
a) From animals: it is called perheri-ubj eb. It was presided over by a chief of the two halves of
the per-heri-ubj eb, who had subordinate officials at his service and is screens.
b) Of the fields: this service was presided over by the Head of the Fields, who also had other
officials and scribes at his service.
c) He kept the property titles and civil documents as testa ments and contracts.
Real property land
They were rented to individuals and depended on a boss whose figure seems quite important.
The scribes
His function was always highly requested because it was essential. In each important city there was an
archive, in which they worked, which was called the House of Life, in which the two documents
related to the functioning of the city.
Among these scribes, the titles multiplied, which began with that of Chief of Secrets, a title that
indicates a religious and magical initiation, and the undoubted importance of the position, since the
functioning of the country was in their hands, both on a material and spiritual, since these Chiefs of
the Secrets were also in charge of royal missions, the orders of the Pharaoh, Justice, diplomacy, etc.
1.1.6 Provincial administration. The nomos
The term nome begins with the Lágidas, who generally took up the divisions territorial sions. The
Chamber of the World contained three copies of the nome list, which can be calculated although there
are gaps: 22 for Upper Egypt and 16 for Lower Egypt.
2. CIVILIZATION AND ORGANIZATION OF EGYPT DURING THE AN KINGDOM

TIGUE AND FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
2.1 The population
In late times there is talk of various groups of people:
1. Pat: it is usually translated as patricians, but for the Egyptians they were the oldest indigenous
inhabitants of the country, people from Upper Egypt.
2. Rekhyt: gizás are “people of the Delta” who confronted the kings of the south.
3. Henememet: they are “orientals who contemplate the sunrise of the sun they worship.” Later,
this term was identified with the human being in general.
4. Nedj is: they were people without titles and were designated by their trade and are known
from the Satire of Trades, from the Middle Kingdom.
During the Old Kingdom, the terms hom and meryt were known, which designated servants who
enjoyed a certain freedom.
The bureaucracy was highly developed and there was a large and cultured middle class, since
education was quite widespread.
There are large landowners, with vast areas of land, and others that are more modest.
The small landowners generally lived in country houses. In general, these owners They were not
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directly dedicated to cultivating the land, since they usually held administrative positions, having
servants who took care of these tasks.
The rural population lived in the countryside, growing crops and livestock.
The urban population was concentrated, above all, in the Delta. Urban centers were important, above
all, in the economy, since they were, essentially, commercial centers and their prosperity depended
above all on maritime trade.
The workers were undoubtedly free men, since authentic documents are preserved. signed by working
class people. They used to work in groups of ten, directing two for mayors. The salary was paid in
kind.
2.2 Main cities
They stand out:
a) In the Delta: Tanis and Memphis. Other important cities were: Bubastis, Per, Seped, Sais,
Atribis, Busiris, Buto and Mendes.
b) In Middle Egypt: Heracleopolis, Cusae and Un.
2.3 The family and its evolution
In the most ancient times the Egyptian family was based on paternal authority and the primogeniture
regime.
As royal authority strengthened, family ties and lordship were broken. them.
The first known legal document on family law is Metjen's biography. Family law is revealed to be
essentially individualistic under Dynasties III and IV, with the family reduced to its strictest form:
father, mother and children. The woman generally appeared next to the husband and the order of the
heirs was regulated by law. The Egyptians did not record births, deaths, marriages or divorces.
The funerary cult was also individualistic. Paternal authority, family cohesion and funerary cult of the
family were three closely linked concepts that weakened over the centuries and disappeared
completely during the III and IV Dynasties, although the family continued to be the moral cell on
which the entire society rests. Egyptian society.
2.4 The means of exchange
The exchange was essentially in the form of barter. In the New Kingdom it was still paid in kind.
Some large temples minted gold ingots before the appearance of “offi cial” of the currency.
2.5 The sources
a) Herodotus : this author traveled to Egypt around 430 BC and he also used the chronicle of the
previous century written by Hecataeus of Miletus, who also visited Egypt.
b) Diodorus Siculus : Lived in the 1st century AD and in his “Universal History” he also used
the story of Hecataeus of Miletus.
c) Erastosthenes : lived in Alexandria in the 3rd century BC He gives a list of 38 Theban kings
transcribed in Greek.
d) Manetho : was an Egyptian priest. He made a History of Egypt, written in Greek, of which a
summary was made that includes the list of kings with a brief summary of their reign. We
only know his work through Arab and Jewish chroniclers.
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Lists:
a) That of the Karnak Chamber of Ancestors or Karnak List : today in the Louvre museum. It
contains the names of the pharaohs from the 1st Dynasty to Thutmose III, from the 18th
century.
b) The Abyss Tablet : engraved by order of Seti I on a wall of his funerary temple where it is
preserved. Contains the list of the pharaohs up to the 19th Dynasty. A copy is kept in the
British Museum.
c) The Tablet of S aqqara : discovered in the temple of Tunroi. It goes from the sixth king of the
I Dynasty to Ramses II, of the XIX Dynasty. They are preserved in the Cairo Museum and the
British Museum.
d) The Royal Papyrus of Turin : it is the most complex and serious of the documents, although it
is very damaged.
e) Other papyri : such as the Westcar Papyrus and the Pris se Papyrus.
f) Graffiti : they are also valuable documents to know the kings of the V Di nastia
g) The Palermo Stone : contains the list of kings from Aha, the first ruler of the I Dynasty, to at
least the third of the V Dynasty, Neferirkare. The document is incomplete and its origin is
unknown. It entered the Palermo Museum as a bequest in 1877 and, later, six new fragments
have appeared on the antiquities market, currently preserved in the Cairo Museum and at
University College London.
2.6 Literature
The oldest preserved literary texts are of three kinds: religious poetry, moral lessons and biography.
Among all of them, the following stand out:
a) The texts of the Pyramids: parts of a funerary ritual incised in the underground chambers of
the pyramid of Unas and the kings of the VI Dynasty.
b) Funerary inscriptions.
c) The Wisdoms or “Instructions”: are teaching texts from parents to children. There is a great
parallel in these “Instructions” with the “Book of Proverbs” of the Hebrew Old Testament.
The characteristic elements were:
V A motivation to listen
V The body of the Instruction or advice
V Generalizing, moralizing conclusion or sentence
d) We also know of stories such as “Cheops and the magician”.
e) Religious theater that recounted above all the adventures of Horus, accompanied by the king.
brass with flutes and polyphonic music following a pro-sodic rhythm.
The biography begins in the Old Kingdom. A beautiful example is the biography of Uni and that of
Herkhuf.
The literature of the First Intermediate Period stands out for its importance, with doctrinal books
tional, wisdom or didactic works such as the “Teachings for King Merikara” and also controversial
works such as the “Admonitions of an Egyptian Wise Man”, the “Tale of Neferkara and General
Sisene”, which presents the pharaoh in humiliating situations or the “ The Mint tions of the peasant.”
All these works reflect, according to almost all researchers, a social change and disorganization
nization of the administrative system of the time as well as the pessimism and suffering due to the
fragility of the human being that reflected in a form of political instability.
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2.7 The science
Three disciplines:
a) Astronomy: it was the science that should have been known first.
b) Mathematics: developed at the same time as Astronomy.
c) Medicine: according to Manetón, the writing of the first treatises on Anatomy and Medicine
dated back to the First Dynasty.
2.8 The right
In this country, the Law emanated directly from the king. It was a right of situation, but there were
also some first legal norms, emanating directly from the god Thot, as well as some legal norms.
2.9 Artistic manifestation
They had a great boost with the Third Dynasty and the following ones. The decisive step was taken in
the queen of Pharaoh Djoser, with the appearance of the monumental conception of architecture.
The main architectural samples of this time were:
> The Step Pyramid of Djoser: The stepped complex of Saqqara, near Memphis.
> The mastabas of the subjects, built near the tombs of the kings, which abound dan in S aqqara.
During the IV Dynasty the evolution of the pyramid towards its classical form was completed. Com
The monumental funerary complexes are completed by the burials of the queens and the subjects.
cough, near the royal tombs.
With the V Dynasty the royal pyramids were smaller and the adjacent buildings were decorated with
relief inscriptions. These inscriptions are called “Pyramid Texts”. The unofficial writing, in wood and
stone, had a great plastic quality, perhaps the best in the history of Egypt.
Highlights include the solar temples of Abusir, the statues of the Cairo Museum, the seated scribes of
the Louvre, Cairo and New York and the statues of Rahotep and Nofret of the Cairo Museum, among
many others.
With the 6th Dynasty there was a gradual increase in the size of the mastabas of the particula beef. In
contrast, the royal pyramids decreased in size. These constructions show, above all, the
decentralization of government and the rise of feudal power, since private works sometimes approach
royal constructions in splendor, decorative richness and size.
2.10 Other characteristics of the end of the old kingdom and the first period in termide
> religious disintegration

> Rise and independence of the citizen bourgeoisie
> Social, ideological and economic crisis, the latter was increased by threats from Asians and
Nubians to the mines of Sinai and the Arabian Desert.
> The temples, favored by the pharaoh to attract priests, rose They quest and acquire large
territorial properties.
> Rise of the cult of Osiris, god of vegetation of Busiris and Abydos.
> High government positions were opened to rich commoners, which seems to indicate the
weakness of royal power.
> The weakness of the monarchy gives way to a hegemony of new princes, from the south, with
whom a new stage began ^ The Middle Kingdom.
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TOPIC 8. EGYPT (II). THE MIDDLE EMPIRE AND THE SECOND INTERMEDIATE
PERIOD.
TO. The Middle Kingdom (2040-1782, according to Clayton) D. XI-XII
From the XI and XII Dynasties. Reunification took place with the fourth king of the 11th Dynasty.
Du During the Middle Kingdom the king loses his divine character, we find a contrast between the
cults of Ra and Osiris and there is an artistic and literary apogee.
International Situation
At this time the end of Guti rule in Akad and the beginning of Go took place. rule of the Third
Dynasty of Ur (2 1 1 2-2004), Amarsuen (2046-2038) and Ibbi Sin (2028 2004). The Assyrians are
established in Cappadocia and Hammurabi begins to reign. It is the time of the Old Assyrian Empire
and the rule of king Samshi-Adad I (1813 1781) and his predecessors.
1. THE THEBAN KINGDOM
The region of nome IV of Upper Egypt was unimportant during the Old Kingdom. Thebes was at this
time nothing more than a village on the right bank of the Nile. They adored Montu.
2. DYNASTY XI (2134-1991)
2.1 first kings
The reunification of the north and the south took place.
The Dynasty itself began with 3 kings who were in fact little more than nomarchs, who ruled from
Thebes. All three bear the name Inyotef and participated in wars against the kings of Heracleopolis.
2.1.1 Mentuhotep I and the reunification of Egypt
After them reigned Mentuhotep I Nebhepetra, which consolidated the central power and the borders.
flush, restoring the unit. All the great officials he appointed were Thebans. Beef He established
diplomatic relations with foreign countries and achieved expansion to the south, east and west. Egypt
once again became an artistic focus.
He was succeeded by Mentuhotep II Sanj kara who reigned for 12 years and maintained a defensive
attitude. siva in front of his neighbors.
2.1.2 Other pharaohs of the XI Dynasty. Mentuhotep III
Prince Antef died before his father and was buried in the precinct of Deir el-B ahari, so the new
pharaoh was Mentuhotep III Nebtauyra, who reigned for 6 years. His time was peaceful and
prosperous, the country recovered in many aspects.
3. DYNASTY XII (1991-1782)
3.1 The first pharaohs. Amenemhat or Amenemes I and Sesostris I
It is composed of 8 kings from Thebes, it was one of the most glorious in Egypt. He stood out for the
energy of his government and for the change in the royal name day: the pharaohs adopted a
theophorous name.
Amenemes/ Amenemhat I Shetepibre took power in dark circumstances, which is why he wrote “The
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Prophecy of Neferti” in which it is said that a king called Ameny (diminu tive of Amenemhat), His
own name “Amun is at the head” already announces a program po lithic that will lead, through a
return to Heliopolitan theology, in the new syncretic form of Amun-Ra, on which the new Dynasty
and its successors will base their power. Amun reached its peak in the 21st Dynasty.
This king turned to literature to spread evidence of his legitimacy and religious change. Gioso. We
find the aforementioned Prophecy of Neferti, the Teaching of Amenemhat.
The king established the borders and reorganized the administration of the country. It seems that the
anar The existing gap in the transition of the two Dynasties produced a return to the bad practices of
the nomarchs that would return to the indiscipline of the First Intermediate Period.
Amenemhat I reorganized Egypt, reestablished the boundaries of the nomes among themselves and
changed the capital, moving it from Thebes to Itj itauy. He tried to restore royal power, although the
non-markers were still very powerful, and placed royal inspectors alongside them and rewarded those
who had helped him. He improved the administration of the country, controlling and organizing
nizing taxes. He increased the Royal Treasury as an instrument of power. He also created new
positions of high officials who resided in the court, independent of the nomarchs.
He associated his son on the throne as co-regent Sesostris I. Amenemhat I died in an aten ted or
conspiracy of the harem that is known from texts that have been preserved, among others the Papyrus
of S inuhé.
Sesotris I Jeperkara “The Man of the Goddess Useret” ended the conspiracy of the women of the
harem that ended the life of his father and seems to have associated his son Amenemhat II to the
throne. Good relations with Palestine are recognized by the aforementioned Papyrus of Sinuhé. In his
time there was great economic development and he restored the temple of Ra in Heliopolis in an
attempt to renew the tradition of the Old Kingdom.
The nomarchs continued to govern their nomes, increasingly subject to royal power, which continued
to assert itself. The temple of Heliopolis stands out from this period.
His successor, Amenemhat II was co-regent with his father for two or three years and reigned 34. He
continued the same policy to make Egypt a safe state.
The same can be said of his son and successor Sesostris II Jaj eperra during whose reign a character
named Khnumhotep ruled the nome of Beni Hasan. On the walls of his tomb, the nomarch of Oryx is
represented with clothing typical of his country and the Asian chief Abisha with his entire tribe with
the permission of the nomarch.
3.1.1 Sesotris III (1878-1841) and the heyday of the Middle Kingdom
Sesostris III Kakaura brought the Middle Kingdom to its peak. He consolidated Egyptian rule in the
northeastern strip, reaching Palestine. He ended the power of the nomarchs and suppressed almost all
their positions, so that the provinces were governed from the Royal Palace, divided given in three
departments, or ministries:
1. North.
2. South.
3. “Head of the South”: Elephantine and Lower Nubia.
They were led by a high official and a Council, all under the orders of the Vizier.
The “Texts of curse or execration” are preserved from this reign.
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3.1.2 Last pharaohs of the 12th Dynasty and the Middle Kingdom. Queen-Pharaoh
Nefrusobek
Sesostris III was succeeded by Amenemhat III Nemara in whose reign the desa was consolidated
economic development of the country, with numerous expeditions known.
With his successor Amenemhat IV M aj erura, Egyptian influence continued to spread throughout the
Near East.
She was succeeded by king/queen Nefrusobek “the beauty of Sobek”, daughter of Amenemhat II and
her manna of Amenemhat IV. He bore the royal title of pharaoh.
4. EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION DURING THE MIDDLE KINGDOM: CLASSICISM
4.1 General characteristics. Disappearance of the nomos.
Evolution in religious ideas. Kings will now be considered mere mortals, although of great skill and
bravery.
New administrative units were created: “city and its surrounding territory.”
4.2 Religion
The or Syriac religion (which ensures survival in the afterlife, together with conservation vation of the
mummies) with that of Ra.
Beginning with the 11th Dynasty, the god Osiris acquired greater preponderance in the te religious
realm because he was a popular god close to man who, like a human, suffered and died, while Ra was
a solar and distant god. A new religion appeared with the XI Dynasty, whose main god was Amun-
Ra. During the 12th Dynasty the two religious tendencies giosas developed in parallel, both acquiring
enormous importance.
4.3 Literature
Their language is considered classical, with the works of this period being copied incessantly by the
scribes and apprentices of previous times. We have the Teachings of King Amenemhat, the Millinge
Papyrus, Sallier II Papyrus, the Sinuhé Papyrus, Hª of the Shipwrecked Man, Tales of Magic and the
Prophecy of Neferti. In medicine the Ebers Papyrus is important.
4.4 Artistic Manifestations in the Middle Kingdom
4.4.1 Architecture
Military
Fortifications that the pharaohs built to protect the country from possible raids sions of foreign
peoples and the plundering of the Nubian tribes. These construction These buildings demonstrate a
long and precise military experience, for example the fortress of Buhen.
Mortuary
They tried to imitate that of their powerful predecessors of the IV and V Dynasties, consi They guided
outstanding achievements in terms of originality and architectural solutions such as the funerary
temple of Mentuhotep.
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The tombs of the pharaohs are usually authentic labyrinths and their funerary temples were generally
large. The White Chapel of Sesostris I in Karnak, is It stood in a place destined to become the most
famous and grandiose sanctuary in Egypt, dedicated to Amun, the sovereign god of Thebes who was
now beginning his political career.
Civil architecture
The city ordered to be built by Sesostris II stands out for the workers and other operations. rios in
charge of raising the pyramid in Kahun, Illaum, which is a real complex ur bathroom.
New or renewed architectural elements: The hathoric capital
It is a new type of capital, the face of the goddess Hatbor was now represented. It is the name
“hathoric” capital swim. The same evolution will occur with the Osiriac pillar in which a figure of O
siris is seen.
Sculpture: cubic statues
At the end of the First Intermediate Period two main schools of sculpture were distinguished in
Egypt. ra:
1. In the north, near Memphis, artists produced works of great artistic quality.
2. In the south, there was a lack of that local tradition and the sculpture reveals a greater
clumsiness of execution.
From the 12th Dynasty onwards, a greater unity of style with a basic quality is observed. so high. In
the official representation, the representation of the union of Alto and Ba dominates. jo Egypt (the
sematauy), and as a novelty, it is about equalizing, in the representations tions, on the same plane, to
the king and the divinity although the real innovation was the cubic statues.
Paint
The representations of natural scenes and animal figures among fields of papyrus and lotus stand out,
true precursors of the later Amenian style.
Goldsmithing and other minor arts
Although the tradition of goldsmithing from the Old Kingdom continues, at this time the technique
was perfected, achieving very notable results.
As for ceramics and stone containers, compact shapes that recall the globular jugs of the Old
Kingdom dominate. The glasses in “blue marble” stand out, an azurite that was only used at this time.
It is possible that the art of the Middle Kingdom lacked time to reach its full potential. The arrival of
the Hyksos and the new disorders produced by the invasions caused a new stagnation in the evolution
of Egyptian art.
b. Second Intermediate Period (1785-1580). International situation and periodization
It includes Dynasties XIII to XVIII, which sometimes coincide.
13th Dynasty: 1782-1650 1 Hyksos

15th Dynasty: 1663-1555
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Dynasty XIV: 1785-1674 I Avaris

16th Dynasty: 1663-1555 J
Dynasty (parallel) XVII: 1750-1663 Thebes
International Situation
Rise of Mitanni and end of Amorite Babylon.
Periodization
This is the darkest period in Egyptian history, as few monu remain. ments from this time that inform
about events.
It is usually divided for study into three parts: before (1786-1674), during (1663-1555) and after the
Hyksos.
1. EGYPT BEFORE THE HYKSOS
Dynasties XIII and XIV do not exist in the Royal Lists of Abydos and Saqqara, but are admitted that
the XIII was followed by the XVII; and that the XV, probably from Hyksos, is parallel to the XVII;
The XIV would be a Delta Dynasty parallel to a part of the XIII and the XVI is also very parallel to
the XVII, following the information from the Turin Papyrus and the List of Kar nak.
1.1 13th Dynasty (1782-1650)
The capital remained in Itjitauy. It began, apparently, with Sobek-Hotep I, who was succeeded by a
series of pharaohs of unknown names, sometimes ephemeral, whose number varies according to the
sources. According to Manetho, these pharaohs tried to legitimize their ascension to the throne by I
send the name of previous pharaohs.
The instability of the person of the pharaohs was opposed in this Dynasty by the stability of the
positions of the viziers, who usually lasted a long time in the government. There is also news of the
presence of numerous Asians at this time. Shortly after the accession of Sobek-Hotep IV to the
throne, the so-called invasion of the Hyksos took place.
1.2 Dynasty XIV, of Xois (1765-1674)
Parallel to the XIII Dynasty. He probably reigned in the Delta for 65 years and com catches no less
than 74 kings.
1.3 Egypt during the 13th and 14th Dynasties
There are 100 years of continuous changes of head of the monarchy, abnormally frequent tes, with
reigns that usually did not exceed 2 years. It had reappeared from the title of mayor h3tiy, followed by
the name of the nome before it was applied to that of the cities.
Relations with Nubia continued. The same can be said with Syria, Palestine and Byblos, but after the
middle of the 13th Dynasty these communities declined noticeably. nications.
2. DYNASTS XV-XVI (1663-1555); THE HYKOS (PRINCES OF THE DESERT, HIKAU-

KHOSWEF)
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2.1 Your problem
The so-called “invasion”, “permanence” in Egypt and finally the expulsion of the Hyksos, is one of
the most discussed and perhaps one of the least clear phenomena in history. estuary of Egypt.
Josephus takes from Manetho a tradition that has served as the basis for all modern historiography.
na. Underlying the text is the idea that it is an Assyrian-style invasion.
Some names point to a Canaanite origin. Others have purely Egyptian names. cios. The truth is that it
is not known where the Hyksos came from, there are multiple theories.
2.2 Causes of the Hyksan invasion
These aforementioned Asian people with whom they had previously had conflicts settled They had
been in Egypt for a long time, they entered Egypt en masse for unknown reasons. cides By the year
2000, his movement was already taking place. In principle, we can speak of slow Hyksan penetration,
not invasion according to some researchers.
This penetration must have been peaceful during the Middle Kingdom and the beginning of the
Second of the Intermediate Period.
Recent discoveries also demonstrate the existence of numerous ele Cretan ments in Avaris.
2.3 Sources for knowledge of the Hyksos
Possibly, the Hyksos invaders were Semites, mixed with Indo-Europeans, according to some
researchers. For Flavius Josephus they were Israelites. Other sources for your knowledge ment are
Manetho, the so-called “Stele of the year 400” or “of the restoration”, ordered to be erected four
hundred years later by Ramses II, the S allier Papyrus, the Turin Papyrus, the Carnavon Tablet and
the Kamose stele, in addition of inscriptions of Queen Hatshepsut and the fa raon Merem-Prath, the
excavations, both in Tell el-Daba and in Palestine and the scarabs with Hyksos names from Palestine,
Egypt and Nubia. For Manetho's epitomists, the 15th Dynasty was Phoenician.
2.4 Phenomena related to the Hyksos
The phenomenon of the seizure of power in part of Egypt by the Hyksos has also been linked to
Hurrian expansion.
2.5 The importance of the Hyksos
Historically, the Hyksos demonstrated the strength of Egyptian culture, which was able to assimilate
them, but also its weakness. Their invasion also demonstrated the fragility of the eastern border,
which in the New Kingdom would be consolidated.
His greatest contribution to Egypt was the opening of this country to foreign ideological currents.
Nas. This is how arts and letters flourished in the Hyksan era. They also contributed to the extension
of the use of bronze, and introduced novelties in war art.
Its main city was Avaris, refounded by its first king Salitis.
2.6 Latest theories
The most accepted theory today is that the Asians rose to power in the Delta region, in the confusing
world of the 13th and 14th Dynasties.
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Some researchers believe that these foreigners represent a geographical extension fic of the culture of
Phenicia-Palestine. But, the truth is that it is not known.
2.7 Hyksas Dynasties and their Contemporaries
The Hyksos kings are traditionally grouped into two dynasties:
1. XV: Great Hyksos

2. XVI: Little Hyksos.
At the same time, the 17th Dynasty reigned in Thebes.
2.1.1 15th Dynasty (1663-1555): Avaris
The data that can be extracted from Manetho's text is the existence of a series of kings, of which only
attested in the Apopis monuments. This pharaoh, from the Di nastía that we saw of Phoenician
consideration (according to some researchers) has left numerous roses evidence of its existence,
including a glass in Almuñécar.
The date of his reign, probably long, is given by the Stele of Kamose, the last pharaoh of the Theban
17th Dynasty of whom he is contemporary, since against him lu Charon Kamose and Sekenenra Taa.
Another attested pharaoh is Jian. Hamudi appears as the last king of the 15th Dynasty in the Turin
Papyrus, but his documentation is problematic.
2.1.2 16th Dynasty: Local governors
This Hyksan dynasty is made up of 9 kings who ruled for 49 years. They were weak kings who did
not dominate Upper Egypt. Meanwhile, the Theban monarchy, in the south, grew stronger and Prince
Ahmosis of Thebes managed to completely expel them, after the fight started by his predecessor
Kamose, last king of the Theban 17th Dynasty.
2.1.3 Theban 17th Dynasty (parallel to the Hyksas)
During the Hyksos rule in the north, a series of chiefs with royal title appeared in Thebes. It is usually
considered a Dynasty, although they are simply kings of the same type as the Hyksos of the 16th
Dynasty.
The first known is Antef V from which the Copts Decree is known. Then a series of kings follow until
Antef VII and Kamose, not mentioned in the Turin Papyrus.
Tao II is known from several sources, one of which is a Ramesside-era narrative of a novelistic type,
The Dispute of Apophis and Seqenenra.
2.8 Kamose and his war against the Hyksos
The figure of Kamose, last king of the 17th Theban Dynasty, acquires a more individual profile.
visualized thanks to the discoveries of the 50s. He is mentioned in the stelae of Kar nak and in the
Carnavon tablet, where the beginning of his war against the Hyksos and sul ucha against the king of
this town, Apopi, possibly his relative, is narrated.
Tao I had as his royal wife Tetisheri, a woman of non-royal origin, and from this marriage Ahhotep,
sister and wife of Tao II, was born.
Both were probably the parents of Kamose, Ahmosis, and his wife, Ahmosis Nefertari. A true
Dynasty was thus constituted.
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Little is known about the structure of the Theban kingdom of the 17th Dynasty. During this period
Nubia was left out of Egyptian rule.
2.9 Administration of Egypt during the Hyksan era
The administration of this era is known through four documents:
1. . TheKarnak Papyrus.
2. The Bulaq Papyrus.
3. Stelae No. 51911 of Cairo.
4. Stele no. 52453 from Cairo.
It is known that there was a double administration, in the north and in the south, the latter under the
Theban princes of the 17th Dynasty, which did not, in fact, have effective independence until its last
three sovereigns.
In lower Nubia the independent kingdom of Kush was formed.
Intellectual life during the 17th Dynasty was very active, with topics such as the Maxims of Ptahhotep
being written.
3. EGYPT AFTER THE HYKSOS
A reunification of Egypt was carried out, which began the New Kingdom.
At this time, while Asian influence continued in the Delta, despite the fall of the Hyksan monarchy, in
the south the penetration of Nubian elements increased, which They will act as mercenaries of the
kings of the New Kingdom and in the long run they will end up replacing the.
TOPIC 9. EGYPT (III). THE NEW EMPIRE. LOW PERIOD.

TO. THE NEW KINGDOM.
1. The New Kingdom (1570-1070). Background.
The New Kingdom includes the 18th to 20th Dynasties. It was a moment of great splendor and cyst
on the outside.
The capital was installed in Thebes, with a circumstantial change to el-Amarna. The restoration was
carried out tion of the unity of Upper and Lower Egypt.
This period is characterized by the great importance of women and their leading role in succession
problems. For the first time, a woman is named pharaoh with all the male titles: Hatshepsut , and
another queen, Nefertiti , is also represented in family and official scenes on an equal footing as
Queen Tiyi (wife of Amenophis III).
The international situation at this time consisted of the Egyptian protectorate over the Canaanite
cities. In Assyria the last kings of the Old Kingdom and those of the Middle Kingdom reigned and
there was ce the Kassite dominion of Babylon. Also the rise and fall of the Mycenaean kingdoms in
Greece, the Exodus of Israel and the so-called “invasion of the sea peoples”, only existing in Egyptian
sources.
2. 18th Dynasty From Ahmose I to Horemheb.
It is usually divided into three stages:
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1. Since the liberation of the Hyksos to Amenophis IV.

