“Year of Good Citizen Service”

PROFESSIONAL CAREER IN PHARMACY AND

BIOCHEMISTRY

Monograph:

"SYNTAX"

TEACHER:
LIC. MARLENE SOCORRO IPARRAGUIRRE
SANCHEZ

STUDENT: ROMERO CANCHANYA JHON

CRISTIAN

SEMESTER: FIRST

HUANCAYO – PERU
2017

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DEDICATION:

Dedicated to my parents for the immense

support and trust they give us and also to

our teacher who, with her experience,

teaches us every day to be good

professionals of tomorrow.

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 INDEX

DEDICATION
INTRODUCTION
INDEX
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
CHAPTER I : THE SYNTAX

CONCEPT OF SYNTAX
SYNTAX THROUGH HISTORICAL EVOLUTION
TRADITIONAL MODEL
STRUCTURAL MODEL: BLOOMFIELD, EXIT, HOCKETT
GENERATIVE MODEL
SYNTACTIC TREES
TYPES OF ENDOCENTRIC CONSTRUCTIONS
CORE AND MODIFIER IN SYNTACTIC EQUIVALENCE
AMBIGUOUS CONSTRUCTIONS
NON-STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIPS: RECTION, LINKAGE AND
CONCORDANCE

GLOSSARY
CONCLUSIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANNEXES

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 INTRODUCTION

The Spanish language is characterized by having innumerable possibilities and

potentials to transmit messages, establishing a certain function within higher
communicative structures such as sentences. The present investigation takes
place around the simple sentence, its classes and nominal and verbal structure.
Currently, the structural analysis of the simple sentence is superficially treated,
within its vast presentation and classification. Many times in an isolated or biased
way that does not contribute to the basic understanding of a simple sentence. A
fact that does not allow the thorough syntactic study of our language and our
communicative systems to subsequently move on to larger constructions such as
texts.

This research has revolved around the fulfillment of the following objectives:

- Analyze and conceptualize the simple sentence as a syntactic unit with

complete meaning.
- Classifying the simple sentence takes into account syntactic and semantic
depth.
- Delimit the simple sentence whose main parts are the noun and verbal
phrase.
- Establish a simple sentence analysis model through a learning session.

The methodology used for this research has been through the existing
bibliographic compilation on the simple sentence, classes and noun and verbal
phrase.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

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 CHAPTER I

THE SYNTAX

1.1. THE SYNTAX

Syntax is a part of Grammar. Etymologically it comes from two Greek words
that mean “ syn ” (with) and “ taxis ” (order), which is why we say that
syntax is dedicated to the study of the order of words within a sentence.

Luis Miranda defines syntax as:

Part of grammar that teaches the linking of words, to understand the

grammatical sentence, and the union of sentences together, to form the
period. From this it follows that it is divided into simple (which deals with
simple sentences, considered in isolation) and compound (which explains
the periods or sentences linked together).

The outline of the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language, when referring
to the concept of syntax, mentions:
It is up to syntax to study the context as such, that is, the groupings of words
connected or related to each other, with the means to signify their mutual
relationships, it indicates and classifies the units or groupings that the
speaker's intention establishes in the whole of the elocution.

On the other hand, Xavier Frías Conde defines the syntax:

Syntax aims to study the structure of language in terms of the combination of
words to form structures. Therefore, when studying any language, we will
have to look at the structures that make it up.
José Cáceres Chaupin, defines the syntax as:
The science of syntagmatic relations. Study the relationships that words form
in sentences and the functions they play in its structure. Look for methods to

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 analyze the sentence, describe the systematic order of its words and expose
the rules that govern their combinations, ordering them hierarchically.

1.2. SYNTAX THROUGH HISTORICAL EVOLUTION

1.2.1. TRADITIONAL MODEL

The first researchers in the study of grammar were the rhetoricians;
they made indirect reference to construction (syntax) and meaning
(semantics).

In the 5th century BC. of C. Protagoras classified prayers into

supplication, question, response and order. Then, Alcídamos rethinks
the classification of sentences into affirmation, denial, interrogation
and appeal.