2. The time of el-Amarna.
3. The last kings, from Amenophis IV to the end of the dynasty.
3. The first kings of the 18th Dynasty.
The 18th Dynasty began with Ahmose , who was the brother of Kamose , the last pharaoh of the
Dynasty. Aunt XVII, both children of Sekenenra Taa II and Queen Ahhotep I.
3.1. The Liberation War.
The reunification of Egypt started from the south. During the reign of Kamose, the war of national
liberation against the Hyksos began definitively, which would end with their expulsion, at the time of
his succession. sor, with whom the 18th Dynasty began, Ahmose I (or Ahmose I, 1570-1546 BC). The
Egyptian advance cio reached Sharuhem.
Amen-Hotep I (1551-1524 BC) did not carry out great feats of foreign policy but rather dedicated
himself to the reorganization of the country, which, grateful, instituted in his honor a festival that
ended up giving its name to a month of the Egyptian calendar, the month of phamenoth.
Both Ahmosis and his successor Amen-Hotep I, whom he associated with the throne during his reign,
embellished They founded the country with their temple constructions and began the reorganization
of the administration.
3.2. The Thumosidas or Tutmosidas.
With them the 18th Dynasty really begins, since in reality the two previous kings are family. lia of
those of the previous dynasty.
It can be divided into several periods: Before Hatshepust, the reign of Hatshepust and after this queen.
3.2.1. Before Hatshepsut.
Thutmose I (1524-1518 BC).
He was the first great conqueror, reaching the Euphrates. He leaves the title of the pharaohs fixed in a
decree that he issues as soon as he ascends the throne. He began several campaigns in Nubia, which
led to the ruin of the kingdom of Kerma. Once Nubia was pacified, it began its advance towards
Palestine and the Euphrates.
A curious innovation is that he abandons the idea of burial in a pyramid, and begins the custom of
hypogeums excavated in slopes (the Valley of the Kings, opposite Thebes), burials that will be
maintained throughout the New Kingdom. He continues the reorganization work of his predecessors,
he has I am highlighting the role of Memphis.
Thutmose II (1518-1504 BC).
Early in his reign there was a rebellion in Kush and he sent an army to quell it. He also campaigned in
Syria.
His succession was very complicated. Thutmose II had a half-brother, Thutmose III, whom he
adopted and named as his successor. Thutmose II was the son of Thutmose I, but not his main wife;
Thutmose I's only legitimate daughter was Hatshepsut, who therefore had better rights to the
succession. Thutmose II married her to legitimize his crown. Probably when Thutmose II died,
Hatshepsut married Thutmose III (not certain) and they reigned together.
3.2.2. Hatshepsut (1498-1483).
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She was the firstborn daughter of Thutmose I. When her husband Thutmose II died, this queen
relegated the young Thutmose III to the shadows, after two years of co-reignship or regency and ruled
as king alone, marrying Thutmose III (her husband's son) to her daughter Neferure. He usurps power
and relies on a group of loyal senior officials. Over the years he wanted to be King, for which he
ordered the elimination of female endings from royal ownership and took the complete protocol of
kings, except that of the “powerful bull.”
His reign interrupts the conquests. It exploits the quarries and organizes commercial expeditions, the
most important being to the Country of Punt. Supported by her favorite architect Senmut, she built
many temples, including hers in Deir el Bahari and a sanctuary in Karnak, with an obelisk. All
constructions were of high quality.
Throughout the history of Egypt, women played a very important role, but especially in the New
Kingdom. It is believed that Thutmose, in these dark years, dedicated himself to military affairs in
Memphis and, meanwhile, Hatshepsut had a peaceful reign abroad, dedicating herself internally to the
tasks of a pharaoh.
Senmut, his vizier and architect of the temple of Deir el Bahari, was Neferure's preceptor, and judging
by his tomb he had claims to be a pharaoh consort.
3.2.3. The end of Hatshepsut.
It is not known how his reign ended. It was long thought that he had perished in an uprising by
supporters of Thutmose III, due to the destruction of his monuments upon his death, but there is no
evidence that his end was tragic and it is possible that the mutilations of the monuments are not more
than a dammatio memoriae after his death.
3.2.4. Thutmose III (1504-1450 BC).
When Hatshepsut dies, Thutmose III takes the country to heights of power and extension never
surpassed. At the beginning of his reign, the situation in Asia was serious. He organized 17
campaigns, and his objective was the Euphrates River, as he wanted to overthrow the power of
Mitanni. A duel took place with Mitanni, which Egypt won. From these campaigns he obtained large
war loot and tributes, which provided him with wealth and economic resources. At the end of the
campaigns, the king's international prestige among neighboring countries was great, and the first
international balance occurred (1464 BC).
At this time is when we can speak of a true empire, since it had under its dominion different peoples
of different races and cultures, with different political and social organization. For this reason Egypt
treated them in a very different way: from now on, Egypt will exploit them and plunder what greater
wealth of the state, which will be seen in the enormous construction activity of the pharaohs of the
New Kingdom.
Inside there is great construction activity, especially in Thebes (as an example, the Temple of Amun,
in Karnak, in its hypostyle hall). During his reign and that of Hatshepsut, a new artistic sensibility
appeared with a tendency towards the elegant, somewhat mannerist figure, as well as a great taste for
the representation of fauna and flora. Thutmose III did not order a single war scene to be recorded.
In the south Egyptian domination reaches up to the fourth cataract. His successors limited themselves
to preserving his work.
3.2.5. The successors of Thutmose III.
Amenophis II (1453-1419 BC)
He continued the policy of his father Thutmose III and defeated the rebellious Assyrian princes. The
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mention of the “apiru” (perhaps the Israelites) appears for the first time.
Thutmose IV (1419-1386 BC)
Only one Asian campaign is known. He married a Mitannian princess, in a possible Egyptian-
Mitannian alliance against the Hittite threat.
Amenophis III (1386-1349 BC)
He continued the policy of good relations with Asia, also marrying Mitannian princesses. He faced
Subiluliuma, without success for him. It is the most brilliant period in the history of Egypt. Roast
With peace abroad, the country enjoys a prosperity that is manifested in the luxury of the court, in the
architectural works and especially in the royal tombs, of officials and in the remains of the palace of
Thebes.
Relations with the princes of the Near East can be followed by the El-Amarna correspondence, in the
Akkadian language. It is surprising that with Thutmose III the Assyrians and Babylonians were
treated as tributaries, while at this time they appear as equals. Anyway, princesses like this Attic
women were sent as royal concubines to Egypt, the same did not happen with the requested Egyptian
princesses, since the pharaoh refused and at most they were sent a beautiful Egyptian.
Of great importance is the social and religious evolution that prepares the way for future events. You
are from the following reign (Amenhotep will marry the daughter of an official). Commemorative
scarabs are issued to inform the people of important events.
In the ideological-religious order, the importance that the god Aten, until now obscure, stands out. In
reality it is an assimilation of Amun to other gods, and its visible form is the solar disk of Aten. This
is a clear precedent for Akhenaten's ideas.
He built splendid constructions, such as his funerary temple, of which only the “colossi of Memnon”
remain. He made a great monument, the temple of Luxor, as the southern harem of Amun. Tam He
also built another sanctuary for Ammon in front of Luxor, a boat for Ammon made of cedar from Li
Bano, and another temple of Amun that some believe in Karnak and others that is the temple of Soleb.
4. Amen-Hotep/Amenhotep IV and the time of El-Amarna.
Amen-Hotep IV Neferjeprura (1350-1334 BC), successor of Amen-Hotep III, is known for the
religious change, replacing the primacy of the cult of the god Amun with that of the Aten or solar
disk, (maintaining the cult of the traditional gods Egyptians so you can't talk about monkey theism
and yes perhaps henotheism).
We must not forget either that for some time, and this is seen among the Sumerians and the Eblaites
of the 3rd millennium, a new religious dimension had already begun to manifest itself throughout the
Near East, what is called “personal piety”, that is That is, the linking of man to a god, in whose hands
he placed his destiny.
Aton was present in all things and was not represented with statues, but only with his appearance.
solar co with rays ending in hands. The sanctuaries were not dark and reserved like those of Amun,
but open. The pharaoh was not only his High Priest, but also his prophet, the one who spoke with him.
Amenophis IV persecuted other gods, such as Hapy and Osiris.
The best document we have from this time is the Hymn to Aton. Historical tradition does not
considers Amenophis IV as legitimate king, and yet, the Amarnic trace will be preserved throughout
the Ramesside era, and in a certain way the later Egyptian religion will be affected by the Attonian
spirit, which placed the pharaoh and the gods closer to the men.
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4.1. Consequences of the El-Amarna changes.

It represented an entire religious, political and social revolution. Possible causes of the change from
the cult of Amun to that of Aten:
> King's fanaticism.
> The change had a political origin, due to the excessive power of the priests of Amun.
> The king was a pacifist and a dreamer.
> His racial mixture and the influence of Queen Tiyi led him to liberalism, absolute spiritualism
and monotheism and politically to absolutism, which is a contra meaning with its
egalitarianism.
> The change has nothing revolutionary and one can follow the evolution from the beginning of
the 18th dynasty, towards a “solarization” and there was no mono theism.
> The capital was changed from Thebes to Akhet-Aton (modern Tell-el-Amarna).
> The pharaoh changed his title, replacing Amun with Aten, and changing Amenophis's name to
Akhenaten.
> There was freedom of artistic expression.
Akhenaten builds a temple to his god in Thebes, where the statues demonstrate a new style of
desperate expressionism. It is admitted that Akhenaten had a certain feminoid personality. The faces
are elongated, with an excessively long jaw, which possibly constituted a strong impact for everyone,
who for centuries had seen the pharaoh represented with for more canonical, with an idealized aspect,
responding to a concept behind which there was a theory millennial political logic.
4.2. Possible failures of the Amarnian movement.
Although opinions are very different, the failures that different authors attribute to the Amarna change
can be summarized in a series of points, among which stand out:
> Fanaticism of the worshipers of Aten and persecution of the faithful of Amun (this radicalism
is questioned by the latest research).
> They did not accept the traditions rooted in the town. The common people must have suffered
a convulsion very complex situation in his spiritual and daily life, because he saw his ancient
and multiple gods to whom he had turned for help and consolation abandoned by royal order.
Likewise, daily life must have been greatly affected by the change in capital, with the consi
next economic displacement of the country. The persecution of the clergy was evident in the
temples of Karnak and Luxor, which although they maintained their possessions were
separated from royal favor. Therefore, this religious reform was not fully supported by the
people, but had its enemies, hence why it is called the Amarnian Schism, after the name of the
new capital built by Amenophis IV in the current Tell el- Amarna.
> Disagreements occurred at court before the Schism. Queen Nefertiti and Queen Mother Teye
followed Amun, and it is assumed that the king was followed by a minority group capable of
com turn it on
Tell el-Amarna had the temple of Aten to the north and had official facilities, residences, necropolis
and the royal tomb with its workers' village. Sculptural workshops were discovered that we give They
brought about the liberation of Egyptian art from the previous tradition (as an example, the bust of
Nefertiti, the royal wife, who had great influence at the court, stands out).
Tell el-Amarna was built quickly, mostly of adobe. The frescoes were modeled on those of the
Malqata palace, with great vividness. The relief in the figures gives way to truthfulness, and is re
presents the royal family in domestic scenes full of family tenderness.
The city was dedicated to Aten in a ceremony, recorded on various stelae. A storm broke out
unrestrained anger against Amun and everything he meant.
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5. Possible causes of the change from the cult of Amun to that of Aton.
There are opinions from various authors:
> Pee : Pharaoh's fanaticism.
> Spiegel : political causes. The priests of Amun were stripped of their excessive powers res and
riches.
> Wolf : the change has an older origin, prior to the 18th Dynasty.
> Drioton : Amenophis IV was an idealist, worshiper of a universal god and incapable of
concentrating is in the government of the country.
> Pirenne : his racial mix and the influence of his mother led him to liberalism, absolute
spiritualism and monotheism. It reached political absolutism.
6. The foreign policy of Amenophis IV/Akhenaten
This king's foreign policy has been much discussed. For many years it was believed that it was
respon saber of the collapse of the Egyptian empire in Asia. The testimony of diplomatic
correspondence from El-Amarna was adduced in which local kinglets appear asking the court for help
against the enemies of the empire without receiving it in most cases.
But he carried out military demonstrations in Syria and Nubia. He displayed skillful diplomacy when
Mitanni collapsed and Hatti grew. The situation in Palestine and Syria was changing due to the
movements of the Hapiru and Aramean peoples, which created a climate of insecurity.
7. The successors of Amen-Hotep IV
7.1 End of the Amarnian period.
> Smenkara: Brother of Akhenaten, he married his eldest daughter and was co-regent for about
four years. three years, succeeding her death by three (1351-1348 BC).
> Tutankhamun or Tutankhaton : End of the Amarnian Schism. Reestablishes the cult of Amun
and distributes buy the kingdom between Ay (north) and general Horemheb (south), who will
be the next fa raones by dying without a successor. The capital returned to Thebes, and the
temple of Karnak sends the es tattoo of Amun to Luxor, but the cult of Amun is not
completely restored, since Re and Ptah will be the gods who dominate the pantheon and the
royal cult. Proof of this is the definitive transfer of the capital to Memphis, and it will be
consolidated with Ramses II. Subiluliuma, the Hittite king, due to the murder of his son at
Egyptian hands, breaks into Egyptian possessions in Asia.
> Ay : He was an elderly official married to Tutankhamun's widow. The pacifism of the
Previous yes had caused us to lose positions in Syria and Palestine.
> Horemheb : He was Vizier with Akhenaten and finally the clergy of Amun proclaimed him
king. Restau He built temples and had beautiful images sculpted. He provided the temples
with priests, lands and ga I swim. He carried out various campaigns (to Punt and Nubia).
With him the 18th Dynasty ends, although for others he is the initiator of the next dynasty.
8. 19th Dynasty (1314-1200 BC)
8.1 The first pharaohs
Ramses I (1293-1291 BC): Peaceful reign, thanks to the work of his predecessor, Horemheb.
Sethi/Setos I (1291-1278 BC): Campaigns in Palestine and Phoenicia. Battle at Kadesh against the
Hittites.
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8.2 Ramses II (1279-1212 BC)

He is the best-known pharaoh of the New Kingdom.
8.2.1. Foreign policy. Egypt-Hittite clashes
While King Muwatalli reigned in Hatti, his brother Hattusil was appointed governor of the Upper
Country and general of the entire Hittite army. At the behest of Mitanni and Egypt, the rival states
were allied together with those of Northern Syria to fight the Hittites.
In Egypt, the weakening by internal strife of the 18th Dynasty due to schism had per mediated the
Hittite consolidation in Syria and the entry into Egypt of nomadic and semi-nomadic elements. The
pacifism of Amenophis IV had allowed the Hittites to become stronger, and the confrontations did not
stop.
Saron. Seti I took Kadesh, which the Hittites recovered soon after, and perhaps it is possible that
encouraged They rallied the Sea Peoples against Egypt, continuing the fights.
Ramses II fights the new battle of Kadesh (1295? BC), perhaps the most important Egyptian-Hittite
confrontation, fighting against Muwatalli, ending with Egyptian defeat.
When Hatti Mursil III ascended the throne in 1287 BC, under the tutelage of his uncle Hattusil, the
Hittites retreated before the push of Ramses II and Adad-Nirari of Assyria.
Once on the throne, Hattusil III needed peace, and although Assyria poorly accepted it, he found the
support of Egypt and Babylon, producing the Second International Equilibrium in 1278 BC, with the
peace agreed between Ramses II and Hattussil III, taking place two facts that support it:
> Treaty of Kadesh: in 1278 BC between Ramses II and Hattusil III. Of which the Egyptian
version is known, engraved on the wall of the courtyard of the Propylaea of the temple of
Amun in Karnak. The Hittite version, written in Babylonian, is known from a clay tablet
written in Cunei. form, found in Boghazköy, in central Turkey.
> Wedding of Ramses II to a Hittite daughter of Hatussil III in 1265 BC
8.2.2. Other events that characterized the reign of Ramses II.
Great architectural achievements in Abydos, Thebes and Abu-Simbel. The decadence also stands out
Hittite cia, as well as the Egyptian decline upon the death of Ramesses II.
8.2.3. Last pharaohs of the 19th Dynasty
After the death of Ramses II, the first symptoms of decline appeared, with negligence in the
administration and external threats, especially from Libya.
Mineptah (1212-1202 BC): Canaan uprising (Israel is mentioned for the first time) and invades sion
of the Libyans and the Sea Peoples, rejected by the Pharaoh. His successors Amenmes, Mineptan-
Sitah, Seti II and Ramses-Siptah, the last pharaohs of the 19th Dynasty and Queen Tausert (1187-
1185 BC), characterize a period of decadence and anarchy.
9. 20th Dynasty
It begins with Setnakht (1185-1182 BC) who ends the anarchy and expels the foreign invaders. jeros.
His successor, Ramses III (1182-1151 BC), was the last great king. The country made a stop in its
decadence cia, with administrative and social reforms. He undertook new constructions, such as the
temple of Medinet-Habu. Thebes became a great city again.
He recovered the tributes from Nubia and Assyria and faced the invasion of the Sea Peoples, who
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attacked They came from the east, while the Libyans did from the west.
Upon the death of Ramses III, Egypt fell into clear decline. Political crises occurred due to:
> Foreign influences on Egyptian politics.
> Growing power of the priests of Amun.
> The economic deficit.
The years following his reign formed a period of dynastic crisis that led to the seizure of power by
Amenhotep (High Priest of Amun), then by Panehesí and then Herihor (1080). 1074), who founded
the XXI Dynasty of Priest Kings. Meanwhile, in the Delta, Smendes (1069-1043) created another
kingdom. With the country divided, we enter the Third Intermediate Period.
10. Egyptian government and administration in the New Kingdom
10.1. The central government. The Pharaoh
The pharaoh was at the top of the central government. Its power evolved throughout the New
Kingdom. vo. The strength of Pharaoh's power throughout the New Kingdom is expressed by:
> His intervention in administrative and military affairs.
> The continued policy of Egyptian expansion.
> The great economic strength, reflected in the large constructions.
From the 19th and 20th dynasties there is a gradual change due to changing relations with the go civil
government and the army.
10.1.1. Public positions.
Although at the end of the New Kingdom the government structure did not collapse, constituting the
basis of the third Intermediate Period, it is characterized by the tendency towards the heritability of
public positions, in relation to the great development of the powerful families that occupied the high
positions of government. the administration, so that the control of the civil government was escaping
from royal and later religious control. This way:
> Increases the role of royal butlers.
> Functions normally performed by civilians are attributed to the High Priest of Amun.
> The high priests are represented next to the pharaoh and at the same height.
> There is a weakening of the coercive force of the pharaoh. Nubian and Libyan elements
continue to infiltrate Egypt.
> Division of Egypt after Ramses II.
> Granting extraordinary powers to individual characters. Important role of women Jeres at
court.
10.1.2. Government structure
Each branch of government exercised effective power. We can divide it into:
1. Internal Territories:
a) Civil Government: It was subdivided into North and South, each of which was
commanded by a Vizier. He was in charge of:
> Regulate agriculture.
> Administer justice.
> Collect taxes.
> Maintain citizen order.
b) Army: North and South: It was directed by the Admiral or Chief of the Fleet, and
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depended on a commander in chief who was sometimes the crown prince, and under
the orders of the pharaoh.
c) The royal domains: Very extensive, administered by the Grand Intendant. The Court
was directed by the Chancellor and the Chamberlain, in charge of the royal
bureaucracy and everything. two the affairs of Pharaoh's government.
2. Religious assets: Generated by the large possessions of the temples. manages it tion was
fragmentary, since it depended on each temple. The high priest of Amun was the most
powerful.
3. Conquered territories: Led by Governors of the South and North, who had different kings and
vassal states under their command. There were two factors of importance for the stability
government authority:
> The effectiveness of links between the central and provincial governments.
> The territories and administration were supervised by the pharaoh and his
representatives. many.
The main problems of centralized administration were:
> The great extension of the country.
> The inefficiency of communications systems.
10.2. Provincial government structure
It is known that the great cities were few: Memphis, Thebes, Pi-Ramesses (founded by Ramses II).
These were the great national capitals, residences of the pharaoh and great religious centers. The
provincial capitals were more or less large towns. Most of the population lived grouped in villages.
The central government intervened in the provincial demarcations in important cases and when its
action and arbitration became necessary.
The keys to the administration in the different settlements were:
a) The mayor: He was the government delegate in the administrative aspect of each settlement.
b) The advice: They were divided into:
> The great kenbet councils : with a judicial and administrative nature. Presided over by a
Vi sir in Memphis and Thebes.
> The provincial councils : subject to the central government. They were made up of people
nas of high condition.
> Minor Tips – These dealt with minor problems, such as chasing criminals and resolving
property disputes.
c) Officials: Responsible for organizing economic life and collecting and storing taxes state
cough. They stand out:
> Intendant of the royal domain.
> Director of the barns.
> The livestock director.
d) Other positions: Messengers of the Viziers and Inspectors, who checked the behavior of local
officials.
11. Society and civilization during the New Kingdom.
This era is characterized by unity, obtained by force of arms, and by the disappearance of feudalism.
11.1. Social classes
> The privileged classes disappear. A new administrative nobility appears that opposes the
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traditional nobility, monopolizing court positions.

> In small towns, local councils made up of the middle class govern, which include But in the
smallest ones they are trained by priests, so Egyptian society is under the moral authority of
the clergy.
> The government is in the hands of an oligarchy. Positions are inherited by custom, and I did
not swear dicically.
> The rekhyt were the only legal class of citizens.
> The henmemet were the humble peasant masses. From depending on the feudal lords they
now become dependent on the state and the pharaoh. They were free, although they did not
enjoy such freedom.
> The Nehmu were farmers who became rich and reached high positions.
> Merchants existed mainly in the ports, trading with the Phoenicians. Intense relations with
Syria and the Aegean Islands.
> There was the Palace doctor.
> Since Amenophis II the policy of the monarchy was egalitarian. The most important person
after the pharaoh was the High Priest of Amun, chosen from among the nobles.
> There was private slavery, formed by foreigners brought to Egypt in war campaigns. They
could regain their freedom.
> State prisoners could not regain freedom, and were branded with iron. They worked on royal
properties.
> The family loses its legal cohesion, and returns to individualistic formulas. Marriage is a
contract, each spouse retaining other separate assets, which they freely dispose of.
Customs
They were transformed during the first part of the New Kingdom. Thebes becomes a great city. Kar
Nak is a large holy city around the first Temple of Amun.
The pharaoh had several wives, some for political reasons, but the first was “the great Wife.” He also
had a large harem.
The harem takes on great importance due to Asian influences. It is a great institution, with works own
rivers. The queens actively participate in politics, especially the “great Wife”. Only queens could give
legitimate heirs, although the children of concubines could reign if they married. They knew with
some real daughter.
The nobles move to the capital seeking great positions. Wealth and refinement create a worldly life.
Everyone wore white. The women wore wigs and expensive ornaments. The men dressed in a loose
blouse and grew beards as a sign of mourning.
12. Evolution of religious and cultural ideas during the New Kingdom.
12.1. Until Amenophis IV.
The advent of Amun as a royal god marked an important milestone. Thebes was the great theological
center logical, although somewhat artificial, because the religious unity was influenced by the
religious fractionation of previous times: Osiriac mysticism and the multiple local cults.
Amun: Since the 11th Dynasty, when he was confused with Ra, he became a solar god, and a syncre
was performed tism or mixture of the two divinities. The clergy ceases to be local and is centralized
under the power of the su m Priest of Amun in Thebes. An official doctrine is developed, completed
in the reign of Amenophis II and based on:
> The Book of the Dead (1500-1450 BC): 190 formulas for the deceased to achieve eternal life.
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> The Book of what is in the duat: it is the official doctrine. The duat was not only the lower
world, but also the water where all things were born, represented by the two lakes: The Lotus
Lake and the lake of the duat.
They both group religion around the afterlife, with which the mysticism of Osiris defeated solar
theology. Man becomes the center of religious ideas. The new forms of burials in the desert in large
hypogeums may have been a consequence of this doctrine. trill.
Through all these transformations one sees a great effort to return to the old spirituali ity, approaching
Heliopolitan theology.
12.2. The time of El-Amarna.
Profound transformation in Egyptian life, as if Egypt had renounced traditions, except in religion,
which continues to be the center of the conception of life.
> Absolutist monarchy : The king was Aten incarnate, and the monarchy is essentially religious.
The king is god made man, asexual and universal. All ex symbols are no longer used strange
in the images of the pharaoh, although the cobra is preserved in the solar disk and in the
images Pharaoh's genes.
> The royal family : It is the center of everything. Respect for mother and wife is essential, they
point out do the life of the king.
> The architecture : Evolves, with open-air temples. In them and in the tombs the king is
represented, because he was the god. Everything is about being nice, optimistic and beautiful.
> The art : All of the above will influence the art. Architecture is tailored to man. A new school
of sculpture and painting is born based on realism and individualism: V The personality of the
artist stands out, disappearing classical postures.
V Real scenes of life in the capital are painted.
V Frescoes play an important role in the decoration.
V Nudity is frequent.
> Literature : It is aimed at the people and abandons all conventionalism, rejecting the symbol
hermeticism. Its best example is the “Hymn to Aten”, by Amenophis IV.
12.3. Egypt since the restoration of the cult of Amun.

This era was one of the most brilliant in Egyptian culture.
V Literature : The adoption of the vulgar language gave a great boost to literature. His prince
The characteristics are:
V A fondness for the historical genre, due to the conquests of Thutmose III, with various
works such as “The Complaint of Apopi”, “Victory of Kamose over the King of Avaris”,
“Biography of Ahmes”, “Annals of Thutmose III” or the “Poem of Pentaur.”
V Development of scholarship by outside influences.
V Return to the Memphite era in search of models, respectfully studying the anti texts guos.
The work “Maxims of Any” is an example of a restored work, although Ptahotep in He
pointed out a secular morality and Any is a religious moralist.
V Love poems are born.
V The story achieves great popularity. Several are known, such as “The Journey of
Unamon”, “Tale of the Predestined Prince”, etc.
V There are also fables like “The Wolf and the Goat.”
13. Artistic manifestations in the New Kingdom.
It was the period of greatest artistic development. From the 18th to the 20th dynasties, more
monuments and buildings were built than in the rest of Egyptian history. Great technical and artistic
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perfection is achieved in all artistic fields.

13.1. Architecture
The classical temple
It was the greatest achievement of the New Kingdom. It is the most representative national
construction, with propagate gives politics controlled by the priests. It is the canon of sacred
architecture. They appear in the pa networks large reliefs of battles. The decoration is made with
terrestrial elements characteristic of Egyptian nature and exclusively national forms.
They were built according to the classical plan, such as the temples of Ramses II at Abu-Simbel, the
sanctuaries of Deir el-Bahari and Mut and the grandiose complexes of Karnak and Luxor. The plan
consisted of:
> Small pier on the banks of the river.
> Avenue with sphinxes that led to the pylons, from the pier. Statues of the kings and flagpoles
were placed in front.
> A patio behind the pylons, surrounded by columns on three sides.
> Hypostyle (closed) and hypetra (open) rooms, with two elevated rows of columns.
> Sometimes, at the back, an opening leads to a minor hypostyle room, and this to the room of
the sacred boat.
> The “Sancta Santorum”, the chapel where the statue of the god was. Sometimes there was a
main chapel and other times there were smaller ones.
Tombs and funerary temples (Hypogeums).
The concern for the afterlife was demonstrated by the pharaohs with the great Rupean tombs three,
which were true labyrinths, with chambers and chapels and important paintings and bas-reliefs.
The most important funerary temples were that of Sethi I at Gurna, of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari
and the ruins of the funerary temple of Ramses II, all facing Thebes on the west bank of the Nile.
Civil architecture
The royal palace stands out, sometimes connected to the funerary temple, although it was not the
habitable residence. tual, since the pharaoh resided there only for religious festivals. It differs from
the residences of great officials in its dimensions, and was surrounded by gardens. It consisted of
numerous ca maras.
The urban populations were two-story houses, with the ground floor for workshops and the next two
as habitat.
The Schism of Tell el-Amarna left its mark on architecture. The temple of Aton had pylons and a
hypostyle hall, but it lacked a roof, and the columns supported simple isolated architraves.
13.2. Sculpture and painting.
They know their golden age. The human representation becomes more slender and full of grace and
lightness. Marked tendency towards the beautiful. The artist's work is individualized, freed from
traditional schemes. A large part of the pictorial works are in the tombs of notables in Gurna and Deir
el-Medina and in the royal tombs of the Valley of the Kings.
Stages
Until Thutmose III: Artists continue to draw inspiration from the masters of the Old and Middle
Kingdoms, with a certain archaism. From this time are the bas-reliefs of the temple of Hatshepsut and
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Thutmose III in Deir el-Bahari, as well as the cube statues of Senmut and the statue of Thutmose III
in black granite. gro. In paintings, those from the tomb of Meneperreseneb, great priest of Amon,
stand out.
Amenophis II and Thutmosis IV : A new style full of grace and elegance triumphs. In sculpture of
this with very flat reliefs. The episode of Tell el-Amarna breaks the evolution of this style. In painting
are the scenes of the scribes Nakt and Menna. In sculpture, the very flat reliefs of Ramosé's tomb.
Tell el-Amarna period : Amenophis IV requires the artist to represent what he sees, without
embellishing his person or glorifying his majesty. Choose the most gifted artists of Thebes for the
new capital. The physical imperfections of the pharaoh are shown against the beauty of the queen.
The best creations nes are the reliefs and paintings with intimate court scenes.
This art ends in a mannerism, lasting only in the reign of Amenophis IV. Later, its naturalism and
elegance will survive, rejuvenating the classic forms, as well as the drawing of the folds of clothing.
The 19th Dynasty : It returns to classical representations, but impregnated with lightness and natu
Amarnian reality. A good example is in the bas-relief of Seti I in the temple of Abydos.
The Ramessides : Some works continue to have a high level of execution (sculptures of Ramses II and
his wife Nefertari), although there are others of low quality due to the large number of buildings and
works that were made, producing a lot and quickly.
On the walls of the royal tombs and in the mastabas, nature is masterfully captured, with animals and
plants. Proof of this are the bas-reliefs in the “Feast Hall” of Thutmose III, in the Amun enclosure in
Karnak.
13.3. Minor arts.
Decorative art, of great tradition, reaches its greatest splendor at this time, with a greater per
perfection and beauty. The best example is the furniture in Tutankhamun's tomb.
The sumptuary objects were the heritage of the entire population, even the most humble. This love
was born through contact with Asian peoples from the beginning of their history. Highlights include
toiletries in wood, metal and stone, jewelry, carved staffs of the pharaohs, necklaces, etc.
B. THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
Period of weakness and political instability.
1. International panorama.
The Middle Assyrian Empire is being formed. The first Greek colonization in Asia takes place nor.
Carthage is founded. It will be the time of Phoenician expansion through the Mediterranean.
2. 21st Dynasty (1080-945).
In this period there were two kingdoms in Egypt, one in Thebes to the south (High Priests, Dynasty
XXI) and another in Tanis, in the north:
> Herihor (1080-1074) ruled in Thebes, whose reign lasted a few years and was considered
always pre-vassal of Smendes I (1069-1043) Dynasty XXII of the kingdom of Tanis. His
successor was his son jo Piânkhi (1074-1070) who did not claim royal title, with which Egypt
was once again united, at least externally, under the power of the monarch of Tanis.
> In Tanis, Psusenes I (1039-991) maintained good relations with the High Priest of Thebes, but
did not abandon his right to govern all of Egypt.
> Thebes was later ruled by Pinedjem I (1070-1032), son of Piânkhi, who married a daughter of
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Psusennes, king of Tanis, which gave him true rights to the crown. Sumo Sa Pig of Amun,
mayor of Thebes, Vizier and head of the Army, was a great character even before acceding to
the throne. He was succeeded in the government of Thebes by his son Mahasarte (1054-1046),
who died soon, causing great disturbances in this city, perhaps the Thebans seeking effective
independence. He was succeeded by his brother Menkeperra (1045-992), also High Priest of
Amun and son of Pinedjem, who was later succeeded by his sons Smendes II (992-990) and
Pinedjem II (990-969). The last of these quasi-independent High Priests was Psusenes III
(969-945), namesake of the king of Tanis.
> In Tanis, Amenofthis or Amenemope III (993-984) and then Osorcón the Elder (984-978) and
Siamon (978-959) succeeded each other in government, and after them reigned Pseusenes II
(959-945), the last timo king of the 21st Dynasty.
3. Dynasties XXII (945-712) and XXIII (817?-730).
Sheshonq I (945-924) was a Libyan, possibly of Berber origin who were essentially warriors. He was
not well received in Thebes and part of the clergy of this city emigrated to upper Nubia.
The population was divided into professional classes: priests, artisans, shepherds, hunters, farmers
and warriors. They are divided into:
> Calasirios: about 250,000 men who were mainly in the Cen nomes tro and east of the Delta.
> Hermoribios: about 160,000 men who were mainly in the west of the Delta.
At the end of this dynasty there was a feudal dismemberment and Dynasty XXIII is parallel to
Dynasty XXII. It was during this time that the series “Divine Wives of Amun” was inaugurated. They
will be the owners of Thebes for more than two centuries. The last king of this dynasty was Osorkon
IV, dethroned by Tefnakht, first king of the XXIV Dynasty of Sais.
C. LATE EGYPTIAN PERIOD (730-330).
According to some authors, it includes the government of dynasties XXIV to XXX.
Not only was royal power weaker, but there were invasions from the south and west. The economic
possibilities were precarious and did not favor the development of art and culture in the country.
1. Dynasty XXIV (727-715) of Sais.
Pharaoh Tefnakht (730-720) dethroned the last legitimate pharaoh of the XXIII Dynasty Seonq IV,
taking advantage of the weakness of the kings of the two previous Dynasties. At the same time, Piâkhi
of Nubia (747-716, Dynasty XXV) invaded Egypt, trying to seize power, which led to a confrontation
between the two.
Bekenrinef (720-715) was his successor. This king was a great legislator who abolished debt slavery a
hundred years before Solon in Greece.
2. Dynasty XXV, Nubia/Cushite (747-656), from Napata.
Part of the clergy of Amun who emigrated to Napata, a city in Sudan, by not accepting Sheshonq,
founded a democratic kingdom there, with the absolute dominion of the god Amun. Its first pharaoh
was Piânki (747 716). This king unified Egypt, confronting Tefnakht who, in turn, had united Lower
and Middle Egypt.
Nothing is known about Shabaka (716-702), his successor. He resided in Thebes, reigning over all of
Egypt.
His successor, Sabataka (702-690) was saved from the invasion of the Assyrian Sennacherib by the
plague. Tahar-qa (690-664) had his predecessor murdered. He reorganized the administration and
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carried out numerous constructions, and above all, he beautified the city of Tanis. He was succeeded
by Tanutamun (664-656).
The kings of Napata (Dynasty XXV), have tombs, found at Djebel Barkal that are only mo of these
stone pyramids, very slender.
3. Assyrian domination.
In Assyria at this time Esarhaddon son of Sennacherib reigned. Taharqa encouraged the revolt against
him in the Phoenician cities of Sidon and Tyre. The Assyrian king besieged Tire and, unable to take
it, continued towards Egypt, taking Memphis, where he seized the harem and the children of the
pharaoh who took refuge in Thebes while Esarhaddon proclaimed himself king of Upper and Lower
Egypt. After an interval of time, the Assyrian king left Egypt. Taharqa recovered and took power
again. But the king's son like that Asurnipal river reconquered the country. Years later, the Egyptian
people rebelled against the invasion. ria and began a new dynasty: the one numbered XXVI settled in
Sais.
4. Dynasty XXVI (664-525): Saite Period.
With Psammetichus (664-610) the XXVI Dynasty begins and a new flowering of Egyptian history
and art until Psammetichus III (526-525).
At this time, art experienced a new trend of classicism and strove to imitate the great works of the
18th Dynasty, it is called Saite neoclassicism. In architecture, large buildings were made and in
sculpture we have received small works. This art is characterized by not often follow the harmonious
proportions of the body. In addition, he has a predilection for animal representations.
5. The first Persian domination: Dynasty XXVII (525-404) and last Dynasties.
Persian domination of Egypt resulted in economic decline.
After the brief parenthesis of the XXVIII Dynasty, whose only king was Amyrtheus (404-398) and
the XXIX (398-378) and XXX (378-341) dynasties, the Persians once again dominated (341-333)
until their last king, Darius III was defeated by Alexander the Great, who was received in Egypt as a
liberator and named pharaoh. He and his descendants are called “Macedonian Kings”, who should be
called Dynasty XXXII, with the Lágidas being the XXXIII.
With Alexander's death, after Philip Arrideus and Alexander IV, the Dynasty of the Ptlomoeos or
Lágidas will begin to reign in Egypt, whose last representative was Cleopatra VII. After his death,
Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire. With this Langid Dynasty the so-called Egyptian
Egypt began. nistic.
D. THE EGYPTIAN RELIGION. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. GENERAL
CHARACTERISTICS.
1. Religion
The characters that developed throughout Egyptian history, more than 3,000 years, were mainly four:
1. Religion greatly influenced by politics. With the successive predominance of the god of the
royal city. The cat-goddess Bastet under the Bubastites, the goddess Neit under the Saites, the
god Ptah in the Memphite era and the god Amun in the Theban era.
2. Domination of the monarchy of the clergy, which occurs for unknown reasons, in the Dinas
aunt V (her dynastic god was Horus) and XXI.
3. Domination at a certain time of the personal ideas of a king Amenophis IV (Akhenaten).
4. Popular fervor for the god Osiris. Whose cult remained parallel to that of the gods of religion
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official gion.
Egyptian religion was primarily worship. There were no sacred books and the religious texts (Book of
the Dead, Texts of the Pyramids and Sarcophagi) are compilations of formula useful for individuals in
their afterlife.
Worship was a public service and its only regulator and legislator was the King.
The main religious syntheses were two:
1. The Ennead of Heliopolis, near present-day Cairo.
2. Ogdoad of Hermopolis.
2. The Heliopolitan cosmogony. The Ennead.
In the beginning there was only Nun, chaos. A first divine couple was worshiped, and then other gods
who, together, formed the Heliopolitan Ennead.
The nine gods of Heliopolis were:
> Atum : Universal God. It had been self-created.
First divine couple:
> Shu : Masculine principle.
> Tefnut : Feminine principle.
They give rise to the rest of the gods:
> Geb : God of the Earth; Nut : Goddess of the sky.
> Osiris : God of the dead, son of Geb and Nut; Horus : Son of Osiris; Isis : Wife of Osiris,
goddess of magic, family and love; Seth : Enemy of Osiris and Horus; Nephthys : Wife of
Seth and mother of Anubis.
It is a pantheistic conception. A religion, a cosmogony, everything is born from here. And it
established a common bond between the different nomes, a common cult superimposed on local cults,
which made permanent and normal relations possible between all those who adopted them and also
gave rise to the birth of Law.
3. The cult of Osiris.
Universal God. The capital of his cult was in Busiris. Originally an agrarian god. He was god of
fertility, navigation and the Nile. Teach man agriculture. He died in his fight with Seth and was
resurrected by his wife Isis.
4. Amon.
Venerated in Thebes, he became the god of the 11th Dynasty. Identified with Ra. Amun-Ra became
the national god par excellence. Their animal was the coiled-horned ram.
5. The Ogdoad of Hermopolis.
Instead of arising from the Sun, like the Ennead, the Ogdoad would have preceded it. The eight gods
created by Thoth, through his voice, were primordial, frogs (males) and snakes (females), whose
parents They are named after night, darkness, mystery and eternity.
6. Cult of the dead. Mummification.
The belief in the survival of the soul alongside the body led to the development of body protection
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techniques. The disappearance of the body carried with it the loss of eternal life.
The art of embalming emerged in archaic times through the application of natron or soda, later aromas
and essences. The viscera were removed from the richest, except for the heart and kidneys, which
were placed in the canopic vessels.
From the New Kingdom onwards these vessels represent the heads of the four sons of Horus:
> Amset : Head of a man. Stomach and large intestine.
> Hep : Ape head. Small intestine.
> Tuamutef : Jackal head. Lungs.
> Qebhsenuf : Falcon's head. Liver and gallbladder.
The body was filled with aromatic herbs and perfumes, and left to macerate for seventy days in a
natron bath. After which it was wrapped with bandages, which had a magical prayer written on them,
between which perfumes and amulets were placed.
E. THE EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE AND WRITING.
1. The Egyptian language.
Until 1895 it was believed that the Egyptian language was either Semitic (Senfy's theory) or Hamitic
(Lepsus's theory). Around 1920 there was a reaction against these opinions and an affinity with
African languages was sought, reaching the conclusion that there were certain kinships that would
justify the term "Hamitic-Semitic language" for Egyptian.
2. Egyptian writing.
There was no single type of writing. Spoken language was clearly differentiated from written
language and its evolution was different.
2.1. Types of writing.
2.1.1. Hieroglyphic or monumental.
Used in inscriptions on monuments and decoration.
2.1.2. Hieratic.
It is the abbreviated writing of hieroglyphic, used by scribes and priests in literary copies. It was used
both to write literary works and scientific texts.
2.1.3. Demotic.
It represents an evolution of the spoken language and is an intermediate state between Egyptian and
Post Coptic river. It is an abbreviated form of hieratic writing, with a simple and fast stroke, with
greater ligatures in the signs and schematizing the signs with their links. He was mainly involved in
daily affairs and commercial transactions.
2.1.4. Coptic.
It consists of 24 Greek letters combined with 6 demotic characters necessary to write Egyptian sounds
that do not exist in Greek.
F. THE EGYPTIAN CULTURE.
1. Math.
They had very high knowledge. It was a practical science aimed at measuring fields. They calculated
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volumes, surfaces, solved quadratic equations and knew zero and progressions.
2. Medicine.
Closely related to magic, it was practiced in temples through therapeutic dreams. Surgery,
trepanation, tracheotomy and amputation were known, for which drugs were used as anesthesia.
Pharmacy is highly developed, using products dissolved in honey or beer and cosmetics.
3. Importance of knowledge.
The Egyptians appreciated science and knowledge for the natural superiority that it conferred, in
existence, on the cultivated man over the mass of common men. She separated the rulers tes of the
governed. The knowledge of writing was a sacred science.
4. The measurement of time.
The search for a smaller measure of time, separating and dividing day and night, takes They went to
the manufacture of various gadgets and dividing different instruments that we can only designate with
the name of watches. To determine the daytime hours they used quadran solar energy (measured
using a graduated scale). The determination of nighttime hours was done by means of time clocks or
water clocks or with star clocks.
5. Music and dance in ancient Egypt.
In all Egyptian festivals, music and dance were essential. It was a natural way to express joy and, in
religious ceremonies, to thank the gods for their protection.
TOPIC 10. HATTY AND MITANNI
1. The Hittites. Introduction
1.1 First news
The first news about the Hittites appears in the Old Testament.
1.2 His discovery
In 1834, Texier discovered ruins at Boghazköy, and in 1879 Sayce attributed them to the Hittite
civilization.
2. The Hittite civilization
This civilization was located in Anatolia, the mountainous regions of the Euphrates (Armenia) and in
northern Syria. Starts in 2000 BC and ends in 1200 BC, surviving in some principality two neohitites.
Tablets written in several languages have been discovered in the Royal Archives of Boghazköy:
> Protohitite or Hatti: spoken before the arrival of the Hittite Indo-Europeans.
> Palaita.
> Luwita.
> Hittite: Indo-European of the Kentum group, written in Sumerian cuneiform.
From these languages we know that three factors were mixed in Anatolia:
> Hatti Asian population : inhabited Anatolia already at the beginning of the 3rd millennium.
Their language is different compared to the rest of Asians and Orientals. Their culture and
religion influenced later civilization Hittite tion. It was the first civilized nation outside of
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Mesopotamia. The main hatti site of importance is the Alaça-Hüyük necropolis.

> Mesopotamian merchants : later also Assyrians.
> Indo-European tribes : New arrivals, such as Palaites, Hurrians, and Nesites.
The Indo-Europeans arrived in waves between 2300 and 2000 BC, and took center stage in history.
rich. They arrived in various lineages and founded independent cities.
Between 1800 and 1750 BC A decisive change occurred in the political structure: from these
independent cities a dominant aristocracy (nesitas) emerged, which were the ones who united and
created the Hittite Empire. At first they depended on the Assyrians, but their decline allowed them to
become independent. se and establish a great kingdom, whose history we can divide into four periods:
> Old Kingdom (1750-1500 BC): formative period.

> Dark Period (1500-1450 BC) little known, due to the hegemony of Egypt and Mitanni over
Hatti.
> First Hittite Empire (1450-1336 BC): hegemony over much of the Near East, highlighting the
figure of Subilulium I.
> Second Hittite Empire (1336-1215 BC): from the successors of Subilulium I to the end of the
Empire (1215 BC), with Subilulium II.
3. The Old Kingdom (±1750-±1500 BC)
The historical sources that we know are:
> Archaeological : the lists of kings' offerings stand out.

> El Restricto de Telepinu : tablets with a kind of historical annals of the succession of kings.
Between the 19th and 18th centuries BC There were numerous Hittite principalities. In the 18th
century, Anitta, prince of Kussara, unified them, establishing the first capital there. From here on the
events thoughts are dark. Labarna I (1680-1650 BC) enlarges the kingdom and comes to occupy
Anatolia Cen tral. His successors (Hattusuil I and Mursil I) continued the work of Labarna and
followed the expansionist policy. They faced Hurrians and Syrians, also facing internal struggles
between the non bleza and the royal family itself that were constant throughout its history.
With Telepinu (1525-1500 BC) there is already more news:
> Foreign policy : maintained external peace to organize the state internally. It is the only
attempt in its entire history of internal organization.
> Domestic policy : put an end to domestic unrest. He established a law of succession to avoid
the problem of succession to the throne. It excluded the nobility, and even the sovereign could
not ele gir, but had to submit to the order of succession between his children. To subdue the
nobility, he created the Panku , which was a general assembly of citizens that acted as a
Supreme Court. Prize of Justice, with the power to establish a new monarch through the law
of succession.
Telepinu made Panku the key piece of the state organization. Although his successors do not respect
him ron completely, the Panku avoided many deaths and intrigues, since it lasted a long time.
4. Dark Period (1500-1450 BC)
The succession of the Hittite kings at this time is little known, since only a few lists of offerings are
known. The Hittite kingdom was in decline, coinciding with the hegemony of the neighboring
kingdoms. us:
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> Mitanni : reign of Saustatar.

> Egypt : with Thutmose II and his expansionist policy. The Hittite kings had to sign a peace
treaty with Egypt as they were unable to defend themselves.
> Assyria : it is beginning to be a power at this time.
5. First Hittite Empire or New Kingdom (1450-1336 BC)
5.1 first kings
Tudhaliya, in 1450 BC, is the initiator of the Hittite New Kingdom. He carried out an expansionist
policy towards western Anatolia. He conquered Aleppo and established new peace treaties with Egypt
(Amenhotep II).
Behind him is a succession of kings known from lists of offerings and sacrifices, and from treaties
with Egypt, Aleppo and Mitanni. During this time there were some changes, such as the preeminence
of the army, due to:
> Warrior character of the Hittite people, due to incessant fights.
> Need of the kings to impose themselves: as there was no internal organization, which required
greater control tralization of powers, the monarchy became absolute, due to outside influences
through the army.
In 1380 BC, after a conspiracy, the legitimate heir is supplanted by a character of obscure origin,
Subiluliuma I, who starts a new dynasty.
5.2 Splendor of the Hittite Empire. Subilulium I (1380-1336 BC)
Subilulium I prevails in the government through a brilliant military career. His reign can be divided
into two stages:
> 1380-1365 BC : prepares its subsequent expansive policy. It maintained a certain internal
stability, although disorder continues, its main failure. The administration was lacking, and
that is why the fall of the empire was so rapid after his death. Accept the Egypt-Mitanni-Hatti
balance.
> 1365-1336 BC : Great expansion, at an opportune time due to cold relations with Egypt and
Mitanni, who were allies. Amenophis IV neglects the exterior, due to the crisis of the Tell-el-
Amarna schism. In the interior, Subiluliuma had for the moment dominated the Gasga
population, who had never recognized the Hittite king.
Subilulium dies in 1336 BC by the plague, leaving an Empire without an administration that is had
Domestic policy had been sacrificed for foreign policy, and this was not successful. Hatti's greatness
was apparent, falling after the Second Hittite Empire.
5.3 The Syrian wars and their consequences
When Subiluliuma achieved internal pacification, he undertook expansion with three wars, with
known as the “Syrian wars”.
1st Syrian War: Advance through northern Syria, reaching the limits of Lebanon. Conquer city
towns such as Aleppo and Kadesh, which were under Mitanni rule.
2nd Syrian War : As a consequence of the large number of Syrian cities pressured by Hatti, a
coalition was formed, and an uprising occurred. Subilulium acts again on Syria, reaching further
south, as far as Damascus.
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3rd Syrian War. The end of Mitanni : The Hittite incursions into the area between Byblos and
Ugarit, control given by Egypt, provokes the reaction of it and its ally, Mitanni. All this had several
consequences cias:
a) For Egypt : when Tutankhamun died suddenly, Subiluliuma attacked Egypt several times,
although he did not benefit as the plague spread in his army, contaminating the country to his
king. return. In Egypt, Horemheb knew how to confront the Hittites and reorganized Egypt as
a powerful power. cia, saving the crisis.
b) For Mitanni : the Mitanni were defeated at Karkemish, causing the discontent of their nobility,
who rose up against the king, leading to civil wars. The dependency occurred dence of
Mitanni to the kingdom of Hatti, putting Subiluliuma a king, which led to the decline total
Mitanni company. Assyria emerged again as a great power, and the yoke of Mitanni was
removed.
6. Second Hittite Empire (1336-1215 BC)
6.1 The successors of Subilulium I
Subiluliuma's successors are:
> Arnuwanda II, with Mattiwaza (1336-1335 BC)

> Mursil II (1335-1310 BC)
> Muwatalli (1309-1287 BC)
> Mursil III (1287-1286 BC)
> Hattusil III (1286-1265 BC)
> Tudhakiya IV (1265-1235 BC)
All of them maintain the Empire of Subiluliuma I for almost a century and have common
characteristics:
> They maintain power by quelling internal uprisings.

> They suppressed intrigue at court, indicating internal instability.
> Repeated campaigns against the Gasga, which agitated the army.
> They quelled continuous uprisings in neighboring countries, mainly Arzawa and Urartu.
> Repeated alliances and treaties with the Syrian cities independent of each other and distributed
among the children of Subiluliuma.
With Muwatalli (1309-1287 BC) there were two new dangers:
> Egypt : the pharaohs of the 19th dynasty regained military strength, and wanted to recover the
Syrian territories (fights of Muwatalli and Ramses II).
> Assyria : the Hittites could not withstand the push, and at the end of Muwatalli's reign, they
practically lost control over Mitanni.
6.2 Hattusil III (1286-1265 BC)
Together with his wife Paduhepa, he had a brilliant period. The Assyrian push forces him to:
> Pact with Egypt : with Ramses II in the Treaty of Kadesh (1278 BC). The two kingdoms,
exhaust two by secular war, they promised to defend and respect each other. They were two
countries in decline and with the same enemies. In the Treaty there is no mention of the limits
territorial tes, which indicates the maintenance of a status quo, with the same border in the
Assyrian area: from Kadesh to Damascus.
> Fight with Assyria : Hattusil III faces a strong enemy, Shalmaneser I (1274-1245 BC), who
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defeated him and occupied the territories east of the Euphrates, marking the Hittite decline.
6.3 Tudhaliya IV (1265-1235 BC)
Despite receiving all the territories except those taken by Shalmansar I, he did not possess the
endowments of Hattusil III, and yet the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244-1208 BC) was one of
the may three statesmen of the time.
6.4 Arnuwanda III (1235-1215 BC)
The continuous uprisings in their territories, together with the Hittite weakness and the invasions of
the Sea Peoples, ended the Hittite Empire in his reign, although another king is still known,
Subilulium II (1215-? BC), leaving only the Neo-Hittite states.
7. Political organization of the Hittite state
The Hittite Empire was a feudal state, a federation of small states subject to the central authority of
the king.
7.1 The Royal Family
The king : He had to be accepted by the panku, so the monarchy was not absolute, but constituted
tional. He was venerated as a god upon his death, and received worship. He was the intermediary
between the god and the people, and also a military leader and Great Judge.
The queen : She could be regent, because she became a priestess of the Mother Goddess and could,
due to her divine character, occupy the throne. Consanguineous marriage was prohibited.
The crown prince : He was chosen by the panku as the direct heir of the sovereign, associated with
then to the government.
7.2 The vassal kings
They were allies of the king by private treaties. The governors were the representatives of the
sovereign in the provinces.
Unlike the eastern empires, the Hittite state was federative. The vassal states were linked to the
central state by international pacts. All members of the federation benefit The privileges inherent in
the military and economic superiority of the Hittite people dominated tea.
Extradition was provided for under certain conditions. The most frequent clause was military aid and
assistance. The laws were more humane than those of Mesopotamia, with a new social spirit.
8. Society, culture and religion
8.1 Society
The family was the social basis, with monogamous marriage. Polygamy was admitted only for the
king and the main characters, although the legitimate children were those of the main wife. The
inheritance was transmitted only to the male children, giving the daughters dowries and usufructs.
Property had a feudal character, and slavery existed. Free subjects were forced to perform zar
personal benefits ( luzzi ). There are analogies with the Hebrew Levitical code as a consequence ce of
his conquests in Palestine and Syria.
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The economy is interested in agriculture (main base) and industry, with a large number of troughs us.
8.2 Legislation
The Hittite laws (16th-15th centuries BC) are known, legislation with a very marked criminal
character, but with a certain liberalism in not trying to modify or exclude the customs of the countries
on which it is established, but respects and continues them. In this it is similar to the Code of
Hammurabi, since it tries to merge two customs: that of Summer-Akkad and that of Hatti and the
Indo-European peoples.
Civil Law deals with the family, rural property and movable property (individual property). furniture,
slaves, animals, etc.).
Criminal Law deals with the regulation of crime, crimes against the person, social order, etc., and
barely provides for capital punishment, mutilation, detention and some corporal punishment. The
penalties are surprising, harsh corporal punishments that gradually transform into pecuniary
compensation.
War was seen as a judgment of God between two states to settle their differences.
8.3 Scriptures, languages and literature
Writing : The Nesites used Sumerian-Akkadian cuneiform writing until the 15th century BC, in
which a new writing appeared on seals and stone inscriptions, the Hittite-hieroglyph, of their own
invention. Its signs are divided into two groups: ideograms and signs of syllabic value. The language
that was written with them was Luwita.
Language : It is difficult to establish the official language, since they did not have a state or unified
language. There were several:
> Babylonian : diplomatic language. All Hittite correspondence is written in it, as well as their
treaties.
> Sumerian : religious language, along with prehitite.
> Various dialects : the most important was Luwita.
Literature : Not having a state or unified language, literature is poor: historical stories, anna les,
official letters and some myths. The texts are summarized in myths.
Anatolian background myths : They are short stories of the type of popular stories. The themes
highlight the fight against the dragon, associated with spring festivals. The disappearance and
appearance of a god was closely related to magic, and through them an attempt was made to propitiate
the irritated divinity. The reasons are varied (the king's health, fertility, calamities, etc.).
Although the personal ones vary, the outline of these narratives is very repetitive:
> A god disappears because a mistake has been committed.

> The earth is paralyzed.
> The god is sought through the mother-goddess Hannahanna.
> When the god is found, he is acted upon with magical acts, and everything returns to normal.
dad.
Telepinu used to always be the protagonist. Other gods also die and are resurrected in other cultures
(Baal, Tammuz, Osiris, Adonis, etc.). The tree was widely used in these rituals, always green, from
which fleeces were hung in the Purulli or Purullu rite.
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Mesopotamian myths . They stand out:
> Gilgamesh: various reworkings of the Poem of Gilgamesh.

> Atrahasis: Akkadian poem in three songs. Atrahasis is a hero who saves humanity from the
gods who want to destroy it.
Myths of Canaanite origin : They exerted great influence on the Old Testament, since Baal is the
main heterodox temptation of the Hebrew people.
Hurrian myths : They are a vast synthesis of disparate elements and a syncretized mythical
literature. Result of the influence of the Hurrians on the Hittites are the poems of the Kumarbi cycle
and the Song of Ullikummi.
Different stories . They stand out:
> Appu.
> History of the hunter Kessi.
> Gurparanzahu.
Hymns and prayers . They stand out:
> That of the solar goddess of the earth.