The philosopher Plato establishes a difference between nouns and

verbs. He maintains that sentences cannot be made up of a single
name or a single
verb but require two elements at the same time, which is why
sentences are made up of two basic components: nominal and verbal.

Later the Stoics discovered the logic that allows them to group
propositions into true and false and called the sentence a discourse or
proposition.

Dionysius of Thrace designed the first Greek grammar, which

distinguished eight parts of speech: noun, verb, participle, article,
pronoun, preposition, adverb and conjunction.

In the second century AD. c. Apolunio Díscolo dedicated his entire life
to the study of syntax. He based his syntactic description on the
relationships of the noun with the verb and distinguished the difference
between form and meaning.

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 Centuries later, Priscian based his studies on the relative pronoun in
which he attributed a subordinating function.

In the Middle Ages, dressmakers held that a correct and acceptable

sentence was based on four principles: material, formal, efficient, and
final. And they managed to differentiate the sentences into transitive
and intransitive.

In the Renaissance there were no changes in grammatical studies.

One of the most representative grammarians of that time was Pierra
Ramés, who is considered a precursor of structuralism and proposed
a study based on the description and classification of forms.

The 19th century is characterized by the presence of linguists with a

solid scientific training. At this stage, the family tree of the languages
was established.

In conclusion, traditional studies were subject to the study models of

the Greek and Latin languages.

1.2.2. STRUCTURAL MODEL

At the beginning of the 20th century, the studies of syntax did not bear
necessary fruit since it was not widely accepted in the first schools.
Only in the 1950s was priority given to the study of syntax.

Starting from the postulates of Ferdinand de Saussure, the studies of

human language are extended.

The structuralists formed study groups under different names among

them: the Prague Linguistic Circle, the Copenhagen School, the
Geneva School and American Structuralism.

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 Classical American Structuralism dealt mainly with the syntactic level
of language. Among them the main representatives are:

A. LEONARD BLOOMFIELD
This linguist defines grammar as “the set of meaningful
combinations of forms” and considers morphology and syntax
as parts of this discipline.

His research is characterized by being analytical and

descriptive, starting from the sentence as the maximum unit to
be analyzed until reaching the phoneme, which is the
minimum unit.

He proposes the theory of immediate constituents. He

maintains that each language has a certain scheme, in a
characteristic regular order, for example: Subject and
Predicate in Spanish.

It maintains that every grammatical construction can be

decomposed into its immediate constituents which fulfill a
specific function.

B. EDWARD SAPIR
He defended the so-called mentalism; For him, the
interpretation of language is substantially linked to the acts of
the mind.

In the field of syntax it does not offer contributions, except for

methods for the purpose of constructing sentences with full
meaning such as:

- Word order in orientation

- Influence of accent intensity and

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 - The concordance

C. CHARLES HOCKETT
Its purpose is to analyze, describe and compare grammatical
systems whose hierarchical structures represent them in
multiple schemes.
To represent the immediate constituents of a sentence, he
proposes the use of the Typecasting Technique.

In conclusion, the structural model looks at how the elements of a sentence

work. The criterion for analysis is simply realizing the function. If it works in
this or that way, it can be called subject, predicate, direct object, etc.

1.2.3. GENERATIVE MODEL

The transformationalist or generativist school was created by the
North American linguist Noam Chomsky, who published his work
“Syntactic Structures” in 1957, thus causing an authentic revolution in
the theoretical approaches of contemporary linguistics.
Its objective is the development of a grammar understood as the
system of rules that govern the language.
Chomsky conceives generative grammar as a system of finite rules
that generates an infinite set of sentences and recognizes two
structural levels.

- Surface or patent structure; which refers to everything we say,

hear, write or read.

- Deep or latent structure; which refers to everything we think, feel

or want and what we understand.
It proposes the use of categorical symbols that have the following
equivalence.

EITHER = Prayer

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 F.N. = Noun phrase
F.V. = Verbal phrase
N = Name
V = Verb
d = Determinant

According to these approaches, the sentence is composed of two

immediate constituents:
- Noun phrase (FN); It is the linguistic structure that is presented in
the subject.
- Verbal Phrase (VF); It is the linguistic structure that is presented
in the predicate.
Other constituent elements are:
- Prepositional phrase (FP) ; Linguistic structure headed by a
preposition.
- Adverbial phrase (F:ADV); Linguistic structure that is formed with
an adverb.
- Adjectival phrase (F:ADJ): Linguistic structure that is formed with
an adjective.

1.3. THE SYNTAGMA

Words are combined into higher-ranking syntactic units, called phrases. The
term syntagm is polysemous. In a broad sense, syntagma is used with its
etymological meaning (the same as syntax); which means 'in order', hence
it is applied to any succession of elements of the language that follow one
another, and relationships are established between them that are, therefore,
called syntagmatic relationships.

In a stricter sense, syntagm means the linguistic unit, of higher rank than
the word, constituted by a set of linguistic elements organized hierarchically
around a nucleus and characterized by performing the same function. It is,
therefore, a unit of function.

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 The relationship between the elements of a phrase is a dependency
relationship; There is always a main element in the phrase to which the rest
of the elements that compose it are subordinated.

The main element of the phrase is the one that defines its nature:

- If the main element is a noun or equivalent , it is a noun phrase

(NP) .

- If the main element is a verb , it is called a verb phrase (VS).

- If it is an adjective, it is called an adjectival phrase (S Adj.)

- If it is an adverb, it is an adverbial phrase (S Adv.)

1.3.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNTAGMS

TO. The basis of the phrase is its unit of function, which gives it
relative syntactic-semantic independence.
B. Words contract relationships that evidence relative functional and
meaningful autonomy.
C. But, this independence is not absolute, since in speech one or
more phrases are required to construct the sentence; In this, each
element fulfills a function.

1.4 SYNTACTIC TREES

Given a complex sentence or construction, it can be divided into syntactic
constituents, each of which in turn could be divisible or analyzable into other
constituents. The set of syntactic constituents admitted with the binary
relation of inclusion (or "being part of") is a partially ordered set. A syntactic
tree is a representation of the hierarchical relationships between syntactic
constituents. More formally, a syntax tree is a graph that represents this
partial order relationship.

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 When in a construction a constituent X is part of an immediate constituent of
another larger constituent Y, the corresponding syntax tree will have a line
between the node representing It is currently accepted that every language
supports analysis using binary syntax trees. In graphical trees, syntactic
nuclei are usually represented with a letter, for example }), while more
complex structures are denoted by one or two overlapping bars or primes
(e.g., {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\bar {X}},{\bar {\bar {X}}},X ',X''} {\
displaystyle \scriptstyle {\bar {X}},{\bar {\bar {X}}},X',X''}) and if they are
maximum projections of a kernel using the letters S preceding the letter that
designates the nucleus (for example SX).

1.5 TYPES OF ENDOCENTRIC CONSTRUCTIONS

Endocentric constructions are of two types: subordinate and coordinated. If
attention is focused, for purposes of simplicity, on constructions composed of
no more than two immediate constituents, subordinate constructions can be
said to be those in which only one immediate constituent is of the same form
class as the entire construction, while that coordinated constructions are
those in which both constituents are of the same shape class as the
complete construction.

1.6 NUCLEUS AND MODIFIER IN SYNTACTIC EQUIVALENCE

In a subordinate construction (e.g., "poor Paul"), the constituent that is
syntactically equivalent to the full construction is known as the head, and its
companion is known as its modifier: thus, in "poor Paul," the form " Pablo" is
the head, and "poor" is its modifier. An example of a coordinated construction
is "men and women," in which, it can be assumed, the immediate
constituents are the word "men" and the word "women," each of which is
syntactically equivalent to "men and women." (It is implied here that the
conjunction "and" is not a constituent itself, but rather an element which, like
the relative order of the constituents, indicates the nature of the construction
in question. Not all linguists share this point of view.)