> Hymn to Istanu.
> Prayer to Kanruzzili.
> Amurwanda prayer.
8.4 The Hittite religion
Religion occupied first place in public and private affairs. The gods were divided two in various
groups, two being the main ones of the Hittite pantheon:
> Wurusemu : sun goddess of Arinna, and also goddess of fertility and fecundity. He assisted
the king in government and war, and the king was his high priest.
> Taru or Teshub : god of the storm, husband of Wurusemu.
Their children were minor gods. The gods were the masters of men and ruled their destinies. us. They
manifested themselves through dreams and oracles. Other gods are Alalu, Inara, Lelwani, Pirwa and
Suwaluja.
Foreigners were impure, and they were kept away from the national cult. There was not a single
Hittite religion, but several (Pre-Hittite, Hurrian, Nesite).
There were great religious sanctuaries, such as:
> Arinna : in Alaça-Hüyük, of Hatti religion, worshiping Wurusemu.

> Nerik : worshiping Telepinu.
> Yazilikaya : main sanctuary, very large.
The places of worship were large open-air sanctuaries, linked to civil power, with a large number of
servants. Festivals were celebrated there, the main one being Purrulli or Purrullu (earth festival), to
ensure rain.
8.5 Neo-Hittite principalities (1200-700 BC)
The Hittite Empire, which succumbed to the invasion of the Sea Peoples (around 1200 BC), had
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Behind its borders are states with a certain independence, but belonging to the Hittite kingdom. They
were located from the Taurus (north) to the Orontes River (south), and from the Euphrates (east) to
Tyana and Ivriz (west).
Their dynasties were second to the Hittite royal family, as reflected in their name day. To the Some of
these vassal kings survive the invasion of the Sea Peoples, and after 200 years without news, they
reappear around 1000 BC. Their language was Luwite-Hittite, written in Hittite hieroglyphs, and its
historical vicissitudes were transmitted by Assyrians and Hebrews.
The main states were:
> Kizzuwatna : in Cilicia.

> Malatya : head of the Tabal Confederation (12 cities on the Euphrates).
> Yadiya : south of Malatya and east of the Euphrates. In this area there were also other Neo-
Hittite states (Tuwanna, Hupinsa, Smuktu, etc.).
> In Upper Syria were the states of Karkemish, Aleppo, Khattina and Hama, rich commercial
and military centers. The Assyrians, in the 9th century BC, had to make great efforts to
conquer this region.
Mitanni
9. The Hurrians
The geographical setting: The Hurrians or “People of Hurri” were a people with an agglutinative
language whose origin is in the south of the Caucasus, around Lake Van. From here, some Hurrian
tribes seek Further south were the fertile lands of Hanigalbat, a territory that the Egyptians called
Naharina ("country between rivers") located to the west of Assyria, in Upper Mesopotamia, between
the Euphrates and the Tigris. It then extended to the Syrian coast, between the Orontes and the Habur,
an area that the Egyptians of the New Kingdom (around 1500 BC) designated with the name of Narou
and in the Old Kingdom with that of Retenu, due to the Hurrian predominance.
10. Elements of the Hurrian State.
It is believed that part of these Hurrians joined the avalanche of people who, under the name of
Hyksos, invaded They gave Egypt, and after being expelled by Ahmosis (End Second Egyptian
Intermediate Period) many of them took refuge among the Hurrians of Hanigalbat, although the
Hyksos element was essentially Canaanite and Amorite.
It will be then that, according to Hus, the element aris was superimposed on the different Hurrian
populations. Indo-European military tocratic, creating the Mitanni confederation.
The Mitanni were the inspirers of the Hittites. The population of Mitanni was made up of two
elements:
> Higher class:

a) Indo-European language.
b) military aristocracy.
> Lower class:
a) agglutinative language.
b) Hurrians.
The country had two capitals: Nisbina and Wasuqani.
The Mitannians adopted cuneiform writing and the Akkadian language . The main source for the
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study of this town is the Nuzi Tablets . These Nuzi texts are the only ones that report on Hurrian
institutions. They show the existence of a series of institutions, servers and differ three social classes,
in addition to the Royal House and the Military Aristocracy.
11. The first news.
The first news we have about the origins of Mitanni is the existence of the Hurrian principality of
Urkish.
12. Mitannia Expansion.
The Mitannian expansion during the Empire of Ur III developed as follows:
> Like merchants from Kultepe and other places in Asia Minor.
> With City-States with Hurrian sovereigns.
> With Hurrian populations in Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo, according to the Kultepe texts.
Towards the s. XVIII-XVI its expansion is linked to an Indo-Aryan military class that formed a
superior aristocracy, with an Indo-European language, which made them advance towards Palestine
and partly pushed towards Egypt. to the Hyksos.
Towards the s. XVI its first kings are known who unified the different Hurrian kingdoms of the re
gion, whose first capital was Wasuqani, which has not been found.
The first kings were Kirta, Suttarna and Barratarna (between 1560 and 1530 BC). In the 15th century
BC (1504-1450 BC), the expansionism of Thutmose III stopped the Mittanic rise in the Syrian cities,
leading to a confrontation between Mitanni and Egypt.
13. International policy
Mitanni's main rivals were the Hittites and the Egyptians, then Assyria, which ended ab sipping it
13.1 Hittite-Mitannian confrontation
It was produced in the 15th century. At this time, Mitanni was the dominant power in the Near East.
Rivalry grew during the reigns of Parsatatar and especially of his son Saustatar, architect of the great
Mitannian flourishing. This king conquered Assur. His kingdom went from Zagros to the
Mediterranean, in covering northern Syria from Taurus to Anti-Lebanon.
13.2 Egyptian-Mitannian confrontation
There were two key moments:
> Egyptian expansion and Egyptian-Mitannian confrontation : when Thutmose III, upon the
death of Hatshepsut, continued the Egyptian expansion in 17 campaigns. In 1473 BC,
Thutmose III defeated Mitanni near Aleppo and Karchemish, signing a first treaty of
friendship. In 1471 BC A new clash occurs, with Egyptian victory in Aleppo.
> First international balance : Thutmose III recovers Tunip and Kadesh, occupied by Mitanni. A
possible Egyptian-Mitannian treaty is signed. Syria and Assyria remain in the power of
Mitanni. Meanwhile, in Babylon the Kassites reign, and Hatti is in decline.
13.3 Apogee. Equality with Egypt
After the death of Thutmose III, the period of greatest apogee of Mitanni began, with the reigns of
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Parsatatar and especially his son Saustatar, who dominated Assyria and took over its treasures, and
also occupied most of the Syrian cities, such as Aleppo. The territory reaches its maximum extension,
from the Zagros to Syria. He reorganized his kingdom with peace and prosperity. First diplo contacts
matics with Hatti and Egypt, coinciding with the reign of Amenophis II (1450-1425 BC).
He was succeeded by Artatama I, who maintained prosperity and improved relations with Egypt, with
the wedding of Princess Mutemuja (?) with Thutmose IV. This princess is the mother of Amenophis
III. The wife of Amenophis IV was also a Mitannian princess, Tadu-Hepa, who in Egypt was called
Nefertiti.
Suttarna II continues the good Egypt-Mitanni relations, as well as the weddings of Mitannian
princesses with Egyptian pharaohs.
The weakness and inactivity of the other powers of the Near East contributed to the prosperity and
hegemony of Mitanni (Hatti was not emerging and Assyria was in decline).
13.4 Hittite intervention and division of Mitanni
In the 15th century BC Mitanni is the strongest power in the Middle East. The accession to the throne
of the Hittite Subiluliuma (1380-1336 BC) changes the international panorama and breaks Egyptian
dominance cio in Syria. In Mitanni there are dissensions, with two kingdoms. Shuttarna II is
succeeded by his son Artasumra, who is murdered. Another son of Shuttarna, Tushratta, ascends the
throne, while Artatama, another brother, claims the throne. The country is divided into two:
> Hurri : Artatama II asks Subilulium for help, signing a Hittite-Hurrite pact. Subiluliuma
attacked Mitanni, although he was defeated by Tushratta. But later he is joined by the princes
of Amurru and defeats Tushratta, who was killed.
> Mitanni : Tushratta asks Amenophis IV of Egypt for help, and they sign an Egyptian-
Mitannian pact.
These civil wars put an end to Mitannian power, and their enemies divided up the spoils.
13.5 Breakup of the Mitanni Empire
The Mitannian territory was divided between the principality of Alshe and Assyria. Mattiwaza, son of
Tushratta, remained on the Mitannian throne. He was expelled by Shuttarna, son of Artatama II, who
asked for help from Subilulium of Hatti, later disappearing, a victim of the Assyrians or the Hittites.
Around 1300 BC, Adad-Nirari of Assyria takes the remains of Hanigalbat, whose king Shattuara I
becomes a vassal of Assyria. His son Wassahara revolted, waiting for Hittite help that did not arrive,
and the capital was devastated.
With Shattuara II there are new uprisings supported by Hatti in 1270 BC, and put down by
Shalmaneser III of Assyria. Since then Mitanni has not been heard from again.
14. The Mitannian civilization
This civilization presented some peculiar features, the most outstanding characteristics of which are:
14.1 The training of horses.
They were characterized by their skill in breeding, training and riding horses, which gives them was
of great importance, since the effectiveness of the most important weapon of war of the moment
depended on horses: the light combat tank.
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14.2 The art.
Consisting of the glyptic and the imprints of the cylinder-seals of the Nuzi tablets: scratch the seal of
Saustatar.
Two foreign influences are perceptible in this art: the Egyptian and the Aegean.
The great sculpture is represented, among others, by the god of fertility who is a tree god.
The Hittites owe the best of their architecture and sculpture to the Hurrians. The most important Such
a Hurrian construction is the Nithilani or palace built with a double-story porch.
14.3 The right.
It had to be influenced by the Babylonian. Acts on marriage are known above all. monion and
adoption.
1 . Marriage Certificates: there was the bride's payment, a sum of money, insti tution that was
preserved among the Greeks, the Italics and the Germans. The repudiation of a woman was
authorized if she was sterile.
2 . Adoption Acts: the large landowners increased their domains with adoption deals. The
adoptee paid for his adoption with a gift, in exchange for participation in the inheritance. It
has several forms:
> The ana shimti act, which is a provision in favor of a person located under or the
authority of whoever wants to favor it in a private capacity.
> The Ana Maruti act, which adopts a foreign person, who can participate in the entire
inheritance or only in a proportional part.
The penal laws of the Mitannians were more humane than the cruel mutilations and tortures of the
Assyrians and Babylonians of the Semites.
15. Organization of the Mitannian state
The monarchy was hereditary, of a feudal type, with distribution of fiefs that were attached to the
royal, civil and military corvea, the ilku. This monarchy was essentially theocratic and absolutist.
15.1 Social classes.
The king was at the top of the social pyramid, and relied on the military aristocracy and the royal
family. Below him were the Maryannu or military aristocracy, posi probably of Aryan origin. Around
them were the Nish-Biti or “people of the pala cio”, who lived in it and received their food ration or
ahukunnu. Behind them were the different officials and a multitude of workers grouped by districts,
forced to pa gar goods in kind or finished products (ishkaru). The last layer of society was the lower
class, exploited by the superiors.
16. Religion and culture
They had a pantheon made up of numerous gods, the result of the juxtaposition of various elements.
The two main gods were:
> Teshup: god of the sky, storms and lightning, but also of rain and therefore of fertility.
> Hepat: is Teshuo's partner. Goddess of fecundity and fertility. The union of this divine couple
produced the renewal of the earth and the fertility of the fields.
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Other gods are: Hamman, Anat, Kumarbi, Simérgi, Nupatig and Hudena.
TOPIC 11. THE NEAR EAST AT THE END OF THE SECOND MILLENNIUM. THE
PEOPLES OF THE SEA. ISRAEL. LIDIA . URARTU.
1. The “People of the Sea” or “Of the North”
1.1 Your problem
Facts
Around the S. XIII BC There are a series of movements of people and invasions and catastrophes that
cause They brought about the fall of the established political order and gave rise to a new panorama in
this part of the world.
Causes
Large ethnic movements affected Eurasia and caused in their push the displacement of other already
established peoples. The so-called “Sea People” belong to this whole series of events, migrations and
invasions of people about whom we do not know much information. This name was recognized ged
from the Egyptian annals, which is what they called five towns that threatened their coasts around
1190 BC. c.
Political panorama of the moment
There was a certain calm due to the Second International Balance, between Ramses II and Hattusil III,
after going several Egyptian-Hittite clashes. Breaks in 1240 BC due to the economic blockade that the
Hittite king Tudhaliya IV imposed on Assyria, closing the passage to raw materials, and which also
affected the economy of the caravan cities and the eastern Mediterranean coast, which revolted
against the blockade. A new international instability occurred and the appropriate situation arose that
allowed invasions and attacks by new peoples. They are the so-called Peoples of the Sea, which in
reality are only part of the ethnic movements of peoples that move towards the South.
who were
The Sea Peoples are a part of the ethnic movements towards the south. Meanwhile, the proto-Celts or
“people of the urn fields”, people from northern Europe, invade the Iberian Peninsula, Italy and
Provence. The Illyrians and Dacians penetrate the Balkans and push the Thraco-Phrygians towards
the center of Anatolia, launching the future Greeks (Dorians, Aeolians and Ionians) towards the
Hellenic Peninsula. nica and the shores of the Aegean Sea, where they put an end to Mycenaean
domination.
The entire previous wave of invasions must have also affected all of Anatolia:
> The Phrygians occupy the western and central part of the Anatolian plain and the Mushki are
es They settle on the Upper Euphrates.
> The Phrygians, Mushki and Gasga put an end to the Hittite Empire in the reign of Subilulium
II (1215 BC).
> The Sea Peoples advanced steadily south by sea and land, devastating the Syrian-Palestinian
coast.
His presence in Egypt
In their advance, after devastating the Syrian-Palestinian coast, they reached the gates of Egypt in two
occassions. sions:
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> 1220 BC: against Minneptah. > 1186 BC: against Ramses III.
On the second occasion they posed a greater threat than in 1220 BC They were a confederation of five
towns that had devastated Hete, Kode, Arvad, Karkemish and Alasia on their way along the Syrian
coast. In the two invasions the names of the towns coincide: Shardans, Aqayawas (perhaps Achaeans)
and Turush (perhaps Tyrsenses).
On this occasion Egypt is saved from foreign domination, but definitively loses its hegemism.
international identity, which he never recovered.
Some of the members of these towns enrolled as mercenaries in the service of the pharaoh. Others,
like the Philistines, take refuge and settle in the maritime strip of Canaan, between Mount Carmel and
Gaza, forming the Pentafederation of Philistine cities. The Philistines, possibly originally ginaries
from Crete but now coming from Asia Minor, and from which the name Palesti is derived na, they
extend throughout the region between the Jordan, the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, settling in
cities such as Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekrom and Gath.
1.2 Movements related to the Sea Peoples
There were other incursions and establishments of people not considered “Sea Peoples”, but rela
tioned with these ethnic movements.
The Iranians
Between 1200 and 1100 BC, the Iranians, Indo-European speaking people, penetrated Iran in two
successive waves:
> The Medes (madai) and Persians (parsuas): they settled around Lake Urmia.
> The Parthians (Parthava) and the Hairawa: they settle in Iran, Turkestan, Afghanistan and
Balochistan.
There are a series of circumstances and historical and political consequences around the impact
produced by these migrations and couplings of peoples.
Mesopotamia. Arameans and Israelites
The second wave of peoples does not directly reach Mesopotamia, but it is significant that with it
there was a return of nomadic Semites from the Syrian desert: the Sutu, known as the Akhlamu or
Arameans, perhaps an extension of the peoples of the Sea in the direction of Mesopotamia.
The political vacuum due to the disappearance of the Hittite Empire and the Kassite kingdom in
Babylon, as well as The weakness of Assyria after the reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I encouraged the
Arameans to occupy Syria, cross the Euphrates and penetrate deeply into Mesopotamia, becoming
sedentary and forming a series of independent kingdoms.
The Israelites, also Semites, took advantage of the decline of Egypt at the end of the 13th century BC
and the confusion in the Middle East to invade the south and east of Canaan and the territories on both
sides of the Jordan. It was not a quick conquest, but a slow, difficult and staggered penetration that
lasted you a century.
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Canaan
To the northeast of Israel, the Canaanites of the Lebanese-Syrian coast were victims of the events of
the 13th and 12th centuries BC In this Syrian-Lebanese area there are big changes:
> Around 1191 BC, the great port of Ugarit is devastated by the Sea Peoples, and Byblos is It is
ruined due to the decline of Egypt.
> At the beginning of the First Millennium things changed significantly. Byblos recovers, and
together with three flourishing cities (Arados, Sidon and Tyre), the prosperous Medieval trade
begins. Eastern Earth (hegemony and expansion of the Phoenicians), constituting the new
political, economic and cultural centers.
Era without data
Between 1200 and 900 BC There is a period of deep darkness in the Near East. due to previous
disorders and catastrophes. There is only a little documentation in Assyrian inscriptions, Israelite
chronicles and the data provided by the Old Testament, since Hittite and Egyptian documents from
these times are scarce.
The new news
In 900 BC It is when we have news and greater historical documentation again. The political situation
has changed:
> Egypt has lost its influence in Asia and begins its definitive decline.
> The Israelites appear solidly established in Canaan.
> In Syria and Upper Mesopotamia there is a mosaic of Aramaic principalities, and the
Pentafederation of Philistine cities (Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekrom and Gath) is
consolidated.
> The Phoenicians located on the Lebanese coast dominate Mediterranean maritime trade.
> Neo-Hittite principalities are born in the Taurus Mountains.
> Medes and Persians are located in Iran, although their power is still weak.
> In Assyria the New Kingdom begins to be born with energetic princes, which will last three
centuries
> “The Dark Ages” begins in Greece.
2. Israel
2.1 origins
There are different theories about their formation and origin as a people. Perhaps the first mention of
the people of Israel appears in the Stele of Memphis, by Amenophis II (1453-1419 BC), where he
names the Apiru (Hebrews) among the prisoners.
2.2 Formation and settlement
The time of the Patriarchs
• According to German researchers ( such as Kaufman and Noth )

> It was formed in Canaanite territory not before the 12th century BC, with the 12 tribes
forming an Amphithia (political associations united around a sanctuary). The Israelite
sanctuaries were rum Shechem, Bethel and Shiloh.
> They do not have a common past prior to their settlement in Palestine.
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> The patriarchs would be heads of autonomous tribes.
• According to French researchers ( such as Casin, Bottero and Vercoutter )
They find valid the theory of a common past prior to the settlement in Palestine, reflected in the Old
Testament in proper names, customs and social environment.
• According to American researchers
The Exodus and the conquest of Palestine are set in the 13th century BC, but differ in terms of the
beginning of the patriarchal era:
> Those in favor of a late dating place it in the time of Tell el-Amarna (15th century BC),
relying on the Old Testament.
> Others place the time of the Patriarchs in the middle of the Bronze Age, towards the first mi
age of the second millennium.
Important cities in this process were Penuel and Kadesh Barnea.
The Exodus and the settlement in Palestine
There is no other news than that of the Old Testament. According to the Bible, the Exodus took place
480 years before the construction of Solomon's temple (970+480= 1450 BC); there are 12 generations
of rent years.
If we calculate with generations of 25 years, it turns out 300 years: 970+300= 1270 (second half of
the 13th century BC), which coincides with archaeological news and non-biblical sources, such as the
appari tion of the Apiru in the 15th century BC in Egypt or the khapiru from Akkadian sources. These
denomination nes designated lower layers of stateless people, applied to Canaanite Semites, among
whom were found The Israelites, who arrived in Egypt as semi-slaves, struggle.
2.3 Formation of the state of Israel
It can be divided into two periods.
1) Era of the Twelve Tribes
> Beginning in the 12th century BC, Israel was a confederation of 12 tribes, whose name
changed changed, although their number would not change. Whatever the common bond
that united them, it is evident that they did not constitute a state.
> They lacked central government, capital and administration. Each one had great
independence quarrels and maintained the lack of organization of the nomadic peoples.
The authority, so Above all legally, they were the elderly, and in the case of war, the men
capable of carrying weapons.
2) Time of the Judges
> The Judges arose when serious events occurred. They were chiefs upon whom the spirit of
God sometimes descended, allowing them to gather all the clans and reject czar the enemy.
Its authority was neither permanent nor absolute, nor did it extend to all the tribes, and its
abilities were not transmissible, so it could not evolve into a permanent institution or lead
to the unification of the tribes.
> The Hebrew name of the Judges, shophetim, emphasizes the role of leaders more than the
ad ministrative, so the name Judges is not entirely correct.
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• The religious factor : It was not the political organization that maintained cohesion between the
tribes in two centuries, but the religious factor. At this time, monotheism as such had not been
imposed, and the cult of certain gods (such as the numina or the local baales) seemed legitimate.
Between Yahweh and his people There was a solidarity that closely united the religious, the political
and the legal.
“The Song of Deborah”, one of the oldest in Hebrew literature, tells the song of the prophetess after
the Israelite victory, inspired, animated and directed by her.
• The figure of the judge : Personal value, raised by the intervention of Yahweh, creates the Judge,
who apa pray and disappear without fixed rules. He was not yet the supreme leader of Israel, since
unification would be the work of the monarchy. The minor judges were just local heroes, each from a
different tribe. The Judge was the strong man who restored the situation of Israel or one or more
tribes, in times of oppression by neighbors.
The time of the Judges spans from the death of Joseph to the birth of Samuel. They are no longer
nomads, they have settled in the country and left the store for an adobe house, first as semi-sedentary
people and later as farmers.
• Historical sources : The only source from this time is the Book of Judges, written according to a
repetition of historical cycles:
Fall of the people into idolatry > Foreign domination > Return of the people to Yahweh > Sending a
Savior > Period of Peace.
They had a role more of a military leader than an administrative one.
• Judge Classes
> Savior Judges: Othniel-Ehud-Gideon-Deborah-Jephthah-Samson and Sangar.

> Minor Judges: without charismatic traits.
• Society at this time : Society had a tribal and patriarchal character. The supreme authority of the
tribe was held by the heads of the families that composed it and a central body that was the Council of
Elders.
By becoming sedentary and assimilating the Canaanite culture, tribal authority was weakened and the
territorial principle was imposed on blood ties. He moved to a sedentary state, which entails:
> The weakening of inter-family and inter-tribal relations.

> A process of new family and tribal fusions.
2.4 The establishment of the Israelite monarchy
The Philistines
With the second wave of the Sea Peoples, the Philistines take the country they gave their name to.
HE According to Israelite tradition, they come from Greece, they can be reconciled with
archaeological remains. But it doesn't seem like they came directly from a specific place. They
probably came from Asia
Minor (Licia and Caria). Rejected by Egypt (Ramesses III), they settled in the Canaanite coastal
region, erecting a Pentafederation of Philistine principalities (Gaza, Ekron, Ashkelon, Ashdod and
Gath).
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They gradually penetrated the territory occupied by the Israelites and in 1050 BC They defeated them
in the battle of Aphek, and the Ark of the Covenant fell into their hands. The Sanctuary was
destroyed, and domi ned a large part of the territories occupied by the 12 tribes.
This forced the Israelites to coordinate and appoint a king capable of subduing all of their territories.
tories to their authority and defend themselves from their neighbors.
Saul's Monarchy (1030-1010 BC)
The first book of Samuel has two opposing traditions about the establishment of the monarchy: one
favorable and another that describes it in an oppressive tone.
• The favorable (I Sam. 9,1-10,6)
Yahweh chose Saul to be leader (nagid) and free his people from the Philistines. As a nagid, Saul,
Samuel's successor, falls into the line of the Judges of Israel. But an ele appears above him new
moment: the nagid is acclaimed king, becoming a melek.
• The one with an oppressive tone (I Sam. 8,10,17-27)
The people ask Samuel for a king; He warns them of the evils that this could bring and how he would
take advantage of the situation, but he anoints and consecrates him.
The model followed by Israel is that of the transjordanian monarchies of Moam, Edom, Ammon and
Aram, with a strong national foundation and were unaware of dynastic succession. Philistine
influence is only felt in the organization of a permanent military entourage and in weapons.
This monarchy is a source of strong internal tensions, the result of two contradictory currents:
> One according to tradition, represented and maintained by the Judges.

> Another imposed by the circumstances of the fight against the Philistines and which, when the
king gathered an official troop, broke the unity of the people in arms characteristic of the
previous era.
• The most serious fact
Saul usurped priestly functions. He sacrificed to Yahweh on the mountain of Behtel in the absence of
Samuel. This, for the sacrilege committed, anoints one of Saul's servants behind his back, Da vine,
who had to flee, joined by all those dissatisfied with Saul. He entered the service of Israel's enemies,
but turned his weapons against the Amalekites and the desert tribes, whose despots Pojos convinced
the people that he was the true winner.
Saul, when defeated in the fatal battle of Mount Gelboé and his three sons killed, committed suicide
on his sword (1010 BC).
The reign of David (1010-970 BC)
Ishbaal, son of Samuel, is proclaimed king, but David also has himself proclaimed king in Hebron,
supported by mercenary troops, so we see that there is already a change in the way of making the
election. tion about the double method used by Saul (Yahweh and people). The assassination of
Ishbaal simplifies the situation, and concludes with an alliance in Hebron, establishing the capital in
Jerusalem. In a short time he annexed Aram, Zoba, Maca, Tob, Damascus and all of Canaan. His
kingdom extended from the Gulf of Aqaba to Hama.
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• Centralization
The centralized monarchy was based on four pillars:
> Court, Guard and Harem.

> Chancellery: with archivists, scribes and heralds.
> Army: with a commander (Joab), a Chief of Mercenaries and a Chief of Recruitment.
> Cult led by the priests, Zadok and Abiathar.
A “personal benefits commission” was also created, and a census was carried out, perhaps for tax
reasons.
• Consequences of centralization
There is a clash with the nomadic ancestral customs, giving rise to various sides:
> Saul's supporters.

> The traditionalists (used David's marriage to Bathsheba, wife of the Hittite Uriyya and mother
of Solomon), against the monarchy.
> Supporters of the new regime.
This gives rise to two events of great importance:
> Sheba's rebellion.

> The succession problem, with the rebellion of Absalom, his eldest son, and the appointment of
Sa Lomón, his other son, as successor.
Solomon's reign (970-931 BC)
• Reorganization of the Kingdom

When Solomon took the kingdom, the greatest problems had passed. There was a reconciliation with
Egypt, and Solomon married an Egyptian, reflecting the weakness of the 21st Dynasty.
Their main task is to maintain the integrity of the kingdom:
> Fortify the main routes of penetration.

> Reorganize the army, with greater means and troops.
He carried out a large-scale commercial and industrial policy:
> Agreement with Hiram of Tyre.

> Phoenician navigators carried out trade with the West and Africa (Queen of Sheba episode).
> Exploitation of the Ezión-Gaber copper mines, an important industrial center.
Interior work:
> Large-scale constructions with Phoenician craftsmen and materials, such as the Temple of
Jerusalem and the Royal Palace, also the seat of the Court and the Treasury.
> Important literary activity. First compilations of the history of Israel.
> Music and prosody develop.
• Negative aspects
The entire internal reconstruction process and the expenses of the army and the court produced:
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> Increase in taxes to cover the deficit.

> Division of the country into twelve districts subject to the authority of prefects.
> Religious tension.
All this undermined the foundations of agricultural-pastoral society, increasing the differences
between rich and poor.
2.5 Social structures
Consequences of sedentary lifestyle
> The notion of tribe disappears, and the clan established in a village appears.
> A caste of high royal dignitaries is created due to the administrative needs of the monarchy.
> Economic evolution entails a strong social stratification, with division between rich and poor.
Social classes
Social stratification is seen by the differences between groups: free men and slaves.
• Freemen
> Great people : Heads of powerful families or royal, civil and religious officials.
> Ensemble of the free population : without class distinction.
> Gerim : free men of a lower class than the previous one, like refugees of all classes, who were
designated as “domiciled foreigners.”
Professions
> The Gerim did not have land ownership, like many nationals, and were reduced to the
condition of agricultural wage earners, almost always miserable and exploited.
> Numerous professional associations of independent artisans are formed, established by trades
in different streets, due to the progress of commerce and urban development.
> During the monarchy, commerce was a state monopoly. Private commercial transactions were
carried out on a small scale. The great merchants were foreigners: Phoenicians, Canaanites or
Midianites.
• Slaves
They formed a small group, and were from different origins.
> Of foreign origin : For the constructions and subordinate tasks of the temple. They were of two
kinds:
V Purchased.
V Of the house, with military obligations to his master and his house.
> Israelites : Hebrews who sold themselves or members of their family for misery. At the age of
seven they had to be released, and obligatorily in the jubilee year. The slave was still The law
is an object of the master, although with some limitations.
State organization
• Monarchy
> Accession to the throne : Renewal of David's alliance for Judah in a member of the dynasty,
without birthright. The act of legitimation carried with it a series of ceremonies girls.
> Character : Although the monarch was not deified, the fact that Yahweh declared on the day
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of the coronation that “he had begotten him” gave him a different character from other men,
because he was:
V anointed judge.
V sacrosanct savior
V Priest according to the order of Melchizedek. The king was a kind of superintendent of
religion, responsible for religious institutions, although he did not intervene, with some
exceptions, in the functions of the clergy.
• High officials of the king

> Army chief.
> Head of taxes.
> Commander of the guard.
> Head of prefects.
> Three priests.
> Three high dignitaries who seem to constitute a transposition of the Egyptian administration:
Butler of the Palace, Royal Secretary and Herald (Head of protocol and intermediary between
the king and the people).
> The Butler of the Palace will become, after David and Solomon, the head of all functions.
royal naries and the King's Vizier.
• Administration
> Kingdom : It was divided into twelve prefectures, each under the command of a prefect or
nissab.
> Prefectures or districts : They delivered food to the royal house and the animals in their stables
every month. Five of them were named after tribes.
> Local level : Council of elders, municipal.
• Law and justice

The laws of law were of two forms:
> Case-based formulation : They hypothetically contemplate the cases. They are a legacy of
Canaanite law and essentially concerned secular law.
> Apodictic laws : absolute formulation. They refer to religious law and are specific to Israel.
They are given in an imperative form, like the Decalogue.
Israelite law is essentially religious, unlike the others in the Near East. The legislative power belonged
to divinity, while the king was the supreme judge to whom any subject could appeal.
• The law
> Court jurisdictions
V Court of Elders, at the gates of the city.
V royal court.
V Priestly court, to which cases that could not be resolved by the royal court were sent. It
met in Jerusalem and was made up of several priests and a layman.
> Property : The property regime was family. The heritage should not leave the family Lia. When
there was no male heir, the inheritance passed to the daughters and, in the last case, to family.
collateral ties. If it had to be sold, the closest relative was the goel, who had to rescue her so
that she would not leave the family. Despite this institution, family properties suffered a
deterioration in the first centuries of the monarchy, to the benefit of large agricultural owners.
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• Economy
In the time of Solomon it was highly developed. The agreement with King Hiram of Tire allowed him
to geographically exploit the country, taking advantage of the trade routes of the Red Sea and the
Medieval. earthen. The Phoenician sailors brought the materials. A series of caravan routes were
added to the maritime ones. The most important port was Ezion-Gaber.
Lending with interest developed among the Israelites, despite the provisions of the Law, in which
lending with interest was permitted to the foreigner, but not to the Israelite.
2.6 The schism and its consequences
Upon the death of Solomon (931 BC), his son Rehoboam was proclaimed king. Given the economic
problems monkeys, raise taxes and the people rebel. The northern tribes separated, governed by
Jeroboam, leaving the kingdom divided into two parts:
> Tribes of Judah and Benjamin : faithful to Rehoboam, they form the Kingdom of Judah, with
its capital in Jerusalem. They follow Israeli religious traditions.
> The other ten tribes : form the kingdom of Israel. It had several capitals: Shechem, Tirrha and
Sama estuary. They adulterated religious traditions.
2.7 The kingdoms of Judah and Israel
Kingdom of Judah (931-586 BC). The conquest of Babylon
It begins with the death of Solomon (931 BC) and continues until the taking of Jerusalem by
Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. His relations are strained with Israel in the first reigns. The main
kings were:
> Joram (848-841 BC): achieves unification by marrying Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and
Jezebel of Israel.
> Athaliah (841-835 BC): wife of Joram. She reigned with tyranny and was murdered,
exterminating the house of David.
> Joash (835-796 BC)
> Amaziah (796-781 BC): Judah became a tributary of Damascus. The Israeli invasion took
place lita and the Temple of Jerusalem was looted. time of the prophet Isaiah.
> Then Azariah, Jotham and Ahaz reigned.
> Hezekiah: ally of Egypt, tried to shake off the Assyrian yoke, but Sennacherib defeated him.
SW brought in Judah and threatened Jerusalem.
> Manasseh (687-642 BC): Submission to Assyria followed.
> Josiah (640-609 BC): time of the prophet Jeremiah.
• The Diaspora
During the years 587-586 BC Nebuchadnezzar II conquers and destroys Jerusalem, after years and a
half of siege. He took the Jews captive to Babylon until 586 BC This produces the Diaspora or dis
persion, and the end of the Kingdom of Judah.
Kingdom of Israel (931-722 BC). The Assyrian conquest
This kingdom lasted from the death of Solomon until 722 BC, and was characterized by conflicts.
internal conflicts and wars with Egypt, the Arameans and Damascus.
Finally, the army proclaimed Omri king (885-874 BC), who built Samaria as a political and religious
capital. He is succeeded by Ahab (874-853 BC), married to Jezebel (Phoenician), whom the prophet
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Elijah opposed. Their daughter was Athaliah, married to Joram, king of Judah.
• Domination of Assyrians and Babylonians
Upon Ahab's death, Jehu (841-814 BC) was chosen king by an envoy from Elijah, and the Omrids
were exterminated. This king became a tributary of Assyria. In 722 BC the destruction of Sa took
place Maria by Sargon II, who begins the Israelite deportations, turning Israel into an Assyrian
province.
• The end of Israel's independence
In 539 BC, after the conquest of the Neo-Babylonian Empire by Cyrus II, Palestine became part of the
Persian Empire.
• Restoration, decline and fall
The Temple was restored (completed in 515 BC). Between the years 445-443 BC A political and
religious reorganization took place with Nehemiah and Ezra.
• Dominion of Persians, Macedonians and Seleucids
> 332 BC: Palestine under the rule of Alexander.

> 168 BC: Rebellion of the Hasmoneans. Mattathias and his sons, especially Judas Maccabeus,
lu Charon against the Seleucids, surrendering in 142 BC
> 140-37 BC: Reign of the Hasmoneans. Constitutions of various religious groups, such as the
Pharisees (Orthodox Judaism), the Sadducees (conservative, who reject otherworldly
existence) and the Essenes (monastic communities who predict the messianic kingdom
through asceticism and purifications).
• Roman era in Israel and final Diaspora

> 63 BC: Pompey incorporated Israel into the Roman Empire, and imposed taxes.
> 39-34 BC: Herod the Great exterminated the Hasmoneans with permission from Rome and
took Jerusalem in 37 BC Upon his death he divided the kingdom between his sons: Judea,
Samaria and Idumea for Archelaus (replaced by the Roman Pontius Pilate in 6 BC), and
Galilee and Perea for Herod Antipas (who ordered the death of John the Baptist).
> 6-70 d. C.: The Romans demand the cult of the Emperor and the Jewish rebellion occurs.
> 70 AD: Titus conquered Jerusalem, causing the accidental destruction of the Temple and the
second Diaspora of the Jewish people, which lasts to this day.
2.8 Israelite monotheism
According to Renan, monotheism is the primary element of the history of Israel. The ethnologists We
have abandoned the idea, commonly accepted until the 18th century, of an original monotheism. nal
of humanity, although we have not given up searching for an extremely ancient origin to the modern
noteism of the Israelites.
According to Egyptologists, it comes from Ancient Egypt, and according to Assyriologists, it comes
from ancient civilizations. Mesopotamian tions.
Theories about the origin of Yahweh
• Theories about Egyptian origin
According to D. Volter, the God of Israel would come from the Egyptian god Sopd, protector of the
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Delta and Sinai. According to M. Müller and Liebleim, would come from the god Seth.
The Egyptians were not monotheists, but united the god Amun with Re, who were as one (Amon-Re),
which is considered a progress towards monotheism. The Egyptians, from the beginning early in their
history, they knew of the existence of a “Great God,” whom they distinguished from the simple gods.
ses, in the manner of the theos of the Greek philosophers, but he was more of an abstract divinity than
a personal and unique god.
The true monotheism of antiquity, exclusivist and conclusive, was the Aten's Amarnian. Some have
considered it as the real antecedent of Israelite monotheism.
• Theories about Syrian or Babylonian origin
There are different opinions:
> According to E. Sayce, there are forms that recall the name of Yahweh in cuneiform texts.
Other Assyriologists do not accept it, arguing that there are also some names of the period if
next (little house) with a great analogy. According to them, a divine element identical to
Yahweh is In principle, he is a secondary deity of the Western Semites, founders of the first
dynasty of Babylon.
> The discoveries in the archives of Mari and Ugarit, with a large number of theophoric names,
attest that the Amorites already had a god Yahweh that they assimilated with a syncreti
character. co to their own gods.
All these theories are not convincing and there is nothing definitive. Thus, Kaufman and Albright
consider They say that true monotheism begins with the founder of Yahwism, Moses, who
distinguished between monolatry and monotheism. The Yahwism of Moses would be a monolatry,
but not a monotheism mo, since it does not exclude other gods. Moses gathered a number of tribes,
and their religion was limited ted to the Israelite horizon, lacking the universal sense of monotheism.
Mosaism would therefore be a monolatry, although Moses planted the seed of monotheism.
Nature of the god of Israel
The religion of Israel, as brought by the Israelites to Canaan, was primitive and anthropomorphic.
Their god fought against the enemies of his people. He was not allied with individuals, but with
nature. tion. Their cult was not monotheistic (one god), but monolatric (one god). It had no
mythology, no pantheon of associated gods, no goddess consort. It was the source of law and justice,
and its sanctum river was a deposit of the law. His name was unpronounceable. The great merit of
Moses was in having connected the religious idea with the moral life.
Yahweh's relations with his people were like those of a father with his children, but based on
willingness and election, thus forming the germ of the Alliance between God and his People.
Evolution
When the Israelites settled in Canaan, a fusion occurred that left traces on the religion. gion. But this
fusion was slow and punctuated with a constant state of war, which saved its individuality. national
and religious duality.
The Israeli consciousness of a different nationality, under the protection of a different religiosity,
intensified ended with the wars against the Philistines. The approach to monotheism was carried out
slowly:
> During the monarchy, when Yahwism became the state religion, it is still remembered rria to
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the local payrolls. This competition made Yahweh an agricultural god.

> In the time of the prophets is the starting point of monotheism. Defenders of Yahwism, very
intolerant, the prophets unleash a religious war against the Philistines. Their intolerance
intensified with the prophets Elijah and Elisha and the fight against agricultural cults and
nomadic ideals.
The genesis of Israelite monotheism was marked by episodes of great violence, and a significant step
was taken when, after the Schism, Yahweh became the common god of the two enemy peoples: Israel
and Judah.
The Sanctuary and worship
• The temple
The temple was conceived as the royal habitation of Yahweh, but the formula was sought from
Deuteronomy and it was said that the “name of Yahweh” resided in the temple or that Yahweh “had
put his name on the Temple.” This temple became an emblem of the Davidic dynasty, and Jewish
national and religious symbolism are inextricably linked in it.
• temple staff
The temple staff, the Levites, appear to have been a profane tribe that survived because of their
religious and magical powers. Although there must have been non-Levitic priests, they soon prevailed
and also confronted Aaron, although the issue was resolved by making him the great Levite and
descendant of Levi, at the same time that the Levitical branch of Aaron soon monopolized the cult for
its own benefit. Apart from these, the temple had other servants of the cult, such as musicians and
singing beef.
2.9 The Old Testament and Mesopotamian civilizations
The Hebrew people, at the beginning of their history, were influenced both politically, morally and
religiously by the ancient Mesopotamian civilizations that surrounded them. That is why Sumerian,
Assyrian and Babylonian religious and cultural traditions and conceptions are found in the Bible.
• The creation
The biblical account of creation has these influences, although many are different from the
Mesopotamian accounts. The Babylonians and Assyrians have several versions or myths of creation,
the most important being the “Enuma elish” or “Poem of Creation” (1890-1594 BC), which narrates
the genealogy of the gods and how one of them them, Marduk, achieves supremacy and creates man
and the world.
For the Babylonians, creation was carried out by Nudimmud (Ea); For the Assyrians it was Ashur,
and creation was made from a primitive chaos, while in the Bible, Elohim, the transcendent divine
being, is the one who creates and structures the primitive chaos.
The Old Testament also differs because there are no primitive theogonies as in the Enuma Elish, but
Elohim is above chaos and does not come from anything previous.
In some passages of the narrative there are Mesopotamian influences, a reflection of traditions
widespread throughout the area:
> In both Genesis and the “Poem of Creation”, water was one of the primary elements.
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> The Legal Corpus of the peoples of the ancient East also influenced the precepts of Is rael, not
only in particular aspects, but also in the legal framework. I hear them Liturgical statements of
the Bible, and particularly the priestly one of Exodus and Numbers, reflect Hittite clauses
intended for priests and temple servants, just as some Mesopotamian New Year ceremonies
(Akitu) are reflected in Leviticus.
As for historical descriptions, in the Books of Kings there is news from Egyptian and Mesopotamian
sources, and the maximum wisdom of the Book of Proverbs was well known in the East. te, and
especially due to Egyptian influence.
The religion of Israel rejected myths (ancient popular literature, arising from polytheism), and
reflected those of its people through two aspects:
> The divine narratives concerning man, in which revelation and pa work of God.
> Fragments of poetic literature in which the struggle of God and Leviathan is described.
Thus, all these coincidences reveal the common origin of the Far Eastern texts with the Old
Testament. And it can be assumed that the Hebrew people, when they emigrated, carried with them as
cultural baggage the traditions and memories of a common past, which they knew how to take
advantage of. Old Testament writers.
3. Urartu
Powerful kingdom that extended from Lake Van to Armenia. It is contemporary from the time of the
Assyrian king Ashur-bel-kala (1174-1051 BC) to Shalmaneser III (858-824 BC). Its constitution as a
kingdom was the result of the infiltration of tribes of Hurrian origin. Their language can be
considered rar as a neo-Hurrian dialect.
Under the command of energetic chiefs it spread in several stages, and at the beginning of the 9th
century and the middle of the 8th century BC They aspired to the hegemony of all of former Asia.
It was a cereal country, with large hydraulic works, large herds and important textile production. Its
exports reached Greece and Etruria.
The political structure was modeled on that of the Assyrian kingdom, and this favored its
development. The country is It was divided into provinces, each with a governor, and the vassal states
paid a tribute.
3.1 Rise and end of Urartu
Around the 9th century BC the first written sources appear.
Sardur I (832-825 BC)
Contemporary of Shalmaneser III of Assyria. He had a stele engraved with:
> Cuneiform writing

> Akkadian language
> Assyrian phraseology.
> Mesopotamian hierarchy in titles.
All of this was the claim of universal hegemony: recognized predominance of Akkadian cultural
influence in the new state.
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Ishpuini (824-806 BC)
Resurgence of Urartean national sentiment. The capital was Turushpa, and the national god was
Khaldi.
Menua (805-788 BC)
Contemporary of Adad-Nirari III of Assyria. He founded a new capital near the source of the Karasu.
In domestic policy he increased farmland and built canals. In foreign policy with An important
victory over the Maneos followed and he reached the borders of Hatti.
Argishti I (787-766 BC)
Expansion continued at the expense of Assyria and a period of progressive weakness in the country of
Urartu would follow his reign.
Sardur III (765-733 BC)
Within progressive weakness, expansion continued until Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria forced it to
stop.
End of Urartu
The Cimmerian tribes, wandering in Asia Minor towards the end of the 8th century BC, caused deep
commotions in the area that would affect Urartu. Sargon I of Assyria defeated Argishti I in 705 BC,
and annexed Urartu to Assyria, at the same time as the Aramean and Neo-Hittite principalities, being
post formerly annexed by the Median kingdom. Another king called Rusa (730-714 BC) is still
known, with all mention of this country disappearing after him.
4. Lidia
4.1 The kingdom of Lydia

Lydia is a region of Asia Minor, made up of fertile valleys and mountains, located between the plains
of eastern Anatolia and the eastern bank of the Aegean. It contained the rich cities founded during the
“First Greek colonization” and which, in turn, were metropolises from which most of the colonizers
of the “Second Greek colonization” left. This region was in the middle of two cultures, the Greek and
the Eastern, and was the natural path along which ideas, trade, and wealth flowed during ancient
times, especially along the natural routes that followed the course of the rivers.
The population was made up of a native Asian region, on which Indo-European elements settled. Its
ancient name was Meonia and from the 7th century BC She will be called Lydia.
Its capital was Sardis, from the name of the Sardans, one of the towns mentioned in Medinet Habu as
“Town of the Sea”.
The invasion of the Cimmerians between 750-700 devastated this region and neighboring Phrygia,
Cappadocia, Cili cia, Pontus and even Assyria. Canduales (704-687), king of Medonia, called his
vassals to his aid, including Gyges, who usurped his power, later consolidating himself on the throne.
Gyges (687-652) married the widow of his predecessor and relied on the Lydian tribe to govern,
which from now on will give its name to the country. This king, under whom Lydia prospered,
developing trade and inventing currency around this time, was for the Greeks the prototype of the
tyrant, opposed to the "legitimate kings", since, like the Greek tyrants, Gyges was a king contrary to
the aristocracy.
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Another invasion of the Cimmerians (in the year 676), which destroyed the neighboring kingdom of
King Midas of Phrygia, made Gyges seek protection from Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, offering
him a tribute but, after ex To fight this invasion with Assyrian help, he offered his help to Pharaoh
Psammetichus, emancipating himself from Assyrian rule (in the year 653), which caused them to
attack him, defeating and murdering him. him in the year 652. He was succeeded by his son Ardys
(652-615) under Assyrian sovereignty, with whose help he once again expelled another invasion of
Cimmerians, undertaking the reconstruction of his kingdom and the conquest of the coastal cities.
The historical role of Lidia and its inhabitants can be summarized in the importance of two facts:
> Inventors of currency (according to traditional theory) or as transmitters of the invention, the
li god helped facilitate trade in the ancient world.
> Intermediaries between Greece and the East and an international meeting point for two
cultures, which makes them precursors of Hellenism.
The fall of Assyria, after the capture of Nineveh and Harran (612-610), restored Lydia's
independence. King Alyates (610-561) reinforced his navy, with the support of rich bankers, hiring
merce Greek narians. He extended his kingdom to the Halys River, being fought by Caixares de
Media for six years (591-585), until the wedding of a daughter of Alyates with Astyages, son of
Caixares, sealed peace, setting the border between both kingdoms in the Halys River.
Croesus (561-546), son and successor of Alyates, subdued Ephesus and the coasts of Asia Minor,
finishing subduing the other countries up to the border of the Halys River. Croesus was a king
legendary for his wealth and carried out a monetary reform, turning Sardis into the largest center of
exchange of the time. The conquering ambition of Cyrus II ended with him, who defeated him in the
year 546, and annexed his lands to the Persian Empire.
TOPIC 12. THE PHOENICIANS
1. The Phoenicians
1.1 Theories about its origin

The question about the origin of the Phoenicians has had different answers:
> The Phoenicians are Semites, coming from the desert with their own lifestyle and culture,
according to O. Eissfeldt and G. Contenau. They rely on the writings of Herodotus, Strabo and
Jus tino
> The formation of the Phoenician nation is the result of an evolution in the Syrian-Palestinian
area, of its first inhabitants. They are not the product of immigration from abroad, according
to S. Moscati.
> There is no evidence of Semitic military conquest, although there are several waves of Semitic
emigrants from Arabia or the Persian Gulf. According to Harden, the Phoenicians were
Canaanite Semites, both by language and by geographical name.
Recent excavations at Ebla have shown that the Canaanites populated Syria as early as the 3rd
century. lenio BC, and were possibly descendants of other inhabitants (the proto-Canaanites), who
would be the oldest known Semitic people. Possibly the Phoenicians and the Hebrews later emerged
from them. Their origin is still unknown, and it is possible that they were native.
1.2 The Proto-Phoenicians or Canaanites
Until the end of the second millennium we did not distinguish the Phoenicians from the rest of the
Canaanites, inhabitants of the Levantine coast. The oldest known Phoenician cities are Ugarit and
Byblos, and later Tire and Sidon were founded. They were excellent merchants and immediately set
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to sea. According to D. Banramki the Phoenicians are a mixture of Canaanites with the “Sea People”,
from whom they take the technique of deep-sea navigation, the secret of making purple, salting fish,
glass paste and the alphabet whose use they defended are characteristics by which they are
distinguished.
The first news of the Phoenicians
> Egypt : Trade by sea is mentioned in the Palermo Stone, by Pharaoh Snefru (2650-2600 BC).
In the papyrus of Sinuhé (1971 BC) the life of the Canaanites is described and the name of the
Phoenicians is cited. In the Tell el-Amarna archive they are mentioned under the name kinan
or knanhu.
> The Bible : in the Old Testament the Giblites are mentioned around 2500 BC, described
improving its trade with Egypt.
> The Greeks mention them under the name phoenikes, for the first time with Homer.
> The Romans called those from the West Punic and those from the East Phoenicians.
> They called themselves chanani (Canaanites).
1.3 Phoenician protohistory

It includes from its origins to the invasion of the Sea Peoples in 1200 BC Towards the middle of the
3rd millennium BC The entire Syrian-Palestinian area was unified by the kingdom of Ebla, suffering
a double influence from the Mesopotamian and Egyptian cultures.
The relations between Byblos and Egypt were continuous, already documented in the Tinite era, and
intensi set in the Middle Kingdom.
After a parenthesis of decline, Egypt, in the New Kingdom, intensified commercial relations, going so
far as to establish a protectorate over the Phoenician cities with Thutmose III, having the si following
consequences:
> Important trade between Syria, Cyprus, Crete, the Peloponnese and Egypt.
> The flourishing of cultural progress, due to relations with different peoples.
In the 14th century BC The protectorate ended due to pressure from the Hittites and Amorites.
With the invasion of the Sea Peoples, several towns arrived on the Syrian-Palestinian coast,
establishing some who were rejected by Egypt were found there. One of them was the Philistines,
with their Pentafederation, from which true Phoenician history begins.
1.4 The main Phoenician states
Importance of the geographical environment
It is important to know the geographical environment in the development of the Phoenician culture,
since the environment forced them due to their geographical location to seek the sea route, since they
inhabited a very small strip of land, with fertile but scarce land. There was a large amount of wood,
with cedar forests, starting with them the first commercial transactions due to their importance for
building ships as well as buildings.
Major cities or states
They were located in appropriate places, with good ports for trade. All cities had the same common
characteristics:
> A beach to anchor boats.
> A spring of drinking water.
> A rocky, mounded area used as a necropolis.
They were all very close to each other, at a maximum distance of 40 km (one day). The main cities
were:
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> Ugarit (Ras Shamra): the southernmost. In it, purple dye was discovered from murex shells.
> Plows: on a rocky island. He dominated other cities, such as Maratus and Simiro.
> Byblos: with two ports, center of worship to Astarte.
> Sidon, Tire and other less important cities, such as Beritus, Azcib and Maratus, also stood out.
1.5 Type of government and social structure of the Phoenicians
Type of government
The eastern Phoenician cities were all politically independent and self-sufficient despite their small
land area. There was never a confederation of Phoenician states, which is surprising given the success
of their trade. Carthage itself was not a strictly imperialist power, but sought commercial dominance,
but never sought power in the strict political sense.
In general, the Semites moved from a patriarchal nomadism to an urban way of life and typically
adopted a monarchical type of government. They were hereditary monarchies, although this was not
always the case. Dynastic lists may be established, but not always complete, for large cities. cities
(Sidon, Tyre, Plows and Byblos).
Later the form of government became oligarchy: The councils of elders, made up of rich merchants,
went from being advisors to the monarchs to having total power.
Magistrates emerged in Tire that were in charge of executive functions, as did Carthage in the 5th
century BC:
> Two magistrates (sufetes) had constitutional power, and were perhaps elected.
> Senate of 300 life members.
> Council of 104 members that formed the board or court of public inspection. Before her the
generals and officials had to account for their positions.
> People's Assembly.
This government is reminiscent of the democratic government of Athens and later the Roman
republican one. Election to the magistracies and entry into the Senate appears to have been based on
wealth rather than hereditary reasons. The wealthy merchant class dominated power.
Social structure
At first, there was a great gap between the upper and lower classes, but we do not know if it continued
to exist. done in later times. It is only known that the Libyans were in the service of the Punics and it
is shown were discontented, that they achieved the rights of the Punics, and that it was they, more
than the descendants of the Phoenicians, those who maintained the Punic language and culture in the
Numidian kingdom after the fall of Carthage.
The historians of the Punic world do not admit that the Phoenicians were pure, nor that they had a
clear conscience of race or nationality. Perhaps their commercial interest and their passage through
different nations made them assimilate languages, cultures and religions of other peoples. Perhaps this
was the cause of their success in trade, since they knew how to win over the people of other countries
and let them settle in their territories.
Greek culture was the one that had the most influence on Punic culture, but there are also examples to
the contrary. river, making it very difficult to define them. Socially they mixed more than any other
town with the people where they settled. Mixed marriages were very common.
There are three factors that stand out in this civilization:

> Political independence of the city-state.
> Interdependence of their culture.
> Influence of other cultures.
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1.6 Phoenician colonization and overseas expansion

The Phoenicians made their way through the only path that nature allowed them: the sea. Its first
commercial relations were with Egypt, intensifying with the XXII Dynasty (945-715 BC. C.).
Commercial expansion is the most accentuated characteristic of the Phoenician people along with the
alphabet. We know her for:
> The archaeological remains, especially ceramics.
> Mythology and its cults, which they spread in their colonies.
> Toponymic and philological evidence.
From very ancient times, and with the city of Tire at the head, they began the expansion towards the
West. cando tin. In the 8th century BC. C. its greatest apogee developed. At first they spread to
neighboring places, then spread throughout the Mediterranean.
Expansion zones
Eastern Mediterranean
> Cyprus : They got the tin there. It was located less than 100 km. of the Phoenician coast.
Through it the Phoenicians were able to interact with other peoples of the Mediterranean.
Kition was the most important urban center for Phoenician trade.
> Egypt : The colony of Memphis was of great importance, where the metal trade was
centralized. such and local manufactures. In it they built a temple to the goddess Astarte.
There is also evidence of the Phoenician presence in the Nile Delta.
> Asia Minor : Its trade developed especially on the southern coast, in Cilicia. There is
evidence that relief establishments probably must have existed.
> Palestine : In the southern area, burnished red pottery attests to its presence in Gaza.
> The Aegean : In Rhodes its influence succeeded the Mycenaean until the 6th century BC Its
main colonies were in Ialysos and Cameiros.
Crete was the diffusion center from which the Aegeans brought Mycenaean colonization to
the Phoenician coasts, and they welcomed their mercantile successors, the Phoenicians.
Itannos is not considered ba Phoenician foundation, but there were Phoenician merchants or
artisans there. Metallurgy was used to make luxury objects.
In the central and western Mediterranean
> Italy : According to Thucydices they were on the east coast of Sicily before the 8th century
BC In its western part they founded Motya, Panormo and Soloeis. According to Dumbabin
they were in Siracu sa and Thapsos and then retired to Panormo before VIII BC. of C.
They established foundations also in Malta, Pantellaria and Sardinia (Caralis, Nora, Bithia,
Tharros and Sulcis). There is no evidence of Phoenician settlements on the coasts of the
Italian peninsula, since the Greeks and Etruscans were already settled there.
> North Africa : The existing colonies in this area are very early: Utica, Carthage and later
Hadrumetrum and Leptis Magna on the central coast. To the west were Lixus, Mogador and
Tingis.
> Iberian Peninsula : They founded Gades (Cádiz) in the 12th century BC(?), which is the
oldest Phoenician colony in the West, after which the mythical founding of Carthage will
follow. It was a stable key foundation due to its location and because metal (tin brought from
the Cassiterides Islands) and the riches of Tartessos (Lower Guadalquivir) were traded
through it. From here it is They settled on the SE coast in Sexi (Almuñécar), whose “Laurita”
necropolis is the oldest in the West, and in Mainake (Málaga).
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Later the Carthaginians settled in Hispania, remaining until the first Punic War. Then Amilcar
reestablished Punic rule in the area in 238 BC. C. and founded Carthago Nova and Akra
Leuke. The Second Punic War marks the end of Carthaginian rule in Spain (218-201 BC). of
C.).
> Balearic Islands : The Carthaginians founded Ebussus (Ibiza) there. The name of Mahón is
Phoenician, and it was one of the largest ports in the Mediterranean in Antiquity.
1.7 Phoenician religion. Divinities, temple and sanctuaries