1.7 AMBIGUOUS CONSTRUCTIONS

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 One reason to give theoretical recognition to the notion of constituent is that it
helps explain the ambiguity of certain constructions. A classic example is the
phrase "old women and men," which can be interpreted in two different ways
depending on whether one associates "old men" with "women and men" or
simply with "men." Under the first of the two interpretations, the immediate
constituents are "women and men" and "old people"; under the second, they
are "women" and "old men." The difference in meaning cannot be attributed
to any of the ultimate constituents, but results from a difference in the way
they are associated with each other. Ambiguity of this type is known as
syntactic ambiguity. Not all syntactic ambiguity is satisfactorily explained in
terms of constituent structure.

1.8 NON-STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIPS: RECTION, LINKAGE AND

CONCORDANCE
In addition to the relations of constitution in the syntactic study of languages,
there are other relations not necessarily characterized by the relation of
partial order given by constitution. Among these relations are the relations of
grammatical agreement by which two elements that are generally not
adjacent and that are part of different phrases must agree (present a special
mark that indicates that a certain linguistic category present in the two
elements has the same "value"). Likewise, the rules of co-occurrence of
pronouns and anaphors and their antecedents can only be expressed in a
simple way in terms of the relationship of direction. Both the rection and
linkage relationships are associated with the c-command relationship.

Among non-structural relationships, there are remote syntactic

dependencies. These relationships require more complex mechanisms or
restrictions of grammaticality than the simple adjacency or constitution of
syntactic elements. Among them we can mention:

 Grammatical agreement
 The reaction and the linkage

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  The theory of the abstract case
 Those of a displaced element with its syntactic trace.

GLOSSARY

SENTENCE: word or set of words that expresses a complete grammatical

meaning.

PREDICATE: made up of a copulative verb, such as ser or estar, and a noun, an

adjective, a phrase or a proposition in nominal function. The verb, which may
sometimes be missing, serves as a link with the subject, in such a way that
agreement is established between the three components of the sentence.

SYNTAGMA: A set of structured words, related around a nucleus. Generally, a

unitary syntactic behavior corresponds to it.

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SYNTAX: It is the component of language related to the way in which words are
joined together to constitute phrases and sentences. It is also defined as the study
of the order, relationship and function of words to form sentences.

SUBJECT: Sentence function performed by a noun, a pronoun or a noun phrase

in obligatory agreement of person and number with the verb. Any substantive
phrase or proposition can also perform it, with obligatory verbal agreement of
number in the third person.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The study of syntax dates back many centuries. Traditionally, the subject and

predicate whose concepts obey logic were recognized as components of the

sentence, then the structuralists and generativists considered the sentence

as a syntactic unit decomposable into its immediate constituents, noun

phrase and verbal phrase.

2. Syntactically, the sentence is independent because its structure has

autonomy and semantically it is a minimal linguistic unit endowed with

complete meaning that expresses the speaker's attitude.

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3. The simple sentence has two basic components: the noun phrase and the

verbal phrase, each with its respective nuclei and modifiers that expand or

limit its meaning.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ALVARADO C., Arquímedes “Introduction to the Grammar of

Contemporary Spanish” , Peru, Editorial SAGSA, 1989.

FOREST, Ignacio "Descriptive Grammar of the Spanish language" .

Madrid, Editorial Espasa Calpe SA, Volume 01, 1999.

MARCOS MARÍN, Francisco "Spanish language" . Madrid, Editorial Síntesis,

1998.

MAGALLANES, Eugenio “Spanish Language” , Peru. Editorial San Marcos,

1999.

MIRANDA, Luis “Structural Grammar of Spanish” , Lima, Editorial Amaru.

Editores SA, 1988.

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ROYAL SPANISH ACADEMY “Outline of a New Grammar of the Spanish
Language” , Editorial Espasa-Calpe SA sixth edition 1979.

RAMÍREZ, Luis Hernan “Introduction to the Grammar of Contemporary

Spanish” , Peru, Editorial SAGSA. 1989.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION National curricular design of regular basic
education, Peru, ed. Fimart SAC and Printers. 2005
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION Guide for the development of problem-
solving capacity, Peru, ed. Metrocolor S.A., 2007

ANNEXES

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