Data sources for your study
There are two large groups of data:
> Those extracted from the Ugarit texts : the Ugaritic religion is defined as a Canaanite
religion that notably influenced the other Semitic peoples in the transition from Bronze to
Iron.
> The works of Sancuniatione : priest of Beritus who in the 12th century BC exposed the with
Phoenician conception of the creation of the world. It has reached us through the “Byblos
Reef.”
The problem with these two groups of data is that they give two very different visions of religion,
since they correspond to very distant times chronologically. Other indirect sources appear in the Old
Testament, and classical Latin sources (Plutarch and Lucian) are also interesting.
The origin of the Phoenician religion could have been in Ugarit. Both the Canaanite religion and that
of Ugarit tu They underwent a long transformation until they were assimilated by the Phoenicians and
acquired their own character. Through Carthago they passed their ideas to the West.
The main characteristic of the Phoenician religion is the lack of homogeneity, due to the numerous
African and Eastern cultural contributions (Egypt, Libya, Mesopotamia...). In any case, although there
is information about divinities, there is very little about worship, prayer, temples and myth. lodge.
Divinities
The geographical and political division of Phenicia is reflected in its religion, which has as its
character essential features :
> Continuity of elements from primitive historical periods.
> Great dissemination of the names of the deities and their functions, which depended on the
cult in each city.
• Byblos
From the 2nd millennium BC It is the temple of Rashap (Temple of Obelisks). The great goddess of
Byblos was Ba'alat-Gubal, identified with the Mesopotamian goddesses Innana and Ishtar. They
considered her the goddess of fertility, both of the earth and human. Its iconography is similar to that
of Egyptian Hathor-Isis. Inc.
• Sidon
Their goddess was Astarte, who lived in her temple with her priests and was honored by her kings. It
was parallel to the Ba'alat of Byblos and later to the Greek Aphrodite and the Roman Venus. It was
also well goddess of fertility.
The great god was Eshmun, whose main function was that of a healing god.
• Shot
Melkart was the main god. His name means “king of the city.” His character and functions are similar
to those of Adonis and Eshmun. He had great importance, and shared worship with Astarte and
Eshmun.
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In their time of expansion, the Phoenicians took religious elements from the cultures they contacted.
taron, and at the same time the cult of the Phoenician gods spread. Finally, throughout the classical
world the same gods will be worshiped but with different names.
Temples and shrines
• The oldest
They were located in Byblos and Ugarit (Middle Bronze Age). There were three kinds:
> In closed areas.
> In open-air chapels.
> On altars in the mountains.
• In Punic times
The tophet was the site of human sacrifice, and the best known was that of Tanit. Later human
sacrifices of children were replaced by sacrifices with lambs. The priests succeed They go on for
generations within the same family. The scribes, musicians, and barbers belonged to the cult. sacred
rivers and the boys and girls who practiced sacred prostitution as religious offerings gious to the
divinities of fertility within the temple precincts.
Funeral customs
Inhumation was the most common form of burial, although cremation was also used. ration. Most pit
tombs are excavated in the rock. They used magnificent sarcophagus anthropoid gos in one piece. In
them a trousseau was deposited, which normally consisted of ceramics. ca, metal glasses with food
and drinks, and small wooden and ivory containers. Some also included jewelry, needles, baby bottles
and ostrich eggs decorated and painted with ocher inside.
1.8 Phoenician writing. The alphabet
The alphabet is a system of writing signs that expresses the elementary sounds of language. Its name
comes from the Latin word alphabetum, formed with the names of the first two letters of the Greek
alphabet.
origins
The idea of writing separate consonants appeared in Egypt, and from there it spread among the
Semitic peoples during the 2nd millennium BC. The first examples of pre-alphabetic writings are:
> Protosinaitic inscriptions (before the 15th century BC), with 40 inscriptions. It's like that
ciated with other inscriptions in Egyptian hieroglyphs. They are simpler than hieroglyphs or
cuneiform characters. They may not express a Semitic language.
> Canaanite inscriptions (16th century BC). The external features are similar to the Senaítca
and the Semites.
> Pseudohieroglyphic inscriptions from Byblos (20th-17th or 15th-14th centuries BC). There
are only 10 and they show the transition from syllabic to simplified writing. The phonetic
value of the signs is independent of their origin.
> The Ugarit texts (14th century BC), with only 30 cuneiform signs. It belongs to the Semitic-
Canaanite group. The appearance of the writing is cuneiform, but the signs have nothing in
common with the Sumerian-Akkadian characters.
Semitic forms of the alphabet
The Semitic alphabet can be divided into two groups:
> Northern Semitic : Phoenician, Aramaic, Hebrew and Moabite.
> Southern Semitic : Sabean, in southern Arabia and Yemen, and the Ethiopian.
The Northern Semitic group belongs to:

> Ancient inscription from Byblos (17th century BC).
> Two inscriptions of King Ahiram of Byblos (13th-12th centuries BC).
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> Guezer calendar (11th-10th centuries BC).

> Inscriptions of Abibaal and Elibaal and the epigraph of Hasdrubal (950-900 BC).
> Stele of Mesha, king of Moab (842 BC), the longest written in the North-Semitic language.
The written sources of the South Semitic group are scarcer, the oldest being the Balu'a inscription
(12th century BC).
The Phoenician alphabet
The origin of the Phoenician alphabet has not been determined. The first texts in the archaic
Phoenician alphabet have 22 linear signs that write only consonants, with which all words could be
written. Its simplicity and historical circumstances caused it to spread rapidly.
In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC The Phoenicians developed their alphabet. The result
was a system ma that recorded mainly consonants, with the exception of the initial a. This had the
advantage of needing to know only a small number of signs to be able to write. This writing was
spread notably from the 10th century BC
Thanks to the commercial activities of Tire, the expansion of this alphabet throughout all the
Mediterranean colonies was ensured.
The Phoenician inscriptions of Cyprus (9th-2nd centuries BC) and the Punic writing of Carthago (9th
centuries BC until 142 BC) have transmitted to us the form of this alphabet, as well as the Tabnit
sarcophagus of Sidon (6th-5th centuries BC) and the Karatepe inscriptions (before 711 BC).
In Greece it must have been introduced through the islands of Thera, Medes and Crete, and was called
for many long time “Phoinikia Grammata” (Phoenician characters). Ugaritic writing was written from
the left It faces right, but Phoenician was written from right to left. Compared to other writing
systems, it had the great advantage of its simplicity, because the other systems used a greater number
of signs.
Phoenician writing, established already in the 10th century BC, is what the colonists brought to the
West, spreading it throughout the Mediterranean. The Phoenician writing was also adopted by the
Arameans to write their Semitic language, although different from Canaanite, and they spread it
throughout all continental land routes.
1.9 The decline of Phoenician hegemony
In 589 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon conquered the Phoenician cities, except Tyre, and laid
siege da for thirteen years until in 573 BC Ithobaal III of Tire had to surrender to the king of Babylon
girl The consequences of this surrender were:
> Abolition of the Tyrian monarchy.
> The eastern Phoenician colonies lose their eastern metropolis and the Phoenician colonization
falls into clear decline.
> This Phoenician weakening was taken advantage of by the Greeks, using their naval routes
and their markets. fallen.
> Carthage assumes the primacy of Phoenician power and interests in the West. Together with
the Etruscans they fought against the Phocians in the battle of Alalía (535 BC), after which the
commercial influence in the Mediterranean was divided between them.
> With the arrival of the Persian Empire, the Greeks did not adapt to its power, but the
Phoenicians did, who, although without independence, continued with naval power and
influence, and their fleet became basic for Persian trade and maritime campaigns. For this
reason, the Phoenician fleet collaborated decisively against the Greeks in the Persian Wars.
Also both the eastern and western Phoenicians suffered from Greek cultural influence and later
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Roman rule.
Topic 13. Iran (Medes and Persians)
1. Geography
Geographic Setting
The limits of Iran are:
> West: Zagros Mountains
> East: Suleiman Mountains, which separate it from India
> South: Persian Gulf
> North: Transcaucasia, the Caspian Sea and the Oux River.
Commercial and Natural Routes
The natural routes along which trade developed were a decisive factor in its history, a crossroads
between East and West. The main ones are:
> Starting from the Tigris Valley it goes up towards the Diyala Valley and Medra Plateau. At
first it headed to Babylon, and later from Seleucia to Halman, Behistun and Hamadari, where
it branched off into several routes to the East.
> From Hamadan towards the North, towards Susiana.
> From Hamadan towards the North, towards Chiraz, Persepolis and Ispahan.
> From Tehran to Azerbeijan.
> The one that goes to India through the Suleiman Mountains, through the Khaiber Pass.
2. Iran until the migration of Medes and Persians. Phases
Proto-Iranian era
The Pre-Obeid period in Iran is called Proto-Iranian. Their characteristics are:
> Establishment in Tepe-Sialk : Village of huts surrounded by protective walls. Painted
ceramics and embossed copper. Adults are buried in inhumed graves, and children are
sometimes buried in jars. Later it was built with raw brick. There are domestic animals and a
greater abundance of embossed copper.
> II Tepe-Hissar Civilization : Stone seals. Painted ceramics disappear. Its third phase is
contemporary with Jemdet-Nasr. in Mesopotamia, with seal cylinders.
Elam and the Akkad Dynasty
• Period I
Mebaragesi's domain of Kish circa 2700 BC Later, the Elamites invaded Lower Mesopotamia. After
the I Dynasty of Ur is a Dynasty of Awan, which was succeeded by the II Dynasty of Kish. Then
King Eannatum of Lagash (2455-2425 BC) dominated Elam.
• Period II. Elam during the Akkadian Empire
Sargon I conquers Elam, and with Naram-Sin Akkadian dominance in Elam is unquestionable. There
is Akkadian influence in constructions and written documentation.
The Guti and the Third Dynasty of Ur
In Akkad, after Sarkalisharri (2217-2193 BC) Elam passed into the hands of the Guti (Asiatics of the
Zagros). They had at least 20 kings, and were expelled by Utu-Hegal from Uruk (2123-2113 BC).
Years later, the Third Dynasty of Ur began its expansion towards Zagros and Elam with Shulgi.
The kings of Simash in Lower Mesopotamia
In the northern regions of Elam the rule of Ur III was not admitted. Outside Susa and its district, Elam
was in the hands of the kings of Simash, until in the time of the king of Larsa Gungunum (1932-1906
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BC) almost all of Elam fell into his power. When it becomes independent again, the one who rules in
Elam no longer bears the title of king, but that of “High Commissioner” or Sukkalmahhu.
Period of the High Commissioners or Sukkalmahhu
While the First Dynasty (Amorite) ruled in Babylon. Three holders ruled Elam:
> Sukkalmahhu, of religious origin, with a relationship of dependence with the gods of the
country.
> Sukkal of Elam and Simash.
> Sukkal of Susa (also king of Susa).
When the Sukkalmahhu died, the Sukkal of Elam succeeded him, and this one of Susa, a new Sukkal
was chosen for Susa. All of them belonged to the royal family.
• Culture
Great Akkadian influence. This language was the most used, and the Elamite language is becoming
increasingly distant from the Mesopotamian language. The personal names are Akkadian, except for
those of the princes, who remain Elamite.
• Religion
The main gods were Shamash and Shushinak. Theophorous names are used.
The Casitas
The country of Kashshen was in central Zagros. There was established, in the time of the
Sukkalmahhu, a population that the Elamites called Kussi, with an ethnic origin of Asiatic origin, the
Kassites. Before settling in Mesopotamia, a syncretism occurred, and their divinities were assimilated
in Lower Mesopotamia, forming three groups:
> Asians: Shipak, Sah, Kudna and Harbe.
> Indo-Europeans: Shuriash, Surya and Maruttash.
> Of undetermined origin: Kashshu, Kamulla, Hala, Dura Sugab and Shuqamuna.
This hybrid pantheon is an example of the mixture of populations. They introduced the use of horses
and their training.
Kings of Anzan and Susa (14th century BC)
In the time of Adad-Nirari of Assyria (1307-1275 BC), who marched against the Guti, Lullubi and
Babylon, Elam took advantage of the opportunity and became independent. Pair-Ishshan founds a
new Dynasty in Anzan. His nephew Hubanmana was king of Anzan and Susa, enlarging the Elamite
Empire.
The most important king was Untashgal, a contemporary of Tukulti Ninurta I of Assyria (1244-1208
BC) and Shuriah of Babylon (1255-1243 BC). His successor was Kastiliash IV, who enlarged and
beautified Susa.
3. The Medes
Medieval immigration
With the invasion of the Country of the Sea (1200 BC) important changes occurred in the Eastern
Mediterranean. The Hittites disintegrate, forming the Neohitite Principalities. Meanwhile, in Iran
there are contributions from two successive civilizations:
> The first is not very important and we do not know its origins.
> The second was linked to the migration of Iranians, Medes and Persians, or their immediate
predecessors. His entry was peaceful.
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• The Medes
They were bands of mercenaries at the service of the princes of Auzan and Susa, who received land in
reward, becoming their owners. They were Indo-Europeans divided into six tribes. The family was
based on paternal authority and polygamy. Once established in Iran they became farmers, but they
were independent clans that united in case of danger. They came into conflict with Assyria during the
time of Shalmaneser III (858-834 BC)
Assyrians in Northern Elam
Although there are few sources, in the 8th century BC continues the Elamite tradition. The
conjunction of Chaldeans and Elamites in this area was dangerous for Assyria, which warred for
years. The dissensions with the King of Susa, Te-Uman, were taken advantage of by Assurbanipal,
who defeated the Elamite Humban-haltash III and the country became an Assyrian province.
The Neo-Elamite Kingdom
In the second half of the 8th century BC, the small independent kingdoms that surrounded it fell into
its power, except for Iran. Later, when Assyria was ruined by the Medes and Babylonians (612-610
BC), Iran retaliated and the Achaemenid Persians would be the largest and best organized Empire
until then. Now the supreme power of Elam is concentrated in the hands of a single king (Nerelamite
kingdom).
• Kings
> Huban-Nikash (742-717 BC): First king. Balances the power of Assyria in Ellipi and the
Zagros.
> Shutruk-Nahhanunte II (717-699 BC) and Huban-Nimena (692-687 BC): They try not to get
into fights, but sometimes find themselves involved between Assyria and Urartu.
> Huban-Haltash (648-644? BC): Last king. Assurbanipal takes him prisoner.
> From 640-639 BC, Elam no longer appears as a kingdom. While Nineveh, capital of Assyria,
falls in 610 BC forever, Susa will be reborn and will be an important city with the
Achaemenid Persians. The Elamite language will continue to be spoken on the same level as
Persian and Babylonian.
Scythians and Cimmerians in Iran. Medes and Persians
The first mention of the Medes and Persians appears in the campaigns of Shalmaneser III (844 BC),
when they were facing the Assyrians, before their most brilliant period with the Luristan civilization.
The Iranian region had 4 regions: Ellipi, Zamua (country of the lullubi, guti and casitas), the country
of the Medes (south and southeast of Lake Ummia) and Parsua (country of the Persians, south of the
Medes, in the northern Elam).
When Shalmanassar III dies, all the towns become independent except Parsua, which passes into the
hands of Urartu, which maintains its power when Assyria declines. At the end of the 8th century BC,
before Sargon II of Assyria died, the Scythians and Cimmerians appeared in Iran, divided into two
bands, who moved towards the south, causing great concern, along with the Medes, to Assyria.
The Median Empire
> Dejoces (728-675 BC): he was a Median judge, appointed king by the Medes themselves. He
established the capital at Hammadari. He organized the clans, urbanized and walled the city in
imitation of the Babylonian ones.
> Phraortes (675-653 BC): tries to group Medes, Scythians and Mannaeans. He subdued the
Persians
> Period of Scythian domination : lasts 28 years.
> Cyaxares (653-585 BC): in 625 BC restores the situation. He killed the Scythian generals,
making them drunk. He enlarged the kingdom and formed an army in the Assyrian manner,
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with great cavalry. He married his daughter Amytia to Nebuchadnezzar. Together with
Babylon, they conquered Nineveh (612 BC) and Harran (610 BC), contributing to the fall of
Assyria, dividing the territories between the two. For Babylon they are Assur, Elam, Upper
Mesopotamia and claims to Syria and Palestine (held by Egypt). For Media they were the
ancient kingdom of Urartu (now Armenian) and the Assyrian provinces of Asia Minor up to
the Halys River, the border with powerful Lydia.
> Astyages (584-550 BC): peaceful and long reign. Introduced Assyrian customs. He married
his daughter to Cambyses, the Persian king, and their son, Cyrus II, dethroned his grandfather,
unifying the country and ruling the Medes and Persians. From his predecessor Achaemenes,
his empire will receive the name of Achaemenida.
The religion of the Medes and Iranians
• Religions
They had 4 religions:
> Religion of the indigenous Asian people : naturist, without a universal god. He worshiped four
elements (light, water, earth and wind).
> Religion of the Magi : from a priestly Median tribe, with some political attributions and
Assyrian traditions.
> Religion of the Median Kings : they made the Ahura or “Lords” the protectors of the dynasty
and the country.
> Zoroastrianism : preached by this reformer, it places Ahura-Mazda (Wise Lord) at the highest
point in the universe. Zoroaster is a prophet to whom Ahura-Mazda appeared, revealing a
moral law and a very harsh religious practice for him to teach to the Medes. The doctrine is
contained in the Avesta (3rd century BC). At the age of 40 he preached at the court of the king
of Bactria. He had numerous enemies among nobles and priests. He was killed in combat (583
BC).
• Religious aspects of the Zoroastrian reform
Ahura-Mazda is the Wise and supreme God, giver of all goods. Its symbol is fire. Zoroaster's teaching
is based on a dualism formed by two principles always in conflict with each other:
> The Principle of Good-Light and the forces of Heaven : represented by Ahura-Mazda, who
directs the Council of 6 Demigods and the forces of Good (the celestial forces were
commanded by Ahura-Mazda and the terrestrial forces by Zoroaster).
> The principle of Evil-Darkness and the forces of the Empire : represented by Ahriman, who
directs the forces of evil (sins and diseases).
Dualism evolved into a hierarchical polytheism, and made great progress towards the one god,
penetrating with its ideas into Christianity and Judaism.
Animal sacrifices were prohibited. Coctrine has a moral and social justice value: the good will be
rewarded.
• Political aspect of Zoroastrianism
Zoroaster's doctrine evolved according to the times:
> The Median kings did not officially adopt it, but they employed Zoroastrians in the service of
their policy. His monotheism fits with the imperialism of the Median monarchy.
> With the Sassanids (226-652 AD) it became the official religion of the Persian Empire until
Islam put an end to it.
4. The Persian Empire
The Persians were divided into 10 tribes: 6 of farmers and 4 of nomads.
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Teispes (675-640 BC)

He succeeded Achaemenes and, as king of Anzan, divided the kingdom between his two sons: Cyrus I
and Ariaramne.
Cyrus I (640-600 BC)
He succeeds Teispes in Parsumash and Anzán. He was succeeded by Cambyses (600-559 BC), his
son, who married the daughter of Astyages of Media, with whom he had Cyrus II, founder of the
Achaemenid Empire, which united the Medes and Persians.
Ariaramne
He succeeds Teispes in the Parsua (Persians). He was deposed by Cyaxares of Media.
5. The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BC)
Cyrus II the Great (559-528 BC)

• Domestic Policy
> Capture of the Median Empire : according to a legend, his grandfather Astyages (Mede king)
gave him command of the army, which passed to him at the battle of Pasagarda (550 BC),
becoming the main instrument of the fall of the Median Empire. .
> Formation of the Achaemenid Persian Empire : after taking Ectabana, the Medes asked him to
be their king, becoming king of Persia (546 BC). Media already depended on Persia, and
when these peoples united, the Achaemenid Persian Empire was formed.
• Foreign policy
> West : he conquered Lydia, defeating Croesus, and as a consequence took the Greek cities on
the Ionian coast of Asia Minor, which had refused the alliance with Cyrus II, waiting for
Spartan help, which did not arrive. The emigration of Phocaeans to Marseille took place.
> East : reaches the deserts of Gedrosia.
> Mesopotamia : he took Babylon, where Nabonidus reigned, who had alienated himself from
the priests of Marduk in favor of the cult of Sin of Harran. This made Cyrus the protégé of
Marduk, the conquest of Babylon being facilitated by his numerous supporters, and he was
welcomed as the liberator of Babylon from the power of the heretics of Sin in 537 BC.
He respected the temples and cults of the subject peoples, which allowed the Jews to return to
Jerusalem and rebuild their Temple.
• The end of Cyrus II
His death is surrounded by legend. He subjugated three empires: Media, Babylon and Lydia. The
secret of the Empire's durability is the political wisdom of its leaders, who granted great autonomy to
the subject peoples, safeguarding their local cultures and traditions. But, at the same time, these great
differences between their peoples were what produced the destruction by a smaller army, under the
command of Alexander the Great.
Cambyses II (528-523 BC)
He ascended the throne before his father died. After restoring order to his empire he fought against
Egypt. Pharaoh Amasis allied himself with Polycrates of Samos, and the Persians were joined by
Phoenicians and Ionians with their fleets. Years later, Pharaoh Psammeticus III was defeated (525
BC) and Egypt became a Persian Satrapy. Cambyses became recognized as pharaoh and began the
XXVII Dynasty (524-404 BC).
Following a project to conquer Africa, he tried to take Carthage, although he could not, and made
expeditions to Ethiopia and to the west of the delta, where he tried to open the Cyrenaica route.
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His long absence from Persia was taken advantage of by Gaumata, who, posing as Sarnis, brother of
Cambyses, usurped the throne in 521 BC. Cambyses died in an accident.
Gaumata confronted the nobility, who did not accept a Median king, and Darius, head of one of the
seven great families, was elevated to the throne.
Darius I (521-485 BC)
He restored the Empire and organized it after the dislocation following the death of Cambyses. He
suppressed revolts in Susa, Babylon, Media, Armenia and Asia Minor. Egypt did not participate in
these revolts thanks to the intelligence of the satrap Aryandes. Darius continued the canal that linked
the Mediterranean with the Red Sea, begun by Necao.
He carried out an expedition and trade with India. His empire again extended from the Aegean to the
Black Sea, and from the Caucasus to the Eastern Mediterranean, and from Egypt to Cyrenaica.
Xerxes I (485-465 BC)
Greco-Persian confrontation (the Persian Wars). After them, Athens became the first Mediterranean
power (Delian League, 476 BC). Persia abandons its possessions in Europe.
The main cause of the Greek victory was the varied composition of the Persian army.
The consequences were:
> Xerxes is killed.
> The Persians locked themselves into a feudal and fatal policy.
> The Mesopotamian Route loses economic and commercial importance. Phenicia begins its
decline, due to the ruin of Babylon and Greek naval hegemony. Carthage seeks new routes in
the west.
6. Decline and ruin of the Achaemenid Persian Empire
Before Darius III

• Artaxerxes I (464-424 BC)
There were riots:
> From the Satrap of Bactria (his brother), defeated in 462 BC
> From Egypt, defeated in 455 BC
The Greco-Persian Peace Treaty (449 BC) ends the Persian Wars. The splendor of Athens begins
(Age of Pericles), and Ionia joins the Attic-Delian league. The Jewish nation is reborn in Palestine
(445 BC).
• Xerxes II (424 BC)
He only reigns for a month and a half. Is murdered.
• Darius II (424-405 BC)
Great instability in the Empire. Greek intrigues in Asia Minor.
• Artaxerxes II (405-359 BC)
His reign means the military weakness of the Achaemenid Empire. The main events were:
> Revolt of his brother, Cyrus the Younger, commander of the troops and satrap of Asia Minor,
who with 10,000 Greeks obtained a great victory in Babylon, but died in the Battle of Cunaxa
(401 BC), producing the “retreat of the 10,000” .
> Emancipation of Egypt (404 BC).
> Athens-Sparta confrontation (Peloponnesian Wars), helping Sparta with Persian gold. Sparta
wins.
> Internal disintegration of the Empire. Rising taxes cause riots. Emancipation of Cyprus,
Phoenicia and Syria.
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The last years of his reign are one of intrigue and murders among the royal family.
• Artaxerxes III Ochos (359-338 BC)
Fierce and cruel, he murdered all his brothers and sisters. He bloodily reduced the Phoenician revolt,
provoking their hatred and their subsequent support for Alexander the Great. He reconquered Egypt,
turning it into the VI Satrapy.
Thanks to his energy, the Empire was remade, but it was a giant with feet of clay. He was poisoned by
the eunuch Bagoas, who had Arses, the king's youngest son, also murdered by Bagoas, ascend the
throne in 336 BC.
Darius III Codomano (336-330 BC) and Alexander the Great.
He was kind and weak to some and cowardly to others. It was from a collateral branch to the
Achaemenids. He killed Bagoas. Only the tradition of Quintus Curtius makes him a worthy prince, for
facing Alexander the Great.
7. Organization of the Achaemenid Persian Empire
The state
Darius I was the one who abandoned the liberal policy of Cyrus, of a feudal type, and changed the
conception of the Empire. The official language was Aramaic. There are great regional differences
due to its extension. Darius I organized it into Satrapies (20), governed by a Satrap. Each province
contributed a fixed annual sum to the royal treasury.
Depending on the season of the year, the capital of the Empire were:
> Persepolis
> Pasagarda, Ectábana or Susa, in summer.
> Babylon, in winter.
The Empire was divided into two large blocks:

> Western Iran and its cities : which represented the strength of the Empire.
> The Mediterranean Coast : represented Commerce.
The two blocks were linked by good roads for administrative and military service. They were traveled
by caravans, and they had posts and inns. The main ones left Susa and headed:
> Through Sardis to Ephesus.
> Through Babylon and Syria to Egypt.
> From Iran to the Indus Valley.
The King and his divine character
He was at the top of the government. His power was absolute. He received the power of the divinity
and was named by her (Ahura-Mazda), of which he was a representative and watchdog. Before his
divine power everyone bowed to him to the ground.
The main characteristics of the monarch's power were:
> Despotic absolutism encouraged by the application of law and justice.
> Supreme Chief of the army and role model.
> His figure was inaccessible, surrounded by great royal protocol.
> His title was “Great King” or “King of Kings.”
Central and provincial administration
The king personally directed the government, although surrounded by friends and advisors. The
Hazarapatish was the Grand Vizier and head of the Royal Guard, directly responsible for some
administrative functions. The royal princes performed functions at Court or as governors.
• The satrapies
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Due to its enormous extension, the Empire was divided into provinces (satrapies), the number of
which varies according to sources (between 20-24 and 28). At the head of each was a satrap or
governor with very broad powers. He took out his troops for big battles. The satraps can be
considered the first affront against local liberties. The king's relatives were part of his government and
were compensated with large donations.
They depended on the king, and were quite autonomous. They can be considered viceroys. Its main
function was to collect taxes, for which the Empire was divided into districts. Some paid in kind.
Other dignitaries were:
> Secretary or Chancellor : he monitored and denounced the satrap before the Court, playing a
police role.
> General : controlled the troops.
> Governor : particular for each fortress.
The main satrapies were:

> Mesopotamia : Satrapy XI (Babylon and Assyria).
> Assyria : Satrapy XI.
> Syria : Satrapy V.
> Phoenicia : Satrapy V.
> Egypt : Satrapy VI (last Egyptian dynasties).
Economy
• Coins
The daric (gold) and the medical shekel (silver) were the main currencies. Great practice of granting
land by the king as payment to soldiers and officials. Feudalism was a system of loyalty in exchange
for benefits, usually land. In this sense, Persia was feudal, reserving property for the king.
The daric was the main currency, and the shekel was 1/20 of a daric. Other division coins were
minted in different cities. They were used to trade with the West, although the Treasury only accepted
the payment of taxes in metal and silver by weight, using the silver coin as currency of account.
Thanks to heavy taxes, the kings hoarded large quantities of precious materials.
• Private banks
They appear in the 7th century BC when the temples were no longer enough to regulate economic
life, declining their functions in favor of businessmen. But the temples, although impoverished,
remained centers of activity, and a priestly aristocracy derived benefits from them.
Linguistic plurality
• Languages
Already in the time of Cyrus, trilingual inscriptions appear (Old Persian, Elamite and Aramaic),
written in cuneiform. Akkadian was included as an official language in recognition of the
Mesopotamian prestige.
Old Persian was the language of the court and nobility, but not of the administration, where Aramaic,
written in cuneiform, was used. Elamite, also written in cuneiform, incorporated Sumerian ideograms.
• The Aramaic
In daily life, the previous languages were quickly replaced by Aramaic. Elamite remained an
administrative language until 640 BC, and Akkadian remained a cultured language around 400 BC.
Aramaic was used to pass from one language to another, since its simplicity made this language and
its writing a great instrument of communication between a population of such diverse origins, soon
becoming the only spoken and written language.
The Greek arrived already in the 4th century BC.
Social classes
> The Nobility : They held great positions in the provinces, the Court and the army.
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> Lower classes : temple servants, feudatories of the king, semi-free, artisans, workers, etc.
Social relations were highly complex due to the diversity of the population, a mixture that had great
cultural and religious importance.
Non-Iranian religion
There was a great variety of cults different from the Persians. This caused the syncretism of gods
from different religions to frequently occur, with the Babylonian divinity predominating. Conversions
also occurred.
The kings had initially contributed to the maintenance of the various sanctuaries, but after Xerxes
they were indifferent, leaving government in every sense to the various satraps.
8. Persian civilization
Language
Cuneiform signs are adopted for royal administration. Several languages were used in the Empire, and
it was Aramaic that was used for administration and commerce. It was written on papyrus and
parchment, without cuneiform signs. Aramaic became the official language throughout the empire.
The army
It was heterogeneous. The king's guard were “The Ten Thousand Immortals”. There were battalions
of spearmen, archers and cavalry, as well as mercenaries. The Greek and Phoenician fleets
collaborated with the Persians in some campaigns.
The legislation
The laws had a sacred character, since they emanated from divinity through the monarch. Cyrus and
Cambyses respected local legislation, and until Darius I did not worry about legislation. There were
courts for private and personal problems, and others, with royal judges, for state affairs, in which the
king was the supreme judge.
Agriculture and commerce
The bases of the economy were:
> Trade : As a crossroads between East and West, the Persian Empire was the center of the
world's trade. Its opening to the West changed the structures of Greece and later Rome.
> Agriculture : it was the true economic base. It was based on large state or noble estates,
received as royal donations. This type of land ownership gives society a feudal character.
Religion in the Achaemenid period
The symbol of the supreme divinity was the winged solar disk from which a figure with the head of
the Achaemenid King emerges. There is a big problem for its study at this time:
> The possible evolution of the doctrine of Ahura-Mazda and the teachings of Zoroaster.
> The tolerance of the kings to the different beliefs of the empire
> The acceptance and worship, even by kings, of other Egyptian, Babylonian and Hebrew gods.
Possibly the officer was Ahura-Mazda.
With Artaxerxes II, the fusion of elements between Zoroastrianism (Ahura-Mazda), Mithra (god of
the Parthians) and Anahita had already occurred. On the other hand, there was a popular religion
based on the personification of natural forces and the supremacy of Ahura Mazda.
Great importance of the priesthood (magicians), with a lot of power. They formed a closed caste, they
attended the cult and their main mission was sacrifices by fire and the interpretation of dreams.
Achaemenid Persian culture
It is characterized by the assimilation of Egyptian and Greek elements on an Iranian basis.
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• artistic currents
Expressed in architecture and sculpture. In architecture, the treatment of space and the adaptation of
the relief to it stands out (parades on stairs and terraces). There is great importance of jewelry and
toreutics in precious stones and cylinder-seals. Goldsmithing and metal work also stand out (bronzes
and plaques from Luristan and the “Treasure of Ziwiyeh”).
• Intellectuals
In literature, the Avesta (Collection of sacred books) is a fundamental work. Sciences and medicine
were influenced by Greeks, Egyptians and Babylonians.
• Zoroastrian Calendar
It dates back to the 5th century BC, and was improved by the influences of the Babylonian calendar in
367 BC, definitively establishing the months and seasons.
• Architecture
Babylon and Assyria taught them to make artificial hills. In the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris
they use brick, and in Persepolis stone for plinths, door frames and columns. The column is
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a characteristic element, as well as the Egyptian concave molding, which is found at the crowning of
all the openings, niches, windows and doors. The Greek contribution is noticeable in the sculpture.
Its original character is the mixture of foreign elements with the grandeur of the buildings, luxury in
decoration and a taste for the colossal. The artist was only limited by the King, and not by
individuals.
The capital is original: two attached half-bulls, sometimes two unicorns, adding the snout and paws of
a lion. The column is grooved, with many grooves. The monumental stairs had ramps. The facing
bricks are glazed.
The Royal Palaces are of great magnitude, equaled only by that of Karnak. In the center of the Palace
of Persepolis was the hall of 100 columns.
• Clothing
The main one is the candys, a typical costume with sleeves, and headdresses with the cindaris, a type
of turban that sometimes has seven horns. They were also dressed in a cloak.
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TOPIC 14. CRETE. MINOAN CULTURE
1. The geographical framework
The soil in Greece is very poor. Its relief is characterized by the mountains that surround small These
plains favored political division, and although they were not an obstacle to communications, they
defined the different political states. These states were small, delimited by uncertain boundaries with
boundary markers (pithoi) or by natural separations.
In contrast to the civilizations of the Middle East, Greece suffers from natural poverty, and is very
unfavorable to agriculture, although this was the most important source of its income. Its agricultural
economy was always very little developed.
Its true means of communication was the Mediterranean Sea, through which it obtained important
resources, such as the purple, sponge, salt and fishing trade.
Progress in navigation was continuous and notable, making sea lanes faster. safe and secure, serving
to promote flourishing Mediterranean trade.
The development of Greek History occurs by impulses, in which political motives are mixed. tics
with the commercial and economic ones. Greece and the Greek world never coincided
geographically. caly. Greek culture encompassed:
> The Greek kingdoms.
> The barbarian colonies.
> The lands into which Hellenism penetrates.
2. Crete. The Minoan civilization
2.1 Introduction
The geographical framework
It is an island halfway between Greece, the SW from Asia Minor and Libya. With a surface of 1,000
km. of coasts and a width between 12 and 60 km. From north to south. Very mountainous with many
caves for shelters (more than 300), places of worship or necropolis. These caves were common in a
large part of prehistoric settlements.
The fauna and flora were much richer in Antiquity than now. It had great mineral wealth (copper, iron
and silver). Its climate 4,000 years ago was warm and humid, with real differences gional factors that
influenced cultivation and way of life. Then it was widely watered by springs, with therapeutic
properties.
The discovery of ancient Cretan culture
The myth of King Minos and his Legend were the subject of research at different stages of history.
But the great step in his search was taken by Minos Caloquerinos, who began the discovery of the
Pala Knossos, while Professor Hazzidakis made various discoveries throughout the island. This gave
rise to many archaeologists going to Crete, such as Arthur Evans to Knossos, the Italian commission
to Phaistos, etc.
Went to. Evans who definitely managed to attract world archeology with his important discoveries
coverings in Knossos, achieving that its Cretan chronological dating was accepted by the arch world
cheology, dividing it into 3 periods: Ancient, Middle and Recent Minoan.
In 1921, the French school excavated the Malia palace. After the Second World War, new discoveries
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came to light, and in 1961 Nicholas Plato excavated the fourth Cretan palace, Cato Zacro.
The protohistoric of Crete
• Population and ethnicity
The Minoan Cretans belonged mostly to the Mediterranean white race, made up of two groups:
> The oldest group of the early Neolithic in Europe and the Near East, perhaps of chromagnoid
origin and derived directly from the Paleolithic.
> Europeanoid or alpinodinaroid or Balkan-Mediterranean, introduced in the Neolithic stage.
Later, the Anatolian group would be added to them, of great importance in Crete, since it not only
contributed new Mediterranean elements, but also caused notable innovations in its social and
material panorama.
On the other hand, the toponymy demonstrates pre-Hellenic settlements in the Early and Middle
Bronze Age, as well as elements of Semitic origin, Asian people arriving at an undetermined time, as
merchants and settlers.
Mythology and literary tradition say that the ancient Cretan population was made up of several rivers
towns.
2.2 Stages of Cretan civilization
The division of Cretan culture was introduced by A. Evans in 1905 with three phases, each one
divided into 3 periods. Although this system is harshly criticized and even rejected, it is still in force.
The chronology used is that suggested in the last conference on The ra and the Aegean world held in
Santorini in 1989, based on the date given for the eruption of the Thera volcano around 1625 BC
Early Minoan or Prepalatial Period (3000-1900 BC)
Synchronous with the Chalcolithic and the Early Bronze Age in the Aegean, this stage begins in 3000
BC due to the arrival of components of populations of Anatolic origin, who knew metallurgy and
navigation.
Due to Anatolic migrations and trade, at the beginning of the Bronze Age Crete gained great
importance as a center of commercial routes, receiving the beneficial influence of the cultures of
Egypt and the eastern empires, and on the other hand it was imbued with trade. of the Mediterranean.
To ensure these relations, he created an important fleet, so Crete was transformed socially and
economically.
In the south and center they were dedicated to agriculture and livestock, and in the eastern area there
were fishing anchorages and commercial centers for their relations with the Cyclades, Cyprus, Syria
and Egypt.
Middle and Recent Minoan or Palatial Period (1900-1600? BC)
The passage from the Early Bronze to the Middle Bronze is not completely defined in Crete. It seems
that there is a preeminence of the north and center of the island. The last phase of the Ancient Minoan
(III) is very poorly analyzed archaeologically. Its vestiges are usually placed both in this period and at
the beginning of the Middle Minoan (MMI), also called Paleopalatial, dated around 2,000-1800 BC.
C. The chronology of this period is very doubtful.
• Urban development and appearance of the first palaces.
a) 1st Phase.
At the beginning of the MM there is a great demographic development, modifying the habitats. The
settlement is notable around the Gulf of Mirabello (Knossos, Malia and Phaistos). A brutal
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destruction affected the end of MM II, perhaps a natural catastrophe to which different interpretations
have been given. nes:
> Invasions that ended the Ancient Helladic in Greece and that affected Crete.
> The arrival of Asians cornering the settlers towards the western part. But at that time there
was no town capable of having such a strong fleet to do it.
> Internal revolution, perhaps due to natural disasters that caused economic decline co and
politician. This is supported by the differences between central and eastern Crete, and those
of inequalities between the different towns of the island.
b) 2nd Phase
Period of prosperity, with the rebuilding of the main palaces, larger but with the same structure. The
industry flourishes in different ways:
> In pottery, the Camarés vessels stand out, made of fired clay, with great quality and color, and
decoration in turbulent spirals or stylized plant motifs. Potters already use the fast wheel.
> The metalwork is notable: daggers and swords, gold-rimmed silver vessels, jewels and gems.
Maritime trade with Cyprus, Syria and Egypt is of great importance, which extends to Cyrenaica in
search of spices. Their relationships reach Mesopotamia.
In religion and funerary rites, a large number of female figurines with a meaning were discovered.
perhaps religious, perhaps votive offerings, in the sanctuary of Petsofa, near Palaicastro.
c) 3rd Phase (MM III and Recent Minoan (MR I) or Neopalatial Period)
It is a period of apogee. There is a new stage of confusion, due to a natural catastrophe that destroys
Knossos between MM III and the beginning of MR I. It is a transition towards a new, more perfected
material culture and a new political and social organization: The Recent Minoan (Period of the
Second Palaces). The Palace of Knossos is rebuilt with certain innovations but with the general
characteristics of the MM. Those of Malia, Phaistos and Zacro reach their final structure nitiva, of
great monumentality. The sumptuousness and richness of all the decoration of the pa straight.
The main features of MR-I are:
> Large mansion-like houses : also called Villas, which imitate Pala architecture cial. Great
sumptuousness and decoration with frescoes. Some are close to palaces and others are the
main buildings in rural towns, and it is possible that they belonged to officials or governors.
> Neopalatial cities : The reconstruction of towns destroyed around 1600 BC It marks a new
stage of true urban development: expansion, neighborhoods and housing blocks, paved streets,
sewers and a certain urbanism. The towns are small, around the palaces and production
centers, where a flourishing artisan and merchant class would grow.
> Great technical progress and notable economic development : especially in metal objects.
Likewise, there is great progress in the “palatial arts”, which show luxury and are splendor of
the time (frescoes, ceramics, etc.).
• The architecture of the palaces
Knossos is the largest (1500 rooms); Malia follows, and Festos, Zacro and Hagia Triada also stand
out. Its construction does not follow the order of oriental temples, although they have in common that
they surround a rectangular central patio and have esplanades along their façades. chadas to house the
population during the festivities. Great splendor of the frescoes and the alabaster covering of the
walls. Among the rooms, the Cretan Mégaron stands out, coinciding with the four main palaces. They
had workshops and warehouses with rows of Pithoi and baskets to contain food and goods.
• The meaning of the Minoan palaces
There are several theories:
> Cotterel considers them true palaces. He believes that this civilization was not dominated by
temples, and considers them analogous to Mesopotamian palaces.
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> W. Graham and J. Deshayes consider them architecturally and decoratively original.
> Q. Faure considers them equivalent to Mesopotamian temples. They were economic and
religious centers with large possessions and territories.
It is very possible that his powers were political, economic and religious power. Economic activity
and centralized administration are confirmed.
• Social and political structure
There was a complicated and hierarchical social structure, with specialized artisans and a network of
administrative officials. We do not know their system of government, but there was a social elite of
high officials, perhaps around a central power that had a monopoly on trade and the economy,
perhaps with religious powers in the Egyptian manner. But all information is unknown on the
existence and nature of a possible Minoan royalty.
• The economy of the palaces
> Agriculture : it was the base in the MM. The palace had large territories where peasants lived
in its service.
> Livestock farming : the existence of large herds of sheep, goats, pigs and cows is cited.
> Manufacturing : in addition to the transformation of agricultural products (wine, cereal, oil),
different materials (glasses) were made in the workshops. Obsidian and faience were widely
used. They were dedicated to producing products necessary for subsistence and commerce in
the palaces.
> Commercial and maritime activity : it is the second basis of its prosperity. The importance of
the Minoan Thalassocracy in the Mediterranean is documented in archaeological remains.
They had several types of boats. The Cretans mainly exported products agricultural and craft
production. They imported obsidian from Milos and Nisyros, porphyry and stone from
Lacedaemon, silver from Sifnos and copper from Euboea. To ensure this trade, they placed de
facto commercial and diplomatic estuaries in the Aegean. Trade with Egypt, Cyprus and Asia
Minor was also very important.
A relationship and cultural expansion took place between the Cretan world and the Eastern Empires
that would impact the life and historical evolution of the Mediterranean world. For this trade, it is
created They created standards and measures for exchange (capacity systems, weights and scales) in
the decimal numerical system. Important communication routes were opened on the same island, and
there is a sa and concrete accounting and administration in the Cretan palaces, as we see in the clay
tablets written in Linear A.
2.3 Minoan writing
In the Cretan Aegean world three scripts were used: Hieroglyphic, Syllabary A and Syllabary B,
although The first two were the most used in the palace era. All three are open syllabaries. Along with
these signs, numerical notations and signs of a system of measurements always appeared as proof of
their commercial use. Almost all of the writing was on pieces of clay.
In Ancient Bronze (AM) isolated signs appear on vessels and seals. In the Middle Bronze (MM)
marks appear on the pottery, indicating the origin or destination of the merchandise. In the High
School Period lacial (MM IA) the writing starts.
The Hieroglyphic was found mainly in Knossos and Malia, although due to the little documentation
there is it is difficult to analyze, and its signs are difficult to identify.
Linear A shows a certain evolution, with a Protolinear A existing at the beginning of the MM. Beef
Regarding its nature and origin there are several theories: some see it as an evolution of pre-written
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writings. givers to them and others see it as having a different origin (Semitic or Luwite). There are
also those who believe in an Aegean origin.
Syllabary A is found in a larger geographical area than the hieroglyph, but there are few documents,
and it is practically certain that all of them belong to the same script. Safe mind there was a popular
language and another sacred or cultured language, both with common roots and words.
Function of the scriptures. Your problem
Hieroglyphic writing has an ornamental function, and sometimes, like Linear A, a fun administrative
and accounting tion. Both writing systems cannot be identified as the same language, but it seems
evident that both were used together until the arrival of the Mycenaeans in Recent Helladic II (HR II).
But there are several questions about the nature and function of both:
> Why do they coexist if they both have the same accounting function.
> Why is the hieroglyphic the only one that appears on the Minoan seals and not Linear A.
> Why the hieroglyphic completely disappears in the period of the Second Palaces.
The Festus album

It is a spiral inscription that is an unknown. The headdresses that appear on it are not typical of Crete,
but of the Sea Peoples. Attempts have been made to explain that the disc had religious significance.
Gioso. There are several theories:
> V. Georgiev says that the hieroglyphic writing on the disk is Luwitic in nature.
> Q. Faure interprets this as meaning that in Minoan Crete there were different peoples who
spoke different languages, and that these were of different origin.
2.4 The Minoan religion

At the end of the Paleolithic, naked female idols with large hips found in tombs appear, interpreted as
a fertility cult. In the Neolithic, idols with flared skirts stand out in places of worship. Although
original, this religion was influenced by relations with Egypt and Asia Minor. This religiosity has
been described as naturalistic, with great importance of open-air sanctuaries in sacred mountains and
forests. The cults in the mountains were initially held in rock shelters, but in the MM, carved stone
constructions with two or three rows of naves and altars crowned with double horns already appear.
Of great im Also important in the cult were the natural caves (Grott of Amnisio, near Knossos).
Divinities
Since prehistory there has been a feminine primacy, the goddess of fertility who makes nature bear
fruit, represented by a tree, or the goddess of mountains, vegetables and animals, who is represented
He sat between two animals facing each other. Their worship was attended by priestesses. It was
known by different names depending on the region. Along with her, she is associated with a wall god,
a son or partner but inferior to her, and also with various names depending on the regions. It appears
represented between two beasts. Also, due to its creative force, it adopts the animal figure of the bull,
whose meaning is very controllable. spill. For some it would be a sacrificial animal; For others he was
parallel to the Egyptian god Apis, although perhaps he represented male strength and fertility.
Apart from the divinities, the Cretans also worshiped raw stone (betyl) or carved stone (pi lar), to the
double axe, to the shield and to the tree.
Rites and cults
The priestesses presided over the ceremonies for a long time, with the intervention of the man bre
much later. The most frequent rites were those of adoration and sacrifice to the divinities, carried out
in a large number of places. These sacrifices could be bloody, sacrificing animals les, or bloodless
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(oblations or libations on altars, trees and sacred plants).
Solemn celebrations accompanied by games were also very frequent, the most famous and spectacular
being the “Bullfighting” represented in the Knossos frescoes, as well as boxing. It is possible that
these religious festivities were accompanied by dances and songs (processions of dancers in the
frescoes)
The funeral rites
Since the 3rd and 2nd millennium, burial was practiced in vaulted stone constructions (Tholos).
Around 1500 BC, the tradition was transformed, and the deceased was placed in an inverted jar, in a
decorated clay sarcophagus or in a wooden coffin painted in white and blue, placing the corpse in the
fetal position. Possibly the procession was made up of a group of mourners and there would have
been sacrifices, games and funeral banquet. The trousseau and rituals suggest that they accepted a
survival beyond death, but we do not know if this afterlife was for the believers. tense the dark world
of the Greeks or a pleasant and pleasant place.
2.5 End of Minoan culture
A relationship has been established between the destruction of almost all the Minoan centers in the
middle of the 2nd millennium and the indicated eruption of the Thera volcano (theory defended by N.
Marinatos and reinforced by the excavations carried out at Akroiti, in Thera). But although this theory
continues to have acceptance tation, new studies and research methods have raised certain questions,
especially in its chronology.
Thera
According to scholars of the Aegean world, the eruption of the Thera volcano is decisive in
establishing the chronological periods of this area, since it would represent the fall of the Second
Palaces (3rd palace phase). N. Marinatos established around 1500 BC the eruption, but currently,
according to new dating, this chronology is different:
> According to C-14 the absolute chronology is 1625-1520 or between 1700-1610.
> Dendrology: absolute date of 1628-1626.
> Research in Greenland on volcanic ash: 1645 BC
After the Congress of Thera, the date has been placed around 1625-1600 BC, but it has not been
confirmed.
The effects of the eruption were devastating in the Aegean, but it is known that Knossos and other
Minoan centers were able to overcome, reestablishing and even surpassing their prosperity and
economy. The problem arises after the abandonment of buildings and land and the subsequent
appearance of a new type of ceramics and another way of life. It is possible that this hegemonic
period was followed by another period of decline, with internal struggles and breakdown of power.
Natural disasters only increased or caused the total fall of Minoan power and splendor. But possibly it
was There were various causes that caused the fall of the Minoan power and the ruin of its
thalassocracy.
This Minoan decline and fall was taken advantage of by the Mycenaeans to establish their hegemony
in the Mediterranean and they took the opportunity to install a new dynasty in Knossos, but this
theory has serious difficulties in being accepted.
2.6 Cretan artistic manifestations
General Characters
The Cretans were an artistic people. Compared to the eastern countries, in which art was done to
satisfy the pride of the king, in Crete art extends to everything and everyone. Even in the most humble
homes artistic expressions occurred. Individuality is demonstrated in Crete by the large number of
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private seals found.

They knew how to take advantage admirably of the resources that the soil offered them. They had
little metal and no marble, but they had beautiful limestone, some of which they carved and others
crushed to make stucco. With such material means, technology has made great constant progress
since the day metal was known in Crete. Inventions multiplied, and techniques were transmitted from
father to son, accepting foreign influences with interest:
> Asian: very scarce. They imitated the shape of some Babylonian cylinders, and the cup of
two ble handle of Troy II.
> Egyptian: stone vessel models and the custom of painting men with red skin and women
white.
Cretan art is defined by two coordinates: freedom and movement.

The painting
It is the best of Cretan art, unlike the great contemporary cultures.
> Mid-3rd millennium : the walls had two layers of plaster, the second of which is ba plastered
in red. When they learn to make pure lime for the coating, they begin to paint tempera on the
stucco.
> 17th century BC : with the first Palaces there is already full technique, but it is painted with
convention tionalisms (eye straight ahead and figure in profile, there is no perspective, etc.).
Animas are represented them (bull and marine animals), plants and human beings, but above
all in the palace court scenes and parties are painted.
> MR-I : the effervescence calms down. There is no landscape anymore. The fresco is reserved
only for scenes in which the man is the protagonist (the Parisian, the Dancer). Miniature
frescoes are produced to reproduce the large ensembles.
> MR-II : there is a certain fatigue of the artist, he renounces the miniature. The details in the
larger compositions are simplified and the main figures do not have the variety that in earlier
times. with the exception of the “Bullfighter”, the “Procession” and the “Carrier of the jug”.
> Outside Crete : there is no mural painting before the 17th century BC, and the first frescoes
that appear are of an advanced art, indicating that everything came from Crete (the technique,
style and themes). The Cretan painters settled at this time in the Argolis (Tyrins and
Mycenae).
Combining painting with plastic, they created the painted relief , which was not preserved outside of
Cre ta, the best high-relief works occurring in the 16th-15th centuries BC, disappearing later. The best
is “the prince of lilies”.
The sculpture
There was no great sculpture, just tiny, moveable objects.
> Mid-3rd millennium : stone carving. Collection of multicolored stone glasses from Moclo.
The bulk figures appear on a seal of ivory, soapstone and marble. Progress is made era
continues until the second millennium.
> MR-I : soapstone vases with reliefs (Vase of the Chief and the Vase of the Pugilists). In the
pe Most of the sculptures are made of clay, although in the palaces there are some made of
stone. The earthenware is used to represent humans (The Goddess of Snakes and her
Priestess). The previous figures show us the Cretan plastic arts in full possession of faculties,
in MM III, and are the tallest statuettes that we have.
> Bronzes : They are scarce, due to looting by pirates. The best is another snake goddess called
“La Bayadera”.
Goldsmithing and cofferdam

He knew in depth the work of gold and silver, the latter being scarcer. Also iron and bronze, with
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which they made inlays. They only disdained amber. As for weapons, Cretan gunsmiths are dedicated
to decorating their daggers, especially the handles, which are carved from precious material and are
always cruciform in type.
The glyptic and ceramics
Writing developed from the glyptic, expressing ideas through images. How When ideograms were
transformed into conventional hieroglyphics, a large number of drawings passed into the category of
graphic signs. Since MM-I they are dedicated to rock crystal and carve the amethyst in the shape of a
scarab. In the MM-II, in which hieroglyphic writing dominated, these stones ended up being
commonly used in engraving. In the MM-III everything changes due to the replacement of the
hieroglyph with linear writing, with “almond” seals and those with a flattened cylinder shape
predominating.
• The ceramic
a) Neolithic
Pottery is in full progress. The paste is refined. Color first black and then yellow Filled with a polish
to give a brilliant luster and incisions in spikes and tree branches, they are inlaid in white and rarely in
red. When the paint appears, the clay is hidden under a black varnish, and the inlays are replaced by a
matte white.
b) Beginning of the 3rd millennium
The color of the clay is preserved due to advances in metallurgy. Red glasses are produced at Festo.
c) MA-II
Dark color decoration on a light background, with triangles, double axes and lines. In eastern Crete
the red and orange cover is mottled with black or mottled spots (Mottled Ware). The shapes are bold
and denote the influence of metallurgy, which is why they are called “teapots.”
d) MA-III
The Bronze Age begins. The technique improves, the objects are taller than human height. Its vessels
have enormous spouts and are sometimes shaped like a woman or a bird. The spiral is used profusely.
e) MM-II
Heyday of ceramic art. The palace princes promote artistic ceramics, and the best masters settle in the
palaces. The mechanical invention of the rotating disc on which the pasta is placed, moved by hand
using a kind of rudimentary lathe, makes it possible to give greater slenderness to the glasses, more
bulge to the belly and, above all, to greatly refine the pasta, until it has just a few millimeters thick: it
is eggshell ceramic. The models are those of the ahem metal plates. The colors have changed
(unctuous black with a purple tone, creamy white, pure yellow and the entire range of reds).
Everything is ready for polychromy.
f) MM-I Principles
The variegated stones are imitated in colors, with all the combinations and create the Camarés style.
The linear and curvilinear motifs are of great mastery and the spirals achieve great elegance. There
are also plant motifs. Artists give their vessels architectural decorations. The rhiton (a glass filled with
holes for ritual sprinkling) appears for the first time in the shape of a bull's head. But the two main
novelties are the slip paste (drawings in the same style as Camarés, but more variegated and with a
more vivid color) and the earthenware (the artists, with Egyptian pieces cias, discovered the secret of
a new thick polish and a new range of colors).
g) After MM-II
With the rapid lathe, the “eggshell” ceramic disappears and the glass with stirrup handles appears.
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h) MM-III
The ceramic industry is dedicated to less refined products for export. It is Post-Camarés ceramics.
The modeling is neglected, the painting is not very bright and the drawing loses its grace, even
moving towards the geometric. The best is rippled ware, which imitates a turtle shell. But the true
style of the MM-III is naturalism. It is painted in white on a lilac background. Man is not represented
and even the terrestrial fauna.
i) End of MM-III and beginning of MR-I
The “Mycenaean” trend of black drawing on a light clay background triumphs. The naturalism of this
era is stylized. The so-called “Palace Style” is a divided decoration on the vessels. nes by zones and
mix the motifs. Gives a lot of importance to floral motifs, sometimes overloads two, and the friezes
("Papyrus Jar") are embedded in the belly.
TOPIC 15. THE MYCENIC CIVILIZATION
1. The Mycenaean civilization
1.1 Introduction
Geographic setting
It develops in the southernmost part of the Balkan Peninsula and on the Aegean Islands. The
Mycenaean culture had its center in the Argolis, extending to the bordering regions of the
Peloponnese, from Corinth to Achaea, and to the Aegean islands. More than 400 Mycenaean centers
have been found. The creation of large territorial states was not achieved. Its fortifications indicate a
hostility and rivali ty between the Mycenaean princes, without going so far as to deny the existence of
pacts between them for joint ventures (perhaps one of them was the conquest of Troy).
The discovery of Mycenaean culture
It started at a relatively early date:
> In 1871-1890 H. Schliemann achieved great success in the excavations of Mycenae, Tiryns
and Orchomenus. For their part, Greek archaeologists excavated Vafio (where they found the
embossed gold cups).
> Excavations at the Acropolis (1884, P. Stemalaes and 1981, P. Kavvadios) bring to light the
Mycenaean settlements in Athens.
> In 1920-1922 AB Wace found a Middle Helladic tomb with seven columns and houses in
Mycenae; Later the treasures of the royal tombs are found. It was published a moria, essential
for those interested in the Mycenaean world.
> In 1926 a Swedish commission found an intact Tholos in Midea (Argolis), with three es
skeletons and magnificent funerary trousseau.
> In 1955-1964 Blegen excavated at Pylos, discovering the first written Mycenaean tablets.
Although the discoveries and achievements are important, there are still important gaps in research.
historical gation.
1.2 Historical research
archaeological sources
In 1876, the vertical pit tombs A were found on the acropolis of Mycenae, and 75 years later the so-
called “Circle B” was discovered, outside the walls of the citadel of Mycenae. “Circle A” has ne six
deep vertical pit tombs and a group of inhumations from the Middle Helladic period, the sixth tomb
being the richest. “Circle B” is older, poorer and older.
The archaeological remains found in the North and Northwest provinces belong to the Recent
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Helladic Period I and II.
The most spectacular discoveries are the Tholoi tombs by AB Wace, who was the first to establish a
clear sequence of architectural criteria for dating this type of monument. funerary tombs, mainly in
the nine Tholoi tombs located near Mycenae.
Later studies in the palace-fortress and the analysis of other remains have provided great information
about the life, economic, religious and cultural aspects of the Mycenaean world, such as filled with
written tablets.
Writing: “The linear syllabary B ”
TO. Evans distinguished three types of writing at Knossos: Hieroglyphic and syllabic A and B. From
the sylla bica B the tests that offer greater security are the Pilo splints. The language that appears in
these writings is an archaic Greek dialect called Mycenaean, which perhaps started from a proto-
Greek base from which the eastern Greek dialects (Akkadian, Cypriot) emerged. They start from a
tron common, the proto-Indo-European or Indo-European. Because the vocabulary preserved on the
tablets is so restricted, limited to administrative and economic notes, it is very difficult to analyze it.
• Linear B Characters
> It is closer to the Greek vocabulary than to the Indo-European.
> Elements belonging to other languages are found.
> AND. Rish says that there are two subdialects: the “normal Mycenaean” and the “special
Mycenaean”, this one only carried out by a restricted group of scribes.
Regarding its origin, it is likely that it started from a form of Linear A, arising from the same
evolutionary process of this writing. It would arise on the HR-III; The first documentation dates back
to the MR-II (A and B), and it would last about 200 or 300 years, without knowing for sure when it
ended. It seems that its end coincides with the destruction of the Mycenaean kingdoms and their
palaces where their scribes were housed.
The texts can be divided into different groups according to their content:
> Related to accounting.
> On stamps and labels or packages, which indicate their contents and the owner
> parietal inscriptions
> Dedicatory inscriptions on objects of worship and offerings.
> Inscriptions painted on jars (phitoi), similar to those of the 2nd group.
The Mycenaean Tablets

The largest number of Linear B texts come from the palace of Pilo, with more than 1,500, and that of
Knossos. The tablets:
> They are made of clay, written with a punch when it is soft and dried in the sun.
> The subject is solely administrative and accounting.
> A brief sentence heads the text, which records the inventory and the benefits. cios.
> They all have practically the same format. There are two types: page format (rectangular) and
palm leaf format (elongated).
> The texts contain notes from one year with partial references from the previous year.
This indicates that the scribes used tablets to record data provisionally and later. They would be
transferred to more durable materials such as metal or leather, while the splints were placed in water
to be reused. The tablets were neatly filed in baskets placed two on shelves and sealed. With the fire
that destroyed the palaces, some of these tablets were preserved by being hardened by the heat.
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1.3 The history of the Mycenaean world

Traditionally it has been accepted that the builders of the “vertical pit tombs” and then of the Tholoi
were the creators of this culture, but it is possible that the vertical pit tombs were the work of
Anatolian or Balkan migrants who imposed themselves or mixed with the ancient po bladores. This
hypothesis agrees with P Kretchner's thesis of the arrival of Greek-speaking warriors from the
Balkans to the Greek continent (Ionians, Achaeans, Aeolians and later the Dorians).
This thesis has been heavily attacked today, especially with regard to the arrival of the Dorians. There
is no archaeological evidence of the arrival of new Greek peoples around the 11th century BC.
Origin
The theory of the arrival of proto-Greeks is accepted, who would mix with its inhabitants around the
end of Middle Helladic, as well as foreign princes from the east or south. They settled on Minyan
society and gave it a new direction, both in its culture and its economy. The origin of these new
settlers is not well known, but it seems that they formed a privileged class, led by lords united by
family ties, who dominated the artisan and peasant classes. Both his new techniques in metallurgy and
the use of the war chariot and the long sword indicated us can an Indo-European lineage, established
in Greece in the transition from Middle to Recent Helladic.
Heyday of Mycenaean culture
This culture prevails in the Aegean between 1500-1400 BC It has been called Mycenaean, but there is
no indication tices of the preeminence of Mycenae in this civilization. Its peak occurs between the
Helladic III periods A and B. It was the first commercial and political “Koiné”, with its peak between
the 14th and 13th centuries BC.
• Architectural monuments
a) The Tholoi Tombs
They began to be built around 1500 BC They are also called beehive tombs, and are in They are
found in various places in the Peloponnese, central Greece and Thessaly. They can mean a new asen
ment of people, or a change of the dominant people, the kings being overthrown. two in the vertical
pit tombs. Some were found exceptionally intact.
Some of the grave goods are as rich as the royal vertical pit tombs. Other more modern tombs These
indicate belonging to lower social classes. Its origin is not very well known and there are several
theories, from its origin in the megaliths of the Atlantic Bronze to Syrian tombs, including Egyptian
influences.
The parts of the tholoi are:

> Dromos : inclined path leading to the gate of the funerary monument.
> Stomion : deep entrance leading into the chamber, built with large blocks stone cheese
> Chamber : interior area. It is the funerary enclosure itself, shaped like a beehive and made
entirely of ashlar blocks.
Sometimes these monuments are surrounded by a stone circle (Krepis) or by a wall that surrounded it
(peribolos).
b) The strenghts
The local princes demonstrated their power with the great palace-fortresses, such as those of
Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylo, Gla, and Thebes. There are also them in Thessaly, Laconia, etc. Its main
features are:
> Location in hills near the coast.
> Protected by walls built with large cyclopean stones (up to 6 m. thick), worked in the form of
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ashlar and grander in the East than in the Greek West.

> There are several strategic entrances through the walls, which dominated the roads to it (for
example, the Lion Gate of Mycenae)
> The interior town had streets, private houses, barns, workshops, archives, kitchens, etc.
> Advanced designs for water supply (aqueducts, canals, cisterns, etc.). They are a precursor to
the constructions of the classical era.
> The Palace was located in the highest part of the fortress (Acropolis), connected to the
population by ramps and stairs. It was the economic and political center, and around it
appeared cen the workshops and warehouses.
> They used Minoan architectural and decorative elements, such as columns and dividing walls
with panels.
> The Mégaron was the center, nucleus or large room of the palace. It could have a large
structure, with a central hearth located under the “well of light” (exterior opening in the roof),
surrounded by 4 columns. The Mycenaean megaron is made up of a triple structure: Aithousa
or former portico interior, Porodomo or vestibule and Mégaron or home. In tone with the
megaron there were different rooms, apartments and patios.
> The palace dominated and monitored the royal treasury, as well as the food reserves
accumulated and organized in it. Around the fortress there could be several towns, each with
its necropolis. The extent of the domains they controlled are unknown, but it seems that there
were no urban centers independent of these fortresses.
From the Mycenaean archaeological remains and their architectural constructions we can deduce:
> A certain political stability under purely local dynasties, which had a high position social tion
and warrior character.
> Social stratification.
> Division in labor and specialized crafts.
> Commercial development and contacts with other cultures.
> The sense of themselves as a people and culture appears for the first time.
• The Mycenaean monarchy

The palace was the seat of the monarch or Wanax, who exercised his power and authority in different
aspects of life. Had:
> Religious powers : he ordered the calendar, established the sacrifices and offerings and
presided over the celebrations and festivals.
> Military powers : he led the “Laos” or people in arms, who were the warriors or “ksatram”.
The “Hepetai” were the closest to the Wanax, and they wore a special cloak.
> Administrative powers : the Wanax brought together in his person the entire administration of
the state. do. He controlled, accounted for and regulated through palace officials and scribes
all economic and social life, which were under his power. Its files contain It ranged from
livestock and land ownership to the accounting of contributions of all kinds.
The regime of this monarchy could be described as fundamentally bureaucratic, very similar to the
empires of the Middle East, although their agricultural organization has nothing to do with the
Mycenaean administrative and economic system.
Certain dignitaries were linked to the monarchy and could also serve as guards and representatives of
the royal authority.
The direct link of the economy and society to the Wanax was one of the reasons why the Mycenaean
culture could not survive the fall of its monarchs.
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• The Mycenaean society

It was closely related to the palace organization. His study is based on the Pylon tablets, which
indicate that it was stratified into different categories.
a) High social class
> Basileus : religious officials with personal entourage, or group leader or foreman.
> Lawagetas : He had a plot of land (“Témenos”). It could be the most important after the
Wanax. It is not known if it was a military position, and it has even been said that it could be a
first dig natario or head of the army.
> Telestas : important landowners, but their function and social hierarchy are unclear. They
could be a court nobility with a high social status (landowners).
> Eqetas : high nobility around the Wanax, with high positions in the palace, both in the army
and in the administration. It is possible that they advised the monarch.
After this nobility there would be a second class with certain privileges made up of functionaries.
naries and local dignitaries. Each kingdom was divided into administrative districts led by fun
tionaries with a Korete or district governor, and there were superintendents (Dumar).
b) The free lower class
> The Damos : free people with their own bodies for their administration. He owned land
communal lands exploited by free men, by transfer of said community, as opposed to tion to
private property. It appears as a local administrative entity of an agricultural nature. A part of
the land was distributed among the individual beneficiaries in usufruct, another part was left
as a condominium for cattle pastures and crops, worked by slaves of the Da mos. The benefits
made it possible to ensure communal subsistence, use products of interest change and pay to
the palace and religious worship. It is possible that the figure of a representative existed
representative of these communities before the palace.
> The free population : the working mass composed of artisans, co merchants, ranchers and free
farmers. There were a number of jobs and it is specialties, some with a high degree of
specialization. The smiths were a class special that was excluded from the tribute. It is
possible that those dedicated to bronze metallurgy were related to religion.
c) The lower slave class

It was the lowest class. They performed certain jobs where free men also worked. Slavery in Mycenae
was not very well defined. The situation of the private slave differed from that of the slave serving a
community. The condition of slave was acquired through several conditions:
> The prisoners obtained in loot.
> Those purchased, especially by individuals.
> Those born in such a condition: children of slaves.
Slaves could be:

> Palace Property: Mostly women and children.
> Owned by an individual: most belonged to artisans.
> Religious property: at the service of the temple or divinity.
1.4 Mycenaean commercial activity
One of the most characteristic features of the Mycenaean culture is the great expansionist power of its
society, which is demonstrated by great commercial activity. There was a strong state trade, in The
princes even owned some monopolies, but the existence of Mycenaean marine merchants cannot be
denied. And although the Mycenaean tablets do not mention any class co merchant, some
mycenologists continue to defend the existence of an important class of merchant deres based on the
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non-princely tombs of rich grave goods.

The Mycenaean thalassocracy
One of the causes of the Mycenaean colonial expansion was the fall of Knossos and the Minoan
Thalassocracy, which in turn was a precursor to the great Greek colonization of the 8th and 7th
centuries BC. In the beginning, the Mycenaean sailors alternated with the Minoans in commercial
establishments, but from 1500 BC Only Mycenaean remains appear.
> Eastern Mediterranean : Cyprus, Rhodes and other islands became Mycenaean commercial
centers. There are also remains in the Cyclades and Cilicia, but there is greater knowledge of
commercial relations with the Near East, establishing port colonies on the Syrian-Palestinian
coast. From these centers, Mycenaean trade would extend into Mesopotamia . There are few
remains in Asia Minor, in Anatolia they went in search of tin and Caucasian iron. Relations
with Egypt were possibly closer in the Amarnian era (14th century BC). The Mycenaeans
exported oil, slaves and ceramics in exchange for glass paste, scarabs, papyrus, perfumes, etc.
> Western Mediterranean : Mycenaean pottery, dated to the 15th to 13th centuries BC, has been
found in Western Greece, Sicily and in southern Italy and the Lipari Islands. Taranto was
possibly an Achaean commercial center. Remains also appear in protohistoric Iberian
cultures. The Mycenaean presence probably expanded further west, in search of the minerals
of the P. Iberian and Cornish tin, even towards the interior of Europe, to the Danube, in search
of the mineral wealth and amber of the Baltic.
The Mycenaean trading system

Trade was in a pre-monetary phase and was carried out through barter, using some pattern. The word
“o-no” (price) appears on the tablets. Mycenae mainly exported stirrup jugs, painted kraters and
vessels, wrought bronze weapons, fabrics, wood, and perhaps merce. natives and slaves. They
imported ore, horses and cloth from Troy; wine, ivory, spices and purple fabrics areas of the Syrian-
Palestinian coast; gold and alabaster from Egypt; Anatolian tin and iron; chi copper pre; amber from
the Baltic and precious metals from the West.
All the information on the Mycenaean trade has been collected through funerary goods and
shipwrecks, although they are insufficient.
Thanks to this trade:

> They maintained important relations with Egypt and Mesopotamian kingdoms.
> They established contacts with East and West.
> They helped maintain an economic structure, manufacturing and a middle class of art.
craftsmen and merchants.
> Trade influenced the character of their civilization, not only its organization and
administration. tration, but for its expansion, which forced them to maintain contacts with
other peoples.
According to all this, the Mycenaean culture is an embryo of Greek culture.

1.5 The Mycenaean religion
The poverty of evidence about the Mycenaean religion due to the absence of theological texts makes
pro its interpretation is problematic. This problem manifests itself in two ways:
> The interpretation of texts and archaeological finds.
> The assessment of the influence of the Minoan religion on the Mycenaean religion and its
survival in the classical Greek pantheon.
Currently there is a growing opinion that in the beginning there were two different religious currents.
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rents, Minoans and Mycenaeans, although the latter received important influences from the former.
The divinities
The texts of Knossos and Pylo are the ones that best inform us of the few known divinities:
> Potnia: great Mother Goddess who was worshiped at this time throughout the Eastern
Mediterranean, with different properties and epithets
> Poseidon: the most important male deity, with a sanctuary in Pylo.
> Other divinities found in the Mycenaean tablets, such as Enualios (epithet of Ares) and some
identifiable with the later Greek pantheon (Zeus, Hera and a possible son of Am bos). There
are a series of gods mentioned in these texts whose names are barely known and are unknown
in later Greek religiosity.
The temples
No remains have been found as such, although the tablets mention places where the cult personnel
resided and served the gods. It is possible that they were open-air enclosures in forests or mountains.
tes, considered properties of the god and sacred. There were also altars, perhaps portable, that were
placed in special places for ceremonies.
The offerings
They were made to a plurality of divinities. They could be bloodless or with sacrifices, and were
offered to priests and the personnel who attended the cult.
The priesthood
It was carried out by both men and women, possibly of high social level and with great influence
among the people. Some allusion is found in the texts (the Priestess of the winds, other priests
perhaps augurs, the so-called key bearer, the sacrificer, etc.).
The best known figure is that of the telests, but their religious functions have not been proven. you
give. Possibly they were high officials with possessions and a military or administrative position, with
certain religious powers.
The ceremonies
• Religious ceremonies
Conjectures have been established based on:
> Mycenaean iconographic and artistic representations
> Texts related to offerings.
The oldest are those represented on rings and seals from the time of the tholoi, with cult scenes:
> Worship of a sacred object (tree, pillar or double axe).
> Representation of divinity in the act of epiphany, receiving offerings and adoration from his
faithful.
> Frequently the gods and worshiped objects are escorted by animals and mons. sacred truths
There are also religious elements assimilated from the Minoan cult.
The ceremonies of Pilo are best known for the olive oil tablets:
> Perfumed oil for anointing robes.
> Ceremonies of oil offerings to divinity.
> “New Wine” Ceremony.
> The Distension of the Bed.
> The Presentation of the throne (enthroned display with adoration of the faithful).
They confirm the celebration in a procession of offerings to the sanctuary of the honored god. Perhaps
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there was a sacrificial banquet.

• Funeral ceremonies
There are certain burial rituals. The ceremony first consisted of a funeral procession that accompanied
the deceased carried in a cart. Afterwards, the deceased was placed in the tomb along with his
trousseau. Afterwards, there was a ritual meal with meat and wine and the celebration of Funeral
Games.
On the other hand, the existence of human bones on the outside of the tombs indicates human
sacrifices. us.
1.6 The end of the Mycenaean world
At the end of the MR-III C, the warlike character of the Mycenaean lords was accentuated, as denoted
by a greater defensive desire and an important development of war material, which demonstrated the
ines stability and danger of those times. In the year 1250 BC the defensive structure of the fortress
leza of Mycenae is strengthened. There is also a retreat towards the inland cities, which for demolish
their walls. Everything indicates great instability that could be related to the end of the Mycenaean
kingdoms. But the documentation that has reached us silences these dangers.
Causes
The earthquake theory is rejected because there is no evidence of reconstruction of the Minoan
palaces. The fall of the Mycenaean kingdoms could have been due to numerous factors combined in a
stage of transformations and difficulties that introduced a new period: The Iron Age. These factors
were both internal and external.
• Internal factors
At the end of HR III C all the Mycenaean centers are in decline, some partially destroyed. two, with
signs of fire or abandonment. Some innovations appear in the deposits. The Wanax suffer a time of
economic and social instability, aggravated by the rivalry between these kingdoms, recorded both in
the texts of Thucydides and in mythology. J. Hooker considers that the fall was due to a class struggle
that would end the political system. The Dorians, who were bondage, they revolt against the lords and
put an end to the Mycenaean culture.
• External factors
Mycenaean culture was influenced by the invasions of the Sea Peoples (a group of tribes from coastal
places that carried out piracy and mercenary raids from the great empires), who gradually gained
power and independence. Their raids culminated when they dared to attack Egypt in 1230 and 1150
BC. These invasions meant, due to the weakness of these empires in decline, their destruction. New
towns settled in the eastern Aegean, Asia Minor and Mesopotamia, all of this coinciding with the
destruction of the Mycenaean fortresses.
The consequences
The fall of the Mycenaean kingdoms produced:
> The break for several centuries between Greece and the Middle East. You have a pu economy
again agricultural and livestock sector.
> Decline of the commercial system and commercial relations.
> The bureaucratic and administrative system of the Palace collapses.
> The term Wanax disappears with its political function and is replaced by the term Basileus,
with a strictly local value.
> Writing disappears. When the Greeks rediscovered it around 700 BC From the hand of the
Phoenicians, it is now a phonetic writing and available to all the people.
Troy
Troy was one of the great fortresses of Asia Minor, of probable Indo-European origin, very related
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ated with the Aegean world and distanced from the Anatolian world. It had an uninterrupted life of
almost 2000 years, its most hegemonic period being that corresponding to Troy VI, founded in 1900
BC. by Indo-European immigrants related to the Minyans of mainland Greece. had to eat cio with
Crete and later with the Mycenaeans.
The wall and habitats of Troy VI reveal a high standard of living, with a material culture of great
refinement and artistic sense. Around 1300 BC A catastrophe is seen, interpreted by some as the
Trojan War and by others as an earthquake, since there are no traces of fires or lightning. chas.
After Troy VI, Troy VII was built, smaller, with much poorer and more modest walls and buildings,
as well as its material culture and little trade. However, it is contemporary with the Mycenaean
fortresses, being devastated by flames after an invasion on a date immediately It predates the great
destructions of Ugarit, Pylo or Tiryns, and among its ruins are found ceramic fragments from the Late
Helladic III C, date of the final Mycenaean stage. Possibly this destruction was one of the last sieges
carried out by the Mycenaean “Koine”, with the fall of the Mycenaean world shortly after the
conquest of Troy, which fragmented and weakened.
Troy VII would not be invaded for the sake of its riches, but for its strategic location as a link port
with the end of the copper route, as well as access to the trade routes of Asia Minor and the Near East.
The mythical interpretation of Troy remains unresolved, so inconsistent with the archaeological
vision of it. The poverty of Troy VII does not match the rich city sung about in the Iliad.
1.7 Mycenaean artistic manifestations
material culture
Mycenaean art owes much of its most characteristic features to the Creto-Minoan heritage. The works
are carried out by Cretan masters or at least directed by them. From the 15th century BC, when a new
style of tomb appeared, the Tholos, the Mycenaean world affirmed its persuasion. sonality and
originality, fundamentally in monumental architecture.
The architecture
• The domed tombs (Tholoi)
Perhaps derived from Cretan burials with a circular plan. The “Treasure of Atreus” and the “Tomb of
Clytemnestra” stand out.
• The strenghts
They are the supreme result of Aegean and Anatolian palatine architecture. They demonstrate a taste
for the colossal, with their stone blocks up to three meters long. Tiryns is the best example of these
fortresses, protected by double exterior reinforcement and access by a ramp. They had a large patio
and its main piece was the Mégaron, preceded by a portico and a vestibule. In the center of the
Mégaron was the Home, a rotunda framed by four wooden columns on stone bases.
This type of construction announces the plan of the classical Greek temple. Numerous Mycenaean
megarons will be transformed into sanctuaries: Tiryns, Eleusis, Delos and the Acropolis of Athens.
The sculpture
It is very scarce, perhaps due to the lack of Minoan models. They can be considered as the prime
Among the Mycenaean samples are the funerary steles from the Circular Tombs A and B of Mycenae
(HR I). They are tall stone slabs sculpted in a rudimentary way and decorated with geometric types,
with four main themes: chariot races, hunting, war and combats between animals. Sometimes the
decorations go in parallel bands, avoiding the natural background and treating the figure cla rationly
defined by means of isolation.
There are numerous relationships between the pictorial technique and the decoration in the treatment
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of the steles and the decorated ceramics of the period, and it can be stated that there are no standing
narrative reliefs. dra, but a sculpted decorative ornamentation taken from the minor arts.
The most outstanding monument is the tympanum of the Lion Gate of Mycenae, from HR-III B. The
artists seemed to have more practice in modeling clay, demonstrating greater skill in making
terracotta, such as the stucco head from Mycenae and the Goddesses from Keos.
The painting
The fresco is perhaps the best of the Mycenaean arts, although its remains are in a deplorable state.
Most of them belong to Helladic III, but there are earlier ones with a more Minoan style, perhaps
made by Cretan masters in the service of Mycenaean princes. They have the same theme as the
Knossos frescoes.
Around 1300 BC evolve towards a stronger line and a more continental style, with a defi cient
modeling of figures and shadows. Along with the traditional themes, there are scenes of hunting in
chariots, sieges and war scenes.
Landscapes are not used as the main subject along with the figures as in Minoan art, but rather as a
background and decoration behind the figures or to divide and group them. This landscape is static,
precise and severe, compared to Minoan naturalism.
The subtle and almost diffuse color of the Minoans changes to strong and bold in the Mycenaean.
Predomi They are red and blue, and orange, pink, white, yellow, etc. are common.
The pictorial remains of the central courtyard and the Megaron of Pylo, the frescoes of the House of
Cadmos in Thebes and the scenes found in various fortresses are important. The remains with later
floral motifs from Filakopi and Trianda also stand out. The greatest demonstration of Mycenaean
pictographic art is found in the Megaron of Mycenae, where the “siege” painting stands out.
The ceramic
It is formed from three influences in the HR-I and II:
> Minyan ceramics from the Greek continent.
> Minoan pottery of the “Palace style”.
> Cycladic and Cyprus ceramics.
The ceramic is decorated with black drawing on a light clay background, with stylized naturalism. In
recent Mycenaean times, a ceramic style emerged characterized by certain deficiencies, surely due to
its mass production forced by intense commercial relations.
Two trends appear in decoration and painting:

> “ Barn Style ”: found in the barn at Mycenae. They are bowls and jugs decorated with paint in
black stripes or wavy lines on a background. It is found throughout Greece.
> “ Tough or Closed Style ”: the decoration covers the entire ceramic surface with paint with
floral or marine motifs of ancient tradition. It appears especially in Mycenae and on all the
islands.
Both styles show the end of a long tradition in this type of pre-Greek art.
The goldsmith
Mycenaean art reaches its best manifestations in goldsmithing and metallurgy. In them are found tra a
heritage and evolution of Minoan designs, tastes and techniques. The first objects of tra low in metal
are in the graves of Vertical Fossa of Circles A and B of Mycenae, and demonstrate They provide a
high level of metallurgical technique.
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The weapons stand out, found in large quantities. Dagger and sword blades are often artistically
carved or inlaid with precious stones on their hilts. There are also important manifestations in
everyday objects (toilet objects, tools, bullet plates, etc.), such as those found in the Circular Tombs A
and B of Mycenae.
The necklaces, beads, bracelets and rings in silver or gold stand out, as well as thin sheets of gold
carved and intended to be part of the wardrobe, as well as jewelry and other personal objects.
The vessels and cups, although of Minoan technique, have a more defined Mycenaean personality in
their decoration ("Rithón of the siege" and the Vafio vessels). They are decorated with geometric
motifs taken from ceramics and their handles reproduce animalistic motifs.
The glyptic
It has a pronounced Cretan influence, and can be taken as a continuity of the same. The technique is
not modified. The theme, although it continues to be Minoan, at the end Mycenaean themes are
introduced, such as hunting and war scenes. Possibly its technique and theme evolve towards a
scheme tism.
The ivories
The ivory arrived through the Syrian ports, Ugarit and Megildo, passing through Cyprus. It is the only
art that differs profoundly from the Minoan style. While the Minoan ivory are small round figures, the
Mycenaean ones are usually relief plates, so both technique and theme differ in their work.
Mycenaean ivory carving has two different stages:
> First stage : it begins around 1350 BC, with a center in Mycenae, where magnificent ficious
work on the funerary trousseau. But the masterpiece is the great “Prixis” of the Acropo lis of
Athens. Among the scenes represented, the heraldic, pastoral and “simbó” stand out. licas.”
> Second stage : towards the end of 1300 BC, when local workshops with professional styles
appear Peeps. The creative richness and perfection of the style disappear, giving rise to
rigidity, estrangement. tilization and symmetry in modeling, making it possible to compare
this evolution with that suffered in Mycenaean ceramics. The main work is the “Delos Plate”.
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Ancient History I Near East and Egypt

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Ancient History I Near East and Egypt

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StudeerSne.

Ancient History I: Near East and Egypt (UNED)

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TOPIC 1. CONCEPT OF THE NEAR EAST. SUMER. THE SUMERIANS.

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˗ Natufian (10th-8th millennium): Main Palestinian Mesolithic culture, beginning of the

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eventually those of the Archaic Dynastic.

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in the temple, and his wife was called Nin.

This science reached its climax in the time of the Seleucids.

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as well as administrative and economic texts.

TOPIC 2. AKKAD. THE ACADIAN EMPIRE.

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b) Uruk tried to become independent (maybe it succeeded).

monstrous snakes that lost their religious role.

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b) Myths of struggle and violence

c) Myths of destruction and salvation

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THEME 3. THE SUMERIAN RENAISSANCE. THE AWAKENING OF SYRIA

1. The Sumerian Renaissance. Stages

1. Reign of the Second Dynasty of Lagash (2155-2111 BC).

a) Return to the city-states.

1.2. The Third Dynasty of Ur (2112-2004 BC)

Ur-Nammu (2112-2095 BC)

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Shulgi (2094-2047 BC)

Amarsuen or Amar-Sin (2046-2038 BC)

Son of Amarsuen, he kept the peace.

The Empire of Ur III was divided into three zones:

The country was a sum of constituencies in which they governed:

the same families.

The tasks of the royal officials were:

The main ones are:

The main characteristics of the Empire of Ur III are:

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Society was organized around two poles:

The society had three main strata:

c) Ur: administrative capital.

1.2.5. The city of Ur

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It was composed of:

There were four palaces:

BC), after whose reign there was a political breakdown:

THEME 4. THE PALEOBABYLONIAN PERIOD

In Lower Mesopotamia this time is divided into two periods:

Meanwhile, the Amorite principalities were formed, including Babylon.

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1.3. Paleo-Babylonian Empire

1.4. Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC)

1.4.1. Foreign policy: territorial expansion

1.4.2. Domestic policy

Social classes according to the Code of Hammurabi

Ownership of the land was tripartite, distributed between:

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lands, but transmittable by inheritance (ilku).

Ikum (fief or concession)